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06 Memory

Uploaded by

keithladaga2005.business
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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INTRODUCTION TO

PSYCHOLOGY
PSYCH01X
Memory:
Remembrance
of Things Past
– and Future
This Photo by Unknown author is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND.

Lesson 6
Introduction to Psychology
Learning Outcomes

DEFINE MEMORY AND DIFFERENTIATE EXPLAIN THE PROCESSES OF MEMORY. EXPLAIN THE STAGES OF MEMORY.
BETWEEN TYPES OF MEMORIES.
Learning Outcomes

Identify contributors to forgetting. Describe the biological aspects of


memory.
• Memory - an active system that
receives information from the
senses, organizes and alters it as it
stores it away, and then retrieves the
information from storage.
Kinds of Memory
Explicit Versus Implicit Memories

Explicit memory – declarative memory


• Memory for specific information; that can be stated
or declared
• Information can be autobiographical or general
Implicit memory – nondeclarative memory
• Memory of how to perform a procedure or skill
• Skill memories
Explicit Memory

Episodic memory – autobiographical memory

• Memories of things that happen to us or take place in our


presence
• Autobiographical memories

Semantic memory

• General knowledge
Implicit Memory

Procedural memory – Skill memory

• Things people do, not things stated clearly


• Things done repeatedly – habits

Memory of things that reflect repetition that makes associations automatic


Truth or Fiction?

• A woman who could not remember who she


was automatically dialed her mother’s
number when the police gave her a
telephone.
Truth or Fiction?

• A woman who could not remember who she


was automatically dialed her mother’s
number when the police gave her a
telephone.

• TRUE!
Retrospective Memory Versus
Prospective Memory

• Retrospective memory
– Recalling information previously learned
• Episodic, semantic and implicit memories
• Prospective memory
– Remembering to do things in the future
– May fail due to preoccupation or distraction
Prospective Memory

• Prospective memory tasks


– Habitual tasks
• Easier to remember than occasional tasks
– Event-based tasks
• Triggered by events
– Time-based tasks
• Performed at a certain time or after a certain time has
elapsed
Influences on Retrospective and
Prospective Memory

• Age related decline


– More related to speed of cognitive processing
than loss of information
• Moods and attitudes and prospective memory
– Depressed people less likely to push to remind
themselves to do what they intend to do
Processes of
Memory
Process of Memory

– Encoding - the set of mental operations that people perform on


sensory information to convert that information into a form that is
usable in the brain’s storage systems.
– Storage - holding onto information for some period of time.
– Retrieval - getting information that is in storage into a form that can
be used.
Encoding

• Transforming information into psychological


formats that can be represented mentally
– Visual – represented as a picture
– Acoustic – represented as sounds
– Semantic – represented in terms of meanings
Storage

• Maintaining information over time


• Methods of storing information
– Maintenance rehearsal
• Metamemory
– Elaborative rehearsal
Truth or Fiction?

• Learning must be meaningful if we are to


remember it.
Truth or Fiction?

• Learning must be meaningful if we are to


remember it.

• FICTION!
Retrieval

• Locating information and returning it to


consciousness
• Retrieval relies on cues
Definition of Memory

• Process by which information is encoded,


stored, and retrieved.
Stages of Memory
Three Stages of Memory
Atkinson-Shiffrin Model of Memory

• Three stages of memory


– Sensory memory
– Short-term memory (STM)
– Long-term memory (LTM)
• Stages determine whether and how long
information is stored
Sensory Memory

• First stage of memory encountered by a


stimulus
• Holds impressions briefly, but long enough so
series of perceptions become psychologically
continuous
– Memory trace
• Decays within a second
• Visual sensory register
Truth or Fiction?

• If you can see, you have a photographic


memory.
Truth or Fiction?

• If you can see, you have a photographic


memory.

• TRUE!
Iconic Memory

• Icons
– Mental representations of visual stimuli
• Brief, but accurate, photographic memories
– Eidetic imagery
• retain exact mental representations of visual stimuli
over long periods of time
• Iconic memory is common, eidetic memory is
not
Echoic Memory

• Echoes
– Mental
representations
of sounds
• Memory traces of
echoes last longer
than icons
Short-Term Memory

• Focusing on a stimulus in the sensory register,


retains it in short-term memory (STM) for a
minute or so after the trace decays
– Also called working memory
• Rehearsal allows information to be retained
indefinitely
Serial Position Effect

• Tendency to recall the first and last items in a


series
– May be more attention to first and last items
– May rehearse first item more often and last most
recently

This Photo by Unknown author is licensed under CC BY-NC.


Chunking

• A grouping of stimuli that is perceived as a


discrete piece of information
• Number of items held in STM –
– Seven (plus or minus two)
– Chunking stimuli allows for semantic coding

571442543
Chunking

571-442-543
Interference in Short-Term Memory

• Attention to distracting information interferes


with STM
• Appearance of new information in STM
displaces old information
The Effect of Interference on Short-
Term Memory
Long-Term Memory

• Vast storehouse of information


• Permanent storage of all memories
– Repression
– Not supported by research
Truth or Fiction?

• All of our experiences are permanently


imprinted on the brain, so the proper stimulus
can cause us to remember them exactly.
Truth or Fiction?

• All of our experiences are permanently


imprinted on the brain, so the proper stimulus
can cause us to remember them exactly.

• FICTION!
Long-Term Memory

• Long-term memories are distorted


– Schemas bias our memories
• No known limit known for amount of
information stored in long-term memory
(LTM)
• Long-term memories may last a life-time
– Not lost by displacement
Memory as Reconstructive
Levels of Processing
Model of Memory
• Memories endure when
processed deeply
– Attention, encoding,
storing, retrieval all
involved
Truth or Fiction?

• It may be easier for you to recall the name of


your first-grade teacher than the name of
someone you just met at a party.

This Photo by Unknown author is licensed under CC BY-NC.


Truth or Fiction?

• It may be easier for you to recall the name of


your first-grade teacher than the name of
someone you just met at a party.

• TRUE!
Flashbulb Memories

• Tend to remember events that are important


and emotionally stirring
– Memories are more distinctive
– Increased networks of association
– Elaborative rehearsal
– Secretion of stress hormones
Truth or Fiction?

• You may always


recall where you
were and what you
were doing during
the typhoon
Yolanda.
Truth or Fiction?

• You may always


recall where you
were and what you
were doing during
the typhoon
Yolanda.

• TRUE!
Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon

• “Feeling of knowing”
– Acoustic and semantic coding may help provide a
useful retrieval cue
– May reflect incomplete learning
Context and State Dependent Memory

• Context dependent
– Better retrieval in context in which information
was originally acquired
• State dependent
– Better retrieval in biological or emotional state in
which it was learned
Forgetting
How do We Measure Forgetting?

• Nonsense syllables
– Depend on acoustic coding and maintenance
rehearsal
• Three tasks for measurement
– Recognition
– Recall
– Relearning
• Method of Savings
Ebbinghaus’s Classic Curve of
Forgetting
Truth or Fiction?

• Learning Spanish can make it harder to


remember French – and vice versa.
Truth or Fiction?

• Learning Spanish can make it harder to


remember French – and vice versa.

• TRUE!
Interference Theory

• Retroactive interference
– New learning interferes with the retrieval of old
learning
• Proactive interference
– Older learning interferes with the capacity to
retrieve more recently learned material
Repression

• Freudian concept of motivated forgetting


– Automatic ejection of painful memories from
conscious awareness
– Dissociative amnesia
Recovered Memories

• Recovery of repressed memories has little


scientific support
• Implanting false memories
Infantile Amnesia

• Freud – repression
• Immature hippocampus
• Cognitive explanations
– No interest in remembering the past
– Specific episodes versus networks of memories
– Unreliable use of symbolic language
Anterograde and Retrograde Amnesia

Anterograde Amnesia
• Unable to remember events that occur
after physical trauma
Retrograde Amnesia
• Unable to remember events that occur
prior to physical trauma
The Biology
of Memory
Neural Activity and Memory

• Experience increases dendrites and synapses


in cerebral cortex
• Long-term potentiation
– Following brief, rapid stimulation an enhanced
efficiency in synaptic transmission
• Neurotransmitters and hormones
One Avenue to Long-Term Potentiation
(LTP)
Can We Trust Eyewitness Testimony?

• Misinformation effect
• Wording of question can bias testimony
– Younger children are more susceptible
Can We Trust Eyewitness Testimony?

• Problems with identification based on


eyewitness
– Less accurate identification of different
racial/ethnic groups
– Misleading suggestions can influence
identification
– More confidence regarding identification does not
necessarily ensure accuracy
Brain Structures and Memory

• Hippocampus
– new memories; episodic memories
– relays sensory information to cortex
• Sensory cortex areas
– Store sensory information
– Integrated by limbic system
Brain Structures and Memory

• Prefrontal cortex
– Ability to represent and be aware of past, present
and future events
• Thalamus
– Formation of verbal memories
The Relationships Among the Various
Kinds of Memories
INTRODUCTION TO
PSYCHOLOGY
PSYCH01X

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