Computer Networks

What is a computer Network?

• When 2 or more computers connected
together for the purpose of sharing
resources is called computer
network.Resources can include a
printer , file server or data etc.The best
example of computer network is
Internet.
• A network is a group of devices (nodes)
connected by media links. A node can
be computer, printer or any other
device capable of sending and for
receiving data generated by other
nodes on the network The links that
connect the nodes are called
communication channels
 What is a computer Network?
• Network use distributed processing, in
which a task is divided among many
computers. Instead of a single large
machine each separate computer
handles a subset.In other words, A
group of computers and associated
peripherals connected by
communication channel capable of
sharing files and other resources
between several users is called
Network
 Components of a Computer network

• Clients
• Servers
• Channels
• Interface Devices
• Operating systems
 Definition of the components
• Servers: Servers are powerful
computers that store data or
applications and connect to resources
that are shared by the users of a
network.
• Clients: These computers are used by
the users of the network to access the
servers and shared resources (such as
hard disks and printers).
• Channels: The channel is the pathway
over which information travels
between the different computers
(clients and servers) that comprises
the network.
 Definition of the components
• Interface devices: These are
hardware devices that connect
clients and servers (and sometimes
other networks) to the channel.
Examples include modems and
network interface cards.
• Operating systems: The network
operating system is the software of
the network. It serves a similar
purpose that the operating system
serves in a stand-alone computer.
 Types of computer networking

2. ACCORDING TO TOPOLOGIES:

1. ACCORDING TO RANGE: • Bus Network

• Peer-to-Peer Network • Ring Network
• Local Area Network (LAN) • Tree Network
• Wide Area Network (WAN) • Star Network
• Mesh Network
 Peer-to-Peer Network

• A peer-to-peer is a network in which two or more nodes can communicate with each other
directly, without the need for any intermediary devices.
• Each node in a peer-to-peer network can be a client and a server simultaneously. All
computers (nodes) in a network are capable of accessing data, software and other network
resources directly.
In other words, it is a very small network of 2 to 10 computers for a limited space like small
office / institution. In which all the intelligent terminals are used. There is no dedicated file
server is used but networking is only for communication or sharing drives, files and printers
etc.
 Uses and Benefits of Peer to Peer
Benefits: Uses:
There are four main benefits to having a Peer-to-peer networking has two primary uses
peer-to-peer network. are:
• Peer-to-peer network are relatively easy • It is ideally suited for small organization with a
to implement and operate. limited budget for information technologies
• Peer-to-peer network is also inexpensive and limited need for information sharing.
to operate. • Workgroups within larger organization can
• A peer-to-peer network can be also use this methodology for a tighter sharing
established with families operating of information within a particular group.
system such as Windows 7,8,10, Windows-
NT/2000.
• Their lack of a hierarchical dependence
makes peer-to-peer networks much more
fault tolerant than the server based
networks.
 Local Area Network (LAN)
• In this computer network all the
computer is interconnects within a
limited area.Network in a residence,
school, college campus are the
example of Local Area Network
(LAN).LAN is widely used network as
it is easy to configure and manage.
Personal computers and workstations
are connected to each other through
LANs.
• Computer within the network in LAN
can share the files and network
devices like printer and communicate
with each other.
 Wide Area Network (WAN)
• WAN can be used to connect large
distance may be state or a country
together.It cab private or public leased
connection.WAN used PSTN
or Satellite links for communication
medium.
• Its extended large area such as states,
countries, continents.
• We can transfer data, picture, sounds
and videos in a very quickly time.
• Set up can be expensive as it is very big
network also we need a firewall to
security reason.
Types of Communication Networks
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
• A metropolitan area network (MAN) is
a computer network that
interconnects users with computer
resources in a geographic area or
region larger than that covered by
even a large local area network (LAN)
but smaller than the area covered by a
wide area network (WAN).
It can be over the entire city. It is
simply a very large LAN.
• It can be cover upto 50 km,which used
optical fibers and cables etc.
Communication medium used for
MAN are optical fibers, cables etc.It
can connect one place to another
 Wireless Network
• Wireless Networks can be divided into three main
categories:
1. System interconnection
2. Wireless LANs
3. Wireless WANs
• System Interconnection
It is short range radio connection,where device is
connected to each other in an very small distance.
Bluetooth is an example of system interconnection.
Device like keyboard, mouse and printer are
connected with main unit, without wires.
• Wireless LANs
It is wireless connection in which two or more device is
communicating with each other without using
cable.The area may be with home , school or
building.Wire less device sch as wireless router is used
to connecting device within the network.
• Wireless WANs
• System are connected wirelessly to provide service to
a large geographic area.
 Inter Network

• It is a combination of two or more networks. Inter network can be formed by

joining two or more individual networks by means of various devices such as
routers, gateways and bridges.
 Network Topology
• Network topology is the way in which nodes it may be computer router or
any devices are connected to a local area network (LAN) or other network
through cables (wired) or without cables (wireless).
 BUS Topology

• In this topology each nodes ( may be computer or any network device) is

connected with single cable. Only in one direction data is transfer. Ethernet
10Base2 is used for bus topology. Bus topology is used in small networks.The
complete network will fail if cable fail.It will decrease the performance if
network traffic is heavy .
 BUS Topology
Advantages
There are a number of reasons why bus topologies are used in smaller networks. One of the
main reasons is that they keep the layout simple. All devices are connected to a single cable
so you don’t need to manage a complex topological setup.
The layout also helps make bus topologies cost effective because they can be run with a
single cable. In the event that more devices need to be added then you can simply join your
cable to another cable.

Disadvantages
However, relying on one cable does mean that bus topologies have a single point of failure.
If the cable fails then the entire network will go down. A cable failure can cost organizations a
lot of time while they attempt to resume service. Further to this, if you have lots of network
traffic then the performance of your network will decrease significantly as all the data will
be travelling through one cable.
This limitation makes bus topologies suitable only for smaller networks. The primary reason is
that the more nodes you have, the slower your transmission speeds are going to be. It is also
worth noting that bus topologies are limited in the sense that they are half-duplex, which
means that data can’t be transmitted in two opposite directions simultaneously.
 RING Topology
• In this topology every nodes is
connected to another nodes and
the last nodes connected to the first
nodes which make a completed ring
type structure hence it called ring
topology.
A signal is passed through the cable
until it reaches its destination device.
Ring network works on token.A token
is electronic address of the receiver
and it contain short message .
Each NIC card have a unique electronic
address, which is its unique identity in
the computer network.
RING Topology Advantages
In ring topologies the risk of packet collisions is very low due to the use of token-based
protocols, which only allow one station to transmit data at a given time. This is compounded
by the fact that data can move through nodes at high speeds which can be expanded on
when more nodes are added.

Disadvantages
Even though ring topologies are extremely popular, they are very vulnerable to failure.
The failure of one node can take the entire network out of operation. This means that ring
topology networks need to be constantly managed to ensure that all nodes are in good health.
However, even if your nodes are in good health your network can still be knocked offline by a
transmission line failure!
Ring topologies also raise scalability concerns. For instance, bandwidth is shared by all
devices within the network. In addition, the more devices that are added to a network the
more communication delay the network experiences. This means that the number of devices
added to a network topology needs to be monitored carefully to make sure that the network
resources aren’t stretched beyond their limit.
Making changes to a ring topology is also complicated because you need to shut down the
network to make changes to existing nodes or add new nodes. This is far from ideal as you’ll
need to factor in downtime every time you want to make a change to the topological
 STAR Topology
• In this type of topology each node
connects to a central network device,
central device may be switch, computer
etc. Its is also called as client server
topology, where central or main network
device is a server and the peripheral
devices which is connected to main
server is a clients.
These central or main server points are
referred to as Hubs.Each node has its own
dedicated connection to the hub. Here hub
dependency is very high if hub fail the
completed network will be down.
Complete Network will stop if center
device fail as all communication is through
central device.
STAR Topology
Advantages
Star topologies are most commonly-used because you can manage the entire network from
one location: the central hub. As a consequence, if a node that isn’t the central node goes
down then the network will remain up. This gives star topologies a layer of protection against
failures that aren’t always present with other topology setups. Likewise, you can add new
computers without having to take the network offline like you have to do with a ring
topology.
In terms of physical structure, star topologies require fewer cables than other topology types.
This makes them simple to set up and manage over the long-term. The simplicity of the
overall design makes it much easier for administrators to run troubleshooting when dealing
with performance faults.

Disadvantages
Though star topologies may be relatively safe from failure, if the central node goes down
then the entire network will go down. As such, the administrator needs to manage the
health of the central node closely to make sure that it doesn’t go down. The performance of
the network is also tied to the central node’s configurations and performance. Star
topologies are easy to manage in most ways but they are far from cheap to set up and use.
 MESH Topology
• In a mesh network topology, each of the
network node ( may be computer and
other devices) are interconnected with one
another forming a mesh structure.
Every computer in the network has a
interconnected with the other computers
in that network.In this topology all nodes
cooperate to distribute data among each
other.
Types of Mesh Topology
• Partial Mesh Topology : When devices are
only connected to two or three devices
then it is called as partial mesh topology.
• Full Mesh Topology : When devices are
connected to each other then it is called as
full mesh topology.
MESH Topology

Advantages
Mesh topologies are used first and foremost because they are reliable. The interconnectivity
of nodes makes them extremely resistant to failures. There is no single machine failure that
could bring down the entire network. The absence of a single point of failure is one of the
reasons why this is a popular topology choice. This setup is also secure from being
compromised.

Disadvantages
However, mesh topologies are far from perfect. They require an immense amount of
configuration once they are deployed. The topological layout is more complex than many
other topologies and this is reflected by how long it takes to set up. You’ll need to
accommodate a whole host of new wiring which can add up to be quite expensive.
 TREE Topology (Hierarchical) Topology

In this topology system are arranged in

top down structure that is the top
system is a parent nodes or root node
and below the root nodes next level is
called as child nodes and son on its look
like a tree structure .
In this topology if parent nodes fail will
effect complete topology,complete
network will be crashes.
TREE Topology

Advantages
The main reason why tree topologies are used is to extend bus and star topologies. Under
this hierarchical format, it is easy to add more nodes to the network when your organization
grows in size. This format also lends itself well to finding errors and troubleshootingbecause
you can check for performance issues systematically through the tree view.

Disadvantages
The most significant weakness of tree topology is the root node. If the root node fails then all
of its subtrees become partitioned. There will still be partial connectivity within the network
amongst other devices such as the failed node’s parent.
Maintaining the network is not simple either because the more nodes you add, the more
difficult it becomes to manage the network. Another disadvantage of a tree topology is the
number of cables you need. Cables are required to connect every device throughout the
hierarchy which makes the layout more complex when compared to a simpler topology.
.
 HYBRID Topology
• This topology is mix of two or more topology to form a single network.In
below diagram start topology and ring topology formed a single network.
It is a combination of two or topologies.
Its Inherits the advantages and disadvantages of the topologies which is
include in this topology forming a network.
Hybrid Topology

Advantages
There are many reasons why hybrid topologies are used but they all have one thing in
common: flexibility. There are few constraints on the structure that a hybrid topology cannot
accommodate, and you can incorporate ring, bus, mesh, and star topologies into one
hybrid setup. As a consequence, hybrid topologies are very scalable. Their scalability makes
them well-suited to larger networks.
Disadvantages

Unfortunately, hybrid topologies can be quite complex, depending on the topologies that
you decide to use. Each topology that is part of your hybrid topology will have to be managed
according to its unique requirements. This makes administrators’ jobs more difficult because
they are going to have to attempt to manage multiple topologies rather than a single one. In
addition, setting up a hybrid topology can end up being quite costly.
.
 Services of computer network
• File Services : This services is used for file
transfer, storage, data migration, file update,
synchronization and achieving.
• Printing Services : From this service multiple
user take printout from single printer.
• Message Services : This service includes email,
voice mails and coordinate object oriented
applications.
• Application Services : This services allows to
centralize high profile applications to increase
performance and scalability.
• Database Services : This service is helpful for
co-ordination of distributed data and
replication
 Types of network Terminals
(1) SERVER
In networking, any computer which serves its all available facilities to all other
computers of a Network (like access of files,communication, printing etc) is
termed as SERVER.
In large networks, a server may run a special network operating system, while in
smaller installations, a server may run a personal computer operating system.
Sometimes server performs a special task so we can categorized in this manner:
• Access server
• File server
• Print server
• Communication/Modem Server
(2) CLIENT
A Client may be a PC or a workstation on a network using services provided by
the network server.
 Line Configuration In Computer Network

Line configuration in computer network is a connection between two or

more communication devices attached to a link.
Link is define as a communication channel from which data transfer from one
device to another device.Example computer, printer etc.
Types of line configurations
1. Point-to-Point.
2. Multipoint.
 Point-to-Point
It is dedicated link between two devices. It uses actual wire or cable to connect
the two device.
Example :
Connection between remote control and Television for changing the channels
 Multipoint Connection
When linking was made in between two or more device then it is called as
multipoint connection ,we may also say this as Multi-drop configuration. The
network in this connection is called Broadcast Networks.More than two
devices share same link.
 Transmission Modes in Computer Networks
Transmission Modes is a mechanism in which data ( or information ) is
transmitted from one device to another device which is connected over a
network.
1. Simplex-One way transmission only one can send other can receive.We
cannot send a message back to the sender.Ex: television broadcasting,
loudspeakers broadcasting.

2. Half duplex-Both way transmission but one way at one time.Ex: walkie-
talkie

3. Full duplex-we can send data in both the directions that is sending and
receiving data at same time.Ex: Telephones both sender and receiver can
communicate at the same time.
Transmission Mediums in Computer Networks
Transmission Mediums in Computer Networks are the physical pathways
that connect computers, and other devices on a network.Each transmission
medium requires specialized network hardware that has to be compatible with
that medium.
 Wired or Guided Media or Bound
Transmission Media

A signal travelling along any of these media is directed and contained by the
physical limits of the medium.Popular bound transmission media in use are
twisted pair cable, co-axial cable and fiber optical cable.It can be classified
depending its own characteristics that is cost, transmission speed, physical
appearance etc.
 Wireless or Unguided Media or Unbound
Transmission Media

Wireless or unguided media are communicated using electromagnetic waves.

Its very popular now.It use
• Microwave,
• Radio wave,
• Infra red for communication with out physical medium.
 Factors to be consider in data transmission

1. Bandwidth : It refers to the data carrying capacity higher the bandwidth will
be higher the data transfer rate.
2. Radiation : It refers to the leakage of signal from the medium.
3. Noise reduction : noise is an error in information signal. Hence noise must
be remove from the signal this process is called as noise reduction.
4. Attenuation : It refers to loss of energy in a signal transmission.
 Twisted Pair Cable
• A twisted pair cable helps to reduce crosstalk and electromagnetic induction
this is because it is made of two twisted copper wires twisted . Out of these
two wires, only one carries actual signal and another is used for ground
reference.
Some important points :
Its frequency range is 0 to 3.5 kHz.
Typical attenuation is 0.2 dB/Km @ 1kHz.
Typical delay is 50 µs/km.
Repeater spacing is 2km.
Twisted Pair is of two types:
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) has seven categories, each suitable for
specific use. In computer networks, Cat-5, Cat-5e, and Cat-6 cables are mostly
used. UTP cables are connected by RJ45 connectors
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) comes with twisted wire pair covered in metal
foil. This makes it more indifferent to noise and crosstalk.
Cable Type
 Coaxial Cable
• Coaxial cable has two wires of copper. The core wire lies in the center and it is made of solid
conductor.The core is enclosed in an insulating sheath.The second wire is wrapped around
over the sheath and that too in turn encased by insulator sheath.This all is covered by
plastic cover.
Here the most common coaxial standards.

• Each cable defined by an RG rating is adapted for a specialized function, as shown in the
table below:
• 3 popular types of these connectors: the BNC Connector, the BNC T connector and the BNC
terminator.
• The BNC connector is used to connect the end of the cable to the device, such as a TV set.
The BNC T connector is used in Ethernet networks to branch out to a connection to a
computer or other device. The BNC terminator is used at the end of the cable to prevent
the reflection of the signal.
 C0axial Cable
There are two types of Coaxial cables :
• BaseBand
This is a 50 ohm (Ω) coaxial cable which is used for digital transmission. It is mostly
used for LAN’s. Baseband transmits a single signal at a time with very high speed.
The major drawback is that it needs amplification after every 1000 feet.
• BroadBand
This uses analog transmission on standard cable television cabling. It transmits
several simultaneous signal using different frequencies. It covers large area when
compared with Baseband Coaxial Cable.
Bandwidth is high
Used in long distance telephone lines.
Transmits digital signals at a very high rate of 10Mbps.
Coaxial cable was widely used in analog telephone networks, where a single coaxial
network could carry 10,000 voice signals.
Cable TV networks also use coaxial cables. In the traditional cable TV network, the
entire network used coaxial cable. Cable TV uses RG-59 coaxial cable.
 Fiber Optics or Optical Fiber

• Signal is transmitted by use of light through the glass fiber.From one end of
it light is emitted, it travels through it and at the other end light detector
detects light stream and converts it to electric data. It provides an electrical
isolation and totally reduces electromagnetic interference or noise by
surrounding equipment. installing and connecting the fibers requires special
equipment. The transmission rate can exceed 2 G bps, nowdays around 6
~8G bps and is the highest transmission medium in the world.
Fiber Optic provides the highest mode of speed. It comes in two modes, one
is single mode fiber and second is multimode fiber. Single mode fiber can
carry a single ray of light whereas multimode is capable of carrying multiple
beams of light.
 UnBounded or UnGuided Transmission Media

• Unguided medium transport electromagnetic waves without using a

physical conductor. This type of communication is often referred to as
wireless communication. Signals are normally broadcast through free space
and thus are available to anyone who has a device capable of receiving
them.
The below figure shows the part of the electromagnetic spectrum, ranging
from 3 kHz to 900 THz, used for wireless communication.
• Unguided signals can travel from the source to the destination in several
ways: Gound propagation, Sky propagation and Line-of-sight propagation.
 Propagation Modes

• Ground Propagation : In this, radio waves travel through the lowest portion
of the atmosphere, hugging the Earth. These low-frequency signals
emanate in all directions from the transmitting antenna and follow the
curvature of the planet.
• Sky Propagation : In this, higher-frequency radio waves radiate upward
into the ionosphere where they are reflected back to Earth. This type of
transmission allows for greater distances with lower output power.
• Line-of-sight Propagation : in this type, very high-frequency signals are
transmitted in straight lines directly from antenna to antenna.
 Radio Waves
• Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 KHz and 1 GHz are
normally called radio waves
Radio waves are omnidirectional. When an antenna transmits radio waves,
they are propagated in all directions. The omnidirectional property has
disadvantage, too. The radio waves transmitted by one antenna are
susceptible to interference by another antenna that may send signal suing
the same frequency or band.
Radio waves, particularly with those of low and medium frequencies, can
penetrate walls. It is an advantage because, an AM radio can receive signals
inside a building. It is a disadvantage because we cannot isolate a
communication to just inside or outside a building.
Examples: AM and FM radio, television, maritime radio, cordless phones
 Micro Waves
• It consists of transmission tower responsible for transmitting or repeating
the signal for each hop. Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between
1 and 300 GHz are called micro waves. Micro waves are unidirectional .The
distance is around 30 Kilometers to 50 Kilometers. The transmission rate can
be up to 250M bps. The transmission quality however is subject to weather
changes. The use of microwave is ideal for short-haul and high bandwidth
applications due to no cabling cost once the transmission tower is built.
• Microwaves are very useful when unicast(one-to-one) communication is
needed between the sender and the receiver. They are used in cellular
phones, satellite networks and wireless LANs.
There are 2 types of Microwave Transmission :
1. Terrestrial Microwave
2. Satellite Microwave
 Terrestrial, Satellite & Infrared waves
• Terrestrial Microwave: • Infrared Waves
Terrestrial microwave use repeaters with antenna for Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz
increasing the signal distance .The signal received to 400 THz, can be used for short-range
by an antenna can be converted into transmittable communication. Infrared waves, with high
form and relayed to next antenna. It is an example of frequencies, cannot penetrate walls. This
telephone systems all over the world prevents interference between one system
• Satellite Microwave: and with another system.
It is a region of the electromagnetic radiation
This is a microwave relay station which is placed in
spectrum where wavelengths range from
outer space.
about 700 nanometers (nm) to 1 millimeter
Signal is transmitted up and down between ground
stations. The satellite is therefore used as a repeater (mm). Infrared waves are longer than those of
for re-generating the signal. visible light, but shorter than those of radio
These are positioned 36000 Km above the equator waves.
with an orbit speed that exactly matches the Remote controls use near-infrared light,
rotation speed of the earth. This is usually done to transmitted with light-emitting diodes (LEDs),
allow ground stations to aim antenna at a fixed point to send focused signals to home-
in the sky.Satellite manufacturing cost is very high entertainment devices, such as televisions.
.Transmission highly depends on whether conditions, Infrared light is also used in fiber optic cables
it can go down in bad weather to transmit data.
Network Protocols
 Network Devices
• Network is form when two or more devices ( computer ,printer etc ) are
communicate with each other, But for communicating it required an
networking device.
• Common network devices found on a network include:
Repeater
Hub
Bridge
Switch
Router
Network Interface Card (NIC)
 Repeater
• A repeater is a network device that is used to regenerate or replicate signals
that are weakened or distorted by transmission over long distances and
through areas with high levels of electromagnetic interference (EMI)
 Hub
• A hub is used to connect workstations and peripheral devices to the
network, each being plugged into one of the hub’s ports. A hub receives a
signal from one port and passes the signal on to all of its other ports and
therefore to all devices and workstation that are attached to the hub.
A hub is sometimes called a multi-port repeater.
 Bridge
• Bridges are used to connect two different LANs or two similar network
segments, to make them operate as though they were one network. The
bridge builds a bridging table of physical device addresses that is used to
determine the correct bridging or MAC (Media Access Control) destination
for a message. Because a bridge sends messages only to the part of the
network on which the destination node exists, the overall effect of a bridge
on a network is reduced network traffic and fewer message bottlenecks.
 Switch
• A switch is a device that segments a network. The primary difference
between a hub and a switch is that a switch does not broadcast an incoming
message to all ports, but instead sends the message out only to the port on
which the addressee workstation exists, based on a MAC table that is
created by listening to the nodes on the network.
 Router
• A router sends data across networks using the logical or network address of
a message. It determines where networks are by looking at the source and
destination addresses of incoming packets and then building a router table.
This table is then used to make decisions about the path that data should
take to arrive at its destination.
 Network Interface Card
NIC is install inside the computer it is physical and logical link between computer
system and network.It is used to connect the computer with the network.
When using a NIC, you should consider the following:
• MAC (Media Access Control) Address
Each NIC is physically encoded with a unique identifying address that is used to
locate it on the network. This address is 48 bits (6 bytes) long.
• System Resources
A NIC is configured to the computer with an IRQ, an I/O address and a DMA
channel. A NIC commonly uses IRQ3, IRQ5 or IRQ10, and an I/O address of 300h.
• Data Speed
The NIC must be compatible with the data speed of the network. The data transfer
speed of a network is determined by several factors, including the cable media, the
network topology and the network connectivity devices that are in use. For
example an Ethernet network using Cat 5 attaches its workstations through hubs or
switches, and runs at either 10Mbps or 100Mbps.