SILVICULTURE

Paper - 1 | Section - A

EDITION : 2022
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 FORESTRY
SYLLABUS

GENERAL SILVICULTURAL PRINCIPLES : Ecological and physiological factors influencing

Indian Forest vegetation, natural and artificial regeneration of forests; methods of propagation,
Service (IFoS) grafting techniques; site factors; nursery and planting techniques. Nursery beds,
[Paper 1 | Section A] polybags, and maintenance, water budgeting, grading and hardening of seedlings;
special approaches; establishment and tending.

⁎ Effect of Locality Factors : (a) Climatic factors - Light, temperature, frost,

precipitation, dew, humidity, wind; (b) Physiographic factors - altitude, aspect,
topography, microclimate, (c) Edaphic factors - geology and soil, geology and
forests, soil conditions; (d) Biotic factors.
⁎ Forest classification and Distribution : (a) Basis for classification, criteria for
delineating forest types in India and Odisha, distribution of forest types. (b)
Botanical areas : Principal sub-groups, forest types, and their distribution. Brief
description of groups and types, Biodiversity and its preservation, Mangrove
forest.
⁎ Forest Regeneration : Natural regeneration : by vegetative parts, by seeds,
Odisha PSC Civil ecological requirements for natural regeneration, operations to be carried out for

service (Main) natural regeneration. Natural regeneration practice for important species and
types - moist Sal forest, teak forest, bamboo forest, dry deciduous forest, moist
examination
deciduous forest, evergreen forest. Artificial regeneration : factors affecting,
[Paper 1 | Part A ]
choice between artificial and natural regeneration, choice of species, choice
between sowing and planting. Introduction of exotics : procedure for artificial
regeneration, seed collection, and storage, nursery operation, planting out,
maintenance of plantation, the role of in-vitro culture in regeneration.
⁎ Tending operations and Forest growth : Weeding, cleaning, thinning, thinning
types, methods of thinning, factors affecting thinning, thinning in important
species, thinning in irregular crops, mixed plantations and coppice crops,
improvement felling, girdling, pruning, Climber cutting. Tree growth : height
growth. Growth in diameter, increment, growth in quality, rate of growth, crop
growth.
⁎ [Paper 1 | Part B ] : Forest Influence, Plant succession, etc.

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MODULE - 1

SN Chapter Page No
1. Forest, Forestry, and silviculture 1 -18

2. Locality factors 19 - 25

3. Climatic factors 26 - 41
4. Edaphic factors 42 - 52

5. Physiographic factors 53 - 57

6. Biotic factors 58 - 59

7. Influence of forest on their environment 60 - 67

8. Tree's structure and growth forms 68 - 71

9. Crop morphology 72 - 81

10. Forest succession 82 - 91

11. Forest types in India 92 - 102

12. Natural regeneration 103 - 112

13. Artificial regeneration 113 - 119

14. Choice of species 120 - 127

15. Seed supply 128 - 138

16. Forest Nursery : How to raise and manage 139 - 151

17. Vegetative propagation 152 - 162

18. Sowing and planting 163 - 174

19. Maintenance of plantation 175 - 177

20. Tending operation 178 - 190

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INDIAN FOREST SERVICE (IFoS) PYQs [2008 to 2021]

• What factors are considered important while choosing a species under avenue
plantation? (8 m)
• Are non-native tree species an option or a threat in forest ecosystem / Plantation under
climate change? (8m)
• Do the trees of same species have different response to light conditions at different ages
? (8 m).
• What do you mean by tending operations? Enumerate various tending operations carried
2021 out in forest crops. Discuss improvement felling (15 m).
• Why is grading operation of nursery seedlings essential for successful forest plantations?
(10 m).
• How are forest sites classified on the basis of vegetation? (10 m).
• What is Site Quality Index ? How does it differ from fractional site quality ? Explain any
one method used for developing site quality classes with the help of neat diagram (15m).
• What is meant by climax in ecological succession? Give an example and describe types of
ecological succession (8m).

• Define silviculture. Relate the applications of silvicultural to different branches of forestry

(8 m).
• Frost resistance in trees depends on the internal and external factors. Explain (8 m).
• Write the adaptive characteristics of plant species of cold desert (8 m).
• Describe the methods of artificial regeneration of Tamarindus indica (8 m).
• Describe the following terms (10 m)
(a) Dominant (b) Dominated (c) Crop height (d) Top height (e) Hardening
• Write down the pre-sowing seed treatments for the following tree species (15 m) [Linked
2020 Q]. (a) Tectona grandis, (b) Santalum album, (c) Dalbergia sissoo, (d) Albizia lebbeck, (e)
Acacia nilotica.
• What are the different factors governing the successful introduction of an exotic tree
species? (10 m).
• What are Orthodox and Recalcitrant seeds? Give five examples for each of these categories
of seeds (10 m).
• How does slope aspect impact forest stand characteristics and soil properties ? (10 m).
• What are the structural and functional changes that occur in a forest ecosystem during
succession ? (15 m).

• Write scientific names of four major tree species in each of southern Tropical Semi-
2019 evergreen Forest and Northern Tropical Wet-Evergreen Forest (8 m).
• Explain the modern nursery techniques for the production of quality planting stock (8 m).

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• Discuss the factors which influence the choice between natural and artificial regeneration
(8 m).
• What are the different types of grafting? Explain 'Cleft Grafting' with neat sketches (8 m).
• Draw a schematic diagram showing altitudinal zonation of forest vegetation (10 m).
• Explain different grades of thinning. Discuss in brief the thinning practices adopted for
teak plantations (15 m).

• Justify that the study of Silvics is essential for the successful afforestation program in
India (8m).
• Explain different kinds of thinning and its application in the forest ( 8m).
• Explain the Eco-physiological factors that are more concerned to the silviculturist (15 m).
• Can 'climate change' changed the period of phenology? share with examples (10 m)
• Write in detail about the influence of parent rock in the distribution of tree species (8 m).
• Write the problem and prospects of exotic tree species in India with suitable examples
(15)
• Enlist different types of nurseries and write different types of nursery beds used in a
nursery (7.5 m)
2018
• Enlist different types of containers used in a forest nursery and explain different methods
of seed sowing followed in a nursery (7.5 m)
• What is succession and climax? Give the causes of forest succession (10 m).
• Write the soil-water relationship of any forest area. Describe the influence of water table
in the growth and development of tree species (10 m).
• What is hydrology? Describe the role of hydrology in the planning and management of
watershed development. Do tree species improve the infiltration rate, soil temperature,
water level, and hydrological cycle? Justify with few examples (10 m)
• Linked : Write in brief on the criteria of selection of tree for resistance to adverse
environments for high-quality timber production (8m)

• Give four examples of uses of Pollarding in Indian forestry (8).

• Enlist four groups of forest types under the moist tropical forest as per the Champion and
Seth classification of forest types (8m).
• Name the method of thinning that best promotes genetic improvement of the regular
stand besides controlling density. Give reasons in support of your answer (8 m).
2017 • Calculate the number of seeds required to raise a 20-hectare plantation with 4 m x 4 m
spacing and an extra plant in the centre of each square. Plant percent of the species is
75% (8 m).
• Enlist the advantages and disadvantages of vegetative propagation. What future do you
foresee for it in forestry? (10 m).
• Some rural communities are opposed to Chir-pine and advocate removal of Chir-pine and

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its replacement with broadleaved multipurpose trees. What is your reaction to this
matter? (10).
• Regulation of solar radiation given a powerful tool to the forester justify (10 m).
• What is Sub-Climax ? Explain its importance in the context of Indian forestry (10 m).
• Discuss in detail the kind of Mycorrhiza and the benefits derived by plant from them (8m)
• Why Site Specific Planning is essential for forest management? Explain different
Components of site-specific management (8m).
• Describe the effect of thinning on volume increment (10 m).
• Define succession. Explain different types of succession in detail, citing suitable examples.
Discuss various theories of succession (15 m).
• Explain the classification of forest types in India by Champion and Seth. Enlist major
forest types and their group (10 m).

• Comment on 'Forest has moderating influences on soil and air temperature' (8 m).
• Describe the important objectives of thinning. Differentiating crown thinning from
ordinary thinning. Write grades of ordinary thinning ( 8m).
• Write the importance of soil organic matter in the forest. How is calculation of number of
seedlings carried under Line, square, Triangular, and Quincunx methods of planting? (20
m)
• Write in detail the term girdling and pruning. Write scientific names of five trees/Shrubs
each for the cold desert and mangrove forest (20 m | 1/3 Q).
2016 • Discuss the reasons for widespread use of exotics for plantations and specific advantages
of exotics over native species (8m)
• Explain the role of forests in environmental conservation (10 m).
• Justify the statement "Forest substantially check soil erosion and control runoff (8m).
• How are the forest classified in India? Discuss its significance in forest management (10 m
| ½ Q ).
• Enumerate the classification of tropical dry deciduous forests given by Champion and
Seth (1964). Mention two species for each forest type (10 m).

• Comment upon the dieback (dying back) phenomenon in Shorea robusta. Is it a problem
or a adaptation? ( 8 m).
• Describe the methods of pre-sowing treatment of seeds for raising Nursery (10)
• How can a forest with shade bearer and light demander tree species be managed under
2015
uniform shelterwood system ? (10 m | 1/3 Q)
• Explain the term Hardening off. What are the internal factors affecting forest resistance ?
(10 m).
• Explain How the Latitude influences the forest types of the earth (10 m).

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• Explain the necessity of grading of seedlings before plantation (10 m).

• Mixed forest stand offers complete utilization of land, Comment (8 m).

• Discuss in detail the evolution of the concept of plant succession (20 m).
• Explain the following – (a) Orthodox and recalcitrant seeds (5 m).
(b) Elite thinning are often difficult to execute (5).

• What do you mean by plantation schedule? give in detail the factors which decide the
success of plantation program (10 m)
• Explain the importance of soil and air temperature on the growth of forest trees (10).
• Explain the survival strategies of the following group of plants (20 m) - (a) Halophytes,
(b) Phraetophytes (c) Xerophytes (d) Succulent.
• Discuss the natural regeneration in soil, give steps recommended for ensuring its
successful regeneration (8m).
2014
• Why does height of a tree considered a better criterion for a site selection than its
diameter? Discuss (5m)
• How is site quality important in timber production? Discuss the methods used to measure
the site quality (15 m).
• Explain the importance of snow in regeneration of Cedrus deodara (5).
• Difference b/w - (1) Ectomycorrhizae and Endomycorrhizae (4 m).
(2) Exogenous dormancy, and endogenous dormancy (4 m).
• Discuss in detail the objective of artificial regeneration (10 m).
• Describe the characteristics and structure of an even-aged stand (10 m).
• Exotics have potential, do you agree or disagree. Justify your response (5 m).
• What is stand density ? How spacing is used to control stand density? Discuss (15).

• Enumerate the factors which decide the choice of species for plantation (8).
• Configuration of the land surface has an impact on local climatic conditions and wind
movement, which in turn have a bearing on forest." Comment (8 m).
• Explain the evolution of the concept of plant succession (8 m).
• Explain the role of thinning in forestry. What are the different methods of
thinning followed in regular crops? Discuss in detail crown thinning (20 m).
• Explain various factors affecting the choice between natural regeneration and artificial
2013
regeneration with reasoning (10 m).
• Based on objectives, what are the different classifications of the forestry ? (10 m).
• Large-scale mortality has been noticed in Dalbergia sissoo and Acacia nilotica What could
be the possible reasons for this mortality? (10)
• Discuss the mechanism of drought resistance, drought tolerance, and drought avoidance
in plants (10 m).

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• Describe flora and distribution of group: Type 14/C 2 East Himalayan sub-alpine birch fir
forests (10 m).
2013
• Write a note on 'role of micro-organism and rhizobium in amelioration of forest soils (10).
• Describe the operational use of vegetative propagation in tree improvement (10 m).

• Comment critically on the following –

(a) Failure of forest plantations (5 m).
(b) Recycling of nutrients in Natural Forest (5)
(c) Basis of forest classification and why there is a need for such classification (5).
(d) How snow affects the forest vegetation? (5m)
(e) Importance of plant succession in Forestry practices (5 m).
(f) Reasons of dying Dalbergia sissoo (5m).
• Briefly discuss the - Canopy architecture in forestry (4m).
• Differentiate between – (1) Growth and development of trees, (2) Ectomycorhizae and
Endomycorrizae (5 × 2 = 10 m).
• What are the ecological aspects for Selecting the tree species? Discuss (8m).
• Gregarious flowering is an indicator of drought in the area.' Do you agree with this
statement ? (4 m).
2012 • Differentiate clearly between natural and artificial regeneration of forest, describe the
manner in which natural regeneration of Teak, Sal and Deodars takes places (16 m).
• Discuss the role of forest in interception, surface runoff, Infiltration of rainfall, regulation
of stem flow, and maintaining Soil fertility (5m).
• Do forests influence the rainfall ? If so, how? ( 5 m).
• Discuss in detail the protective role of national forests in India ( 10 m).
• Comments upon - Exotics in Indian Forestry (5m).
• Highlight the salient features of – (1) Aerial seeding (2) Stump planting (2x3=6).
• Describe flora and distribution of Group : 16 C1 of Champion & Seth's Forest Type (8 m).
• Describe the altitudinal variations in flora of Eastern and Western Himalayas through a
schematic diagram (10 m).
• What are the major ecological consideration in Afforestation (5 m).
• List the pioneers flora of sand dunes under – (i) on dunes, (ii) Spread out sand, and (iii)
Stabilized dunes (5m)

• Why are locality factors considered important for any silvicultural operation? ( 10 m).
• Explain the role of fire in the silviculture of Shorea robusta (10 m).
2011 • How do we calculate the seed requirement of a species while raising nursery? Also
explain the method of calculating the number of plants required per hectare for
plantation ( 10m).

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• Explain the following points in relation to nursery management – (1) Site selection and
layout, (2) Soil working, (3) Methods of raising nursery stock, (4) Plant protection
measures, (5) Nursery register. (4 × 5 = 20 m)
• Differentiate between ( 5 × 2 = 10 m).
(a) Exogenous dormancy and endogenous dormancy
(b) Artificial regeneration and Natural regeneration
• Differentiate between ectomycorrhizae and endomycorrhizae with respect to structure
and function (10 m).
• Give legal definition of forests in India. Write about the major groups of forest types of
India (10 m).
• Describe the initial causes of secondary succession. Write various seral stages of
succession leading to the development of Shorea robusta forests (10 m).
• Describe the tangible and intangible benefits of forests ( 10 m).
• Linked : Define a forest type. Discuss the different forest types found along with tidal
swamp forests with their species composition. Give a note on how Rhizophora racemosa
is managed in the mangrove forest of Sundarbans ( 3 + 12 + 5 = 20 m).

• Why do forest plantations fail? cite relevant examples (5 m).

• What are the different types of containers used in raising forest nurseries? List their
advantages and disadvantages (5 m).
• Explain the role of growth regulators in rooting of cuttings (5 m).
• Briefly discuss low-temperature injuries in forest trees (5 m).
• What do you understand by the term locality factors? How these affect the decision of
plantations undertaken by the silviculturist? (10 m).
• Why is LAI important in deciding the productivity of forest trees? Explain the concept of
optimum LAI and how it varies with the type of forest and climate (10 m).
• Differentiate between the – (i) Site quality and site index, (ii) Gregarious flowering and
2010 sporadic flowering in bamboo ( 4 × 2 = 8).
• Comment on following – (a) Pure stand of forest result incomplete utilization of the site,
(b) Plantation forestry has high production potential but low conservation value (5 × 2 =
10 m).
• Distinguish between "Tending operations" and "Cultural operations" in forestry (10 m).
• Write short notes on – (a) Canopy architecture, (b) Radiation absorption and energy
balance in forest, (c) Seed coating and pelleting, (d) Nutrient cycling in natural forest (5 ×
4 = 20 m).
• Write on tree species for smoke and dust pollution control (5 m).
• What morphological, Anatomical, and physiological features are suited in xerophytic
plants (10 m).

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• Discuss the role of light in obtaining high quality of timber (10 m)
• Describe the effect of low temperature on plant growth (10 m).
• Write notes on – (a) Grading and hardening of seedlings, (b) Treatment for breaking of
exogenous dormancy, (c) Different grades of ordinary thinning (5 × 3 = 15 m).
• Write on the provenance effect on seed quality of silvicultural plant species (10 m).
2009 • Describe the role of forests in environmental conservation (12 m)
• Describe the role of micro-organism in ameliorating soil (10 m).
• Write short notes on – (a) Quick viability test of forest seeds, (b) Forest leaf litter (5 × 2 =
10 m).
• Define climax. Which are the different climax types that are found in plant succession?
(10 m).

• Differentiate between weeding and cleaning in forest stands with suitable examples (10
m).
• What is pruning? Under what situations is it used in forest stand and why? (10 m)
• Discuss the difference between reforestation and Afforestation (10 m).
• Write the objectives of thinning in forest stands (10 m).
• Discuss in detail the measures that you would suggest for successful natural regeneration
from seed (20 m).
• Narrate the association of types of soils and types of forests (20 m).
• Explain Mycorrhiza and their importance in forest Nursery (10 m).
2008
• Explain in details norms to be followed while introducing exotic tree species. Outline and
explain the steps to be considered for the introduction of exotic species (20 m).
• What is succession? Explain in details the different types of succession. Describe the
major theories explaining succession (20 m).
• What are the silvicultural and genetic aspects in the management of commercial forests?
(10 m).
• Explain the effects of topographic factors on the distribution of plants. Justify with
suitable examples (10 m).
• Write the different types of tropical deciduous forests with suitable examples (10 m).

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 CHAPTER FOREST, FORESTRY
1 AND SILVICULTURE

1.1 INTRODUCTION

The term forest has its roots in the early medieval European society. The increasing population and the
rise of new kingdoms and serfdoms based on heavy exploitation of natural resources caused severe loss
of Natural vegetation (that we called in India - Jungles) to feed their increasing demands of food, fodder,
fuel, and timber. Shrinking Natural vegetation areas creates a shortage of
Forest term derived
Fuelwood and Timber in their ruling regions, so they start separating some part from a latin word foris
of the land, which is usually unproductive and located at the boundaries of which means outside

village territory for rising tree crop that we knew as woodland or forest for of village boundary.

production of required resources.

Figure 1.1 : A medieval European village

DEFINITION

Forest is an area set aside for the production of timber and other forest produce or to get other indirect
benefits from it [Technical definition].

Forest is an uncultivated land occupied by natural vegetation with a closed or partially closed canopy, which
provides shelter to the wildlife [Ecological definition].

Forest is any land area that has been declared as a 'forest' under any central or state, or local laws (i.e., by
Tribal council) [Legal definition]
 FORESTRY
1.2 FOREST CLASSIFICATION

Forests are classified into various categories for

IFoS 2012 : Basis of forest classification and why there is
purposes of description, administration, need for such classification (5 m)
management, and record; based on -

[A] Age What are the bases for the classification of forests?
Why there is need of their classification? Write the
[B] Regeneration
type groups of tropical forests and their distribution
[C] Composition
and species of the area [OPSC ACF 2019-20 | 20 m].
[D] Ownership
What are the objectives of forest classification ?
[E] Function Classify forests on the basis of different criteria used
[F] Legality with definition of each class [Arunachal PSC Civil

[G] Growing stock (Main) 2017-18 | 20 m].

[H] Density of Forest cover Discuss classification of forests based on age,

composition, object of management, ownership and
[I] Ecological or Ecosystem-based
legal status [Odisha PSC Civil (Main) 2016 | 20 m].

Forest types, based on age

• Even Aged or Regular Forest : a forest (stand) consisting of trees of approximately the same age.
Differences up to 25 % of the rotation age may be allowed in the case where a stand is not harvested
for 100 or more years. Nature never produced even-aged forest, but
man can through plantation works, i.e., Nilambur teak plantation For management point of
view, we usually consider a
(1842). [in short, an actual even-aged forest must be a man-made
Naturally regenerated forest
forest]. as an even-aged forest by
allowing up to 25 % of
• Un-Even Aged or Irregular Forest : Forest stand consisting of trees of
rotation age*** difference in
all ages. The range of difference is usually more than 20 years and, in such case where the forest is
the case of long rotation crops, more than 25 % of rotation age. A not harvested for 100 or
more years***
natural forest shows this composition, i.e., the Satpura forest.

Method of Regeneration

• High Forest : A forest with a closed or partially closed canopy regenerated by seeds. It is also known
as a 'seedling' forest.
• Coppice Forest : A forest regenerated by some vegetative
Differentiate between - High Forest
methods like coppice, root suckers, ratoons, etc., is called a
and Coppice forest [Himachal PSC
coppice forest. It is also known as a 'low' forest. Civil (Main) 2015 |5 m]
Write short notes - (a) High Forest (b)
It can also classify as
Low forest [Uttarakhand PSC (RFO)
2012 | 20 m].
• Natural Forest : When regeneration obtain by natural
means
• Man-Made Forest or Plantation : When regeneration obtains by Artificial means.

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Composition of forest vegetation (Floristic composition)

• Pure Forest : A forest composed of almost entirely by one species, or at least not less than 80 %***. It
is also called a Pure crop.
• Mixed Forest : A forest composed of trees of two or more species intermingled in the same canopy.

For MCQ based exams

Mixed forests may be further divided into -

 Principal species – (a) The species first in importance in a mixed stand, either by frequency,
volume, or silvicultural value. (b) The species to which the silviculture of a mixed forest is
primarily directed.
 Accessory species – a useful species of less value than the principal species, which assists in the
growth of later.
 Auxiliary species – A species of inferior quality or size, of relatively little silvicultural value or
importance [syn. Secondary species, Subsidiary species].

Classification based on Ownership

• Govt Owned Forest : Forest owned and managed by the state. 96 % forest area of India comes under
this category.
• Communal Forest : A forest owned and managed by a community such as a village, tribal authority,
or local government for their wellbeing [syn. Community forest].
• Private Forest : A forest owned and managed by industry, i.e., BILT paper mill.
• Panchayat Forest : forest whose management is vested in a village panchayat for administration and
management purposes, i.e., Lalwan community reserve, Punjab.

Classification based on Function or objectives of management

• National Forest Policy (1952) : classified forests into four categories based on their purpose of
management, i.e., Protection forest, National forest, Village forest, and Tree land.

• Similarly, National
Commission on
NCA Report 1976
Agriculture (1976) : also
classified Indian forests 1 2 3
Protection Forest Production Forest Social Forest
into three groups, i.e.,
Protection forest,
Production forest, and
Valuable Forest Inaccessible Forest
social forest.
Mixed quality Forest

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Classification based on Legality or Statutory

An area is declared a Forest under either Indian Forest Act (IFA) 1927 or any other state / local
community law. Under the Indian forest act 1927, the forest could be classified as -

• Reserved Forest : An area declared as a reserve forest under "Chapter II" of the Indian forest act-
1927 for providing complete protection.
• Village Forest : A state forest assigned to a village community under "Chapter III" of IFA-1927 to
supply forest products to a village without disintegrating its sustainability.
• Protected Forest : Forest Area subject to a limited degree of protection, exercises control on felling and
transport of timber, and removal of forest produce in whatever form it may be. Declared under
"Chapter IV" of IFA.
• Un-Classes Forest : Forest land owned by Govt.

 Two more categories were created in 2002 through the Wildlife Protection (Amendment) Act –
2002, by adding Section 36A for declaring conservation reserve and Section 36C for community

reserve. (Remember, Govt and Public always have 36 का आकडा).

Conservation Reserve : Protected areas typically act as buffer zones or migration corridors between
established national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, and reserved forests. Such areas are designated as
conservation areas if it is uninhabited and entirely owned by the Government but used for
subsistence by communities, i.e., Ropar Wetland Conservation Reserve. If part of such an area is
privately owned, then we call it a community reserve, i.e., Lalwan community reserve in Punjab.

Objective : to extend the protection around the existing or proposed protected areas due to
private ownership of land and land use.

Based on Growing Stock (GS), the forests are classified into

• Normal or Ideal Forest : a forest which, for a given site and given objects of management, is showing
the trinity of norms - (1) Normal series of age class distribution, (2) Normal growing stock, and (3)
Normal increment, and of which the annual or periodic removal of produces equal to its increment,
so it can be continued without endangering future yield.

• Abnormal Forest : A forest which does not show this trinity of norms.

Forest Cover Density

• Very Dense Forest : All lands with tree canopy density of 70% and above.
• Moderately Dense Forest : All lands with tree canopy density of 40% and more but less than 70%
• Open Forest : All lands with tree canopy density of 10% and more but less than 40%.
• Scrub : Degraded forest lands with canopy density of less than 10%.
• No-forest : Lands not included in any of the above classes

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GEOGRAPHICAL or CLIMATIC / ECOLOGICAL BASIS

Given by Champion & Seth*** in 1968***. They divide the Indian forest into five major groups that are
further divided into 16 types*** or Groups.

► Major Group 1 : TROPICAL forest -

• Group 1 : Tropical wet evergreen forest
• Group 2 : Tropical semi-evergreen forest IFoS 2011 : Give the legal definition of
forests in India. Write about the major
• Group 3 : Tropical moist deciduous forest groups of forest types in India (10 m)
• Group 4 : Tropical littoral and swamp forest
• Group 5 : Tropical Dry deciduous forest What are the important forest types
• Group 6 : Tropical Thorn forest of India [Arunachal PSC Civil (Mains)
2017-18 | 4 m].
• Group 7 : Tropical Dry evergreen forest

► Major Group 2 : Mountain SUBTROPICAL Forests

Forest v/s Jungle .
• Group 8 : Mt. subtropical broad leaves hill forest A forest is a man-managed wooded area
• Group 9 : Mt. Subtropical Pine forest while a jungle is a natural woodland without
human intervention.
• Group 10 : Mt. Subtropical Dry evergreen forest

► Major Group 3 : Mountain Temperate Forests :

• Group 11 : Mountain wet temperate forest

• Group 12 : Mountain Moist temperate forest
• Group 13 : Mountain Dry temperate forest

► Major Group 4 : SUB-ALPINE forests : Group 14 : Sub-alpine forests

► Major Group 5 : ALPINE Forests :

No need to worry, we will discuss all of them one by
• Group 15 : Moist Alpine forest
one in the chapter 11 – Forest types in India.
• Group 16 : Dry Alpine forest

1.3 FORESTRY

Forestry is an applied science, business, art, and practice of purposefully organizing, managing, protecting,
and using forests and their resources for the benefit of people.

Definition : The theory and practice of all that constitute the creation, conservation, and scientific
management of forests and utilization of their resources.

CLASSIFICATION OF FORESTRY

► BASED ON THE INTENSITY OF MANAGEMENT

Intensive Forestry : Practice of forestry for achieving maximum production per unit area (usually
timber, in volume & quality) through efficient application of modern silvicultural and management

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practices. Under this, we utilized site potential up to the maximum possible extent.

Extensive Forestry : Practice of forestry for raising

IFoS 2013 : Based on the objectives, what
multipurpose tree species (MPTS) for the production of are the different classifications of the
fuelwood, fodder, timber, wildlife conservation, etc. 'Forestry'? (10 m)

Here, the aim is not to produce one thing but the

Write short notes on - Branches of
maximum possible numbers as per demand, so it cannot forestry [Himachal PSC Civil (Main)
efficiently utilize site potential. Therefore, it is also 2013|6 m; 2014| 5 m].

known as 'Multiple-use forestry'

► BASED ON THE OBJECTIVES OF MANAGEMENT

Protection Forestry : raising forest (Tree crops) with the primary aim of - (a) protection or
amelioration of natural resources, i.e., Soil, water, noise & Air pollution, etc. (b) Soil and water
conservation; (c) reducing the hazardous effect of drought, floods, tsunami, cyclones, etc.

Production Forestry : Raising tree crops for commercial purposes (as a cash crop) or feeding
industrial demands.

The difference between Commercial and industrial forestry is that wherein Commercial forestry
production is not linked with any particular industry. Farmers intend to get the maximum amount of
output per unit area to get maximum profit; here, the quality/size/shape of wood is not very
important, i.e., the Production of Bamboo to fulfill domestic demands, fodder, cottage industry, and
many other demands. whereas in Industrial forestry, production linked with a particular industry and
size/shape/quality of wood is essential factors, i.e., timber production of cricket bat industry, Poplar
production in Tarai region for century paper mill

Social Forestry : Raising forest crops outside of conventional forest areas for the well-being of rural &
urban communities.

1 2
Protection forestry Production forestry

Commercial forestry
Forestry
Industrial forestry

4
3 Urban forestry
Social forestry

A B C D
Farm Recreational Extention Restoration of
forestry forestry forestry degraded forests

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➢ Farm Forestry : Practice of forestry on the farm to raise rows of trees on farm boundaries or
as a block plantation, i.e., windbreaks.
➢ Recreational forestry : the practice of forestry to raise flowering trees and shrubs mainly to
serve as recreational forests for the rural and urban population. So also known as Aesthetic
forestry.
➢ Extension forestry : Practice of forestry outside of the forest area or away from the
conventional forest area to increase the area under tree growth, i.e., Plantation along
roads, canals, railway tracks, etc.
➢ Reforestation of degraded forests : this was not considered under the umbrella of social
forestry by many mainstream writers like S.S. Negi, A.P. Dwivedi, etc. However, on the
other side, many authors considered it under social forestry, including Agroforestry. They
were further supported by the NCA report 1976.

1.4 SILVICULTURE

Silviculture deals with the methods for establishing and maintaining healthy communities of trees and
other vegetation that people deem important. As a critical element of forestry, silviculture ensures the
long-term continuity of essential ecologic functions and the health and productivity of managed forested
ecosystems. Both of these outcomes are fundamental to sustainable forestry.

DEFINITION

• Silviculture is the art and science of cultivating forest crop

• Silviculture is the care and cultivation of forest trees
• Silviculture is the theory and practices of raising forest crops (by Champian & Seth, 1968).
• Silviculture is the branch of forestry, which deals with the establishment, development, care, and
cultivation of stand timber (by Toumey & Korstian).
• Silviculture is the art of producing and tending forest stands by applying scientifically acquired
knowledge to control forest stand establishment, composition, growth, health, and quality (By
Society of American Foresters).

SILVICS

Silvics deals with the biological characteristics of individual trees and their communities. This includes
how trees grow and reproduce and the ways that the physical environment influences their physiology
and character. Further, it investigates how communities of trees modify the physical environment that
supports them and studies the never-ending interaction between vegetation and physical environment as
forests develop and change over time. In general, silvics translates scientific knowledge into practical
information about the habitat or site requirements for the successful establishment and development of
forest stands, and of the different tree species that comprise them.

• Definition : Silvics is the study of Life History and General Characteristics of forest trees or crops with
particular reference to environmental factors.

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In life history : we usually study

Study of LIFE PHENOLOGY, Growth & development.
1 HISTORY
In general characteristics : we usually
study Life form, Tree morphology,
2 General
characteristics of Physiology, and their relationship with
forest trees other trees or Crops

OBJECTIVES OF SILVICULTURAL STUDY

• Control – crop composition, Structure & growth by controlling competition, Insects, diseases, forest
fire, etc.
• Facilitate – Production of large volume per unit area + Increasing Define Silviculture. What are
the objectives of studying it ?
the quality of timber + Reducing rotation period
[GPSC RFO (Main) 2020-21].
• Protection – site protection, ensure soil stability, protect natural What are the objectives of
landforms. silviculture? Describe the forest
types of India [MPSC (ACF)
• Introduction of exotics, i.e., Poplar, Eucalyptus.
2012 | 15 m].
• Creation of Man-made Forest in place of Natural Forest
(Afforestation, reforestation), i.e., Nilambur teak, to prevent habitat fragmentation.

Figure : Objectives of the silvicultural study

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SILVICS AND SILVICULTURE

Silviculture Silvics
Silviculture deals with the establishment, Silvics is the study of forest trees' growth,
development, care, and cultivation of forest development, and behaviors under a given set
vegetation. of environmental conditions.

Silviculture = silvics + its practical application

It is the principle of silviculture
[The practice of Silviculture is applied Silvics].

SILVICULTURE & OTHER BRANCHES OF FORESTRY

Silviculture is the hub (Backbone) of the forestry wheel. Other forestry branches, i.e., Forest protection,
Forest Management, Forest Mensuration, Forest Economics, etc., are supported by Silviculture.

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IFoS 2020 : Define Silviculture. Relate the

applications of silvicultural to different
branches of forestry (8m).

What is the relationship of silviculture

with different branches of forestry ?
[OPSC Civil (Main) 2016 | 20 m].

➢ Silviculture & Forest protection : Forest protection is a branch of forestry which concerned with the
activities directed to the prevention & control of damage caused by humans, insects, pests, animals,
or fire. Here, Silvicultural principles help us to - (a) mix the crop composition to increase insect/pest
resistance, (b) introduction of evergreen species for controlling forest fire, and (c) growing of live
fencings to prevent animal damage.

➢ Silviculture and forest Utilization : Here, silviculture helps in – (a) the cultivation of economically
more valuable and high-grade forest produce. (b) Sustainable harvesting and extraction of forest
products with reducing impact over local watershed and ecosystem.
➢ Silviculture and Forest mensuration : Silviculture deals with raising forest crops and forest
mensuration to determine the result of applied applications or methods of silvicultural treatments to
decide the best treatment to be given for commercial timber production.
➢ Silviculture and Forest Management : Silviculture deals with the techniques and operations which
result in the improvement of forest regeneration, its productivity, reduction in crop rotation period,
and improvement of wildlife habitat, including the production of minor forest produce. Whereas
Forest management prescribes the time and place where the silvicultural techniques and operations
should be carried out so that the objects of management are achieved.
➢ Silviculture and Forest economics : interrelate the silvicultural operation costs with the cost-benefit
ratio of the resultant crop, management cost, and investment opportunities in the forest enterprises.
➢ Silviculture and wildlife management
➢ Silviculture and Forest Ecology
➢ Silviculture and Social forestry

IFoS 2018 : Justify that the study of Silvics is essential for the successful afforestation program in India (8m)

Intro Silvics deals with the biological characteristics of individual trees and communities. This includes
how trees grow and reproduce and how the physical environment influences their phenological
behaviors and physiological character.

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Body For successful implementation of afforestation works, we have to know the essential habitat
requirement of a targeted species like temperature, light demander or shade demander, soil
requirements, and biotic linkages (i.e., a need of the Host plant for sandalwood), etc.

With this, we also have to know how the locality factors affect/limit its growth and development
(i.e., Forest fire), so we can manipulate them; otherwise, they may lead to the failure of
plantation/Afforestation work.

Now you can start writing about various challenges faced during afforestation programs in India (related to our 4
Factors – Climatic, Edaphic, Biotic, and Genetic) and How knowledge of Silvics helps to overcome these challenges.

1.5 ROLE OF FOREST

Forests are the lungs of the earth and the most valuable natural renewable resource for humankind.
Forest supports the earth's ecosystem by performing various functions like –

Role of Forest

1 2
Productive role Protective role
or called or called
Tangible benefits Intangible benefits

PRODUCTIVE ROLES (FUNCTIONS) OF THE FORESTS

▪ Timber production : The forest is a significant source of

IFoS 2012 : Discuss in detail the protective
wood, which is used for agricultural implements,
role of national forest in India (10 m).
construction of houses, railway sleeps, etc.
IFoS 2011 : Describe the tangible and
▪ Fuelwood : Wood is the chief source of energy in rural
intangible benefits of forests (10 m)
areas and most of which is obtained from the forests. [Arunachal PSC Civil (mains) 2015-16, 10 m].
▪ Fodder and grazing : forest provides fodder leaves and
Write a brief note on role (function) of
grazing facilities to domestic and wild animals. forest [MPPSC (ACF) 2017 | 10 m].
▪ Forest is also the primary source of non-wood Describe the importance of forests to

products, called Minor Forest Products (MFPs) as like – human kind [Karnataka PCS (RFO) 2007
| 12 m]
• Fibers and flosses There is no sphere of human life, where
• Gums and resins, i.e., Bengal kino from Butea the utility of forest resources is not
evident [OPSC Civil (M) 2017| 20 m]
monosperma
• Essential oils, i.e., Sandalwood oil
• Tans and dyes, i.e., Brazilin dye from Caesalpinia sappan
• Drugs and spices
• Source of animal produce like Honey, Lac, Ivory, Guano, etc.
• Tendu leaves for the bidi industry

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PROTECTIVE AND AMELIORATING FUNCTIONS OF THE FORESTS

▪ Maintain Water cycle : Forest reduces rainwater run-off through the mechanism of interception,
Climate
percolation, and infiltration and increases local precipitation by about 5 to 10 % due to their
orographic and microclimatic effects.
▪ Forest plays a significant role in maintaining CO2 - O2 Balance in the atmosphere. Connection

▪ Reduce wind velocity : forest creates mechanical obstruction, and a significant part of wind is
deflected upward. An average dense forest reduces about 20 to 60 % of wind velocity more than the
open area.
▪ Neutralized Air, water, soil, and noise pollution
▪ A storehouse of genetic diversity
▪ Ameliorate and maintain soil fertility : by recycling existing minerals, the formation of new
minerals through the breaking of parental rocks, and their roots loosening soil aggregation.
▪ Provide shelters for wildlife

1.6 FORESTRY DEVELOPMENT THROUGH THE AGES

Our religious texts such as Vedas, Aranyakas (Aranya in Sanskrit means Forest), Upanishad, and Smritis
contain many descriptions on the uses and management of forests and highlight sustainability as an
implicit theme. According to Vedic traditions, every village would be complete only when certain
categories of forest vegetation or trees (i.e., Mahavan, Shrivan, and Tapovan) are preserved in and
around its territory.

▪ In Vishnu Puran (one of the eighteen Mahapuranas), there is a description of 13 types of forest
occurring in different parts of the country. Few of them are - Angireya Vana (Bengal and Assam),
Prachya Vana (Bihar, UP, Nepal), Naimisharanya (central UP), Panchanada vana (Punjab + J & K),
Aparantaka Vana (MH), Dandkarandya van, Kalinga Van, Saurashtra Vana, Kalesha van (south of
river Narmada), Vaman vana (near
Gwalior), Dasarnaka vana (around
Panchanada
Bhopal, Sagar, Damoh), Mahakantara van Naimishranya

van and Karush van (Baghel & Bundel

khand). These forests were further
divided into two main classes – Vaman van

Dasarnaka van
(a) Kunjar Van* or Elephant forest :
Saurastra van Karusha van
Dense forest, as they provide
comfortable shelter to wild Aparanraka van
Kalesa van

elephants
(b) Kantak Van* (thorny scrub forest). Dandakaranya van

▪ MAURYA PERIOD : when Chandra Gupta

Maurya* came to power around 300 BC,

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he realized the importance of forests. He appointed a
Define silviculture and silvics ? Explain
Kupyadhyaksha (head of the forest department) to look the stages of forestry development
after the forests with the help of several van-pals (forest and its influence on forestry today
[JKPSC (ACF) 2018].
guards). As per Kautilya's Arthashastra. During this
Discuss the history of forestry
period, usually, a king divides their forest into 4 Bhag
development in India [Himachal PSC
(parts) - (a) one part reserved for themselves for hunting ACF (Main) 2017 | 10 m]
and personal use purposes, (b) the 2nd part reserved for Write an essay on the history of
the state (i.e., Magadh), (c) the 3 rd
part for donation forests and forestry in India with
special reference to wildlife
purpose (to the Brahmins and others), and (d) the fourth
conservation [Arunachal PSC Civil
part for public use. (main) 2015-16 | 40 m]
Write short notes on Van-Mahotsav
▪ Gupta period : A large part of the central peninsular
[Himachal PSC Civil (Main) 2013, 2015]
region was donated by the Gupta rulers in the form of
Narrate the forest development in
brahmadeya, which was converted into agricultural land five-year plans [OPSC Civil (Main)
with the help of forest dwellers. 2011| 20 m]

▪ During colonial rule

Captain Watson was appointed as the first Conservator of forests by Govt. of Madras. His
duties were to preserve and improve the production of teak and other timber suitable
for shipbuilding. Watson's appointment and his works in this region (Malabar and
1806
Travancore) almost monopolized the production of wood, which enabled the
Government to extract cheap timber in large quantities up to 1823, when this
conservatorship was abolished after the recommendation of Thomas Munro.

After the directions of the Court of Directors, Madras Govt. initiated the Nilambur
Teak plantation work through Conolly, the then Collector of Malabar. Conolly was
authorized to appoint a sub-conservator of forest to work under his own supervision
with a salary of ₹ 150 per month. This was the first step towards re-establishing the
conservatorship, which had been abolished some years back. Chathu Menon was
1842 appointed as the sub-conservator in 1844 who devised the method of pre-sowing seed
treatments and planting of saplings, which is largely followed with slight modifications
even today.

▪ Oldest teak plantation of the world = Nilambur

▪ To pay tribute, the plantation area is known as Connolly's Plot.

Campbell introduced Eucalyptus pinata at Wellington (Madras). This marked the start
1843
of plantation forestry in India.

Gibson's appointment as the Conservator of Forests by the Bombay Presidency laid the
1847
foundation for forest services in India.

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Cleghorn was appointed as the first regular Conservator of Forests. Initiate

1856
Udhagamandalam or otacamund Eucalyptus plantation.

The then governor-general John Lawrence created the Indian Forest Department and
appointed Dietrich Brandis as its Inspector General for Forests (IGF). This marks the
beginning of scientific forestry in India.
▪ German by Birth
▪ Also known as Father of Tropical forestry and Father of
Indian Forestry.
1864 ▪ Works
– 1st Inspector General for Forests (IGF) (1st April 1864),
remaining until 1881.
– Indian Forest Act 1965, and its updates 1878.
– Started Indian Forest Services (1867) = Foundation of Forest administration.
– Famous books : The forest flora of North-west and Central India (1874),
Forest Entomology (1882), Indian trees (1906).

Changa-manga fuelwood plantation was established to gather fuel and resources for the
1866
engines employed in the North-Western railway networks [Now in Punjab, Pakistan].

1st copy of Indian forester journal issued by Baden Powell

1875
and Dr. Schlich

1878 Forest school at Dehradun started.

1879 Elephant Preservation Act passed.

Brandis retired from the service, and William Schlich

1881
became the 2nd Inspector General of the Forest

1883 BNHS (Bombay Natural History Society) started in Mumbai [Its logo = Hornbill]

1885 Training of Indian forest officers started at Cooper's Hill, England.

Dr. John Augustus Voelker (German) was a consulting chemist of the Royal
Agricultural Society of England. At the request of the Government of India starts, a
study on the problems of Indian agriculture. In 1893, he presented his report
1890 "Improvement of Indian Agriculture" with a dedicated chapter on forests (Chapter 8,
titled "Wood"), which laid down the foundation of the forest policy of 1894.

• The First Forest policy of India came in = 1894

1894 The first working plan for the Nilambur division (1896 – 1905) was prepared in
1894.

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1898 Vedanthangal declared as the first wildlife sanctuary in India

1906 The Imperial Forest Research Institute, also known as the Forest Research Institute
(FRI), was established in 1906 (Dehradun). It initially started functioning from the
Imperial Forest School building and then from 1914 to 1929 from a building at
Chandbagh (now known as Doon Public School). In 1929 its own commenced
building was inaugurated.

1914 Board of Forestry set up

FAO organized the 1st World Forestry Congress in

1926
Rome, Italy.

1927 Indian forest act

1936 The 1st national park of India was set up in the Himalayan foothills, known as
"Hailey" (Corbet) National Park.

FORESTRY AFTER INDEPENDENCE [UNDER 5-YEAR PLANS]

1948 Central Board of Forestry

1949 M. D. Chaturvedi — First Indian Inspector General of Forest

Van Mahotsav is an annual pan-Indian tree

planting festival launched in 1950 by K. M.
Munshi, the then Union Minister for
Agriculture and Food, to create enthusiasm in
the populace's mind for the conservation of
forests and planting of trees. It is observed in
the 1st week of July.

The main objectives of the planting of trees

during Van Mahotsav are –

1950 • Provide fuel

• Increase the production of fruits and add to the potential food resources of the
country.
• Help creation of shelter-belts around agricultural fields to increase their
productivity.
• Provide fodder leaves for cattle to relieve the intensity of grazing over reserved
forests.
• Provide shade and ornamental trees for the landscape.
• Provide small poles and timber for agricultural implements, house construction,
and fencing.
• Help conservation of soil and prevent further deterioration of soil fertility.

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• Inculcate tree consciousness and love of trees among the people.

• Popularize the planting and tending of trees in farms, villages, municipal and
public lands for their aesthetic, economic and protective needs.

▪ First & Second Five year Plan [ 1951 to 1961] : Afforestation & rehabilitation of the degraded
forests, Plantation of economically and commercially important species suitable for match-wood and
other industries started. In order to reduce the wastage of timber and logging cost, a logging branch
started in the Forest Research Institute (FRI), Dehradun, and a logging training center was
established at Batote (J & K).

Forest Wildlife
• 1952 : Indian Board of Wildlife was set up
• The 2nd National Forest Policy came up in
under the Minister of Agriculture's
1952 with the target of bringing 33 % of
chairmanship [That time, the forest was a
Geographical area under forest cover.
department under the Ministry of Agriculture].
• 4th world forestry conference held in
• Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act 1960
Dehradun, 1954
passed

▪ Third plan [1961 – 1966] : start focusing on High-value forest products, better techniques of timber
extraction, and attaining self-sufficiency in industrial timbers.

In 1965 : A center, Pre-investment Survey of Forest Resources (PISFR), was established under a joint
project by GoI with the sponsorship of FAO + UNDP. Later in 1981, this center became the Forest
Survey of India on the recommendation of the National Commission on Agriculture (NCA) 1976
report.

▪ Annual Plans [1966 to 1969] : Promote modernization of planting and harvesting techniques,
Plantation of fast-growing exotic species in the forest, and the agroforestry sector.

– Champion and Seth classify the forests of India into 16 forest types.
1968 – Jack Westoby proposed the term 'Social forestry' in 1968 during the IX Commonwealth
Forestry Conference. It was held in New Delhi.

▪ Fourth Plan [1969 to 1974]

Forest Wildlife
• In August 1970, The National Commission
on Agriculture was created by the • 1970 : Project "Hangul" started in J&K
Government of India to find a way to
• 1972 : Project Lion started at Gir Sanctuary.
increase the productivity of Indian
• Wild Life (Protection) Act-1972 Passed
agriculture and the impact of the green
• 1973 : Project Tiger Started [1st April 1973]*
revolution. It released its final report in
fifteen parts in 1976.

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• 1973 : Chipko movement in Chamoli,

Uttarakhand

▪ Fifth plan [1974 to 1979] : Production forestry, Large scale man-made forests with the help of
institutional financing.

– By the 42nd Constitutional Amendment (Also famous as the mini-constitution), Indira

Gandhi govt. brought (a) Forest and Wildlife under the concurrent list of the 7th Schedule,
and (b) inserted two new articles 48 A (DPSP) and 51 A (Fundamental duties)
48 A : Protection and improvement of environment and safeguarding of forest and
wildlife [Directive principles of state policy]
1976 51 A (g) : it shall be the duty of every citizen of India to protect "to protect and improve
the natural environment including forest, lakes, rivers, and wildlife and to have
compassion for living creatures [Fundamental duty].
– National Commission on Agriculture (NCA) submitted its report. In this report, they – (a)
reorganized the functional classification of Indian forests; (b) emphasis given on the
needs of social forestry program.

1979 – The Social Forestry project started in India

▪ Sixth plan [1980 to 1985] : On the recommendation of the NCA report 1976, more and more
emphasis was given on the conservation of wildlife, natural resources and agroforestry.

– Forest Conservation act 1980

– FSI, Dehradun (1981); WII, Dehradun (1982); IIFM, Bhopal (1982).
– Adopted 1st National Wildlife Action plan for next 15 years (1983)
– All India coordinated research project on Agroforestry (1983)
– Start Forestry courses at graduation and master level

▪ Seventh Five-year Plan [ 1985 to 1990]

1986 – The first biosphere reserve in India (Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve) was established.

– ICFRE (Indian Council of Forest Research & Education) established at Dehradun

1986 – Environmental protection Act – 1986.

1988 – 3rd National Forest policy

▪ Annual plan [1989 to 1991] – LPG report

▪ Eighth Five-year Plan [ 1992 to 1997]

1992 – Project Elephant started

1993 – Great Indian Bustard Project started

▪ Ninth Five-year Plan [ 1997 to 2002]

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– Ministry has formulated the National Forestry Action Programme (NFAP) and released it
on 9th August 1999. It is a comprehensive work plan for sustainable development of
1999 forests in the country in the next twenty years as well as to achieve the national goal
of 33% geographic area of the country under the forest and tree cover as enshrined in
the National Forest Policy, 1988.

▪ Tenth Five Year Plan (2002 to 2007)

– Biological Diversity Act passed. National Biodiversity Authority, was established in

2002
Chennai (2003), Under the biodiversity act 2002.

– National Board Of Wildlife – came into effect. It is a "Statutory Organization" that was
created under the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972. Theoretically, the board is "advisory"
2003 in nature and advises the Central Government on framing policies and measures for
the conservation of wildlife in the country. Chaired by India's Prime Minister and its
vice-chairman is the Minister of Environment.

– Tiger Task Force : In 2005, After the exposure by the media on the sudden
disappearance of the tigers from the Sariska Wildlife Reserve, The Prime Minister of
India set up the Tiger Task Force to strengthen the conservation of Tigers in the

2005 country.

– National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) was established in December 2005 after
the recommendation of the Tiger Task Force and became a statutory body in 2006
(under Wildlife Protection Act 1972).

– National Bamboo Mission

2006
– Forest Rights Act passed

▪ 11th Five-year Plan [2007 to 2012]

– National Green Tribunal Act (NGT)* passed

– NATIONAL MISSION FOR A GREEN INDIA or Green India Mission (GIM) : was launched
on 24th February 2010. The Draft Green India Mission document, was put on the
website for public comments in May 2010. The year 2011-12 was declared as the
2010 preparatory year. [Green India Mission (GIM) is an unusual Mission that has a
preparatory phase for one year]. GIM was finally approved by the Cabinet Committee
on Economic Affairs (CCEA) in February 2014 with the projected cost of Rs.13,000
crores. Therefore, in govt documents, the Green India mission was launched in
February 2014*]

▪ 12th Five-year Plan [2012 to 2017]

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– 3rd meeting held at World Congress on Agroforestry, New Delhi. Organizer ICRAF,
Nairobi, Kenya, with local govt. bodies.

2014 World Congress on

Year Place Remarks/Theme
Agroforestry
3rd 2014 New Delhi 10-14 February 2014
5th 2022 Québec, Canada Transitioning to a Viable World

– By Indian Forest (Amendment) Act 2017, the word "Bamboo" has been omitted from the
2017 "Tree" list of Indian Forest act 1927 [Remember Palms, Stums, Brush-wood, and Canes
(Ratanns) still under this "Tree" list].

1.7 EXERCISE

Q1 : Define the following terms

(a) Forest [ MPPSC (ACF) 2017 ]
(b) Forestry
(c) Silviculture [ MPPSC (ACF) 2017 ]
(d) High forest
(e) Low forest or Coppice forest
(f) Reserve Forests [ MPPSC (ACF) 2017 ]
(g) Protected forest
(h) Normal forest

Q2 : Differentiate with suitable examples

(a) High forest and coppice forest [Himachal PSC Civil (Main) 2015; OPSC Civil (Main) 2020]
(b) Open forest and Scrub [Himachal PSC Civil (Main) 2020]
(c) Silvics and silviculture [Himachal PSC Civil (Main) 2014; Mizoram PSC Civil (Main) 2018
(Silviculture) ].
(d) Tangible benefits and intangible benefits [Himachal PSC Civil (Main) 2018]
(e) Production forestry v/s Conservation forestry [ OPSC Civil (Main) 2017].
(f) Social forestry and Van-Mahotsav [Himachal PSC Civil (Main) 2017].

Q3 : In many ways, Dr. Brandis was the founder of modern Indian forestry. Elaborate.

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2 LOCALITY FACTORS

2.1 SITE or LOCATION

SITE or LOCATION is an area where you want to carry out plantation or management works.

SITE FACTORS

Sum of all effective climatic, edaphic, topographic, and biotic

conditions of a particular area under which a plant IFoS 2018 : Explain the Eco-physiological
factors that are more concerned to
community lives. Means, Site factors are all biotic and abiotic
Silviculturist (15 m).
factors of an area that interact and influence vegetation
IFoS 2011 : Why are locality factors
occurrence, distribution, and growth. considered important for any silvicultural
operation? (10 m).
Site factors are also known as locality factors or habitat
IFoS 2010 : What do you understand by the
factors.
term locality factors ? how these affect the
These factors are – decision of plantations undertaking by the
Silviculturist ? (10 m).
• Climatic factors : Solar radiation, rainfall, Wind speed, air
temperature, etc. Define the term locality factors. How do
• Edaphic factors : Soil organic matter, soil texture, soil these factors affect the decision of

structure, mycorrhiza, waterlogging, salinity, etc. plantation undertaken by a forester

[Mizoram PSC Civil (mains) 2018 | 10
• Topographic or Physiographic factors : Mountains m]
arrangement, Altitude, latitude, slope, aspects, exposure, What are all the biotic and abiotic factors,
etc. responsible for tree/forest growth?
• Biotic factors : insects/pests attacks, invasion of exotics, Discuss [Himachal PSC ACF (Main)
2017| 15 m]
grazing and browsing by wild and domestic animals,
Human interference.
 FORESTRY
2.2 WHY ARE THESE FACTORS IMPORTANT ?

The growth, development, and success of any forest (plantation) depends on many other site factors
apart from technical aspects, such as site quality, the severity of Insect/pest attacks, forest fire events
records, local weather, Naxal problem, etc.

How they affect decision-making for plantation/Silviculture operations ?

• We generally refrain from undertaking big and long-term commercial projects in remote, inaccessible
forest areas due to connectivity issues, which can create Hurdles during project execution,
monitoring, availability of skilled workforce, and application of protection measures during its
management. For example, we do not see any big long-term commercial plantation projects in the
middle or greater Himalayan region due to long distances from big markets, non-availability of a
large chunk of flat surface for project work, back-up infra/fund support, and hilly terrain prone to soil
erosion and landslide.
• Adverse local climate/weather : Almost every plantation project or thinning operation requires a vast
skilled-unskilled human and animal workforce. Drought, frost, forest fires, landslides cause
casualties. Generally, we avoid doing thinning and timber harvesting operations in the peninsular
area during the summer and monsoon seasons.

Human factors 4 1 Climatic factors

• JFM and Forest right act • Adverse local weather
• Ownership
• Naxal/Militancy

2 Edaphic factors
Technical & Economic factors 5 • Site quality
• Sub-surface hardpan
• Available technology
• Fund for project
• Skilled work force
3 Biotic factors
• Market demands
• Impact over local Ecosystem &
Wildlife
Topographic factors 4 • Insect/pest attacks
• Grazing & Browsing issues
• Remote location • Core area under project Tiger
• Undulating plain
• Roads/Telecom connectivity

• Site-quality and the presence of sub-surface hardpan also impact vegetation growth and project cost.
• Forester has limits to do pure forest planting, heavy silviculture operations, or the introduction of
exotic species into the forest area because of its impact on local forest ecosystems, insect-pest attack
cycles, and watersheds. Massive opening of the tree canopy or adopting a clear-felling system in hilly
terrain may lead to soil erosion, issues or risk of landslides, ecosystem encroachment by
grasses/exotics, and grazing/browning pressure issues.

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• Before approving any project, the forester needs to understand the socio-economic impact of
plantation / silvicultural operations over the local tribal-economy, which depends on the minor
forest products for livelihood (Forest right act). Some areas are facing Naxalite/Militancy issues.
• The Forest department's ownership, i.e., the Forest department has limited powers over the forest
areas, those falling under 'Scheduled Areas' and tribal areas' (declared under Article 244).
• Foresters also need to assess the availability of new technology, skilled workforces that can use it to
achieve expected results, and the market's size that can consume the final product.

THEREFORE, BEFORE ANY PLANTATION WORK OR SILVICULTURAL OPERATION, THE SILVICULTURALIST

NEEDS TO DO SITE-SPECIFIC PLANNING

A site-specific planning is determined by the comprehensive knowledge of the local climate, geology, soils,
topography, vegetation, and administrative capabilities, as well as available infrastructure, to identify the
best management practices for sustainable forest management.

• To identify the project area's issues and challenges and

IFoS 2017 : Why site-specific planning is
project requirements, including fund/investment.
essential for forest management ? Explain
• To ensure effective participation of all stakeholders in different components of site-specific
the planning process by identifying and ensuring the management (8m).

requirements of the local tribal community, as well as

In Forestry, planning is carried out at the
conservation needs of forest and wildlife.
country, zonal (regional), divisional, and site
• To ensure sustainable management of forests and land level to ensure the process is acceptable to
resources. all stakeholders.

• To identify areas for forest harvesting Broad scale planning will identify the
• To ensure proper and equitable returns to stakeholders requirements for balancing the conservation
and development needs of forests and
based on sustained productivity communities.
Site-specific planning will identify the most
An integrated approach to forest planning requires
desirable management practices to ensure
considering three factors that are crucial to the that areas are managed in a sustainable
implementation of sustainable forest management. These manner

factors are

1) Environmental/Biological/Silvicultural : What is growing and

can potentially grow on a particular plot of land, and what • Biological
• Silvicultural
land is available for forest management? What significant • Environmental

species occur in the area?

2) Economic/Market/Finance : will the particular area yield, in
financial terms, a sufficient return? Where are the • Economic
• Market
investment funds coming from, and what is the cost of • Finance

capital?
3) Socio-economic.

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2.3 SITE QUALITY

Site quality is the relative productive capacity of a site for a

IFoS 2014 : How is site quality important in
particular species or group of species. As we know, site is a complex
timber production ? Discuss the methods
of physical and biological factors of an area. Every site responds used to measure the site quality (15 m).
differently to different species. It usually measured on the basis
IFoS 2010 : Differentiate between Site
of top height of the crop on a particular age. quality and site index (4 m).

There are four site quality classes for teak –

1. Site Quality I Top height : 36.6 to 30.5 mt

2. Site Quality II Top height : 30.5 to 24.4 mt
3. Site Quality III Top height : 24.4 to 18.3 mt
4. Site Quality IV Top height : 18.3 to 12.2 mt

SITE QUALITY CLASSIFICATION (DETERMINATION)

Site classification methods have widely been used to estimate site productivity① and for quantifying
forest yield potential②. Site classification for forestry falls broadly into two groups – single factor or
multifactor methods. Single factor classification systems rely on one factor to describe a forest site, such
as soil or climate, whereas multifactor classifications are based on interrelationships between climate,
physiography, soil (and related edaphic factors) and vegetation.

Site Quality Determination

Direct Measurement Indirect Measurement

Site Index
Soil characteristics, & Indicator species Growth rate of Growing stock
Topographical factors (Grasses, Trees, etc.) the species per unit area

SITE QUALITY INDEX

Explain the term site quality. Describe
The most common method of assessing site quality by using
site index approach of site quality
productivity of well-stocked even-aged vegetation as the basis for evaluation [OPSC Civil (Main) 2015 |
classification. The site index (SI) is the average height of the 20 m].

Write notes on - Site quality and

dominant and co-dominant trees on the site at a given age (base
productivity [OPSC Civil (Main) 2017 |
age). Typically, the base age for hardwoods is 50 years and for 20 m].
softwood is 25 years.

For example, a SI of 75, base age 50, means that the average height of the dominant and co-dominant
trees on a site will be 75 feet when they are 50 years old (SI50 = 75). The higher the SI, the higher the site
productivity (which means trees will grow faster than on a site with a lower SI). To calculate SI, count
their numbers, Total height, and ages of these trees.

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SITE INDEX CURVES

To determine the SI of a site, first identify dominant and co-dominant trees representative of the forest
site. Then, take the average of the heights and ages of the trees that were measured. These numbers
are then used in conjunction with site index curves.

Site indexes for some species

are grouped together into site
classes, with Site Class I being
the highest site, and Site Class
V or VI being the lowest.

(a) Use of site index has become widespread, partly because it is incorporated into the yield table
developed for many species. (b) Fractional site quality is defined as the site quality expressed as a
decimal subdivision of the height range of half a quality class, the figures running 0.0 to 2.0 within
the whole quality class.

ISSUE WITH THE SITE INDEX ?

The site index approach is based on the observation that the rate of height growth of the leading trees is
well correlated with the productive potential of a site but is not altered significantly by ordinary variations
in stand density (Extremely high or low density may influence the height growth of some species).

• Site index is species-specific, and the site index of a site for one species may be a poor predictor of
the site's site index for other species.
• Site index is most useful for conifers because they have a well-defined height that is relatively easily
measured. Many hard-wood species have rounded, spreading crown that are more difficult to
measure.
• Site index can only be directly observed at the time the dominant and co-dominant trees in the stand
are at the indexed age

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• "Site trees" must be free from past disturbance, injury, or damage. Site index trees cannot have
broken tops, scarred trunks, damaged or compacted root systems, insect injury, and so on. These
occurrences reduce a tree's health and vigor so that it does not express the site's full potential for
growth.
• It must be free from past suppression

Because of its imperfections, many alternatives to the site index have been proposed. These have been
based on other site characteristics, such as ① Soil characteristics, ② Topographical factors (i.e.,
elevation, slope, aspect, and slope position), ③ Growing stock per unit area, ④ growth rate of a species
(i.e., MAI/CAI, etc.), and the presence of ⑤ Indicator species (Grasses, Trees, etc.). However, none of
these alternatives have proven to be as universally applicable as a site index.

► Understory Plant indicators : the small plants are much more sensitive to variations in site factors
than large trees. Such plants have high indicator significance, whereas others, those with broad
environmental tolerance, have little.
► Analysis of Soils & Topography : this approach of site classification often requires extensive digging
for examining the soil structure and collecting soil samples for subsequent analysis of physical and
chemical properties, so it has become impractical.

WHY DOES TREE HEIGHT CONSIDER AS A BETTER CRITERIA FOR MEASUREMENT OF SITE QUALITY

Trees grow in height at an early stage of growth, and after a

IFoS 2014 : Why does the height of a tree
certain age, their growth stops in height; now they start consider better criteria for a site selection
secondary expansion that continues throughout life. Almost all than its diameter discuss (5m).
trees attain a specific diameter over time. Therefore, to
correctly estimate the relationship of age-diameter-site why is height of a tree considered a
better criterion than its diameter for
quality, it is necessary to calculate the tree's age. Whereas, no
site selection [Arunachal PSC Civil
need to calculates age in respect of Tree height-site quality (mains) 2017-18| 8 m].
relation. Write short notes (a) tree height as a
measure of site quality [Mizoram PSC
• The naked eye can also mark the differences in height
Civil (M) 2015 |5 m]
(between a good site and a poor site) as it occurs in
meters. Whereas in the case of diameter, we need proper measurement as it is in centimetres and
often prone to errors.
• Many species do not show secondary growth (i.e., Bamboo, Canes) or grow in diameter at a
relatively slow rate.
• Tree height is relatively independent of tree density for most forest tree species. Simply put, trees
grow taller on good sites, and they grow shorter in poor areas. Whereas many measurable tree
growth attributes such as diameter, crown size, timber volume, etc., are strongly influenced by stand
density. If few trees are present on a site, the individual trees will have large crowns and large
diameters, and wide growth rings. Conversely, trees of the same age in a denser stand will have
narrower crowns, smaller diameters, and tighter growth rings.

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2.4 IMPORTANCE OF KNOWLEDGE OF SITE QUALITY OR FRACTIONAL SITE QUALITY

A knowledge of the quality of the site is a pre-requisite for the prediction of growth and yield of a stand with
the help of yield tables because they give the information by quality classes.

To understand the interactions between species and site conditions for the development of sustainable
management practices.

2.5 EXERCISE

IFoS 2021 : How are forest sites classified on the basis of vegetation? (10 m).
IFoS 2021 : What is Site Quality Index ? How does it differ from fractional site quality? Explain any one
method used for developing site quality classes with the help of neat diagram (15m).

Describe different ecological and physiological factors influencing growth and development of
forest vegetation [UPPSC ACF/RFO (Main) 2020 | 40m]
Comments on the following - Site productivity [OPSC Civil (Main) 2020 | 10m]
Define factors of locality in forestry and discuss the influence of climate and edaphic factors
on forest vegetation [Himachal PSC Civil (Main) 2014| 30 m].
What is site quality? What is a site index? How is the site index related to site quality?

Other uses of "tree height" other than site

For MCQ based exams
quality
 Mean annual increment (MAI) & Tree
 It is also indicate the level of competition height are the best indicators of site
for sun-light. quality.
 Nesting sites : Some birds and cavity  Site index is a direct measure of site
nesters prefer to nest and/or feed at productivity***
particular heights in the forest canopy.  Productivity : a ratio between the
Assessing tree and snag heights can help output volume and the volume of inputs.
determine nesting suitability of forest
stands

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3 CLIMATIC FACTORS

Climate is the average weather prevalent in any locality that influences our forest vegetation, i.e., light,
atmospheric temperature, pressure & humidity, wind, etc.

Humidity + Moisture
Solar Radiation 2
1

4
Temperature
3
Wind

Figure 3.1 : Climatic factors

3.1 SOLAR RADIATION

Solar radiation is the primary source of energy for photosynthesis. Factors such as quality, intensity, and
duration of light affect the stand morphology, and effectiveness of plant-animal interections.

IMPORTANCE OF SOLAR RADIATION

Plants depend upon solar radiation not only to synthesize food but also to regulate many other metabolic
reactions. Such as –

▪ Essential for basic metabolic reactions such as photosynthesis, transpiration, and opening & closing of
the photoactive stomach.
▪ Light is essential for the synthesis of chlorophyll molecules. The absence of light for more prolonged
periods results in the degeneration of Chlorophyll molecules, and leaves become yellow; this
phenomenon is called Etiolation.
▪ Intense light increases the transpiration rate, which leads to temporary wilting in plants. Wilting stress
forces the root system to absorb more water to reduce this stress and produce stress hormones,
enzymes, and other supporting metabolic reactions that can further promote root system growth.
Similarly, poor light condition promotes stem growth and broader leaves.
 FORESTRY
▪ Light is necessary for seed germination.
The relative length of day and
▪ Relative lengths of light and dark periods (Photoperiodism) are night to which the plant is
responsible for inducing flowering and fruiting in many plants. exposed is called photoperiod
and the response of the plants
▪ Light is essential for the composition and distribution of species, i.e., the
to photoperiod is called
Biodiversity of Tropical rain forests is higher than the Boreal forest. photoperiodism.
[You can link it with solar radiation and temperature].

2
Require for stomata
opening & closing

1
Essential for chlorophyll
formation & Photosynthesis

4 3
Regulate plants height
Photorespiration
and root growth
5
Necessary for seed
germination

Figure 3.2 : Effect of solar radiation on plants metabolism

▪ Helps in controlling Light increment, stem form, and 'Timber quality' (read in the below section).
▪ Stratification of forest community according to the requirement of light. Light demander species
encroach the top canopy, whereas the shade demander gradually shifted toward lower canopy
layers.

extra CONCEPT 1 : LIGHT INCREMENT

Commercial forestry is heavily derived by object-oriented production, whereas trees growing in

plantations are usually thin,
Figure 3.3 : Showing effect of heavy
cylindrical, and monoculture. As a thinning (canopy opening) on stem
result, secondary growth is essential diameter.

for the production of specific

Bole diameter (in unit)

diameters and sizes of round timber

Bole diameter after canopy
as required by industry/market. To opening (light increment)

achieve this, we start opening up Bole diameter before

the tree canopy gradually to reduce canopy opening

light competition and promote

Age (in years)
secondary growth. This additional
growth in diameter due to the presence of light is – called Light Increment.

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▪ Definition : Light increment is the sudden increase in the tree's diameter due to canopy opening and
removal of side competition, which provides access to light to the lower levels of the canopy and
boosts secondary growth.
▪ Concept : Suppose you are an unemployed person and want to grow a tree crop (i.e., Babool) on
your 1-hectare farm as a block plantation with 20 years rotation period. Then, on what spacing will
you plant Babool saplings? Will you be planted at 5 meters spacing? or 1 meter spacing?

STAGE 1 : we will plant them by 1-meter spacing, so the sapling covers the plantation site side sooner
to check weed growth as well as soil erosion. As they grow, in the next 2/3 years, their crown
comes closer to each other and restricts side growth with the starting of a new race of space,
light, nutrients, and water competition. To win this throat-cutting competition, they put most of
their energy into the stem and root development; resulting in faster growth in stem height and
root system.

Figure 3.4 : Showing how the Light increment concept works

STAGE 2 : If this competition persists for a long time, no one developed properly (that will also harm our
economic interest), so now we start thinning operations to remove extra poles (trees) at some fixed
interval (usually alternate). So, it reduces competition to some extent and further boosts plant
growth. Remember, even under these thinning operations that operated in the 5th, 9th, and 13th
years didn't create any canopy gap (if so, very small and will fill in the next few months). Results,
crown restricted to only upper parts with Natural pruning.

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STAGE 3 : if other factors remain neutral, we will get timber as per our
IFoS 2009 : Role of Light in
specification, like - straight, less tapered, knot-free poles of up to 15/20 obtaining high-quality
meter height. But, it has a more significant issue 'all poles' are thin and timber, Explain (10 m).
weak because of poor secondary growth. To gain their proper thickness,
we start felling a few trees to create permanent gaps in the canopy layers to remove vertical
competition. As a result, plants almost stopped their height growth, and now they start secondary
growth – called – light increment.

IFoS 2017 : Regulation of solar radiation given a powerful tool to the forester justify (10 m).

Hints : Solar radiation is the primary source of energy for the forest ecosystem, and any change in its
quality, intensity, or duration will affect the forest ecosystem's biogeochemical cycles, morphology,
and animal-plant relationships. This interaction provides an important tool for the
Foresters/Silviculturists to control and manipulate -

• Site conditions : to check weed growth, Control soil erosion, Promote humification (in conifer
forest), etc.
• Obtaining high-quality timber : Regulating stem form by preventing unnecessary crown growth,
promoting natural pruning, and light increment to obtain high-grade Knot-free straight bole.
• Forest composition : manage the light condition as per the demand of shade bearer and shade
demanded species in hot localities.
• Wildlife management : Manipulating floor vegetation to ensure the availability of grasses to the
herbivores.

extra CONCEPT 2 : LIGHT DEMANDER SPECIES

The requirements of light vary with species and growing region. Based on requirements of the light plant
could be divided into -

• Light demander species : A species that required abundant light for its best growth.
• Shade bearer species : A species that may persist & developed under the shade condition
• Shade demander species : A species that requires shade, at least in its initial growth and normal
development phase. They are also known as Sciophytes.

Types of forest Light demander Shade bearer Shade demander

Mountain Temperate Pinus wallichiana, Deodar (Cedrus deodara), Abies pindrow (Silver
forest Populus ciliate, Picea smithiana fir), Taxus baccata

Mountain Sub-tropical Pinus roxburghii, Quercus

Other Quercus spp. Rhododendron
forest incana
Shorea robusta, Tectona Schleichera oleosa,
Tropical moist Toona ciliate, Dalbergia
grandis, Dalbergia sissoo, Syzygium cumini,
deciduous forest latifolia
Adina cordifolia, Bombax Mallotus philippinensis

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ceiba
Tropical wet evergreen
Dipterocarpus spp. Artocarpus spp. Mesua ferrea
forest

[ In actual practice, the classification becomes complicated due to varying responses to light by species not only
in different climatic conditions but also at various stages of their development. For example, Sal can persist under
moderate shade, but its best development is obtained under a complete overhead light, right from the earliest
stage, though it requires partial shade in the beginning. Similarly, Deodar can stand moderate shade and
persist under it in the early stages, but it does not make satisfactory head-way unless complete overhead light
is afforded. Therefore, the classification requires details of conditions to be of any practical value. Source – L. S.
Khanna ].

Ice

PDF Poplar
Mountain Deodar
Temperate forest Fir (Silver Fir)

PQR Pinus roxburghii

Mountain Sub- Quercus
tropical forest Rhododendron

Dipterocarpus Spp. Dame

Artocarpus Spp. Tropical wet
Mesua ferrea evergreen forest

Figure 3.5 : Distribution of light demander, shade bearer, and shade demander species under various temperature zones.

IFoS 2021 : Do the trees of same species have different response to light conditions at different ages ?
(8 m).
IFoS 2015 : How can a forest with shade bearer and light demander tree species be managed under a
uniform shelterwood system? (10 m).

3.2 TEMPERATURE

Solar radiation is a primary source of heat on the Earth's surface that increases air and soil temperature.
However, its effect varies from place to place because of -
• Latitude
• Altitude
• Mountain’s arrangement
• Wind direction
• Distance from the sea & Hot Desert

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• Cloudiness
• Soil type & topography
• Presence/Absence of Forest cover

Atmospheric Temperature

Concepts Effects Importance

Diurnal & Seasonal

Temperature Variation. ➢ In seed germination
➢ In photosynthesis, Transpiration,
and Respiration
Temperature Zones i.e. Tropical, ➢ For microbial activities & Growth
Sub-Tropical, Temperate zone

Factors affecting temperature

of site/locality ➢ Changes in trees phenology,
• Latitude ➢ Shifting forest vegetation toward poles /uphill
• Altitude side,
• Distance from sea ➢ Changing forest composition and structure,
• Mountains arrangement ➢ Gradual devaluating forest resources and
• Wind direction deforestation.
• Cloud etc.

IMPORTANCE OF TEMPERATURE

AIR TEMPERATURE : Favourable temperature creates the condition for plant growth by affecting its vital
physiological activities like photosynthesis, transpiration, and cambial activities for secondary growth.

Climate • Cardinal temperature : Seeds require optimum temperature for germination, usually 20 to 35o C. In
recent years, due to the unavailability of cardinal temperatures in native forest areas due to global
warming, our forests have started failing to regenerate themselves. Due to the availability of
Connection
favorable temperatures at the upper heights, they shift towards the top/poles.
• Photosynthesis rate : The rate of photosynthesis
increases with an increase in air temperature up to 25- Zone of maximum photosynthesis
rate ( 25o C to 35o C)
Thermal compensation
30o C. Thereafter, it starts decreasing. At 50o C, the plant's point (45o C)
enzymes usually start degeneration and finally plant will
Photosynth rate

die, so this temperature (50oC) is called the thermal

Thermal death
death point. point (50o C)

• Transpiration rate : high-temperature increases the

transpiration rate. 25o C 35o C 45o C

• Enzymatic and microbial activity : High microbial activity Figure 4.6 : effect of temperature on
leads to rapid decomposition and conversion of organic photosynthesis as well as on plant respiration
rate.
materials into humus by releasing nutrients, i.e., The
temperate forest has high organic matter deposition on its ground due to poor microbial activities.

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• Pollen grains : Quality and quantity both fall = issue with reproduction.

IMPORTANCE OF SOIL TEMPERATURE : (a) Soil temperature

IFoS 2014 : Explain the importance of soil
influences the water absorption process, which increases
and air temperature on the growth of forest
usually increases with the rise in temperature up to a specific trees (10).
limit (27 to 35 °C). When soil temperature rises above 35°C,
Role of temperature and light on forest
the absorption process starts falling as the plasma growth [Mizoram PSC Civil (mains) 2018
membrane's permeability is adversely affected. (b) Cambium (Silviculture)| 5 m]
List the edaphic factor of locality and
activity for secondary growth in the roots. (c) Provide safe
explain the effect of light and temperature
shelters for soil microbes. on forest vegetation [OPSC - Civil (Main)
2011 | 20 m].
EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE

All physiological activities in plants take place within an optimum range of temperatures. When
temperature increases above or down below this range, all physiological activities are adversely affected,
and in severe cases, plants usually die. The ability to resist and adopt high temperatures is very with
plants to plants.

EFFECT OF HIGH TEMPERATURE (GLOBAL WARMING) OVER FOREST VEGETATION

Climate
• The rate of photosynthesis is decreasing, while the rate of respiration and water vapor is increasing. Most
of the energy is consumed in the basic metabolic process to deal with this hardship, resulting in a
shortage of net annual food reserves in few species to produce flowers and fruits.
Connection
• Starved plants become more susceptible to insect/pests and pathogen attacks.
• Early flowering and fruiting : Plants require sufficiently long periods for food synthesis and storage
and require a particular period of temperature and light impulse to induce flowers and fruiting
(Vernalization & Photoperiodism). This impulse is either unavailable due to the temperature rise or is
proceeding for a few weeks, producing seeds of poor quality.
IFoS 2018 : Can ‘climate change’
• Increasing incidences of Sunburn & Sunscald in young seedlings changed the period of phenology

• Coagulation of protoplasmic protein due to high temperature. ? share with examples (10 m).

All these results – (a) Changes in trees phenology, (b) Shifting Forest vegetation toward poles /uphill side,
(c) Changing Forest composition and structure, (d) Gradual devaluating forest resources and
deforestation.

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MECHANISM TO RESIST HIGH TEMPERATURE (ADAPTATION)

• Morphological Adaptations : (a) Converting leaves into thorns (i.e., Opuntia) or (b) shading it during
summertime. (c) Reducing leaf size and surface area, the more vertical orientation of leaves and
leaf rolling, (d) develop Reflective leaf hairs and (e) Waxy leaf surfaces.
• Membrane Composition : In high-temperature tolerant species such as Agave and Cacti, there is a
more significant proportion of saturated fatty acids (with higher melting points) in their membrane
lipids. It enables such plants to maintain the fluidity and stability of their membranes at higher
temperatures.
• Heat-Shock Proteins (HSPs): in response to heat stress, the synthesis of most of the normal proteins
is suppressed, but the production of low molecular mass proteins called heat-shock proteins (HSPs)
increases that help cells to endure heat stress by acting as molecular chaperones protecting
essential enzymes and nucleic acids from heat denaturation and misfolding.

EFFECT OF EXCESSIVE LOW TEMPERATURE OVER FOREST VEGETATION

All physiological activities in plants take place within an optimum range of temperatures. When the
temperature decreases above this range, these activities are adversely affected, and when temperature
decrease further plants may die.

(A) | FROST

Frost means the chilling of air below the freezing point. Depending upon the mode of its occurrence, we
could classify it into –

1. Radiation frost : rapid cooling of the Earth's surface and nearby air layer during winter nights in the
mid-latitude regions. Due to loss of long-wave radiation.
Required conditions for formation?
• Long winter nights
• Clear sky (cloudlessness)
• Dry and calm wind condition
It is also known as Ground frost or Hoar frost as Ice crystals are formed on the ground, sub-surface and
other objects near the surface.
2. Pool frost : The accumulation of Types of Frost

cold air flowing down into

1 2 3
natural depressions from Radiation frost or Ground Pool frost or Advective frost or
frost or hoar frost Convection frost Wind frost
adjoining hills, i.e., Dehradun
valley. It is also known as
convection frost. It is more
dangerous than ground frost as
the freezing effect extends to a

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considerable height as well as rapid in action.

3. Advective frost : A frost produced by cold air brought from somewhere else, i.e., Winter frost in
Gangetic plain because of westerly depression entering India from the northwest side.

DAMAGES CAUSED BY FROST

• The killing of young seedlings and their parts due to the freezing of water present in intercellular
space as well as the rhizosphere. In the morning, plants cannot absorb groundwater because it is
frozen, which causes severe wilting and sometimes death.
• Soil lifting or frost heaving : uplifting of seedlings or small plants above their average soil level due to
the expansion of soil mass by freezing soil water, resulting in heavy damage to the root system.
• Frost cracks : development of longitudinal fissures over the main stem due to shrinking of the outer
layer more than the inner layer, especially in valley frost.
• Formation of canker : year-wise repetitive frost injuries leads to callus formation, which lowers the
timber quality and market value.

Wilting due to water unavailability Soil lifting Frost cracks

FROST PROTECTION (MEASURES TO REDUCE FROST IMPACT OVER YOUNG REGENERATION)

• Make thatching over nursery beds with bamboo culms, grasses & palm leaves.
• Avoid clear-felling, adopt either a selection or shelterwood system.
• Smoky fire during the night to avoid radiation loss.
• Introduced frost-resistant species
• Promote soil mulching
• Use sprinkler irrigation in the morning to prevent wilting damages.
• Give a higher dose of Phosphorus and potassium to increase resistance

Nursery bed thatching Soil mulching Frost fan Sprinkler irrigation

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FACTORS MAKE THEM RESISTANT AGAINST FROST

► Internal factors
IFoS 2020 : Frost resistance in
• Water content in the cell : on average, a plant cell contains trees depends on the internal and
water 70% of its volume, a Higher amount of cell water = external factors explain (8 m).

more increment in the volume of water during freezing IFoS 2015 : Explain the term
Hardening off. What are the
inside the cell = damage cell wall and its organelles, and also
internal factors affecting forest
block its metabolic process. It means more water = Low resistance? (10 m).
resistance and vice versa.
• Osmotic concentration of cell colloids : water-binding colloids like Sugar, mucilage, pectin
substance, and Antifreeze proteins (like dehydrin) increase osmotic concentration and left a very
small amount of water free to freeze on one side; on another side, they also reduce its freezing
point. It means Higher osmotic concentration = less chance for the cell to freeze.
• Permeability of cell to water : in the high permeable cell wall,
Antifreeze proteins (AFPs)
during the freezing process inside the cell, the excess water
moves out quickly, so less possibility of rupturing the cell Some proteins have evolved in
many different species of plants,
membrane and cell walls. In contrast, the low permeability
fungi, bacteria and fish as a natural
of the cell membrane (+ cell wall) toward water caused low survival response to the freezing
resistance. cold. They help prevent the
formation of ice crystals that
• Cell size : Smaller cells are harder than larger cells due to
damage cells. Organisms that have
their small volume surface ratio and more readily bind their these proteins can live in extreme
water molecules with their colloids. environments and are therefore
known as ‘extremophiles’.
► External factors

• Temperature : sudden fall in temperature is much more

Hardiness : the ability of plants to
injurious than its gradual fall even for partially hardy plants
survive under adverse growing
because rapid fall increases the danger of internal ice conditions like cold, heat, drought,
formation. flooding or wind is called
hardiness.
• Season of growth : Frost resistance varies with seasons.
Plants that can withstand extremely cold conditions during Hardening off : The natural
process by which plants become
winter may be killed by slight frost during spring.
adapted to drought, cold or heat
• Light : lesser the duration of light = poor new growth = gradually by exposing them to the
greater frost-hardiness. particular stress. This term is also
used for preparing seedlings in a
• Mineral nutrients : Nitrogen stimulates vegetative growth
forest nursery or greenhouse for
and therefore reduces frost-hardiness. Whereas, a higher
planting out by gradually reducing
dose of Phosphorus and potassium increases resistance. watering, shade and/or shelter
• Water availability in the soil resulting in hardening of plant.

IFoS-2020 : Describe the term

► EXAMPLES
‘Hardening’ (2m)
• Frost hardy species : Acacia catechu, Dalbergia sissoo,

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Diospyros melanoxylon, Pinus roxburghii, etc.
• Moderately frost hardy : Adina cordifolia, Anogeissus
Describe different types of frost and
latifolia, Dalbergia latifolia, Gmelina arborea,
list some of the tree species on the
Bombax ceiba etc. basis of their frost tolerance ability
• Frost tender species : Acacia nilotica, Azadirachta [OPSC Civil (Main) 2006 | 30 m].

indica, Tectona grandis, Terminalia arjuna, etc.

IFoS 2012 : How snow affects the forest
(B) | SNOW vegetation ? (5m)
IFoS 2004, 10 : Briefly discuss the low
At higher altitudes, usually above 2000 m, snowfall takes
temperature injuries in forest trees (5 m).
place regularly. In the Himalayas, the intensity and amount of
IFoS 2009 : Describe the effect of low
snowfall increase from east to west and from south to north. temperature on plant growth (10 m).

BENEFICIAL EFFECTS
IFoS 2014 : Explain the importance of snow
• Snow influences deodar, fir, and spruce distribution, and in regeneration of Cedrus deodara (5).
their best forests are found in places of heavy snowfall.
Snow influences the distribution and
• Heavy winter snowfall is essential for satisfactory natural
regeneration of deodar trees and their best
regeneration of Deodar and flowering stimulation in forests are found in places of heavy
Apple. snowfall

• Source of water for our Himalayan perennial rivers, i.e., Importance

Ganga  Essential for flowering stimulation in

deodar.
• Snow act as a blanket to prevent a further drop in
 Protect its seeds from rodents, and
temperature that protects seedlings from the further insects + also act as a seed bank.
damaging effect of excessive cold and frost.  Give chilling treatment to remove seed
dormancy.
• Act as a seed bank : Most conifers produce seeds before
 Melting snow is the source of moisture
the onset of the winter, and these seeds remain buried in for young seedlings.
snow for a long time and protect it against the damages  Breaking of trees or branched by snow
of insects, fungi, and rodents. increase light availability on the ground
as well as reducing crown competition
HARMFUL EFFECTS for further growth.

• Snowfall results in mechanical bending of the main stem in the young saplings and poles and make
them unfit for commercial utilization.
• Accumulation of snow on the crowns of trees results in the breaking of branches and tops of trees.
Kail is most susceptible to snow break.
• Snow sliding often causes soil erosion and uproots trees on their way.
• It also favors the growth of certain fungi, i.e., Fomes.
• Shorten the vegetative growth period.

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3.3 WIND

The wind is an important climatic factor that affects the ① Growth, ② Distribution, and ③ Stem forms
of forest vegetation.

BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF WIND

• Wind helps in pollination (Anemophily, i.e., Mangroves) and seed dispersal (Anemochory, i.e., in
Conifers).
• Bring fresh supplies of carbon dioxide (CO2) to the leaves, and remove pollution, dusts from the
urban centers
• Help in maintaining the plant's body temperature through evaporation.

HARMFUL EFFECTS OF WIND

 Direct harmful effect

• Due to the wind's pressure and desiccating effect, the tree growing in the open in the plains and on
the ridges on the hills is short in height and has a high tapering rate in their boles.
• If windblown only from one direction, it often bent the tree stem and promote the formation of flag
trees on the hill's ridges.
• Trees are uprooted (Windthrow or windfall), timber is raptured, their branches get damaged, or
sometimes even the main stem snapped from some height [ trees which can withstand under strong
wind without being overthrown or broken are called wind firm].

 Indirect harmful effect

• Wind fans up forest fire, thereby increase fire damage.

• Increase evapotranspiration rate, which leads to a decrease in soil moisture. Indirectly affect plant
growth.
• Wind erosion – a blowout of precious minerals & organic minerals from the topsoil.
• Salt spray in coastal areas = considerable injurious effect on plant's metabolism.

3.4 MOISTURE

Water is an essential element for all life forms because of its great importance in the vital metabolic
processes of plants, animals, and soil microbes. It determined the nature of forest vegetation that could
survive in a particular locality.

IMPORTANCE OF WATER

• Water forms about 90 % constituent part of plant cell sap and cell vacuoles.
• Important agent for pollination, seed dispersal. Essential for seed germination and maintain its
viability.
• Water is a medium of mineral absorption, maintains plant's body temperature, translocation of food
to different body parts, movement of plant parts, expansion of roots, and maintaining the turgidity
of the main stem, especially in the young stage for height growth, etc.

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• Raw material in the photosynthesis process.
 SOURCES OF MOISTURE (WATER)
• Require for soil formation process as well as chemical and
Precipitation in the form of Drizzle,
mechanical weathering of rocks.
rain, Glaze, dew, frost, fog, mist,
snow and hails.
EFFECT OF MOISTURE
 RAINFALL IN INDIA
 South-west monsoon
Effect of moisture  North east Monsoon
 Cyclonic depressions
1 2
Water logging (Flood) Drought  Westerly depressions
 Thunderstorms
 Google these terms, its time and
(A) | WATER LOGGING (FLOOD) geographical locations
 Mango shover
When the soil's water content exceeds its field capacity, the soil  Kalbaishakhi
 Nor wester
is said to be waterlogged or oversaturated.
 Average rainfall of India = 110 cm
▪ CAUSES OF WATER-LOGGING : (a) High intense rainfall, (b)
Heavy siltation in riverbeds, (c) Shape of the watershed, (d) Poor drainage in Low lying areas

▪ EFFECT OF WATER-LOGGING : Under water-logging condition, all pore spaces are filled by water
resulting –
 Soil atmosphere becomes anaerobic, now anaerobic soil bacteria become more active and
reduce nitrate and sulfate into ammonia & hydrogen sulfide; these gases are toxic and killed the
plants.
 Mineral absorption reduces due to the low availability of respiration energy due to the absence
of aerobic respiration (as oxygen & other gases are replaced by water). That's why, in water
logging, condition plants show symptoms of mineral deficiency.
 Leaching down of nutrients & fertilizers with water percolation, [We can link this with how
fertilizers and pesticides in North Indian plains polluted their groundwater].
 Washout regeneration/plantation work

▪ SUITABLE SPECIES : Eucalyptus spp., Syzygium cumini (Jamun), Terminalia arjuna (Arjun), Acacia
nilotica (Babool), etc.

(B) | DROUGHT

Drought means a shortage of moisture, usually due to low rainfall. However, it may also due to the poor
water holding capacity of the soil. Plants
growing under this arid habitat are
known as XEROPHYTES.

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► Water Tappers or Phreatophytes : Some Plants develop a remarkably long deep
taproot system that enables them to tap deep groundwater. These plants can
easily grow on sand dunes (in desert conditions).

Examples : Prosopis cineraria (Khejari), Prosopis juliflora, Acacia nilotica (Babool),

A. Senegal, Azadirachta indica (Neem), Ziziphus mauritiana (Ber), etc.

(Note : several species have taproots and shallow lateral roots to tap water from
a larger area. Acacia tortilis possesses long superficial lateral roots).

► Water Saver (Sometimes, used term Xerophytes) : Plant loss 99% water what they
absorbed through transpiration. so, they adopted various mechanisms that can
save water loss like –
 Sunken stomata - rather than being found on the leaf surface,
Transpiration is the process
in xerophytes, Stomata are embedded deep into the leaf layers
through which plants loss
and partially covered by cuticle and hair (trichomes). This water in the form of vapour
feature helps in controlling the excessive water loss due to usually through its leaves.
transpiration in these plants Types of transpiration : (1)
 Ability to close the stomata rapidly & completely - Before the Stomatal transpiration (80-85
% water losses by this) , (2)
cells are damaged by desiccation, several species can close their
Cuticular transpiration and (3)
stomata and show temporary wilting and leaf rolling. Lenticular transpiration.
 Thick and highly waterproof cuticles – These layers resist to
vapor loss is 4-5 times higher than non-xerophytic plants.

Figure : Xerophytic plant adaptation.

 High osmotic pressure in cell sap – strongly bind water molecules.

 By a mechanism of rolling-out and rolling-in of the leaf to reduce effective leaf surface area.
 Scotoactive stomata - in CAM plants (like Opuntia, Bryophyllum etc.) open during the night
(darkness) and remain closed during the daytime.
Examples : Mainly CAM plants (Crassulaceae family) – Cactus, Opuntia.

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► Water Storer : Their roots become flashy and thick due to water storage, i.e.,
Cacti & Euphorbia. That's why they are called Succulent Plants. They are the
true Xerophytes.

Cactus plant
IFoS 2014 : Explain the survival strategies of the following group of plants (20 m) –

(a) Halophytes, (b) Phreatophytes (c) Xerophytes (d) Succulent.

IFoS 2010 : What morphological, Anatomical and physiological features are suited in
xerophytic plants (10 m).

EXAMPLES

➢ Drought hardy species : Acacia nilotica, A. senegal, A. tortilis, Albizzia lebbeck, Azadirachta indica,
Boswellia serrata, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Prosopis spp. Diospyros melanoxylon, Ziziphus spp.

➢ Drought sensitive species : Madhuca indica, Mangifera indica, Shorea robusta, Tectona grandis,
Terminalia arjuna etc.

INFLUENCE OF RAINFALL OVER FOREST VEGETATION

Rainfall in India is not uniform, and we get about 80 to 85% of the rainfall within 4 months of the
southwest monsoon and the remaining 15-20% in the next 5/6 months. Furthermore, it is also not
uniform. Rajasthan usually receives very little rainfall, while Meghalaya experiences excessive rainfall. All
these effects our forest vegetation and wildlife distribution. For instance, we found tropical wet
evergreen forest only in a place where annual rainfall is considerably above 2500 mm, i.e., Andaman
island region, Western Ghats, upper Assam valley, and Cachar region

Total rainfall Types of vegetation

• Desert (Both Hot and Cold)
Below 900 mm
• Dry deciduous forest

• Moist deciduous forest

900 to 2500 mm
• Semi-evergreen forest

Above 2500 mm • Wet evergreen forest

Impact of climatic factors : Though Sal grows on a variety of geological formations, it is almost
completely absent on the Deccan trap, where its place is taken by teak.

3.5 EXERCISE

1. Write short notes on the following – (a) Xerophytes, (b) Phreatophytes, (c) Glycophytes, (d)
Halophytes.
2. Define climatic factors. Discuss each climatic factor in brief [OPSC Civil (Main) 2020 | 10m]
3. Describe the effect of temperature on tree life-cycle [UKPSC (ACF) 2018 | 20m].

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4. What are different environmental factors that control the forest ecosystems [Arunachal PSC Civil
(main) 2017-18|4 m].
5. Define factors of locality in forestry and discuss the influence of climate and edaphic factors on forest
vegetation [Himachal PSC Civil (Main) 2014| 30 m].
6. List the Edaphic factor of locality and explain the effect of light and temperature on forest vegetation
[OPSC Civil (Main) 2011 | 20 m]
7. We can predict the regeneration and growth of tree in a forest from knowledge of their
photosynthetic light saturation curve. Justify [OPSC Civil (Main) 2017 | 20 m]
8. Can 'climate change' changed the composition of forest? Explain with examples (10 m).
9. Moisture is an important factor influencing physiology, soil formation and growth of vegetation.
Justify this statement [OPSC Civil (Main) 2017 | 20 m].
10. Explain the role of climate in the distribution of plants [MHPSC (ACF) 2008, 2012] or What are the
different temperature zones? Give their features.

Q1 : What is micro-climate ? What are the factors responsible for the microclimate of an area ?
Q2 : Differentiate between the - Microclimate and macroclimate [Himachal PSC Civil (Main) 2017| 2m ].

MICROCLIMATE

Microclimate means the local climate of an area, which may differ from the general climate. It is defined as
the climate of a small area, which for some reason, differs significantly from the general climate of the
area; more particularly, it is the climate under the plant or other cover, differing on extremes of
temperature, moisture, etc. from the climate outside the cover.

The critical factors which lead to the development of microclimate are - (i) altitude, (ii) aspect, (iii) slope,
(iv) drainage conditions, and (v) vegetation. Especially the effect of vegetation on the solar radiation,
temperature, precipitation, humidity, and soil conditions.

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4
EDAPHIC FACTORS

Edaphic factors are the ecologically influenced characteristics of the soil brought about by its physical and
chemical characteristics. These include soil texture, structure, soil water, temperature, porosity, salinity,
pH, Electrical conductivity, etc.

4.1 CONCEPTUAL PART

▪ SOIL : the uppermost weathered layer of the earth's crust.

▪ FOREST SOIL : A portion of the earth's surface serves as a medium for the growth and sustenance of
forest vegetation.

[ Remaining parts : The remaining parts such as soil formation, type, distribution, classification, properties, and
conservation practices will discuss in a separate subject, 'Forest Soil' in Paper-1 Section-B, including with afforestation
of difficult sites ].

4.2 MYCORRHIZA

Mycorrhiza is the symbiotic relationship between fungi and higher plants (Myco = Fungi + Rhiza =
Rhizome = Roots). Mycorrhizal fungi are composed of fine, tubular filaments called hyphae (singular
hypha). The mass of hyphae that forms the fungus body is called the mycelium (plural mycelia).

TYPES OF MYCORRHIZAE

▪ ECTO-MYCORRHIZA : under this, fungal mycelium formed a thick sheath or MANTEL* around the
lateral roots, and some mycelia penetrate between the cortical cells (Figure 4.2). The cortical cells
themselves are not penetrated by the fungal hyphae but instead are surrounded by a network of
hyphae called the Hartig net (as it formed a net-like structure). Remember where fungal hyphae did
not establish direct cytoplasmic contact with cortex cells. The amount of fungal mycelium is often so
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extensive that its total mass is comparable to that of the roots themselves. The fungal mycelium also
extends into the soil, away from this compact mantle. External fungal hyphae that are much finer
than plant roots and can reach beyond the areas of nutrient-depleted soil near the roots improve the
root system's capacity to absorb nutrients.
IFoS 2017 : Discuss in detail, the kind of
• Fungal partners : Ascomycetes & Basidiomycetes. mycorrhiza and the benefits derived by the
• Higher plants : Most common in conifers (Pinaceae* plant from them (8m)

family), i.e., Chir Pine, Deodar, Fir, Spruce, etc. In IFoS 2008 : Explain Mycorrhiza and their
importance in forest Nursery (10 m).
Salix, Casuarina, Eucalyptus, and several members of
Caesalpiniaceae and Dipterocarpaceae.

FIGURE 4.2 Root infected with ectotrophic mycorrhizal fungi. In the infected root, the fungal hyphae surround the
root to produce a dense fungal sheath and penetrate the cortex's intercellular spaces to form the Hartig net. The total
mass of fungal hyphae may be comparable to the root mass itself.

▪ ENDO-MYCORRHIZA : under this, Fungal hyphae entered the cell and established direct contact with
the cortex cells' cytoplasm. As they established direct contact, there is no need to form a Herting net
or fungal Mantle (Figure 4.3).

• Most common types of mycorrhiza and reported in almost 90% herbaceous and woody plants.
• Fungal partner : Phycomycetes or VAM (vascular arbuscular mycorrhiza).

▪ ECTO-ENDO-MYCORRHIZA : Ectomycorrhiza penetration of hyphae into intracellular space. These

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types of mycorrhiza occur in species like Beech & Pinus
cortana (lodgepole pine).

Short notes on VAM [Karnataka PCS (RFO) 2007 | 4 m]

Vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhiza (VAM) is formed by the

symbiotic association between certain phycomycetous fungi
and angiosperm roots. The fungus colonizes the root cortex
forming a mycelial network and characteristic vesicles
(bladder-like structures) and arbuscules (branched finger-like
hyphae). The arbuscules are probably having an absorptive
function, and the vesicles are terminal swellings of hyphae
formed inter and intracellularly having a storage function.

Figure 4.3 : Endomycorrhiza >>>

IFoS 2014 : Difference between Ectomycorrhizae and endomycorrhizae (4 m).

IFoS 2012 : Difference between Ectomycorrhizae and endomycorrhizae (5 m).
IFoS 2011 : Difference between Ectomycorrhizae and endomycorrhizae with respect to structure and
function (10 m).

Characters Ecto-Mycorrhizae Endo-Mycorrizae

Structure

Fungal
Ascomycetes & Basidiomycetes Phycomycetes (also known as VAM fungi)
partner
Most common in conifers (Pinaceae***
family), i.e., Chir Pine, Deodar, Fir, Spruce,
Higher 90% herbaceous and woody plants have
etc. In Salix, Casuarina, Eucalyptus and in
plant spp. this.
several members of Caesalpiniaceae and
Dipterocarpaceae.

IMPORTANCE OF MYCORRHIZA

▪ Better absorption of soil moisture and minerals by increasing net water absorption surface area as fungal
filaments work as root hairs that also help plants for increasing drought tolerance.

▪ Increase availability of unavailable minerals to the plant : Some minerals become unavailable or
unabsorbable, called fixation (i.e., phosphate fixation) to the plant because of soil pH. Fungal hyphae

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release organic acids that make it in available form, so the plant can sustain even under
harsh/unfavorable soil conditions, especially when the soils are deficient in phosphorus. [ Link this
concept with the question, "Why did Forest plantation fail?"]
▪ Nitrogen Fixation : Some fungi also fix atmospheric nitrogen and make them available to the plant =
plant can grow in nitrogen deficit soil where other plants
IFoS 2017 : Discuss in detail, the kind of
can not. mycorrhiza and the benefits derived by the
▪ Produce some growth hormones, i.e., Auxin, gibberellin that plant from them (8m)

further boosts up the plant's root & shoot growth IFoS 2010 : How are Ecto-mycorrhizal fungi
beneficial in managing soil born diseases of
▪ Phosphate reservoir : Nearly 80–90 percent of the absorbed
forest nurseries ? gives examples (10 m).
phosphate remains in the fungal sheath. Thus, the fungal
IFoS 2008 : Explain Mycorrhiza and their
sheath may act as a reservoir of nutrients (especially importance in forest Nursery (10 m).
phosphate) and release them as the occasion demands
under adverse conditions. Advantage with mycorrhizae fungi
▪ Mycorrhiza-induced resistance (MIR) – Mycorrhiza provides inoculation [Karnataka PCS RFO -
2009 | 4 m].
systemic protection against a wide range of attackers by
inducing systemic resistance (ISR) after pathogen infection through -

 Improvement of plant nutrient status will help plants to fight competition, biotic and abiotic
stresses.
 Changed root morphology and structure to promote root colonization by non-pathogenic
rhizobacteria & other microbial flora.
 Decreasing space for attachment to other fungi groups, i.e., dumping off fungi.
 Inter-plant signaling : Plants Use Mycorrhizal Fungi (hyphal networks) to Warn each other of
incoming threats through defensive proteins like Allelochemicals.

Insect attack

Infested
donor Uninfested
1 receiver
Release defensive
protein (allelochemicals)
for signalling and inducing
defensive mechanism

Figure 4.4 : Role of

2 mycorrhiza in plant’s
Increase water &
Nutrient absorption defence

3 4
Promote root Reduce spacing for attachment
colonizer bacteria's of other organisms

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Figure 4.5 : Importance of
mycorrhiza Produce growth hormones
19

Work as 18 1 Increased resistance

phosphorous bank to foliar pathogens

Increased water & 17 12 Increased drought

mineral absorption tolerance

16 13
Systemic resistance Increased salt
to root pathogens tolerance

15 14
Increased resistance to
Local resistance to
heavy metal toxicity
root pathogens

INOCULATION OF MYCORRHIZA INTO THE PLANTATION SITE OR NURSERY PLANTS ROOTS

• By planting infected plants & roots in a site/nursery bed.

• By fungal Spores, sporocarp, fruiting bodies (called 'puff balls') and mycelium.
• Infected soil and humus inoculation – The simplest and most common method of mycorrhizal
inoculation, where we collect infected soil from a previously infected area and spread it to a new
site.

Old Site
New Plantation
or Nursery site

Most common method but have no

guarantee that the inoculation contains
most desirable fungi

Figure 4.6 : various methods of mycorrhizal inoculation

4.3 BIO-FERTILIZERS

Fertilizers are the organic or inorganic materials of natural or synthetic origin that are added to the soil to
supply certain elements essential to the growth of plants. Biofertilizers or Microbial inoculants - are the
artificially developed culture of useful microorganisms of soil and plant origin, which inoculants to the roots

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of seedling nursery beds or plantation site, i.e., Rhizobium.

Way of Application : (a) Seed inoculants - 20 grams of Rhizobium culture required to treat 1 kg seed. (b)
Soil inoculants - 2 kg/hectare of carrier-based Azotobacter & Azospirillum culture mixed with 25 kg of FYM
and 25 kg of soil and is broadcasted in the nursery beds uniformly before transplanting work.

CLASSIFICATION OF BIOFERTILIZERS

Biofertilizers

Nitrogen fixing Phosphate( ) dissolving

biofertilizer and mineralizing Biofertilizer

Fungi i.e. Fusarium

& Mycorrhiza
Symbiotic Non-Symbiotic
(Nodule forming) (free living)

Bactria i.e. Bacillus

1
In Legumes i.e.
Rhizobium (Bacteria)
2 Free living Aerobic bacteria i.e.
In Casuarina & Alnus i.e. Azotobacter, Azospirillum
Frankia (Bacteria) (Bacteria) in Cereals.
3
In Azolla leaves i.e.
Anabaena azollae (BGA) Free living non-aerobic bacteria
i.e. Clostridium (Bacteria)
4
In Cycas coralloid roots
i.e. Nostoc (BGA)
Oscillatoria (cyanobacteria)

EFFECT OF BIOFERTILIZERS

• Improve soil fertility/site quality and decrease the chances for our plantation work's failure, i.e.,
Rhizobium can fix 50–200 kg Nitrogen/ha per year
• Increasing the production of plant growth regulators and IFoS 2013 : write a note on the ‘role of
microorganism and rhizobium in
enzymes = rapid plant growth.
amelioration of forest soils (10 ).
• Improve soil physical properties like soil structure, chemical
IFoS 2009 : Describe the role of micro-
composition, the buffer capacity of the soil, etc. organism in ameliorating soil (10 m)
• Increase disease resistance by supporting plant pathogens [Repeated, UKPSC (ACF) 2018 | 20 m].

and nematode growth.

• Increase tolerance of plants under abnormal conditions by increasing acidity.
• Enhanced water and nutrient uptakes, i.e., Ectomycorrhiza & Endomycorrhiza.

SYMBIOTIC BIOLOGICAL NITROGEN FIXATION

Rhizobium (bacteria) makes a symbiotic relationship with roots of leguminous plants through root nodules

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and fix atmospheric nitrogen into Nitrate and Nitrite form that
Describe briefly about actinorhizal
can plant uptake (plants of Leguminosae - Acacia nilotica, symbiosis [Karnataka PSC (ACF/RFO)
Cassia fistula, Delonix regia, Sissoo, etc.). Another bacteria, 2015|5 m].

Frankia, also fix atmospheric nitrogen through forming root The term “actinorhiza'' refers both to the
filamentous bacteria Frankia (an
nodules but in non-leguminous plants (e.g., Casuarina, Alnus). actinomycete), and to the root location of
If you cut nodules through them, you notice that the central nitrogen-fixing nodules. This association
portion is red or pink because of leguminous hemoglobin or leads to the formation of nitrogen-fixing
root nodules.
leg-hemoglobin

Figure 4.8 : Development of root nodules in sweet pea plant.

Some free-living bacteria like Azotobacter, Azospirillum, and Blue-green algae (BGA) also fix atmospheric
nitrogen. Still, they freely move into the air (free-living) and are not associated with any particular plant
species.

HOW TO INCREASE (AUGMENT) BIOLOGICAL NITROGEN FIXATION

• To increase the area under cultivation of legumes by introducing legumes in inter- or relay cropping.

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• To provide efficient and newly developed strains of nitrogen fixers for inoculation.
• Overcome the inhibitors of biological nitrogen fixation.
• Discover inexpensive nitrification inhibitors such as neem cake.
• Develop simple practices to conserve water on the farm because it needs optimum moisture for
successful nodulation and biological nitrogen fixation.
• Transferring nif genes into higher plants.

4.4 SOIL NUTRIENTS

The plant body contains about 30+ elements. However, all is not IFoS 2013 : What are the source and
essential for the proper functioning of the plant's metabolic nature of elements considered as

reactions, and their absence causes deficiency symptoms/diseases. essential plant nutrients (10m).

A Plant requires 17 elements for its basic functioning, so-called Give the deficiency symptoms of
essential nutrients. Discuss the
essential elements or essential Nutrients
criteria of essentiality of nutrients.

CRITERIA OF ESSENTIALITY : proposed by Arnon (1954). [OPSC Civil (Main) 2020 | 20m].

• The deficiency of the element makes it impossible for the plants to complete their life cycle's
vegetative or reproductive stage.
• The deficiency is specific to the element in question and can be prevented or corrected only by
supplying that particular nutrient element to the plant.
• The elements must directly influence the plant and be directly involved in the nutrition and
metabolism of the plant.

In Arnon's time, they considered only 16 elements as essential. Presently 'Ni' (Nickel) is also considered
essential. Hence total essential nutrients are 17.

Out of these 17essential elements : C, H, O, N, P, K, Ca, Mg, and S are called Macro-elements or Macro-
Nutrients, and they generally present in plant tissues in large amounts (over 10 million moles per Kg of dry
matter). Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen are mainly obtained from CO2 and H2O, while they absorb the
others from the soil as mineral nutrition. The other remaining elements that are required in tiny amounts
(less than 10 m. mole Kg–1 of dry matter) are called - Micronutrients or trace elements. These include iron,
manganese, copper, molybdenum, zinc, boron, chlorine, and nickel.

Major sources for tree

Element Uptake by the trees Limiting situations
uptake
Atmosphere concentration may
Carbon Atmosphere Atmosphere
limit growth
Oxygen Atmosphere Atmosphere Waterlogged soils
Extremely acidic and alkaline
Hydrogen Atmosphere Atmosphere
conditions
Soluble NO3 and NH4; Soil organic matter; Most temperate forests, many
Nitrogen N2 for nitrogen-fixing atmospheric N2 for boreal forests, and some tropical
species nitrogen-fixing species forests

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Old soils high in iron and
Soil organic matter;
aluminium; common in the
Phosphorus Soluble phosphorus adsorbed phosphate and
subtropical and tropical
mineral phosphorus
environment
Potassium Soil organic matter;
Soluble K+ /soluble Miscellaneous situations and some
calcium 2+ 2+
exchange complex and
Ca / soluble Mg ole soils
magnesium minerals

ROLE OF ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS

• Essential elements as components of biomolecules and hence structural elements of cells (e.g.
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen).
• Essential elements that are components of energy-related chemical compounds in plants (e.g.
magnesium in chlorophyll and phosphorous in ATP).
• Essential elements activate or inhibit enzymes, i.e., Mg2+ is an activator for both ribulose bi-
phosphate carboxylase-oxygenase and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase, both of which are critical
enzymes in photosynthetic carbon fixation; Mo (Molybdenum) of nitrogenase during nitrogen
metabolism, Zn2+ is an activator of alcohol dehydrogenase.
• Some essential elements can alter the osmotic potential, i.e., Potassium (K) plays an important role
in the opening and closing of stomata.

4.5 PLANTS 'NUTRIENT CYCLING'

Nutrients are elements or compounds that are essential for the growth and survival of plants. Plants
require large amounts of nutrients such as nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen
(O), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), and magnesium (Mg), etc.

Forest nutrient cycling (or ecological recycling) is the exchange of

IFoS 2010, 12 : Write short notes on –
elements between an ecosystem's living and non-living Nutrient cycling in natural forest (5 m).
components. The processes include nutrient uptake and
storage in vegetation' perennial tissues, litter production, litter
Discuss different types of nutrient
decomposition, nutrient transformations by soil fauna and cycling which occur in tropical forest
flora, nutrient inputs from the atmosphere and the weathering ecosystems [Karnataka PCS RFO -
2007 | 12 m]
of primary minerals, and nutrient export from the soil by
Nutrient cycling in natural forest
leaching and gaseous transfers. Each nutrient element is [OPSC Civil (M) 2011 ]
characterized by a unique biogeochemical cycle, i.e., carbon Explain nutrient cycling in forest
cycle, sulfur cycle, nitrogen cycle, water cycle, phosphorus ecosystem [MHPSC (ACF) 2008;
MPPSC (ACF) 2017]
cycle, oxygen cycle, etc. (given in the below table).

• Internal Nutrient cycle : when nutrients are recycled between the old dying part to the newly
developing parts of plants. For example, deciduous trees remobilize nitrogen from roots, trunks, and
twigs for spring growth of leaves and withdraw leaf Nitrogen during senescence. Evergreen trees
have an additional re-translocation of nitrogen from the previous year's foliage to supply apical
growing points during periods of flushing.

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Nutrient cycling

Internal External

Open or leaky Close Closed & leaky

• External Nutrient cycling : where the nutrient enters and moves out from the plant body.

➢ Open Nutrient Cycling : In the agricultural system, once the nutrient goes down below the
rhizosphere, they usually cannot return back to the production system because farm crops do
not have such a deep taproot system. So, there is a continuous leakage of nutrients from the
production system.
➢ Close Nutrient cycling : In the forest ecosystem, the vastness of the root system at different
depths makes it difficult for nutrients to leave the productive system, and often they are
entirely absorbed after their decomposition process ends.
➢ Close and leaky Nutrient cycling : in Agroforestry system.

[Forest trees make less demand on the soil for nutrients than annual crops because a large proportion of
absorbed nutrients are returned annually to the soil in leaf and fine root litter and are reabsorbed after
biological breakdown of litter materials. Also, a large portion of the nutrient requirement of trees is met
through internal cycling compared with agricultural crops].

4.6 EFFECT OF EDAPHIC FACTORS ON FOREST VEGETATION

The edaphic factor is a very important factor of the locality. It

IFoS 2008 : Narrate the association of
provides the environment of the essential part of the tree, viz., types of soils and types of forests (20 m).
roots. The seeds germinate in the soil, and the seedlings' roots
go inside the soil to anchor the growing plant and provide Define factors of locality in forestry
nutrients and water. If the soil is such that the roots cannot go and discuss the influence of climate

deep because of some hardpan, or if the soil cannot provide and edaphic factors on forest
vegetation [Himachal PSC Civil
sufficient nutrients and water, the tree may die. Besides (Main) - 2014| 30 m]
nutrients and water, soil also provides air to the roots. As the
roots cannot live and function without air, soil aeration profoundly affects vegetation. As soil provides
water and nutrients for trees, it controls all their physiological processes. It affects the size as well as the
rate of growth of trees, the yield of trees and forests, and their natural regeneration. For example, in a
more or less uniform climate, one type of vegetation gives place to another only because of the change in
the edaphic factor.

INFLUENCE OF PARENT ROCK

• Soil properties : Soil develops from the disintegration of rocks, though the climate affects certain
changes in the soils derived from a given rock, yet the parent rock largely governs the physical and

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chemical properties. For example, granite produces coarse-textured soil in the beginning, which
becomes loamy in the course of time because of the conversion of feldspar into kaolinite. Basalt
produces dark-colored fine-textured soil. Quartzite produces the poorest and shallowest soil which
can support only a non-exacting species like Chir-pine.
• Distribution of tree species : The trees draw (a) Moisture, (b) minerals & organic nutrients, (c)
Oxygen, and (d) root stabilizing growing medium from the soil formed. Therefore, the parent rock
affects the growth and distribution of tree species.
 In the western Himalayas, Chir-pine occurs mainly on quartzite rocks, while blue pine occurs on
mica schist. As the Kashmir and Kulu valleys have practically no quartzite formation, Chir is
conspicuous by its absence in these valleys; if quartzite occurs at higher altitudes, Chir appears
there, i.e., In Parbatti valley (H.P.), deodar occurs at lower altitudes on old and fresh alluvium. In
contrast, Chir occurs above deodar at higher altitudes on quartzite.
 Cupressus torulosa occurs mainly on limestone rocks, as in the Chakrata hills of Uttarakhand.
 While teak grows on lime-rich rocks, sal usually avoids them. Teak is absent from quartz and
black cotton soil and often avoids laterite sand where found. It is usually stunted.
 Xylia Xylocarpa occurs gregariously in laterites.
 Dendrocalamus strictus is practically absent in Orissa from quartzite soils.

However, the influence of parent material/Soil on a particular species or forest type is sometimes due to
its effect on the soil depth, moisture retentivity, and availability of nutrients and not because of its own
chemical composition.

4.7 EXERCISE

Comments on the following - Mycorrhiza [OPSC Civil (Main) 2020 | 5m]

Define factors of locality in forestry and discuss the influence of climate and edaphic factors on forest
vegetation [Himachal PSC Civil (Main) 2014| 30 m].
List the edaphic factor of locality and explain the effect of light and temperature on forest vegetation
[OPSC Civil (Main) 2011 | 20 m].
Discuss various kinds of bio-fertilizers and the benefits derived by the plant from them (10 m).
What's are the different kinds of mycorrhizae? What are their functions? What types of mycorrhiza
are associated with pines and broadleaved hardwoods?
What are VAM fungi? Discuss the way of inoculating mycorrhizal fungi in the nursery and plantations.

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5 PHYSIOGRAPHIC FACTORS

The factors concerned with topography or physical features of an area are called topographic or
Physiographic factors, including height, the direction of slope, and slopes' steepness. The topographic
factors are also called indirect factors as they influence the growth and development of forest vegetation
by bringing variations in climatic factors.
IFoS 2008 : Explain the effects of topographic
These Factors are -
factors on the distribution of plants. Justify
• Configuration or arrangement of the land surface, i.e., with suitable examples (10 m).

hills & valleys IFoS 2003 : Discuss briefly about the

• Altitude topographic features influencing vegetation.

• Latitude
Define topography. What are the
• Slopes
topographical factors which influence
• Aspect & Exposure vegetation of an area ? [OPSC Civil
(Main) 2016 | 20 m]
5.1 CONFIGURATION OF LAND SURFACE

The arrangement of hills and valleys affects the local climate by affecting rainfall patterns①,
temperature②, solar radiation③, and soil profile depth④. It would also affect wind direction, which is
essential for pollination and seed dispersal in conifers. Himalayan valleys are cooler in winter, and pool
frost is common, whereas, in summer,
adjoining hills make the valley extremely hot. Figure 5.1 : Effect
of mountain range
The soil in valleys is deeper, more prosperous
on the pattern of
and productive, and has dense vegetation rainfall
growth. For example, Inner Himalayas
received very low precipitation (below 60 cm).

IFoS 2013 : Configuration of the land surface has an impact on local climatic conditions and wind
movement, which in turn have a bearing on the forest. Comment (8 m).

5.2 ALTITUDE

Altitude is the height of a place from mean sea level. On mountains, we experience a decrease in
temperature, pressure, rainfall, and soil fertility with increasing altitude, whereas wind velocity and solar
radiation increase. Thus, vegetation at different altitudes is different, showing distinct zonation.
 FORESTRY
Generally, Xerophytic vegetations are more common at lower latitudes, and Chamaephytic occurs at higher
altitudes.

EFFECTS OF ALTITUDE ON VEGETATION

• Reduction in tree's diameters, heights, leaves thickness & size; and after timberline, we get scrub
vegetation as like in a semi-arid region.
• Formation of flag trees at mountain edges due
to wind pressure.
• The period of maturity becomes prolonged.
• High water stress because of water loss through

Altitude
high evaporation rate and low availability of soil
moisture-induced development of a robust root
system. However, this water stress also
competes out other non-native vegetation too;
Low High
that's why vegetation at that height is usually Increases

composed of very few species (least Figure 5.2 : Effect of altitude over climatic
biodiversity). factors.

ALTITUDINAL ZONATION OF VEGETATION

WESTERN HIMALAYA EASTERN HIMALAYA

Tree line at 5000 m

Tree line at 4500 m 5,000

Rhododendrons in
Betula utilis, Junipers, plenty, Junipers
Silver fir, Rhododendrons 4000 4000 m
3500 m
Abies spectabilis (Eastern himalayan fir), Picea
Abies pindrow, Picea smithiana, Pinus wallichina, Pinus spinulosa (Sikkim spruce), Larix griffithii (Sikkim larch),
roxburghii, Walnut, , poplar, maples, Quercus semecarpifolia Rhododendrons, Willows, Arundinaria spathiflora,
(Oak), Arundinaria falcata (Ringal), Rhododendron, etc. 2000 Betula etc.
Broad-leaved forest (Below 2000 m)
Broad-leaved forest (Below 1500 m)
Oak, chestnuts, Maples,
Mixed deciduous, Sal Dry bamboo, riverain Tropical & Tropical and magnolia, Alders, Birch etc.
savannah, Dry thorn and scrub subtropical subtropical
Mixed forests, often evergreen
1,000 with moist bamboo

Figure 5.3 : Altitudinal zonation and distribution of various species of plants in western and eastern Himalayas.

IFoS 2019 : Draw a schematic diagram showing the altitudinal zonation of forest vegetation (10 m).
IFoS 2012 : Describe the altitudinal variations in the flora of Eastern and Western Himalayas through a
schematic diagram ( 10 m).

What do you understand about altitude ? How its variations affect the temperature, rainfall and
vegetation ? [OPSC Civil (Main) - 2017 | 20 m].

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5.3 LATITUDE Figure 5.4 : Showing the
relationship of the angle of solar
Soil temperature is the result of heat gained by the absorption
rays with the heating of earth’s
of solar energy and the latitude (distance from the equator) of a surface.
particular place. The temperature values are maximum at the
equator and decrease gradually towards the poles. It divides the
earth's vegetation into different zones, such as equatorial,
tropical, coniferous, alpine vegetations, etc.

The various zones of different kinds of vegetation at

IFoS 2015 : Latitude influences the forest
increasing latitudes from the equator towards the poles (Fig.
types of the earth explain (10 m).
5.6) and at increasing altitudes on mountains (Fig. 5.5) are
more or less similar, showing an increase in latitude and Explain how latitude influences the
altitude brings about more or less similar influence upon the forest types of earth. [OPSC Civil
(Main) 2018 | 20 m].
vegetation.

Figure 5.5 : Altitudinal zonation of vegetation on Figure 5.6 : Latitudinal zonation of vegetation.
mountains.

5.4 SLOPES

The angle between the land surface and the horizontal plane. It is responsible for soil erosion, changing
soil properties, and soil material movement (i.e., Landslide, Solifluction).

Effect of slope over Site factors

• Slope affects the intensity of solar radiation, surface temperature, surface run-off, and drainage. The
steeper the slope, the greater the run-off and the better the drainage.
• Slopes also affect soil erosion, soil moisture availability, and depth of soil. As the hills' topsoil keeps
getting washed with rainwater, the humus content is low compared to the valley soil.

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Convex slope
Effect of slopes over vegetation : Vegetation on
the concave (Depositional) slopes is luxuriant
with a profusely superficial root system. On the
convex (erosional) slope, it is deciduous with a Straight slope

robust taproot system; and the straight

(precipitous) slope is generally devoid of
Figure 5.7 : Types of
vegetation and often covered by scattered Slopes on the basis of
grasses and lichens. forms

Concave slope
5.5 ASPECT & EXPOSURE

Aspect is the direction of the slope of the land with respect to

IFoS 2020 : How does slope aspect impact
the geographical North or position of the sun (i.e., the Northern
forest stand characteristics and soil
face of the Himalayas). Whereas, Exposure is a relationship properties ? (10 m).
between a site and its local weather, especially wind.

• Effect of aspect on-site factors – (1) Solar radiation, (2) Temperature of the site, i.e., Southern aspect
of Himalaya is warmer than northern aspect, (3) Rainfall, i.e., Seaside face of Western Ghat get more
rainfall, (4) Soil formation process, and (5) forest vegetation.

• Effect of aspect on vegetation : Sunny slopes keep less moisture because of stronger solar radiation
and higher evaporation. Therefore, plants on sunny slopes, such as grasses, are more likely to be
drought- and radiation-resistant. In comparison, shade-loving plants such as forbs are dominant on
shady slopes.
 Despite being on the same latitude in the middle Himalayan valleys, the dense forests of Deodar
are growing on the southern aspect, while the Fir and Spruce forests are on the northern
aspect. However, the difference in insolation in the south and north aspects near the equator is
small. That is why this difference is not felt in the south Indian hills.
 Similarly, for eastern and western aspect. The Eastern aspect is cooler because it gets insolation
in the morning when the air temperature is low, and often Dews are still on the vegetation's
surface. Whereas, in the western aspect, Sunstrike when the air temperature is more and hot
winds have already been generated. This causes a more desiccating effect on vegetation.
 Many species growing on sunny slopes have fibrous roots, while on the shady slope, it has a tap
root.

• Effect of aspect on soil profile : Plant biomass is high on the northern slope, resulting in high organic
carbon in the soil, better nutrient cycling, and higher activity of the microbial community. However,
high temperatures at sunny aspect areas in cold alpine areas lead to higher microbial activity and
better soil nutrition status.

WHY THE NORTHERN FACE OF OUR SHIVALIK MOUNTAIN RANGE HAS DENSE FOREST VEGETATION,
WHEREAS THE SOUTHERN FACE IS VIRTUALLY BARREN?

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In the Siwalik hills, the southern aspects have steeper slopes because of tectonic movements, with
stronger horizontal insolation (about 1.6 to 2.3 times than the North), high temperature, a very thin layer
of soil, and poor soil moisture condition because of higher evaporation (despite having more rainfall
during SW monsoon). All these factors make it carry poor biodiversity and microbial growth. Usually, the
southern aspect is dominated by drought and radiation-resistant grasses, and scrubby vegetation with a
strong fibrous root system, or even in several localities, is devoid of vegetation.

Whereas the north-facing slopes receive less solar radiation, they are more cooler and humid than the
south-facing slopes. As a result, they support moisture-loving plants, provide a better habitat for plant
growth with a robust taproot system and help in the adequate regeneration of species. So, they have
higher species diversity than the south-facing slopes.

Figure 5.8 : Aspect Effect on Site Solar Radiation, Northern face of our Himalaya has dense vegetation

5.6 EXERCISE

▪ Differentiate between –
(a) Altitude and Latitude [HPPSC Civil (Main) 2020 | 2m]
(b) Temperate and Alpine [HPPSC Civil (Main) 2020 | 2m]
▪ What do you understand by 'locality factors'? Enumerate the major factors and explain in detail how
altitude and aspect influence the distribution of forest vegetation in the hills of north India.
▪ Describe the topographic factors of the locality. How does the topography of tree land influence the
vegetation of the area? Elaborate your answer with examples.

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6
BIOTIC FACTORS

Biotic factors are living agencies that affect the growth and development of vegetation individually.
Climatic, Edaphic, and Physiographic factors affect the entire crop, where Biotic factors may affect
individually (Sal heartwood borer) and collectively.

Typically, a plant or a plant species interact with other plant species, various wild animals, and
humans in various ways, both positively and negatively.

Figure 6.1 : Relationship between various biotic factors.

6.1 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PLANTS OF VARIOUS SPECIES

Where one plant species affects the growth, development, and distribution of other plant species through
the mechanism of -

• Competitive relationship : plants fight with each other for light, moisture, space, and Nutrition. So,
only a healthy and vigor plant can survive.
• Symbiotic relationship : here, plants help each other survive under stress conditions, i.e., Mycorrhiza
and Rhizobium.
• Parasitic relationship : when one species depends upon another for food and protection, i.e.,
Sandalwood is a partial root parasite and usually tap water and nutrients from the other host plants;
Cuscuta reflexa (Amarbel or Dodder) is a total stem parasite.
• Epiphytes : plants that grow over other plants and do not have any soil contact, i.e., Orchids.
• Climber : Tender plants that grow in tropical rainforest areas do not get proper sunlight on the
ground. They adapted to climb over the gigantic trees and reach their top canopies to get enough
 FORESTRY
light. However, their roots are in soil on the ground surface and do not depend on the host plant's
moisture and minerals, i.e., Lianas, Bauhinia, etc.

6.2 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANIMALS

Plants also developed some kind of special relationship with animals to ensure their survivability and
distribution. It may have -

• Positive relationship : where animals can help the plant in seed and pollen dispersion [Means,
control distribution of plant species].
• Negative relationship : Insects, pests, and wild animals often consume and destroy seeds and young
regeneration (Porcupine destroyed bamboo seedling). They were spreading plant disease.

6.3 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PLANTS AND MAN

Man is one of the major factors responsible for the spread, conservation, and extinction of many useful
plant species.

• Positive relationship : In-situ and ex-situ conservation and protection of plant & animal species.
Regulate its distribution through afforestation and introduction of exotics in new areas.
• Negative relationship : Shifting cultivation, accidental Forest fire, illicit felling and encroachment,
grazing and lopping, permanent Deforestation.

Note : Can you write how overgrazing by wild animals affects grasslands (it means can you write "how
Animals affect the biotic community?"
Hints : Overgrazing or uncontrolled grazing often destroys/harms the young tree seedlings and grasslands by
grazing/trampling their new sprouts and changing crop composition by overexploiting nutritious
grasses/trees. So, they compete-out, and the created space is overtaken by unpalatable grazing-
resistant crops. It also increases soil erosion and runoff by decreasing soil cover, resulting soil's poor
water holding capacity. (For a more detailed discussion on overgrazing, please refer to Forest
protection in paper 2 Section B).

6.4 EXERCISE

IFoS 2018 : Explain the eco-physiological factors that are more concerned to silviculturists (15 m).

How biotic factors are influencing the maintenance of present-day forest communities? Explain.
[UKPSC (RFO) 2012 | 20 m].
Discuss the relation between plant and man as one of the biotic factors which affect the vegetation as
well as site in forest areas [Karnataka PCS RFO 2008 | 12 m]
Describe biotic influences on forest growth [Arunachal PSC Civil (Main) 2015-16| 10 m].
What biotic factors are responsible for regeneration and growth of forests? [OPSC Civil (Main) 2015 |
20 m].

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 CHAPTER
INFLUENCE OF FOREST ON
7 THEIR ENVIRONMENT

Climate is the average weather prevalent in any locality that influences

A Natural Forest influenced their local environment through the activity of –

• The unbroken canopy in a fully stocked forest intercepts the sun's rays and precipitation, retard wind
velocity and loss of heat through long-wave radiation, resulting in creating their microclimate.
• The tree's ability to recycle minerals, reduce bulk density, and add large quantities of leaf litter
protected and changed the soil property.
• The interlocking root system binds the soil → to Reduce its erodibility.
• As it changes its environment, subsequently, new environmental factors further induce changes in
the vegetation until both achieve their maximum (Climax community); during this process, it also
removes many plants and animal species composition.

Rainfall interception

Loss of heart in the form of

longwave radiation

Root system

Figure 7.1 : influence of forests on their environment.

EFFECTS OF FORESTS ON THEIR ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS?

• The local climate, soil, and Air temperature.

• Forest soil (Edaphic)
• Hydrological cycle, Soil erosion, and flood
• Wildlife
• Environmental conservation, Global warming (GHGs), Pollution, Carbon sequestration, etc.
 FORESTRY
7.1 EFFECT OF FORESTS ON THEIR CLIMATIC FACTORS

▪ WIND VELOCITY : Forest creates mechanical obstruction

by making land surface rougher. On average, a dense IFoS 2016 : Comment “Forest has
forest reduces ≈ 20 to 60 % of wind velocity near the moderating influences on soil and air
temperature (8 m).
surface as compared to an open area through –
IFoS 2007 : Discuss the impact of forest on
 Deflecting a significant part of it upwards the climate of a locality, how do forest
 Production of turbulence & slowing down the wind affects soil and water conservation (20 m).

that entered the forest. Role in environmental conservation

IFoS 2016 : Explain the role of forest in

We often use this capability of trees to protect our environmental conservation (10 m).
farms and buildings from freezing & warm winds by IFoS 2009 : Describe the role of forest in
Environmental Conservation (12 m).
creating shelterbelts and windbreaks.
Role in climate modification
A new study suggests that significant reforestation
IFoS 2012 : Do forests influence the rainfall ?
across Europe has the potential to reduce the If so, how ? (5 m).
number of extratropical cyclones by up to 70% (by
Discuss, briefly, the impact of forest on
making land surface rougher). climate [OPSC - Civil (Main) 2018 | 20
m].
▪ ATMOSPHERIC HUMIDITY : The tree absorbed an The greatest role forests play today is
climate mitigation. Explain [OPSC - Civil
enormous amount of water from the soil. Only a tiny
(Main) 2017| 20 m].
part (1-2 %) of this water they used in its metabolic
Role in carbon sequestration
activities, and the remaining 98-99 % is lost through
Discuss the role of forests for carbon
transpiration, resulting in 5 to 15 % more humidity than
sequestration [OPSC - C (M) - 2015 | 30
the open area, i.e., Eucalyptus evaporate ≈ 3500 Tonnes m].
of water per hectare per annum. Moreover, Forest also Plantations are the source and sink of
covers the soil surface, so they retard rapid moisture atmospheric carbon-justify. [OPSC (ACF)

loss from mineral soil. 2019 - 20 | 10 m].

▪ LOCAL TEMPERATURE : Forest vegetation reduces mean annual temperature by pouring out a vast
amount of water into the air through transpiration. On average, it decreases temperature ≈ 2 to 3o C
depending upon the character of the forest and locality, particularly elevation.
▪ LOCAL PRECIPITATION : An enormous amount of water pouring out from the forest trees into the air
increases its saturation. Its role in the reduction of air temperature = air becomes over-saturated and
often creates local rainfall when the local wind moves them toward the local mountains. So, the
forest increases ≈ 15 to 20 % more rainfall than the open land.
▪ FROST : No or a very negligible effect on the ground vegetation which has closed canopies by
creating an insulating effect through - (a) limiting entry of cold air into the forest, and (b) preventing
moving out of long-wave radiation. Forest also delayed the melting of snow in the temperate forest.
▪ In GLOBAL WARMING, CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION : global warming results from the absorption
and emitting back of long-wave radiation by the GHGs. Despite Forest being one of the sources of

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GHG's emissions through forest fires and the decaying of organic matter, its positive role-play is far
beyond it.

ROLE OF FOREST IN ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION

Natural Forests improve ① CO2 – O2 Balance, ② Improve water quality, and land storage capability
especially by wetland and by developing local water circulations, ③ Ameliorating soil and prevent its
erosion & degradation through run-off, wind, landslide etc. ④ A store house of genetic diversity, ⑤
reduce pollution, and potentially provide new green jobs.
Climate However, in current scenario, deforestation and forest degradation is the second largest source of carbon
dioxide emissions, after fossil fuels (IPCC, 2014). Estimates indicate that up to 20% of total net
anthropogenic carbon emissions come from land use and land-use change, especially deforestation and
Connection
forest degradation. Most of this deforestation and forest degradation occurs in tropical developing
countries.

Role of forest in carbon sequestration / climate change mitigation : Forest-based climate mitigation may
occur through conserving and enhancing the carbon sink and through reducing greenhouse gas emissions
from deforestation.

• Forests sequester carbon by capturing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and transforming it into
biomass through photosynthesis. Sequestered carbon is then accumulated in the form of biomass,
deadwood, litter and in forest soils. This carbon remains stored in the forest ecosystem. Example A
total 7080 MMT of carbon is stored in Indian forests (Including TOF), and they neutralized ≈ 12 % of
India's GHGs (ISFR 2017).

Forests and their role in the carbon cycle are affected by changing climatic conditions. Evolutions in rainfall
and temperature can have either damaging or beneficial impacts on forest health and productivity, which
are very complex to predict. Depending on circumstances, climate change will either reduce or increase
carbon sequestration into forests, which causes uncertainty about the extent to which the world’s forests
will be able to contribute to climate change mitigation in the long term.

7.2 EFFECT OF FORESTS ON THEIR EDAPHIC FACTORS

▪ SOIL TEMPERATURE : The leaf litter cover on the soil surface provides an insulating effect resulting in
low-temperature variation in the surface soil environment than the air temperature both during
summer as well as in winter.
▪ SOIL STRUCTURE & COMPOSITION : Through (a) absorption and recycling of existing minerals, (b)
the formation of new minerals through the breaking of parental rocks, (c) adding fresh organic
material, and (d) their roots loosening the soil aggregation. Generally, a standard size tree can
generate ≈ 5 to 25 tonnes of leaf litter per hectare per year. In the case of conifers, this litterfall is
very high, making about 1 to 2 feet thick bed on the surface. Decomposition of leaf litter releases
chelating substances, hummus, and secondary metabolites that improve soil buffering capacity on
one side; on another side, it makes forest soil slightly acidic, and its pH sometimes down below 5.

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▪ SOIL MOISTURE : Forest vegetation
improves soil moisture percentage by
(1) reducing water run-off, (2) improving
water percolation & infiltration rate into
the soil, (3) loosening the soil mass so it
improves its water holding capacity, and
(4) it also reduces water loss through
evaporation.
▪ Microbial activity : Forest improves soil
flora and fauna by providing them
nutrients, food, shelter, and protection.
Figure 7.2 : Effect of tree on forest soil
▪ Soil erosion : Forest increases interception =
less water available for run-off = Control soil erosion and flood in lower reaches.

Examples : The dense forest in the Himalayas reduces the flooding issue in the North Indian plain.
Heavy destruction & deforestation in the Western Ghats induced flood problems in Kerala and
Chennai.

Hills Before Deforestation After Deforestation

7.3 EFFECT OF FORESTS ON WATER CYCLE

Hydrology is the scientific study of water on the Earth's surface and

IFoS 2018 : What is hydrology? Describe the
beneath the surface of the Earth, its movement, distribution, role of hydrology in planning and
physical & chemical properties, and its relationship with the living management of watershed development.
Does tree species improve the infiltration
and material components of the forest ecosystem. Forest affects the
rate, soil temperature, water level and
hydrological cycle considerably through the mechanism of hydrological cycle? Justify with few
interception, stem flow, Percolation, and infiltration. Because examples (10 m).

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of this, a significant portion of rainfall is retained in the local area (use the term forest stand instead of
forest in your exam).

Cloud

Interception

Stem flow

Infiltration
Interflow
(sub-surface
Run-off) Percolation

Figure 7.5 : Effects of forest

River/Pond
on water cycle.
Base flow

ASSOCIATED TERMINOLOGY

• Precipitation : It is a major factor controlling the IFoS 2012 : Discuss the role of forest in the
hydrology of a forest ecosystem. It is the main input of interception, surface runoff, Infiltration of
rainfall, regulation of stem flow and
water to the Earth's surface Forest and evaporation and
maintaining Soil fertility (5m).
streamflow. Knowledge of rainfall patterns in space and
time is essential to understanding soil moisture, Define hydrology write in details about
groundwater recharge, and river flows. tree species surviving in water logging
areas, what are their roles of trees in
Measure : Rain-gauge landslides control in hilly terrain [OPSC
Civil (Main) 2018-19 |20 m].
• Interception : Forest canopies stand up in the air, serving
as a barrier against precipitation reaching the ground.
Gross Precipitation
Depending upon the nature and density of the vegetation
(P)
Interception
cover, a proportion of the rain may be intercepted by the (I)

leaves and stems of the vegetation canopy and

evaporated back into the atmosphere. This water then
takes no part in the land-bound portion of the
hydrological cycle and is termed the interception loss. The Stemflow Throughfall
( SF ) (T)
remaining water which reaches the ground beneath the
Net rainfall ( N )

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vegetation is termed the net rainfall. The bulk of this comprises throughfall consisting of raindrops
that fall through spaces in the vegetation canopy and water which drips from wet leaves, twigs and
stems to the ground surface. A generally much smaller amount of water trickles along twigs and
branches to run down the main stem or trunk to the ground as stem-flow or is further intercepted by
the forest floor (litter interception).

Measuring interception : interception loss (I) = P – T – SF

Throughfall may be measured using funnel or trough gauges placed beneath the forest canopy, and
stem-flow may be collected by small gutters sealed around the circumference of the trunk leading
into a collecting container.

Figure : Interception sheet gauge under a regular-spaced conifer plantation.

Note : The interception rate is inversely proportional to the rainfall intensity (Generally, 15 to 30 % of
total precipitation).
• Evaporation : The term evaporation is used by physicists to describe the process by which any liquid
is changed into a gas. For hydrologists, this expression is used for the loss of water from a wet
surface through its conversion into its gaseous state, water vapor, and its transfer away from the
surface into the atmosphere.
• Infiltration : Entry of water into the soil (5 % higher in the forest than in the open field)

Factors affecting infiltration rate

o Intensity and duration of rainfall

o Temperature ↑↑
o Soil characteristics & compactness
o Vegetation cover ↑↑

• Percolation : downward movement of water through soil profile = higher in forest soil.
• Ground water found underground in the cracks and spaces in soil, sand and rock [For more details,
refer to next section]

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• Evapotranspiration : Evaporation + Transpiration.
Loss of water in the form of vapor from soil, snow, lake, streams, and reservoirs to the atmosphere
due to the energy of the sun is called evaporation. Transpiration is the process by which water is
released from the plant body through stomata and enters the atmosphere as vapor.
• Stream flow or channel run-off comprises the gravity movement of water in channels varying in size
from those containing the smallest ill-defined trickles to the largest rivers such as the Amazon.
Streamflow may be variously referred to as river discharge or catchment yield. It is estimated that
globally an average of 36% of the total precipitation falling on the land areas reaches the oceans as
run-off.

Part of the rainfall takes a rapid route to the stream channels, such as overland flow called Quick
flow. The subsequent continuity of flow through often prolonged dry-weather periods indicates that
another part takes a much slower route as delayed flow. It is also called baseflow.

EFFECT OF FOREST OVER HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

Deforestation and land-use change toward shorter vegetation substantially impacted by – (a) Reducing
the rate of evapotranspiration, (b) increasing solar radiation reflection coefficient (Albedo), (c) decreasing
aerodynamic roughness of the surface, and (d) significant reduction in rainfall interception and (e) local
rainfall/water cycle.

• Forest and rainfall : Forests are responsible for creating rain. The intercepted water retained by
forest canopies and re-evaporated will return as increased rainfall [but this does not mean a net
increase in rainfall]. Example - Removal of the Amazon Forest would affect rainfall patterns by 10 %
over the whole basin.
• Forest and water table
• Cloud water deposition : There are certain
circumstances where vegetation may gain
additional water by 'stripping' fine
airborne water particles (typically ≈ 10 μm
radius) from mists or low clouds. The
forest canopy's presence as an obstacle
causes these particles to coalesce and be
deposited as precipitation.
• Reduction in Leaf area index = Increasing
albedo.
• Streamside or Riparian Forest Buffers : Riparian forest buffers filter sediment from streams during
storm events; remove nitrogen, and phosphorous leaching from adjacent land uses such as
agriculture; provide stability to the bank (wood root systems); shade and modify stream
temperatures, which are critical for habitat and pollution reduction; provide aquatic and wildlife
habitat for many species; reduce stream velocity, and reduce downstream flooding

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7.4 EXERCISE

IFoS 2016 : Justify the statement "Forest substantially check soil erosion and control run-off (8m).

Comments on the following - Infiltration [OPSC Civil (Main) 2020 | 10m]

Critically analyse the statements [OPSC Civil (Main) 2019 | 20 m].
(a) Forests substantially check soil erosion and control run-off
(b) Forests has moderating influences on soil and air temperature
Explain the beneficial effects of trees on soils with respect to the following aspects [Karnataka PCS
RFO 2009 | 12 m].
(a) Additions to soil
(b) Reduction of losses from the soil
(c) Physical properties of soil
(d) Chemical properties of soil
Discuss in detail how forests help in building up of soil organic matter, soil conservation and
groundwater recharge [Mizoram PSC Civil (Main) 2016| 20 m].

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TREE’S STRUCTURE &
8
GROWTH FORMS

8.1 WHAT IS A TREE ?

Trees are the woody plants having one erect perennial stem or trunk at least three inches (7.5 cm) in
diameter at breast height, a more or less defined formed crown of foliage, and a height of at least 12 ft (4 m).

As like in the above definition, our concept of a tree is highly angiosperm-centric in which a tree
has only one trunk, but we will see that this is not necessarily a constant feature. This definition is used by
those foresters for whom a tree is considered mainly as the source of merchandisable timber. But,
nowadays, trees are no longer the property of botanists. For a mathematician, a "tree" is a system in
which any two points are connected via only one possible pathway. An ecologist is likely to define a tree,
in terms of a plant's competitive ability, as a unit capable of casting shade on other plants. An anatomical
definition would be concerned with the rigidity of the plant, i.e., its ability to produce lignin, and might
even be restricted to plants whose trunks are mainly made up of secondary tissue produced by a vascular
cambium ("wood" in a general anatomical sense). Thus, a palm might be excluded because its trunk is
primary; a banana is a giant herb; both, however, fit the forester's definition of a tree given above.

FORMS OF TREE CROWN

A crown is an upper branchy part of a tree above the bole. It is the result of branching behavior in the
bole. In some trees, i.e., Phoenix, Cocos, Borassas, etc., there is no branching behavior in the stem and
the crown is formed by larger leaves which come out from the top of the unbranched stems. In other
trees crown may be – (a) Conical as in case of Pines, Deodar, (b) Cylindrical as in silver fir, Eucalyptus,
Ashoka, etc. (c) Spherical in mango, neem, imli, Mahua, etc., (d) Broad & Flat topped in Acacia planifrons.

Phoenix, Coconut, Borassus Abies pindrow (Silver Fir),

Eucalyptus, Ashoka Mango, Neem, Imli, Mahua, etc.

Unbranched stem of Conical shape Cylindrical shape Spherical shape

Coconut
(e) Broom shape as in Acacia nilotica (Babool), and (f) Frondose crown as in Prosopis juliflora.
 FORESTRY
8.2 BASIC TERMINOLOGY

• Herbs : Plants whose stems are always green & tender and whose height is usually not more than 1
meter. They may be Annual, Biennial, or perennial.
• Shrubs : woody perennial plants larger than herbs and usually below 4 meters in height. Due to its
habitat of branching from the base, shrubs lack a long clear bole (stem).
• Tree : A large woody perennial plant having a single well-defined stem or trunk with at least three inches
(7.5 cm) in diameter at breast height, a more or less defined formed crown of foliage, and a height of at
least 12 ft (4 m).

Herb Shrub Tree

• Species : a group of individuals of plants having close relation structurally and functionally, and they
can interbreed and generate fertile offspring, i.e., humans.
• Race : Group of individuals having some specific characters, i.e., Chinese race in Human species.
• Stem : a perennial axis of a plant on which buds and shoots are developed.

STEM = BOLE = TRUNK (synonyms)

Types of stems

➢ Caudex : The main stem remains unbranched and bears a crown of leaves at its top, i.e.,
Coconut (Cocos nucifera), Palm, etc.
➢ Excurrent : When the apical buds grow faster leader shoot outgrowths the lateral branches and
has clearly defined central boles.
➢ Decurrent or Deliquescent : when lateral branches grows faster than the terminal shoot, giving
rise the decurrent growth form (leaving no central axis).
➢ Culm : In monocots, columnar growth habit is due to absence of lateral buds.

• Forking : When the stem has more than 1 leader. The common feature in broad leave species.
• Lignotuber : a Lignotuber is a starchy swelling of the root crown or stem base in some plant species.
Aim: protection against destruction of the main stem against fire and other factors, i.e., in
Eucalyptus***.
• Buttressing : Buttresses are the outgrowth at the base of the stem, usually vertical, and connected
the base of the stem with roots mote strongly. Common in wet & moist tropical species, i.e.,
Bombax, Pterocarpus, Artocarpus, Terminalia myriocarpa, sterculia, etc.

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• Fluting : when a stem showing irregular involutions and swellings, it is called fluted stem. It is
considered as a serious defect in timber production. Fluting is usually associated with buttress
formation. Examples – Tectona grandis, Mitragyna parvifolia, etc.
• Phenology : Seasonal changes in the plant, i.e., flowering, fruiting, leaves shedding, etc.
• Root Nodules : Root nodules are organs induced in most species of legume plants by symbiotic, N-
fixing bacteria, i.e., Rhizobium, Azorhizobium.

Lignotuber Buttressing Root Nodules

8.3 TREE'S GROWTH PHASES : Growth is the permanent and irresistible increment in size.

HEIGHT GROWTH : The meristematic tissue at the shoot tip

Diminishing growth
divide and elongates, which causes the height growth in the phase Stationary phase

shoots. The height growth of trees generally has a long

juvenile acceleration phase (Lag phase) followed by very
Growth (size/weight of a

rapid growth in the sapling and pole stage (Log phase) and a
Log or exponential
long maturity period in which height growth is usually very growth phase
Tree)

slow (Stationary phase of growth).

[Note : In Bamboos, the pattern of height growth is quite
Lag phase
different and usually it attains its full height in one year].

Factors affecting height growth Time

• Genetical makeup of tree : Some trees are genetically better in height growth than others i.e.
Eucalyptus grows faster and straight in height than the Babool.
• Site quality : The soil moisture, nutrient status, soil depth, porosity, soil aeration, etc., are the
important factors that control height growth. A shallow soil may lead to top dying and stunted
growth. A flat area provides a better growth condition and usually 1.5 to 4 times more height growth
than the undulating, rugged topography.
• Density : Higher the crop density or stocking, more would be the trees' competition for soil nutrients,
water, light, and growing space. This will affect the height growth.

DIAMETER GROWTH : The thickness of stems and branches is increased by the growth in lateral
meristematic tissue, producing secondary xylem and phloem.

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Factors affecting Diameter growth

• Genetical makeup of trees : Certain plants do not show secondary growth like Bamboo.
• Site factors : the Diameter growth is reduced considerably with an increase in the site quality.
• Crop density : Diameter growth in an open crop is more than dense growth.

8.4 TREE GROWTH STAGES

These terms are very widely used in forestry to describe the stages of development.

• Recruit stage: From seed germination to the stage when the

Differentiate between the -
young plant has few leaves.
Seedling and sapling [Himachal
• Seedling : from a few leaves stage to the height of 1 meter of PSC Civil (Main) 2017| 2 m].
the young plant.
• Sapling : From the 1 m height of young plants to the stage when the lower branches of the plant
begin to fall.
• POLE : From the beginning of fall of the lower branches to the time when the rate of increase in plant
height begins to fall, and the crown expansion becomes marked.
• Tree : After passing the pole stage.

8.5 EXERCISE

Differentiate between –
(a) Pole and Tree [HPPSC Civil (Main) 2020 | 2m]
(b) Monoecious and dioecious [HPPSC Civil (Main) 2019 | 2m]

Write the pattern and physiology of height growth in the tree and explain the factors affecting height
growth in trees [OPSC Civil (Main) 2011 | 30 m].

What is growth of trees? Classify the growth based on duration and also write its methods of
determination. Also write about growth curves [MPPSC (ACF) 2017 | 20 m].

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9
TREE MORPHOLOGY

Morphology means the science of form, especially studying the outer form (structure), inner structure,
and development of their parts. Crop morphology means the study of the outer form of forest crops and
their development.

9.1 STAND ?

The stand concept has long been central to the practice of Silviculture and has traditionally been defined
as a group of trees that are relatively homogenous in composition, age-class distribution, and structure growing on a
site of uniform quality. Stands, as defined in this context, have served as the primary unit of forest
management around the globe with the stand-by-stand application of silvicultural treatments for
achieving a sustainable yield of produce.

The size and number of stands recognized depend upon the

Stand v/s Forest
intensity of forest management, the value of stand, the
A forest is a collection of stands. Remember
diversity of site conditions, and the ease of mapping. Where
that a stand is a unit of silvicultural interest.
intensive forestry is feasible, stands as small as a quarter
Forester’s practice silvicultural operations
hectare may be recognized. Under extensive forestry, the on stands, but not on forests. It is not an
same forest might be divided into units no smaller than ecological management unit.
several hundred hectares.

9.2 STAND STRUCTURE

Stand Structure refers to the overall look of a forest stand. It is the horizontal and vertical distribution of
components of a stand, including the height, diameter, crown layers and stems of trees, shrubs, herbaceous
understory, snags and down woody debris. Based on various criteria, we could differentiate stand into
various types for easier understanding of its structure.
 FORESTRY

Kinds of stands

Based on composition Based on stand Based on Based on location

form / structure stand density

Pure stand Mixed stand Fully stocked Under stocked Over stocked Up land Bottom land
stand stand stand stand stand

Even aged Two aged Uneven Even aged

stand stand aged stand stratified mixture

Balanced un-even Irregular un-even

aged stand aged stand

9.2.1 STAND FORMS

Stands are usefully described and considered from the point of age classes of which they are composed.
These are –

(a) Even-aged or Single cohort stands : The stand has trees of almost
the same age or a very narrow range of age differences. Generally,
Man-made plantations are even-aged, whereas nature rarely
produces even-aged stands.
(b) Two-aged stand or Double-cohort stands : Stands in which a new
cohort or age class starts beneath an old one that is partially
eliminated, allowing the new one to continue its development.
Natural fire may create such stands.
(c) Uneven-aged or Multiple-cohort stands : when at least three age
classes intermingled intimately in the same area.
• Balanced un-even aged stand – when each age class (or cohort), occupies an approximately
equal area.
• Irregular uneven-aged stands – neither contains trees of all ages nor distributed uniformly.
(d) Even-aged stratified mixtures : Single-cohort stratified mixtures develop more than one species
occur in the regeneration, and as a resultant formation of strata because
of differential height growth of species and its adaptations.

ADVANTAGES OF EVEN-AGED STANDS

• There is greater uniformity in the trees' size and shape as all trees have the
same age and space for growth with similar conditions.
• Better bole formation, trees grow to larger heights, have longer clean bole
• better natural pruning owing to intense competition in the crop,

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• Development of smaller crowns,
• Better quality of wood, less taper and

• Easier and cheaper to apply silvicultural operations e.g., thinning, pruning, felling, etc.

Sometimes, it is observed that the above advantages are either not visible in the crops or not fully realized
due to several other factors. From even-aged stands, mainly economic advantages accrue.

DIS-ADVANTAGES OF EVEN-AGED STANDS

IFoS 2014 : Describe the characteristics
Even aged stands have certain disadvantages; or in other words, and structure of an even-aged

un-even-aged stands have specific merits that are not available in stand (10 m).

the even-aged stand. These are

Differentiate between even aged
• The soil is better utilized and more uniformly protected in the and uneven aged forest stands
uneven-aged stands as the trees of different strata have their [Arunachal PSC Civil (Main) 2015 -
16 | 5 m]
roots at different levels of depth, and the canopy is deeper
and thick, protected from external forces.
• There is no or very little advanced growth in even-aged stands, but in uneven-aged stands, natural
regeneration of several species is easily attained.
• The even-aged stand is more adversely affected by wind, snow, insect attacks.

9.2.2 STAND COMPOSITION

A stand may consist of a single species or several species. When single species form the stand, it is called a
pure stand, and that consisting of several species is called a mixed stand. For management purposes, if a
species constitutes more than 50 percent in the over-wood, it is usually considered a pure stand.

ADVANTAGES OF PURE STAND

Although pure stands are ecologically less desirable than mixed stands, there are several advantages in
the management of pure stands. These advantages are -

• Management is simple because all trees are almost the same size, age, and height.
• Application of various silvicultural operations, i.e., Thinning, felling, etc., requires less skill and time.
• We get more uniform Natural pruning in the pure crop than in mixed stands.
• Produced timber of higher quality with less tapering rate.
• We can grow species according to market requirements and demand.
• The resulting crop is more uniform in quality of wood, shape, and size.
• Economical : Raising plantations of a single species is more accessible and less expensive. Later,
when we got a mature crop, its Same size and uniform spacing make it easy to mechanize harvesting
= cheap harvesting = more economical.
• There are no unnecessary sacrifices for the increment of valuable species in intermediate felling.

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Reduce impact force

or rain drops
1
Also prevent soil
erosion
Multi-layered 2
defence system
6 3
Bound soil
particles Thick humus layer = prevent direct
contact of raindrop with soil +
increase water infiltration rate
5
Mulching Nutrient exploitation from different
horizons of the soil Closed
4 Nutrient cycling

DISADVANTAGES OF PURE STAND or ADVANTAGES OF MIX STAND

The advantages of mixed stands form the disadvantages of pure stands. The advantages of mixed stands,
or we can say the disadvantages of the pure stand, are as follows –

• Mixed stand utilized the site more efficiently and IFoS 2014 : Mixed forest stand offer
completely. They have different root depth levels, root complete utilization of land. Comment (8 m).

pattern, and horizontal-vertical crown differentiation IFoS 2010 : Comments on the following -
Pure stand of forest result incomplete
(means it is not fully utilized in pure stand).
utilization of site (5m).
• Pure forests (i.e., Teak plantations) are creating an
adverse effect on the site. There is a greater risk of soil What are the relative merits of pure
exhaustion and deterioration under pure crops but not and mixed forest stands [ Arunachal
PSC Civil (mains) 2015-16 | 20 m].
in mixed.
• Mixed stands are better protected from epidemics of insect-pest and diseases.
• A mixture of shallow-rooted species with deep-rooted species protects the stands from wind
damage. Similarly, frost and snow tender species can be grown with hardy species.
• The fire danger is much more significant in the case of a single species, particularly in conifers. The
severity of fire depends upon the nature and amount of dry leaf litter. The mixed stand species may
have different leaf shedding periods and quicker decomposition, resulting in fewer leaf litter.
Coniferous needles, being resinous, produce quicker and hotter fire than most hardwood species.
Crown fires that are most destructive are mostly confined to pure forests of coniferous species.
• Mixed species are better adapted to poorer sites; better maintain soil properties because they draw
a varying quantity of nutrients and water from different soil depths as against pure crops, which
make on the same depth.
• Mistakes made in the selection of species in artificial regeneration are more easily corrected in mixed
crops than in pure crops. When one or more species planted in mixed stands are found unsuitable,
they can be removed during cleaning and thinning, and only such species are maintained for the final
crop, which is best suitable to the site. In pure stands, there is no possibility of such manipulation.

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• Natural regeneration of mixed forest is easier + fewer dangers for seedlings affected by frost, insect
pests, and diseases.
• Mixed stands are more desirable from an aesthetic point of view than pure stands. If forests are to
be protected and maintained primarily for aesthetic value, mixed stands would be recommended.
• The mixed stand is more easily converted or modified to meet the present and the future demands
of the market.

CHARACTER PURE STAND MIX STAND

More desirable, provide better

Less desirable, not utilized site
1. Ecologically protection from epidemics of
potential effectively.
insect, pest, and diseases.

Having trees of almost the same age

2. Crop Different age group
and uniform.
More uniform than mix and use as
Natural
3. effective tools in the production of Less uniform than pure
pruning
straight bole.
Not suitable for mechanized
operation so costly and require
Easy and simple, mechanization of
skill because each species and
4. Management operation possible, So crop
even in a single species at different
harvesting more economical.
ages require different types of
silvicultural operation.

poor return economically (if we

5. Economics Higher return per unit area
didn't count its ecological role)

Less resistance and a single fire

6. Fire incidences More resistance than pure crop
incidence burn the entire work.

9.3 STAND DENSITY

Stocking and density are two interrelated concepts and many foresters often considered them to be a
synonym. However, Stand density is a quantitative measurement of stand conditions that describes the
degree of crowding of trees in a stand. Density measures remains absolute and unaffected by management
objectives and can be used as inputs for predicting growth and yield as well as guides for conducting
silvicultural activities or evaluating non-timber values such as wildlife habitat. Whereas, Stocking is a
relative concept that relates the stand density conditions of a site to an ideal condition that may not be
readily achievable or identifiable.

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The use of stocking in a forestry context is associated
Stand density v/s Canopy density
with the concept of a normal forest. A normal forest
suggests that on every unit of area, the optimum tree Stand density [Syn. : Crop density, stem density,

volume is being produced. In other words, all growing Stocking] : The number of trees or stems per unit
area of an interested species.
space above and below ground is being utilized to
maximize timber production. However, identifying and Canopy Density [Syn. : Crown density] (a) refers
achieving these conditions is very difficult, if not to the percentage of land covered by the canopy

impossible. of trees, expressed as a percentage of the total

area, i.e., Very dense forest (>70 % Canopy
For instance, we could measure the density of
density). (b) Amount and compactness of foliage
deer over a squared unit area and evaluate the of the crowns of trees or shrubs.
population stocking based on our expectation of the
Canopy bulk density (CBD) is a measure of how
ideal stocking level. We could say that the measured
closely canopy fuels are packed, which reflects
deer population is understocked, fully stocked, or
the likelihood that fire can move through the
overstocked based on our ideal population density. The forest canopy
stocking concept can be useful for developing rules of Crown Bulk
thumb in implementing silvicultural operations, but Density

there are many potential disadvantages of this

approach, most of which are related to the need to
identify the ideal stocking level. Crown
Density
A stand may be overstocked (too dense) for one
silvicultural objective and fully stocked for another, or
maybe overstocked at one age and understocked at Stand Density

another.

Expression of stand density : (a) number of trees per

unit area, (b) basal area per unit area, (c) crown closure IFoS 2014 : What is STAND DENSITY ? How
usually expressed as % crown cover. spacing is used to control stand density?
Discuss (15)
FACTORS AFFECTING STAND DENSITY or FACTORS
AFFECTING STAND STRUCTURE or FOREST DISTURBANCE Canopy density and stand density

AGENTS [Himachal PSC Civil (Main) 2012| 5 m]

Why variation in stand density. (such
• Climatic factors, i.e., Moisture availability, Drought, as induced by thinning), cause very
large variation in diameter growth but
flood, Forest fire, Strong wind, etc.
remarkably little in height growth?
• Edaphic : Soil fertility, Nutrient deficiency Discuss in detail [OPSC Civil (Main)
• Topographic : Landslides & Avalanches 2017 | 30 m].

• Biotic interference, i.e., Species composition, Mode of regeneration, invasion of weeds, Insect-
pest attacks, Grazing, etc.
• Human angle : illegal felling, lopping, unscientific thinning & harvesting operations, etc.

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CANOPY DENSITY CLASSIFICATION

CANOPY CLASS DENSITY

OPEN When the density is under 0.5

THIN density is between 0.5 and 0.75

DENSE When the density is between 0.75 and 1.0

CLOSED When the density is 1.0

9.4 STAND'S CROWN CLASSIFICATION

To decide several silvicultural operations, i.e., thinning, felling, etc., Trees are usually classified based on
the crown's position in the crop. Several factors, i.e., Site quality, Genetic makeup of a species, age,
competition, etc. decide the development of the crown in a crop.

IFoS 2020 : Describe the following terms - (a)

Dominant (b) Dominated (c) Hardening
IFoS 2012 : Write short notes on - Canopy
architecture in forestry (4 m).

Crown classification for EVEN AGED CROP STAND or REGULAR FOREST

Together, site and genetic influences result in a greater crown canopy differentiation among nearby trees
of the same species. The tallest one’s intercept greater amounts of solar energy, photosynthesize at
higher levels, and grow better. This amplifies the size differences within even-aged communities, and
increases the crown canopy differentiation even more.

SN Classes Characters Symbol

All trees forming the uppermost leaf canopy. These may be
1. Dominant tree D
sub-divided into -

All latest trees forming the top level of the canopy and are free
from vertical competition.
[Characteristics : (a) Crown extends above the general canopy layer of
(a) predominant D1
the stand, (b) well developed & large crown, (c) Crown Intercepts direct
sunlight across the top and along the sides of the upper branches, (d)
tree diameter usually among the largest in the stand]

Consisting rest of the dominant, falling short up to 5/6 of the

average height of D1
[Characteristics : (a) Crown within and helping to form the main crown
(b) Codominant tree canopy for the stand, (b) Crown intercepts direct sunlight across the top, D2
but only at the tips of the uppermost side branches, (c) Crown well
developed, but of only medium size and crowded at the sides, (d) Tree
diameter among the upper range of those present, but not the greatest]

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The sub-classes D1 and D2 are further classified according to their vigour and soundness

 Trees with normal crown development & good stem form (a)

 Trees with defective stems or crowns (b)

 Trees with a very defective crown or stem (c)

 Whippy stem, i.e., very thin bole and very constricted

crown, incapable of existence without neighboring trees' (d)
support.

• Trees that do not form part of the uppermost leaf canopy,

but the leading shoots of which are not definitely overtopped
by neighbouring trees.

2. Dominated trees • height = ¾ of tallest trees. d

[Characteristics : (a) Crown extends somewhat into the lower part of
the main canopy, (b) Crown intercepts direct sunlight only at a limited
area on the top, and none at the sides, (c) Crown narrow and short,
and a low live-crown ratio].

Trees which reach only about 1⁄2 to 5⁄8 of the height of the
best trees, with their leading shoots definitely over-topped by
Suppressed or their neighbours or at least shaded on all sides by.
3. [Characteristics : (a) Crown entirely below the main canopy and covered s
Overtopped trees
over by branches of taller trees, (b) No direct sunlight reaches any portion
of the crown,(c) Crown small, (d) Tree diameter among the smallest in
the stand].

Dead or moribund This class includes bent, over, and badly leaning trees, usually
4. m
trees of the whip type.

Trees that are infected with parasites to such an extent that

5. Diseased trees their growth is seriously affected, or they are a danger to their k
neighbors [ Symbol 'k' = Canker ]

Reproduction or
6. Young seedling and sapling r
regeneration
7. Over-mature Overmature tree with deterioration [ Symbol “ v ” = veterans] v

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Pre-dominant (D1)
Dominant (D)
Co-dominant (D2)
( of tallest tree)

Dominated (d)
( ¾ of tallest tree)
Suppressed (s)
( ½ of tallest tree)

Crown classification for UN-EVEN AGED STAND or IRREGULAR FOREST

When trees of different species of all ages are present in a mixed stand, certain species may stand under
others' crowns and still not be suppressed so far as their growth is concerned. Several systems of
classification are suggested, but none of them have been widely adopted. The crown classification in
irregular stands suggested by Seth (1956) based on replacing the different crown positions by degrees of
crown freedom is further classified according to crown size.

Class
Basis
(I) (II) (III)
1. Degree of crown freedom Free Restricted Confined
Large (Well Medium
2. Crown development and size Small (Poor)
developed) (Average)

• Free crown : a crown free to grow at the top and is not hedged by its neighbours.
• Restricted crown : the crown occupying the intermediated position.
• Confined crown : a crown that is overtopped and shaded by other trees.

IMPLICATIONS OF CROWN CANOPY CLASSIFICATION FOR A SILVICULTURIST

• Judging the potential for future tree growth

• It segregates trees into four classes based on position relative to the general crown canopy and the
proportion of their crown surface area exposed to direct sunlight
• The photosynthetic output per tree must increase annually to sustain a constant rate of diameter
growth. This means using different silvicultural practices to maintain larger leaf surface area on the
crop trees, and to increase light around their foliage (the active surfaces). Otherwise, crown volume
declines = the rate of annual wood volume production slows or declines.

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9.5 EXERCISE

IFoS 2014 : What is Stand Density ? How spacing is used to control stand density ? Discuss (15) [Linked Q :
Forest Management]
IFoS 2009 : Justify the statement “Control of stand density of desired species helps in the production of
maximum volume” (10 m).

Why variation in stand density (such as induced by thinning), cause very large variation in
diameter growth but remarkably little in height growth? Discuss in detail [OPSC Civil (Main)
2017 | 30 m].

What is the difference between stand density and stocking? Explain the influence of stand
density on plant height, diameter, and volume of the stand [OPSC Civil (Main) 2019-20 | 20 m].

Differentiate between the

(a) Stand and forest [Himachal PSC Civil (Main) 2017| 2m]
(b) Canopy density and stand density [Himachal PSC Civil (Main) 2012| 5 m]

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10
FOREST SUCCESSION

Suppose the forest department went mad in XYZ state. It cleaned ≈ 100-hectare forest areas for
corruption; even so, cruel that they cleaned and sold the upper subsurface soil to Brick Killen factories;
you are a local person affected by this act and filed a case in the Supreme Court. In its verdict, the
Supreme Court asks them (Forest department) to leave that area permanently in the name of God. As we
discussed earlier, you are a neighbor of this site; you see that after the monsoon's onset, a small patch of
grass starts growing on the cleared barren land, which later dies at the end of the monsoon. You also
observed that few shrubs and Teak seeds also germinated, but they failed to establish due to feeble
organic matter and low Mineral availability. These initial grasses actually did not get any previous Organic
material and free minerals from the soil and struggled hard to mobilize them, resulting in poor nutrition
and small height.

Figure 10.1 :
Forest succession.

In the next few years, these grasses generate the bulk of Organic matter and improve soil fertility,
showing its large size and composition (from seasonal grasses to annual grasses). In these newly changed
conditions, few shrub species that earlier failed to be established not become able to set and flourish;
however, Teak is still unable to survive as now it germinates and is established but soon dies after the
monsoon ends. Subsequently, shrub species compete out grasses, and the field becomes from grassland
to shrub-land. In the next few years, these shrubs further enriched the soil organic matter, mobilized soil
minerals, and improved soil water holding capacity by further pulverizing them. Now the seedling of Teak
that failed to survive in earlier stages now started dominating the area.
 FORESTRY

MORAL OF THE STORY

• The 1st species that encroach and start to grow (established themselves) in a new area is called = the
Colonizer or Pioneer species.
• Sere or Seral Stages (sometimes used term Consolidation Phase
 Succession term is given by
in a loose sense) are the intermediate stages during which "Hault".
plant communities grow and improve soil conditions and  With every stage in succession
complexity and diversity increase.
gradually change themselves into another more progressive
 When COLONIZER starts growing
community. on barren land where there no
• And the last, Climax Stage - A mature, final and stable residue of previous Organic
matter is called Primary
community that maintains itself for an extended period in
Succession . If it starts growing on
equilibrium with that particular environmental condition. previously availed Organic
• The development and movement of vegetation from one stage Matter, called – Secondary
Succession).
(grassland to tree land) are called = succession.
• DEFINITION : Succession is the process of replacement of one set of the biotic community by another
set of more advanced and different nature biotic communities.

10.2 PROCESS OF SUCCESSION

▪ Nudation : the process of development of a bare area

(barren land); it may be due to erosion (Soil/water),
Volcanic eruption, forest fire, erosion, deposition, etc.
▪ Invasion or Migration : migration of seeds & spores of
COLONIZERS (1st) species invade/occupy the new site 1st
time. Later, followed by PIONEER Species, which grew and
established in that area more appropriately.
▪ Ecesis or establishment: the process of establishment of a plant in a new area from its germination
to reproduction.
▪ Aggregation : After ecesis, as a result of reproduction, the individuals of species increase in numbers,
and they come close to each other, called aggregation.
▪ Competition : after aggregation, increasing population creates conflicts (competition) for light,
space, moisture, and nutrient minerals. They affect each other's in various ways, and this action is
called Co-Action with results Reaction.
▪ Climax or Stabilization stage : The final stage.
▪ Sometimes, we also get some other terms like – (1) Subclimax Stage - it is the immediately preceding
climax stage in an ecological. It is relatively stable and maintained by edaphic or biotic influences or
by fire. (2) Post Climax Stage - a strip of vegetation of higher life forms occurring within a climatic
climax, i.e., a forest in a grassland community.

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10.3 TYPES OF SUCCESSION

ON THE BASIS OF PREVIOUSLY AVAILABLE ORGANIC MATTER

▪ Primary succession: when the process of succession starts

on land, there was no previously available organic matter,
which means succession starts on freshly opened soil. So,
the rate of succession is slower.
Example : Succession in alpine areas after nudation of land
by a heavy landslide.

▪ Secondary Succession : When the succession process starts on the field, there were previously
available organic matter present, which means succession starts on the old site. So the rate of
succession is fast than primary succession.
Example : development of forest vegetation after forest fire incidence.

ON THE BASIS OF CAUSE OF SUCCESSION

▪ Autogenic succession: after the succession has begun, the community modifies itself and its own
environment and replaces its own with a new community. It means there was no external
interference, i.e., the Amazon rainforest.
▪ Allogenic succession: when replacement of one community by another due to external forces.

ON THE BASIS OF THE NATURE OF SUBSTRATUM

▪ Xerarch succession: when succession (especially primary) starts on dry rock material, windblown
send and mineral matter under extremely dry conditions.
▪ Mesarch succession: when succession begins on moist and well-aerated soil material.
▪ Hydrarch succession: when the succession process starts in water or very wetlands, i.e., Pond, lakes,
marshes, etc.

SOME OTHER TYPES OF SUCCESSION

• Induced succession: when human activities are responsible for the

succession of a plant community, i.e., Keoladeo Ghana bird
sanctuary and the entire local wetland ecosystem developed after
constructing a dam in the mid-18th century. Figure 10.4 : Cyclic succession
• Cyclic succession - is a pattern of vegetation change in which a small
succession
Figure 10.5 : Retrogressive

number of species tend to replace each other over time in the absence of
large-scale outer disturbance. The cyclic replacement has provided evidence
against traditional Clementsian views of an end-state climax community with
stable species compositions.
• Retrogressive succession: when a succession process is obstructed by any
natural or biotic factors that push it a few stages back to seral stages, called

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retrogressive succession, i.e., In North Indian plains, SAL FOREST converted into SAL SAVANNAH due
to heavy biotic pressure of overgrazing & shifting cultivation, etc.

Figure 10.6 : Comparison between progressive and retrogressive succession. Here, the impact of disturbing
factors clearly marked the complexity & biomass productivity of a forest ecosystem.

IFoS 2017 : Define succession. Explain different types of succession in detail, citing suitable examples.
Discuss various theories of succession (15 m).
IFoS 2008 : what is succession ? explain in details the different types of succession, describe the major
theories explaining succession (20 m).
Explain the various types of succession describe the major theories explaining succession [OPSC Civil
(Main) 2019 | 10 m].
What is succession ? Discuss different types of succession [OPSC Civil (Main) 2006 | 20 m]
Define succession. Write, in detail, about succession stages and its types [OPSC (ACF) 2019-20 | 20 m].

10.4 CAUSES OF SUCCESSION

• Initiating Causes : to make the bare area (Nudation) to the new succession process by destroying the
existing ones by climatic or biotic factors, i.e., Land sliding, soil erosion & deposition, volcanic
eruption, long-term waterlogging, deforestation, Forest fire, coastal and estuarine deposition.
• Continuation Causes : those continue the succession process through various seral stages, i.e.,
Migration, ecesis, aggregation, competition, reaction, etc.
• Stabilizing Causes : they finally established the colony according to the local area climate, soil, or
complex factors.

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IFoS 2011 : Describe the initial causes of secondary succession. Write various seral stages of succession leading to
the development of Shorea robusta (10 m).

Hints : The Initiating causes are the disturbances that make space or bare area by destroying the existing
forest vegetation to initiate secondary succession. Under this process, new vegetation growth usually
feeds on pre-existing Organic matter of the previous crop, so they grow faster. These initial causes
may be –
 Climatic causes : Drought, flood, heavy snow, and frosty conditions
 Physiographic factors, i.e., soil erosion
 Biotic causes : Forest fire due to carelessness.

Once you list them, you can start writing ½ lines about Shorea robusta (Sal) distribution, then draw a
graph (diagram) to show its seral stages or write them down one by one in a usual way.

Model Q : Describe the initial causes of primary succession ?

Hints : Initiating causes are the disturbances that make bare soil or NUDATION by either creating new
surface area by - (1) heavy land sliding, (2) thick soil layer deposition over the plain by lava flow
and/or (3) by destroying the existing forest vegetation completely with its humus (underline this).
 Long-term persisting flooding
 Heavy surface soil erosion and deposition
 Formation of new lava plains after a volcanic eruption
 Biotic factor ? No, because they may destroy forest but not humus.

Model Q : Describe the Causes of retrogressive Succession ?

Hints : Same as we study earlier, our 4F = Climatic, edaphic, biotic and physiographic. (a) Climatic factors like
drought, flood, insect-pest attack etc., (b) Physiographic factors like – Landslide, (c) Man-made -
Shifting cultivation, fire, lopping etc.

10.5 VARIOUS TYPES OF PRIMARY SUCCESSION

SUCCESSION IN MOUNTAIN TEMPERATE FOREST :

In the temperate zone above 2400

m, in the landslips and landslides
sites, the typical stages in
succession are - (a) shrub
associations, (b) Pinus wallichiana,
(c) mixed coniferous forests of
Picea smithiana, Cedrus deodara,

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and Pinus wallichiana and (d) the climax stage consisting of mixed forests of Abies pindrow, Picea
smithiana, and Quercus semecarpifolia.

RIVERAIN SUCCESSION : Riverain succession in Gangetic-alluvium provides a typical example of primary

succession. The pioneer species include Saccharum, Tamarix, etc. and climax stage is formed by Shorea
and its associates. The approximate stages are following – (1)
Describe the various causes
Saccharum + Tamarix, (2) Acacia catechu + Dalbergia sissoo, (3) A. responsible for primary and
catechu + Holoptelea + Adina + Albizia, (4) Holoptelea + Adina + secondary plant succession. Also
Lagerstromia + Bombax + Terminalia, (5) Adina + Lagerstroemia + discuss the different stages of
riverain succession [Himachal
Terminalia + Shorea, (6) Shorea + Lagerstroemia + Terminalia +
PSC Civil (Main) 2012| 30 m].
Adina , (7) Shorea + Terminalia.

In deep soils, Trewia nudiflora and Toona ciliata appear in stage 4 and Terminalia alata in stages 5 and 6
with Syzygium in the understorey.

ESTUARINE SUCCESSION : The successional stages on the mudflats and tidal estuaries are exemplified in
Sundarbans. The succession stages are : (i) mangrove scrub, (ii)
IFoS 2010 : Illustrate the succession of
tree mangrove, (iii) slow-growing saltwater Heritiera, (iv)
mangroves vegetation in sea coast.
freshwater swamp forest without Heritiera, and finally, (v) the
local climax vegetation of evergreen forests.

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SUCCESSION UNDER SAND DUNES : The shifting sand dunes are - first anchored by dune grasses, e.g.,
Cenchrus, Andropogon, Lasiurus, etc. This stage is succeeded by shrubs, e.g., Crotolaria, Calligonum,
Calotropis, Euphorbia, etc. Tree species dominate the pre-climax stage, e.g., Acacia, Prosopis, etc., and the
climax stage consists of Anogeissus pendula.
4
Climax stage

3
2 Paraclimax stage
1
Sand dunes Shrub

Dune grasses Crotalaria spp. Acacia spp. Anogeissus pendula

Cenchrus Euphorbia Prosopis spp.
Andropogon

10.6 VARIOUS THEORIES FOR PLANT SUCCESSION

► Mono Climax Theory or Climatic Climax Theory : Given by FE

IFoS 2014 : Discuss in detail the
clement. According to this theory, the only climatic condition
evolution of the concept of plant
involved in controlling succession, so there is only one type succession (20 m).
of climax community formed.
IFoS 2013 : Explain the evolution of the
► Poly Climax Theory : Proposed by Tansley to counter concept of plant succession (8 m).
Clement's theory, Tensely suggest the climax community is Describe the various theories of
never actually controlled by single factors. This theory climax in the plants write various
climaxes with examples [UPPSC
considers that the region's climax vegetation consists of not
(ACF) 2017 | 20 M].
just one type but a mosaic of vegetational climaxes
controlled by soil moisture, nutrients, topography, slope, aspect, fire, grazing, etc. According to this
concept, each stable community within a climate is called a climax community. So, when the
development of communities is controlled by climate, they described them as a climatic climax,
when it due to -
 Edaphic conditions then called → edaphic climax
 if because of Biotic disturbances, then called → biotic climax
 or due to topography where dominant factor → topographic climax.

► Information Theory : Proposed by Fosberg (1967) and Odum (1969). According to this theory,
succession is a function of energy balance and nutrient cycling. The climax stage is reached when the
amount of energy and nutrient received from the environment by the vegetation is equal to what it
is given to the environment. It returns through leaf litter and other metabolic activities.

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EXAMPLES OF CLIMAX VEGETATION

Climatic Climax : (a) Giant evergreen forest in Andaman and Nicobar, (b) Moist Shivalik Sal, and
Moist Sal forests in North Indian (c) Moist Teak forest in southern tropical moist deciduous
forest, (d) Himalayan sub-tropical pine forest.

Edaphic Climax : (a) Can and Bamboo brakes along the streams in tropical moist deciduous
forest, (b) Xylia xylocarpa forests in lateritic soils in semi-evergreen forests, (c) Anogeissus
pendula forests in rocky areas, (d) Babool forest in black cotton soil, (e) Euphorbia and Acacia
senegal forests on sand deposits and quartzite.

Topographic Climax : Lower Chir-pine forest occurring below 1000 m in sub-tropical pine forest

Biotic Climax : Teak occurs in tropical moist deciduous forests and even on laterite soils. Biotic
interference like clear-felling of forests results replacement of Teak by xylia xylocarpa
permanently.

► Climax Pattern Hypothesis : Whittaker (1953) emphasized that a natural community is adapted to
the whole pattern of environmental factors in which it exists; the significant factors are - the genetic
structure of each species, climate, site, soil, biotic factors (activity of animals), fire, and wind,
availability of plant and animal species, and chances of dispersal. According to this theory, climax
communities are patterns of populations varying according to the total environment. Thus, there is
no discrete number of climax communities, and no one factor determines the structure and stability
of a climax community. Whereas the mono-climax theory allows for only one climatic climax in a
region and the poly-climax theory allows several climaxes, the climax-pattern hypothesis allows
continuity of climax types varying gradually along environmental gradients and not separable into
discrete climax types.

10.7 IMPORTANCE OF SUCCESSION IN SILVICULTURE

The study of succession in silviculture is crucial as it helps foresters in

• Classifying the forests

IFoS 2012 : Importance of plant
• deciding the silviculture system to be adopted for the succession in Forestry practices (5 m).
management of the existing crop,
Importance of succession in
• Selecting suitable species and site treatment for artificial
silviculture [Karnataka PCS (RFO)
regeneration and deciding silvicultural operations to maintain 2009 | 4 m].
the forests at a desired successional stage. How do you substantiate that
plant succession can play a
One of the important considerations in the classification significant role in practice of
of forest types is their ecological status, and Indian forests have silviculture [Karnataka PSC

been classified on this basis. Various stages in succession e.g., (ACF/RFO) 2015].

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climax, seral and retrograde, secondary succession, etc. Are recognized. The knowledge of the succession
of a forest helps to decide a suitable system of management. For climax vegetation, the silviculture
system should be such, which creates the least disturbance. The selection system favors the development
of climax species, and systems with heavy fellings may be suitable for seral or pre-climax species. The
choice of species and soil treatment practices are somewhat related to forest succession. For immature
soils, usually seral or pre-climax species need to be selected. The climax species are suitable for mature
soils. The soils which are immature or recent in origin are usually deficient in organic matter and
nutrients. The addition of organic matter and fertilizers ensures success in artificial regeneration. Suppose
some economically important species occur in the seral or pre-climax stage. In that case, the same can be
maintained at that stage through control on biotic factors, e.g., clearing, tire, grazing, etc.

10.8 EXERCISE

IFoS 2021 : What is meant by climax in ecological succession? Give an example and describe types of
ecological succession (8m).
IFoS 2020 : What are the structural and functional changes that occur in a forest ecosystem during
succession ? (15 m).
IFoS 2018 : What is succession and climax? Give the causes of forest succession (10 m).
IFoS 2017 : what is sub-climax ? Explain its importance in the context of Indian forestry (10 m).
IFoS 2017 : Define succession. Explain different types of succession in detail, citing suitable examples.
Discuss various theories of succession (15 m).
IFoS 2011 : Describe the initial causes of secondary succession. Write various seral stages of succession
leading to the development of Shorea robusta (10 m).
IFoS 2010 : Illustrate the succession of mangroves vegetation in sea coast.
IFoS 2009 : Define climax. Which are the different climax types that are found in plant succession? (10 m).
IFoS 2008 : what is succession ? explain in details the different types of succession, describe the major
theories explaining succession (20 m).
IFoS 2007 : Describe the process of typical succession in xeric condition.
IFoS 2007 : what is succession ? Describe primary and secondary succession along with examples, how the
succession is studies in natural forest (20 m).
Write notes on –
(a) Ecological succession [MPPSC (ACF) 2017].
(b) Pioneer species and climax species [Himachal PSC Civil (Main) 2011].
(c) Climax forest [Karnataka PCS (RFO) 2012-13]
(d) Autogenic and allogenic succession [Himachal PSC Civil (Main) 2014; Himachal PSC RFO (Main) 2017].
Discuss the mechanisms of successional change. Give the factors responsible for rate of successional
change [OPSC Civil (Main) 2020 | 20m]
Describe primary and secondary succession with examples. How the succession is studied in natural
forest [OPSC Forest Service (Main) 2019-20 | 10 m].

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What do you understand by plant Succession? Describe cause and kinds of succession [HPPSC Civil
(Main) 2019 | 10m]
Explain plant succession along with its causes? Differentiate between allogenic and autogenic plant
succession with suitable example [Himachal PSC RFO (Main) 2017| 10 m].
Define ecological succession along with its causes. Differentiate between primary and secondary
plant succession with suitable examples. Briefly describe the factors which influence the vegetation
[Himachal PSC Civil (Main) 2017 | 20 m]
Discuss the causes of plant succession [Himachal PSC Civil (Main) 2016| 10 m ]
What is plant succession ? Discuss primary and secondary succession [OPSC Civil (Main) 2016 | 20 m].
Write in detail about ecological succession in forests and what is the impact of forest management
activities on forest succession [Himachal PSC Civil (Main) 2015| 2m ]
Explain the climax in ecological succession. Write down three prominent climax theories postulated
by ecologists and write down about types of climax based on these theories [UKPSC (RFO) 2015 |
15m]
What is plant succession? describe the causes which are responsible for plant succession [Himachal
PSC Civil (Main) 2011| 30 m].

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11 FOREST TYPES IN INDIA

The forest type is a forest category defined with reference to its geographic allocation, climatic and
edaphic features, composition, and condition. Champion and Seth defined it as 'A unit of vegetation
which possesses (broad) characteristics in physiognomy structure sufficiently pronounced to permit its
differentiation from other such units.'

▪ Definition : Forest type is the categorization of forest vegetation with particular reference to their
physiognomic characters, structures, geographical allocation, and specific edapho-climatic
conditions; that permit us to differentiate this vegetation.

NEEDS OF SUCH CLASSIFICATION ? IFoS 2016 : How are the forest classified in
India ? Discuss its significance in forest
With only 2.4% of the world's land area, India
management (10 m).
accounts for 7 % of the world's recorded species. This
IFoS 2012 : Comment critically on – The
tremendous biodiversity and ecosystems with extensive
Basis of forest classification and why there is
geographical and local variations creating issues during need for such classification (5).
conservation, management, and understanding the
mechanism and dynamics of the natural ecosystem, especially How are the forest types defined?
with the emerging challenge of climate change. Which factors limit the distribution of
forest types in terrestrial environment
• It helps us understand our forest, its composition, and ? What are the objectives of classifying

species-specific variations to comprehend species the forest types? Name the four forest
types occurring in Gujarat [GPSC RFO
dynamics with changing environment and forest
(Main) 2020-21 | 10m]
management.
What are the bases for the
• It helps to understand how climatic, edaphic, classification of forests? Why is there
topographic, and biotic factors affect forest vegetation; need for their classification? Write the

and how they are responsible for its distribution, type groups of tropical forests and give
their distribution and the species of the
composition, and complexity of our forest ecosystem. area [OPSC (ACF) 2019-20 | 20 m].
• Our 10.8 % tribal population lives in these areas. We
depend upon it for food, fodder, medicinal plants, water resources, and cultural values. That directly
or indirectly play a role at the grass-root level.
• Define the forest communities we are trying to preserve, know their requirements and challenges
with the contemporary emerging global warming and climate change issue to manage, modify and
preserve our natural resources to be more climatic resilient.
 FORESTRY

11.2 BASIS OF CLASSIFICATION

Various factors that form the basis for forest classification into various forest types include [We already
discuss all these on page number 2 to 5].

Based on –

▪ Age : Even aged and Uneven aged forest IFoS 2016 : How are the forest classified in
India ? Discuss its significance in forest
▪ Regeneration : High forest and low forest
management (10 m).
▪ Composition (Floristics) : The species composition in the
IFoS 2012 : Comment critically on – The
forest – (a) Pure forest and (b) mixed forest. Basis of forest classification and why there is
▪ Ownership : Govt, Private and corporate forest need for such classification (5).

▪ Objective/Function : Protection, Production, and Social

What are the bases for the
forest
classification of forests? Why is there
▪ Growing stock : Normal and abnormal forest need of their classification? Write the
▪ Ecological basis : 16 types as per Champion and Seth, etc. type groups of tropical forests and
their distribution and species of the
Here, we discussed a few more types; you can use them as per area [OPSC (ACF) 2019-20 | 20 m].

convenience. What are the objectives of forest

classification ? Classify forests based
▪ Physiognomy : The gross appearance. On this basis, a on different criteria used with
definition of each class [Arunachal PSC
forest can be classified into –
Civil (Mains) – 2017-18 | 20 m].
(a) Evergreen forest and deciduous forest
Discuss classification of forests based
(b) Broad-leaved or coniferous on age, composition, object of
▪ Structure : Structure means stratification in forests, management, ownership, and legal

dimensions especially height and spacing. Forests on this status [Odisha PSC - Civil (Main) 2016 |
20 m].
basis can be classified into (a) single-storeyed, (b) double-
Describe the criteria for delimiting the
storeyed, and (c) multi-storeyed.
forest types of India [OPSC Civil (Main)
2011 | 20 m].
Based on spacing, a forest is (a) closed, (b) dense, (c) thin
and (d) open forest.

▪ Dynamics : Dynamics refers to the consideration of mutual interaction in forest communities and the
habitat. On this basis, the forest may be identified to be in (a) successional stages, (b) on its climax
stage, or (c) Post-climax stage.
▪ History : The history of a site and the vegetation are also crucial in determining the present and
assessing future productivity.

11.3 ORIGIN OF INDIAN FLORA

Indian flora is a mixture of the following elements -

▪ The Malayan Flora consisting of Dipterocarpeae, Schleicher, Garcinia, etc., are found in high rainfall
areas, particularly in the country's eastern and southern states.
▪ The Tibetan Flora consists of alpine herbs and shrubs, which are found in the Himalayas.

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▪ The European and Mediterranean Flora is represented by Coniferae, Betulaceae, etc., which mainly
occur in the Himalayas.
▪ The African and Indo-African Flora consists of Acacia and some other Leguminosae, Combretaceae,
and Rhamnaceae plants. These are found distributed in almost all tropical areas, particularly in the
drier areas.
▪ The Chinese and Japanese Flora includes many species of Rhododendron, Tsuga, Quercinaceae, etc.
▪ Casuarina, Eucalyptus, etc., represent the Australian flora in coastal areas in India.

11.4 BOTANICAL AREAS

Several botanical areas have been recognized in the country. These botanical areas have characteristic
botanical features. important botanical areas in India are as Follows -

▪ WESTERN HIMALAYAS : This area consists of the Himalayan mountains from Kumaon to Kashmir +
annual precipitation of 1000 mm to 2500 mm. The western Himalayan region consists of the Siwalik
Bhabar tract has mainly Shorea robusta forests. In the montane subtropical areas, forests of Pinus
roxburghii are of considerable economic importance. In the montane temperate zone, coniferous
forests of Cedrus deodara, Pinus wallichiana, Picea smithiana, and Abies pindrow sometimes occur in
pure and mostly in the mixture.
▪ EASTERN HIMALAYA : Eastern Himalayas constitute the humid regions from Sikkim and eastwards,
characterized by heavy rainfall, scant snowfall, and high temperature and humidity. The tropical zone
consists of mainly Sal forests (with patches of riverain forests). The evergreen forests are composed
of Artocarpus, Michelin champaca, Dendrocalamus spp., etc.
▪ INDUS PLAIN : This region comprises parts of Punjab, Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Delhi, with annual
rainfall usually less than 800 mm. The forests in this region are degraded by biotic interference. They
consist of mainly bushy and thorny trees belonging to the genus Acacia, Prosopis, Anogeissus etc.
▪ GANGETIC PLAIN : This region consists of Uttar Pradesh and parts of Bihar, Orissa, and West Bengal.
Important species - Shorea, Terminalia, Lagerstroemia, Bauhinia etc. The mangrove forests of
Sundarbans and delta forests in the Bay of West Bengal have unique flora forms in this area.
▪ CENTRAL INDIA : This region consists mainly of Madhya Pradesh. The hill ranges are generally
formed by granite and gneiss. The important species occurring in this region belong to the genus
Tectona, Madhuca, Terminalia, Lagerstroemia, Bauhinia etc.
▪ WEST COAST : areas of heavy rainfall = Luxuriant vegetation = mostly tropical evergreen and mixed
moist deciduous forests. Species : Toona, Dipterocarpus, Hopea, Mesua, Mangifera, Sterculia,
Calophyllum, Artocarpus etc. The sub-tropical and temperate evergreen forests, which are commonly
known as SHOLAS, occur in Nilgiris and Annamalai hills.
▪ DECCAN PLATEAU : includes the central part of the Indian peninsula, where the forests of Tectona,
Hardwickia, Boswellia, Terminalia, Anogeissus, Schleichera etc. Karnataka has valuable forests of
Santalum album.

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11.5 FOREST CLASSIFICATION BY CHAMPION AND SETH

Champion and Seth (1968)*** classified Indian forests into 5

Major groups*** and 16 TYPES*** or Groups based on IFoS 2017 : Explain the classification of
forest types in India by Champion and Seth.
ecosystem approach*** and consider vegetation, climate, soil,
Enlist major forest types and their group (10
and other habitat factors. m).

▪ MAJOR GROUP 1 : TROPICAL FOREST

What are the bases for the
 Group 1 : Tropical Wet evergreen forest - Dense, tall
classification of forests? Why there is
forests, entirely evergreen or nearly so. need for their classification? Write the
 Group 2 : Tropical Semi-evergreen forest - type groups of tropical forests and
give their distribution and the species
Predominantly evergreen forest with few deciduous
of the area [OPSC (ACF) 2019-20 | 20
species m].
 Group 3 : Tropical Moist deciduous forest - Explain the classification of forest

Consisting mainly deciduous trees with some types in India by Champion and Seth.
Enlist major forest types and their
evergreen trees in dominant & lower canopy level groups. Discuss its significance in
 Group 4 : Tropical littoral and swamp*** forest - forest management [OPSC Civil (Main)
Mainly evergreen and always associated with 2019 | 20 m].
Give the name of major groups (full
wetland condition.
time) and the different 'Groups' in
 Group 5 : Tropical Dry deciduous forest - Entirely each of major group as given by
deciduous spp., usually makes 8 to 10-meter height champion and Seth in their revised
classification of forest types of India.
top canopy
What are the criteria of forming these
 Group 6 : Tropical THORN*** forest - Deciduous with 'Groups'? [MPPSC (ACF) 2017| 15 m].
thorny trees and xerophytes predominating. What are the basis of champion and
Seth's classification? In how many
Canopy more or less broken. Height under 10 m.
groups forests have been divided ?
 Group 7 : Tropical Dry evergreen forest - Hard- [OPSC Civil (Main) 2016 | 20 m].
leaved evergreen trees predominate with some What are the major forest types of
India as per champion and Seth (1968)
deciduous emergent vegetation.
[Himachal PSC Civil (Main) 2014 |
▪ MAJOR GROUP 2 : MOUNTAIN SUBTROPICAL FORESTS 10m].
What are the major forest types of
 Group 8 : Mt. subtropical broad leaves hill*** forest - India as per champion and Seth (1968)
Broad-leaved predominantly evergreen. [Himachal PSC Civil (Main) 2014 |
10m].
 Group 9 : Mt. Subtropical PINE*** forest
Describe briefly the classification of
 Group 10 : Mt. Subtropical Dry evergreen forest - forests as proposed by champion and
low xerophytic forests & scrubs. Seth 1968 [Himachal PSC Civil (Main)
2013| 30 m]
▪ MAJOR GROUP 3 : MOUNTAIN TEMPERATE FORESTS Forests of India can be classified into
16 major vegetation of any of the two
 Group 11 : Mountain wet temperate forest - major groups [OPSC Civil (Main) 2006
evergreen forest without conifers. | 30 m].
 Group 12 : Himalayan Moist temperate forest :

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temperate sclerophyllous oaks & conifers

 Group 13 : Himalayan Dry temperate forest : open coniferous forest with sparse temperate
xerophytic undergrowth.
▪ MAJOR GROUP 4 : SUB-ALPINE FORESTS : Group 14 - Subalpine forests

▪ MAJOR GROUP 5 : ALPINE FORESTS

 Group 15 : Moist Alpine forest : often dense scrub

 Group 16 : Dry Alpine forest : Xerophytic scrubs in cold areas.

Now, we will discuss all of them one by one. The first group of them is –

GROUP 1 : TROPICAL WET EVERGREEN FOREST

This group is divided into the following two sub-groups –

SUB-GROUP 1A - SOUTHERN TROPICAL WET EVERGREEN FORESTS : This sub-group occurs throughout
the tropical parts of southern India and Andamans, where rainfall is adequate and well distributed. It is
found in Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, and Andamans.

➢ Temperature : Mean annual temperature (MAT) is about 27°C and the mean January minimum is
usually ≈ 21°C.
➢ Annual rainfall : 2000 mm to 3000 mm with about 120 to 150 Rainy days.
➢ Vegetation : In this forest, Trees are often buttressed. Epiphytes like Ferns, Orchids, Mosses are
numerous. Grasses are absent, and Bamboo is also not common, but some species such as
Oxytenanthera and Ochlandra are met in many places.

Dipterocarpus, Artocarpus spp., Hopea parviflora, Calophyllum, Mangifera indica

Top canopy
(Mango), Mesua ferrea (Iron wood), Vateria, Elaeocarpus (Rudraksha) etc.

Middle stories Hydrocarpus, Garcinia, Syzygium, Diospyros, etc.

Undergrowth Bamboo, Canes, Strobilanthes, Ixora etc.

SUB-GROUP 1B - NORTHERN TROPICAL WET EVERGREEN FORESTS : This sub-group occurs throughout
northeast India (viz., West Bengal, Assam, and Orissa), where annual rainfall exceeds 2500 mm and the
mean annual temperature lies between 22°C and 26°C with mean January minimum is about 10°C.

➢ Vegetation :

Top canopy Dipterocarpus, Shorea, Artocarpus, Syzygium, Mesua, Michelia, etc.

Middle stories Garcinia, Dendrocalamus hamiltonii, Melocanna, etc.

Undergrowth Clerodendron, Canes, Ixora etc.

➢ Sub-types : [1B/C1] Assam valley tropical wet evergreen forest, [1B/C2] Upper Assam valley tropical
evergreen forest – Kayea forest (1B/C2a) & Mesua forest (1B/C2b), [1B/C3] Cachar tropical evergreen
forest.

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EDAPHIC CLIMAX :
▪ [1/E1] Cane breaks : in wet areas, dominated by Calamus spp. Creeping bamboo also occurs in these
areas.
▪ [1/E2] Wet bamboo brakes : formed along the streams which are less wet than the areas occupied by
the cane brakes. The area is occupied by Oxytenanthera spp., Ochlandra spp. and Bambusa spp.

Group 2 : TROPICAL SEMI-EVERGREEN FOREST

Predominantly evergreen with few deciduous species. That means

IFoS 2019 : Write scientific names
they also have an almost similar composition as Group 1 (Tropical of four major tree species in each
wet evergreen forest) with few deciduous species like Terminalia of Southern Tropical Semi-
evergreen Forest and Northern
and Syzygium species, usually evergreen but in few localities shown Tropical Wet-Evergreen Forest (8
some deciduous characteristics. These forests always occur in m).

association with the evergreen forests.

SUB-GROUP 2A : SOUTHERN TROPICAL SEMI-

EVERGREEN FOREST :

➢ Distribution : Andaman & Western Ghats.

➢ Rainfall : 2000 to 2500 mm
➢ Temperature : 22 to 30o C
➢ Vegetation : Dipterocarpus, Xylia***, Hopea
parviflora, Mangifera*** Terminalia arjuna*** (Arjun), Elaeocarpus (Rudraksha), Mallotus etc.

BIOTIC CLIMAX : Where Xylia xylocarpa replace Tectona grandis from laterite soil.

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SUB-GROUP 2B : NORTHERN TROPICAL SEMI-EVERGREEN FOREST

➢ Distribution : Occurs in heavy rainfall area of Assam, Bengal, and coastal parts of Orissa.
➢ Temperature : MAT = 24oC , January minimum is about 11oC.
➢ Vegetation : Dipterocarpus, Syzygium, Mangifera, Artocarpus, Mesua ferrea, Shorea assamica,
Gmelina arborea etc.
➢ Sub-group types : (a) Assam valley semi-evergreen forest, (b) Cachar semi-evergreen forest, and (c)
Orissa semi-evergreen forest.

The main difference here with the Southern TSEF is the diversity of bamboo and canes species. Cane brakes
(Calamus spp.), Wet & Moist Bamboo brakes (Bambusa spp., Dendrocalamus spp.)

GROUP 3 : TROPICAL MOIST-DECIDUOUS FOREST

This group is divided into the following 3 sub-groups. [3A] Andaman moist deciduous forest, [3B] South
Indian moist deciduous forest, and [3C] North Indian moist deciduous forest.

▪ ANDAMAN MOIST DECIDUOUS FORESTS : found in the Andaman Islands and dominated by
Cannarium euphyllum, Pterocarpus delbergiodes, and Salmelia spp., etc.

▪ SOUTH INDIAN MOIST DECIDUOUS FORESTS :

IFoS 2017 : Enlist four groups of forest types
Distributed over mountain region and plains of entire under the moist tropical forest as per the
south India (From MP to Tamil Nadu). Champion and Seth classification of forest
➢ MAT : 24 to 27o C in the coastal region and 42o C in types (8m).

Central Part. Enlist the different subgroups under tropical

➢ Rainfall : 1500 to 2000 mm moist Enlist the forest
deciduous different subgroups
as per under
champion and
tropical moist deciduous forest as per
➢ Sub-group types : [3B/C1] Moist teak forest, [3B/C2] Seth classification of forest types [OPSC Civil
champion and Seth classification of
Southern moist mixed deciduous forest without (Main) 2018 | 10 m].
forest types [OPSC Civil (Main) 2018 |
teak, [3B/2S1] Southern secondary moist mixed 10 m].

deciduous forest
➢ Vegetation : Very moist, moist, and slightly moist teak** forest with Terminalia, Legerstromia,
Darbergia, Bombex ceiba, Adina cordifolia, and Xylia xylocarpa spp.

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▪ NORTH INDIAN MOIST DECIDUOUS FORESTS : Distributed from J & K to Arunachal + UP-MP-Bihar,
Orissa etc. cover Shivalik foothills, Bhabhar, and Tarai region, Assam valley, and foothills of
Meghalaya & Arunachal hills.

➢ MAT : 13 to 21oC. However, in summer it will reach up to 45 oC

➢ Rainfall : 1000 to 2000 mm
➢ Vegetation : Very moist & moist Sal bearing forest of north Indian plain. Sal savannah of UP. In
North-East India, many Bamboo and calamus spp.
➢ Important types : [3C/C2] Moist Sal forest, [3C/Ds1] Moist Sal savannah

EDAPHIC CLIMAX : [3E1] Terminalia forest in slightly waterlogged areas. Terminalia tomentosa is
the predominant species.

GROUP 4 : TROPICAL LITTORAL AND SWAMP FOREST

Mainly evergreen and consistently associated with wetland

IFoS 2011 : Define a forest type. Discuss
conditions.
the different forest types found along
SUB-GROUP 4A : LITORAL FOREST : Growing over soils in sea tidal swamp forests with their species
composition. Give a note on how
sand with the usually high water table. Strong salt-laden winds
Rhizophora racemosa is managed in
are common. mangrove forest of Sundarbans ( 3 + 12 +
• MAT : 27 to 30oC 5 = 20 m).

• Rainfall : 1000 to 3000 mm

• Vegetation : Casuarina equisetifolia, Manilkara littoris, Callophyllum inophyllum, etc.

SUB-GROUP 4B : TIDAL SWAMP FOREST : in tidal swamp areas, within very short distance, i.e., over
Ganges-Brahmaputra deltas
• Vegetation : Rhizophora spp., Avicennia spp., Sonneratia spp., Heritiera minor, Bruguira spp. etc.
• Sub-types : [4B/Ts1] Mangrove scrub, [4B/Ts2] Mangrove forest, [4B/Ts3] Saltwater mixed forest of
Heritiera, [4B/Ts4] Brackish water mixed forest, and [4B/E1] Palm swamp.

SUB-GROUP 4C : TROPICAL FRESHWATER SWAMP FOREST : these forests occur in river valleys like
Ganga, Brahmaputra, Godawari, and especially in Kerala rivers and Tarai region.
• Sub-types : [4C/Fs1] Myristica swamp forest, in Kerala. [4C/Fs2] Tropical hill valley swamp forest, in
Himalayan sub-mountain track. [4C/Fs3] Creeper swamp forest, in Brahmaputra valley region.

SUB-GROUP 4D : TROPICAL SEASONAL SWAMP FOREST : growing over alluvial soil that submerged during
monsoon but remains dry during other seasons, i.e., Ganga-Brahmaputra Khadar + Bhangar region.
• Vegetation : Gangetic alluvial: Syzygium swamp forest. Brahmaputra khaddar : Dillinia indica.
Sundarban area: Berringtonia swamp forest.

SUB-GROUP 4E : TROPICAL RIVERAIN FRINGING FOREST : Along the watercourse of the river. Species
are primarily evergreen with some proportion of deciduous species.

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• Vegetation : Bischofia javanica (Bishop wood), Terminalia arjuna (in Central India); Lagerstroemia
speciosa (In assam & Karnataka).

GROUP 5 : TROPICAL DRY DECIDUOUS FOREST

DISTRIBUTION & SPECIES :

Southern Tropical dry Teak-bearing forest of central and south India. Santalum album in
5A
deciduous forest Karnataka plateau. Butea forest of central India.

Northern Tropical dry Shorea robusta, Anogesus latifolia, Aegle marmelos etc. Dry savannah
5B
deciduous forest forest of central India with Butea monosperma dominated.

EDAPHIC CLIMAX : [5/E1] Anogeissus pendulosa forest in Arravalli hills and Bundelkhand region. [5/E2]
Boswellia forest in Satpura and Vindhya hills, [5/E3] Acacia nilotica (Babool) forest associated with black
cotton soil in Maharashtra – MP region. [5/E5] Butea forest in central India.

IFoS 2016 : Enumerate the classification of tropical dry deciduous forests given by Champion and Seth
(1964). Mention two species for each forest type (10 m).
IFoS 2008 : Write the different types of tropical deciduous forests with suitable examples (10 m).

Enlist different subgroups under tropical dry deciduous forests as per champion and Seth classification
occurrence of each subgroup and the species found therein [OPSC Civil (Main) 2019 | 10 m].

GROUP 6 : TROPICAL THORN FOREST

Consisting thorny deciduous trees and xerophytes predominating. Canopy is more or less broken. Height
under 10 m. these forests are divided into 2 Sub-groups – [SUB-GROUP 6A] Southern tropical thorn forest
- spread over dry peninsular India, and [SUB-GROUP 6B] Northern tropical thorn forest.

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Forest Distribution Species

Haryana, Rajasthan,
1 [6B/C1] Desert thorn forest Prosopis juliflora & Acacia senegal.
Gujarat
Acacia nilotica, A. Catechu, and
2 [6A/C2] Ravine thorn forest MP-UP-Rajasthan
Prosopic cineraria.

3 [6A/C3] Runn thorn forest Gujarat Tamarix spp., Calotropic spp.

Central and South Babool, Subabool, Ber, Amaltas,
4 [6A/C1] Southern thorn forest
India Khair etc.
5 [6A/C2] Karnataka umbrella thorn forest TN & KN Acacia planiformis

GROUP 7 : TROPICAL DRY EVERGREEN FOREST

This group has only one type, viz., [7/C1] Tropical dry evergreen forest. It occurs only on the Carnatic
coast from Tirunelveli to Nellore because of unusual climatic conditions.

• MAT range : 28°C to 29°C

• Rainfall : 900 mm to 1300 mm, mainly from retreating N. E. monsoon, and so maximum rainfall is
during October and November. The number of rainy days varies from 45 to 60.
• Vegetation : Manilkara hexandta, Acacia leucophloea, Syzygium cumini, Azadirachta, etc.

GROUP 16 : DRY ALPINE SCRUB

This group consists of one type, viz., [16/C1] Dry alpine scrub. It occurs
IFoS 2012 : Describe flora and
in the trans-Himalayan region of the UK, HP, and Kashmir. It is a distribution of Group : 16 C1 of
xerophytic formation in which dwarf shrubs predominate. Characteristic Champion & Seth's Forest Type
(8 m).
plants are Eurotia, Juniperus wallichiana, Juniperus communis,
Artemisia, etc.
दे खो भाई, ज्यादा शक्तिमान बनने की जरूरि नह ीं है | जो Questions Last 10/15 years में, 20 से अधिक State ACF/RFO + IFoS के
exam में, आज िक नह ीं पछ
ू े जा सके !! उनके आगे भी पछ
ू े जाने की उम्मीद नह ीं है | और यदद आपको ऊींट पर बैठने के बाद भी कुत्ता काट
ह ले, िब भी, अपने पास 3 Questions की choice रहिी है |

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11.6 LIMITATIONS OF CHAMPION AND SETH'S CLASSIFICATION

The system of classification of Indian forests into different forest types has been widely adopted. But the
classification is not complete in itself. Certain forest associations have not been mentioned at all. The system
suffers from the following limitations.

• India's forests' classification into different forest types is generally based on observations here and there,
and the forest type map of India is approximate. No systematic survey has been conducted. Division of
area into different forest types is done arbitrarily. Identification of floristic composition in different forest
types would have been done better if stock maps or aerial photographs had been used for the purpose.
• Certain forest formations have not been included in the classification, i.e., (a) Chloroxylon swietenia,
which occurs as an understorey tree in dry and very dry teak forest types, forms almost pure crop where
soil conditions are not favorable. (b). In some Madhya Pradesh regions, Sitaphal (Anona squamosa) is the
primary vegetation on ridge tops where the soil is inferior and lateritic. The presence of Kankar nodules is
noticeable. (c) Moist mixed deciduous forests occurring in the south of Brahmaputra river (Assam), which
have about 15 percent sal, are not covered in any of the type and sub-types.
• The area under man made forests is increasing day by day. But Champion and Seth's classification covers
only natural vegetation. No system of classification is involved for artificially raised forests.
• Many new species have been introduced and are being regenerated naturally. Natural barriers of many
species have been broken. Teak has been introduced in forests of north India. Chir (Pinus roxburghii) has
done well in an artificially raised plantation in Supkhar area (Balaghat of Madhya Pradesh).
• The forests of Jammu and Kashmir, and Sikkim have not been included in the examples.
• Floristic composition in dry subtropical forests and dry temperate forests do not compare favorably with
examples, especially the Bastar district of Madhya Pradesh.

11.7 EXERCISE

Explain the classification of forests of India as per Champion and Seth’s classification. Describe the forests
types found in the Uttar Pradesh State as above classification [UPPSC ACF/RFO (Main) 2021 | 20m]
Define forest types. Describe, in brief, revised classification of forest types of India [OPSC Civil (Main) 2020
| 20m]
What are the bases for the classification of forests? Why there the type groups of tropical forests and give
their distribution and the species of the area [OPSC Forest Service (Main) 2019-20 | 20m]
Differentiate between - Tropical wet evergreen forest and Tropical dry deciduous forest [HPPSC Civil
(Main) 2020 | 2m]
‘Classification of forests by Champion and Seth is based on ecological system’. Explain. Give detailed list of
forests found in Himachal Pradesh based on this [HPPSC Civil (Main) 2019 | 20m]
Name the group, sub-group, type, and sub-type of the following abbreviation and also give the details of
main forest species and their associated found in these types [OPSC Civil (Main) 2017 |20 m].
(a) 2B/C3, (b) 3B/C1(c), (c) 3C/DS1, (d) 5/E6, (e) 8A/C3
Give forest types of Odisha and their distribution in state [OPSC Civil (Main) 2015 | 20 m].
Discuss the different forest types existing in Odisha state [OPSC Civil (Main) 2011 | 20 m].
What are the main features of Himalayan moist temperate forests? Discuss the main features of various
forest types found in this group [Himachal PSC Civil (Main) 2011| 30 m].

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12 NATURAL REGENERATION

WHAT IS REGENERATION ?

Regeneration or reproduction is an act of replacing the old crop with younger ones, either naturally or
artificially is called regeneration or reproduction.

TYPES ?

▪ Natural regeneration : by nature.

▪ Artificial regeneration : when humans were involved in its propagation.

Figure 12.1 : Types of natural regeneration.

 Natural and Artificial regeneration are the two basic methods of plant reproduction. However, in Forestry,
we used three methods (or types) to regenerate forest – (1) Natural regeneration, (2) Artificial
regeneration, and (3) Natural regeneration supplemented by artificial methods or a combination of both
(in the examination, you have to the right these three methods instead of just two).

NATURAL REGENERATION

▪ DEFINITION : Natural regeneration is the renewal of a forest crop by means of the natural process of
seed sowing, germination, and establishment or by coppice shoots or root suckers.

However, the new crop derived by natural regeneration also required some suitable conditions of
soil, climate, host plants, and topography. Natural regeneration is often not left to nature, but it is
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induced by creating a suitable environment. The various measures taken to induce natural regeneration
may be - (a) to cut some matured trees to allow more light to penetrate, (b) coppicing of seedlings or
trees, (c) Closing the area to prevent fire and biotic interference and (d) trenching for getting root suckers,
etc.

METHODS TO OBTAIN NATURAL REGENERATION

▪ From seeds and

▪ From vegetative parts.

The crop obtained from natural regeneration through seeds is called a Seedling Crop. Remember,
the seedling crop is a crop consisting of seedlings neither planted nor coppice or root-suckers origin but
originating in sites by the seed through natural regeneration. When this seedling crop grows into a forest,
it is called a High Forest. The regeneration obtained from coppice is called Coppice crop, which develops
into a forest called Coppice Forest.
IFoS 2006 : What are the factors that
A | NATURAL REGENERATION BY SEEDS adversely affects the natural regeneration of
tree species [Also in, Mizoram PSC Civil
SUCCESSFUL NATURAL REGENERATION BY SEEDS DEPENDS (mains) 2018]
UPON THE FOLLOWING FACTORS
What is the main process involved in
Natural regeneration's success depends upon the chain
natural regeneration by seed? Discuss
of processes, viz. sufficient seed production, proper and in brief the factors responsible for the
efficient dissemination of seeds, Good seed germination and establishment of the seedings
[Mizoram PSC Civil (mains) 2016]
establishment of seedlings. With this, some other external
Define natural regeneration and write
climatic, edaphic, biotic, and genetic factors too that regulate the ecological requirements of natural
it regeneration [OPSC Civil (Main) 2011 |
20 m]
▪ Seed production : Seeds produced by trees must be What are the factors that favour the
healthy, in ample amounts, and free from insects, fungi natural regeneration of tree species ?
[OPSC Civil (Main) 2006 | 20 m].
attacks, etc. However, seed production depends upon its
geographical location, age of the tree, Crown size, environmental conditions, and whether the
particular year is a good seed year or a bad seed year. Generally, Tectona grandis (Teak) produce seeds in
good amounts every year, Shorea robusta (Sal) in the alternate year, and conifers like Abies pindrow
(Silver fir), Cedrus deodara (Deodar) take a longer time.

SN Species Good seed year

1. Khair / Sissoo After every 2nd year
2. Pinus roxburghii After every 4th/5th year
3. Cedrus deodara After every 4th/5th year
4. Abies pindrow After every 10 year

NOTE : Generally, plants produce seeds every year, but it does not mean that they produce high-quality and
quantity seeds every year. After a specific interval, they usually produced high-quality and quantity seeds; that
year is called a good seed year.

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IFoS 2010 : Differentiate between the gregarious and sporadic flowering in bamboo (4m).

TYPES OF FLOWERING IN BAMBOO

▪ Continuous (Annual) flowering : A phenomenon under which species keep flowering year after year
without dying. Arundinaria falcata (a bamboo species are growing in Shivalik and the inner
Himalayan region from Himachal Pradesh to Arunachal Pradesh) and Ochlandra travancorica (bamboo
species are growing in the Malabar region) are showing this type of flowering.
▪ Gregarious flowering : When a patch of forest is mainly made up of one species of bamboo, and all
start flowering roughly at the same time. Most of the bamboo species and Strobilanthes show gregarious
flowering after a long period and usually die after it.
▪ Sporadic flowering : When a bamboo forest starts flowering at different times without showing any
flowering pattern, even individual stems (culms) of the same clump are blooming at different times. it
seems that it may be induced by environmental factors such as drought or cold instead of genetics.

In News : ‘GREGARIOUS BAMBOO FLOWERING’ A HARBINGER OF DESTRUCTION

A year after the massive flowering of bamboo in Wayanad, similar phenomenon in the reserve
forest under Neriamangalam range in eastern Ernakulam (Kerala) is raising concerns of wildlife
threat among forest department and tribes people.

• Rodent population increases multiple time = Famine + Ecosystem disbalance

• Availability of dry fuel = Forest fire
• Soil and water erosion
• Shortage of fodder for Elephant, Gaur, Deer, Tiger = Migration = Man-animal conflicts + tension
between the states.

▪ Seed dissemination : Seeds are carried away or dispersed by various agencies from their production
to the next few km or even thousands of km. Plants growing near water sources like Mangroves,
Coconut, and palms usually have large-size fruits and use marine water in their dispersal agency
(Hydrochory). In Anemochory, plants like Orchids, Sal, Terminal, etc., used wind as a dispersal agency
when animals involved in the dispersal of seeds called Zoochory, i.e., Birds spread fig seeds.

Endo-Zoochoric dispersals of malus seeds

Hydrochory in Coconut Anemochory in dandelion
by the brown bear

Importance of seed dispersal

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 in new seedlings germinate and grow below the parent trees, probably die due to competition
with it as well as Allelopathic effect.
 It is spreading over large geographical areas = increase the survival % of species.

▪ Seed germination : seed produced from a middle-age tree show higher germination % than the
younger and old age trees. Similarly, Large size and healthy seeds show higher germination capacity
than small and weaker seeds, so the natural regeneration of a species depends upon the types of
seeds produced by its mother plant.
▪ Seed establishment : even if everything regarding germination goes favorable, seedlings still fail to
establish themselves and large-scale mortality occurs during this succulent and juvenile stage. [ For
more clarity, read Dying back phenomenon of Shorea robusta seedlings in North Indian plain and issues seedling
establishment issues in conifer forest given in the Box on page no 111 ]
▪ Climatic factors : a suitable temperature, moisture, and light condition are necessary to germinate
seeds and their establishment. Light demander species like Teak & Sal seedlings required overhead
light for their proper development, at least in the initial stage, to feed their growing energy
demands. Whereas in conifers like Abies pindrow, seedling requires less light condition in its initial
stage, and the absence of overhead shadow may burn the crop. A higher temperature during
summer, drought, and flood conditions are also responsible for failing the seedlings from being
established.
▪ Edaphic factors : The soil provides mineral nutrients, water, and support to the trees. A well-aerated,
good texture and neutral/slightly acidic soil favor the early establishment of seedlings. Soil like
Lateritic or arid, which have very poor nutrients, did not support luxurious vegetation. Sometimes,
even trees that own heavily accumulated litterfall creates mechanical barriers and obstructs
seedlings' roots from touching the soil (in Conifer forest).

REGENERATION ISSUES IN Abies pindrow FOREST

Conifers are the evergreen vegetation, and they generate leaf litter almost round the year. Due to the
occurrence of occasional frost, snowfall, and low temperature, the decomposition process of leaf litter is
prolonged, which results in the
heavy deposition of leaf litter on
the ground. It sometimes reaches
up to 1 to 1.5 feet thick, which
creates a mechanical barrier for
the new seedlings to touch the
ground within a due period (4-5
days after germination), leading to
the failure of seedlings'
establishment.

▪ Nature of undergrowth & Biotic factors : Several fungi In moist areas like Kaziranga National park,
and bacteria attack young seedlings and cause heavy and in the Conifer forest, control fire used as a
tool for improvement in natural regeneration.
mortality. Wild herbivores such as deeps, Sambhars,

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Nilgai, elephants, etc., browse young plants and makes the regeneration of several species difficult.
▪ Genetic factors : genetic factors like fast growth rate, hardiness & tolerance, adaptability of local
conditions and species morphological characters helps in its regeneration even under adverse
condition.

SN Types of resistance Mechanism

1. Frost resistance Leafless during winter, i.e., Poplar, Salix
2. Drought resistance Thick waxy coating of Cutin, Few stomata, leafless plant, i.e., Cactus
3. Heat hardiness The chloride content in the cell sap
The tannin content in Teak' leaves, Acrid juice in the leaves of Rhus,
4. Non-Palatability
and Aegle marmelos.

HELPING NATURAL REGENERATION

The natural regeneration obtained by seed is influenced by IFoS 2014 : Discuss the natural
the number of factors that we studied in the above sub- regeneration in soil, give steps
recommended for ensuring its successful
heading. They are required to be manipulated or alter their
regeneration ( 8m).
adverse effects to ensure the success of natural regeneration. IFoS 2013 : Large scale mortality has been
noticed in Dalbergia sissoo and Acacia
• Manipulation of upper canopy : reduce competition and
nilotica. What could be the possible
blockage of an overhead light hence improving the light reasons for this mortality? (10).
conditions. It also improves soil temperature, which IFoS 2008 : Discuss in details the measures
helps in the faster decomposition of raw hummus (in that you would suggest for successful
natural regeneration from seed (20 m).
conifer forests) and evaporation of excess moisture.
• Manipulation of lower canopy : to reduce dense
Write in detail about the various
understory, especially in moist deciduous and evergreen operations to be carried out to obtain
forest + to reduce competition and weed growth. natural regeneration of a species in
• Treatment of ground vegetation : repeated removal of desired quality at a desired time and
at a desired place [Karnataka PCS
weeds, cleaning off excess leaf litter, and climber cutting
(RFO) 2008, 2009, 2011].
reduce unnecessary competition to the young seedlings
and host plants of the harmful diseases. [Remember, we have to leave some ground vegetation as a
cover crop to avoid soil erosion].
• Soil working : The soil should have sufficient moisture, air, and nutrients. The thick layer of raw
humus in dense fir forest inhibits its regeneration, so it should be removed before the regeneration
period start. In poor site conditions, we usually mix mycorrhiza with soil.
• Controlled burning : Fire is one of the best tools for not only checking weed growth and creating ash
humus but also cleaning the insect/pests of that area, burning harmful fungi and increasing fire
protection by removing fuel material from any future incidence.
• Controlled grazing : The uncontrolled grazing destroyed the seedlings, but controlled grazing
improves regeneration by reducing competition from grasses and checking weed growth by
trampling over the grasses.

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Positive effect Negative effect

1. reduce weeds & Undergrowth = reduce

competition = promote regeneration
2. trampling, exposure, and mixing of soil 1. Difficult to enforce and sometimes even
humus consume young regeneration.
3. consume excess grass = reduce chances of
fire hazards.

• Slash disposal : slash generated during canopy manipulation, excess litterfall, and the infected plants
should be disposed of properly to avoid disease spread + shelter to insect/pests.
• Protection : against wild herbivores, fire, insect-pest attacks, and human beings.
• Direct sowing in patches : in the absence of desired regeneration or damage by fire incidence or any
other factors, it may be supplemented by seed sowing and poly-pot planting. In the mangrove forest,
we usually manipulate spacing in pre-germinated (viviparous) seedlings.

B | NATURAL REGENERATION BY COPPICE

Coppice is a method of vegetative reproduction in which the seedlings, plants, or trees of a species, when
cut from near the ground level, produce coppice shoots. Coppice shoot is a shoot arising from an
adventitious bud at the base of a woody plant that has been cut near the ground or burnt back.

Figure 12.4 : Coppice and root sucker formation

TYPES OF COPPICE REGENERATION

▪ Stool coppice : When a tree is cut, the shoot may arise by dormant buds present between wood and
the bark of the stump is called stool coppice. If the position of bud is in between junction of root-shoot,
then it is called root-collar shoot coppice. Root collar shoot coppice produced better trees than stool
coppice because it developed its own root system.
▪ Seedling coppice : when the original shoots are cut or injured, the dormant buds of the original
hypocotyl produce new shoots from the base of seedlings is called seedling coppice. In the
shelterwood system, the periodic block regeneration starts before maturing and felling of the
previous crop. So, at maturity, these regenerated seedlings are damaged. To get regeneration of the

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same age and characters, we cut these seedlings too from their bases. So, the new shoot comes up
from them very rapidly.

THE FACTORS AFFECTING THE NATURAL REGENERATION BY COPPICE ARE

▪ Nature of Species : The coppicing power differs from species to species. Some are strong coppice
and can regenerate quickly, whereas some are bad or non-coppicers.

Tectona grandis, Shorea robusta, Dalbergia spp., Acacia catechu, Albizzia

spp., Anogeissus spp., Eucalyptus globulus, Butea monosperma, Diospyros
Strong coppicers
(Tendu), Ougenia oojeinensis, Salix spp., Azadirachta indica, Morus alba,
P. juliflora etc.

Pterocarpus marsupiurn, Terminalia bellerica, Quercus incana, Hardwickia

Fair Coppicer
binata, JugIans regia etc.

Acacia arabica, Adina cordifolia, Madhuka indica, Salmalia malabarica,

Bad coppicer
Bornbax ceiba, Casuarina spp., Populus ciliate.

Not coppicers Pinus, Cedrus, Picea, Abies, etc.

▪ Season of coppicing : It is best to coppice when there is a large reserve of food material in the roots
so that all of it is utilized in the growth of coppice shoots. Delay affects the quality of coppice shoots.
The best season of coppicing is Feb-March and not the monsoon. In places where there is late frost
in spring, coppicing is done after the frost danger is over.
▪ Age of Tree : The younger saplings and poles give early and profuse coppice shoots, whereas the
older trees coppice badly.
▪ Height of Stump : Some species, such as Casuarina equisetifolia, Hardwickia binata, etc., produce
better shoots when the stumps are cut higher.

C | NATURAL REGENERATION BY ROOT SUCKERS

Root suckers are the new shoots that arise from the superficial roots of the parent plant. Generally,
many plants like Dalbergia sissoo, Bombax ceiba, Diospyros melanoxylon, etc., show this natural habit of
spreading and conserving themselves against life-threatening agencies like a forest fire, heavy insect/pest
attacks, or any
climatic causes.

Figure 12.5 : Root suckers

in Dalbergia sissoo.

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Practically, we can induce root sucker formation by either ① felling the parent tree or ② by
injuring the root system. If the main trunk is felled, the root suckers are developed from the adventitious
buds formed from the superficial roots in Dalbergia sissoo (Shisham), D. latifolia, Prosopis cineraria,
Bombax Ceiba, etc.

In Gangetic plain, where trees have a more superficial root system because of the high-water table,
general practice is adopted to injure its roots by digging up a trench around the trees, especially in
Dalbergia sissoo, so it forced to form root sucker.

Figure 12.6 : in North Indian plain, Trenching

method used to induced root suckers in
Delbergia sissoo.

CHALLANGES TO ROOT SUCKERS

• They are deficient in growth and are often thrown away by wind due to the absence of a tap root
system = they do not hold long tree trunks = commercial practice is not suitable.
• Possibly can carry diseases of mother plants.

C | NATURAL REGENERATION BY POLLARDING

Pollarding is the method of pruning/cutting the stem at a suitable height

IFoS 2017 : Give 4 examples
to obtain a flush of shoots. Generally, Pollarding is carried out at 1 to 1.25
of uses of pollarding in Indian
m height so the browsing animals cannot reach and trees on which we forestry (8 m).
apply this practice obviously should be a good coppice.

Figure 12.7 : Pollarding in Salix alba.

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OBJECTIVES OF POLLARDING

• To obtain the crown of fresh shoots periodically from the buds below the cut.
• Manage new shoot growth out of reach of the browsing animals.
• For Recreation & scenic beauty.

EXAMPLES

1. Salix alba – in Jammu & Kashmir, for the production of poles for the cricket bat industry.
2. Hardwickia binata : in Kurnool (A.P.), for bast fiber production.
3. Cotoneaster bacillaris is pollarded to obtain walking sticks.
4. Grewia oppositifolia is pollarded in UK & foothills in UP to get shoots for fiber and fodder. Moringa
oleifera is pollarded for better growth of the crown.
5. Many species are pollarded to obtain fuelwood regularly.

DYING BACK PHENOMENON IN SHOREA ROBUSTA.

The dying back is a phenomenon in which the shoot portion of seedling keeps on dying year after
year while the root remains alive, This happens in some species, and it checks the progress of seedlings
towards the establishment. Every year the shoot portion die-back
to produce whippy new shoots. These whippy shoots are no IFoS 2015 : Comment upon the
bigger than the last year's shoot. This goes on even up to 20 years, dieback (dying back) phenomenon in
and the seedlings cannot form a permanent shoot. Since the root Shorea robusta. Is it a problem or a
portion remains alive and developing, it produces in some years, adaptation ? (8 m).

in the absence of all adverse factors, a shoot that does not die, IFoS 2012 : Reasons of dying Dalbergia
and afterward, the shoot goes on developing. sissoo (5m).
IFoS 2011 : Explain the role of fire in
The dying back happens in Shorea robusta, Pterocarpus
silviculture of Shorea robusta (10 m).
santalinus, Bombax ceiba, and Boswellia serrata. The dying back
occurs due to adverse climatic and edaphic factors and also due to Explain the role of fire in
regeneration and seedling
severe weed competition.
establishment of Shorea robusta
In profuse Sal, regeneration occurs after rains, but soon [Arunachal PSC Civil (mains)
they start dying back. The dying back continues at the end of the 2015-16].
rainy season and goes on till the summer season. The blotches are What is the phenomenon of
formed on the leaves, then leaves die, followed by drying of the dying back of Sal seedlings?
What factors are responsible for
shoot. The whole shoot or a part of it dies back. After the
it and how it is to be addressed?
following year's rain, one or two new whippy shoots appear.
[OPSC Civil (Main) 2019 | 20 m].
These shoots again die back and so on. Though the shoot remains
small, it increases somewhat in height. By chance, in a year when there are no adverse factors, the
rootstock sends a shoot that does not die, and the seedling makes progress year after year and may take
about 40 years to establish itself.
FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR DYING BACK

• Dense overhead canopy & inadequate light : The absence of proper light conditions retards
photosynthesis and plant growth suffer badly.
• Dense weed growth = high competition for light, minerals, space, and water.
• Undecomposed leaf litter : work as a physical barrier, and roots cannot reach the soil.

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• Accumulation of CO2 : when the excess moisture or waterlogging condition persists for a longer time,
soil CO2 level increases to 2.8 and seedlings start dying back.
• Frost & Drought
• Grazing & browzing by herbivores.
SOLUTIONS
• Proper fencing. Control fire, slash disposal, and soil working before seed fall
• dense foliose middle story vegetation like Mallotus phillipensis, Syzygium cumini should be removed.
• Stagnating whippy regeneration should be stimulated by a controlled fire.

NATURAL REGENERATION OF BAMBOOS

Many of the bamboo species flowers gregariously then die out. Plenty of seeds are available
after flowering. The natural regeneration occurs at the rainy season's commencement from the seeds
lying on the forest floor over the vast area. However, this regeneration may be affected by the weeds,
shade, forest fire, and grazing.

EXERCISE

Define Natural and artificial regeneration of forests. Describe very briefly the influencing factors of
seeds for Natural regeneration? What are the internal and external factors affecting seed
germination? Also briefly describe the factors affecting the regeneration from coppice [HPPSC Civil
(Main) 2020 | 20m]
Define regeneration. Describe various steps of natural regeneration by seed [OPSC Civil (Main) 2020
| 10m]
Comments on the following - Dying back of Sal seedling [OPSC Civil (Main) 2020 | 5m]
Differentiate - Pollarding and Lopping [OPSC Civil (Main) 2020 | 10m]
What is regeneration? How natural regeneration of forest crops is ensured under shelterwood and
selection system? [OPSC Civil (Main) 2015 | 30 m].
Natural regeneration in moist Sal forests in Uttar Pradesh is considered as a problem. what steps are
recommended for ensuring success in natural regeneration of Sal?

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13 ARTIFICIAL REGENERATION

The renewal of a forest crop by sowing, planting or other artificial means is called artificial regeneration
(synonyms = plantation). It includes both (i) reforestation and (ii) afforestation. Reforestation is the
restocking of a felled or cleared forest by artificial means. Afforestation is the establishment of a forest by
artificial means on a non-forest area (the area from which forest vegetation has been absent).

HISTORY

• 1842*** : Conolly***, the collector of Malabar → Nilambur teak plantation***

• 1843*** : Campbell reintroduced Eucalyptus in Willington (TN) [ in MCQ-based exams, examiner
generally asked 'when the plantation forestry start in India? And their answer is 1843 or around it ].
• Van Mahotsav is an annual tree-planting movement in India, which began in 1950*** by
contemporary union agriculture minister K.M. Munshi***.
• In January 1985, (during 6th Five-year plan***) – Rajiv Gandhi govt has decided that it would afforest 5
m hac.*** Westland annually.
• Green India mission (2010) : Targets, (a) Increase forest cover on 5 m ha of forest/non-forest lands.
(b) Improve the quality of forest cover on another 5 m ha.
• Our PM recently announced that "India will restore 26 million hectares of degraded land by 2030,
instead of our earlier target of 21 m hac." at the 14th Conference of Parties to the United Nations
Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) at Greater Noida (September 2019).

13.2 | OBJECTIVES OF ARTIFICIAL REGENERATION

• Supplement natural regeneration : Natural regeneration is a slow and

IFoS 2014 : Discuss in detail
challenging process, and often it does not give adequate and uniform the objectives of artificial
stocking over the area. We cannot rely only upon it; we have to regeneration (10 m)
supplement it by artificial means. The natural regeneration in sal-
bearing moist deciduous forests in Uttar Pradesh has always been a problem; fir and spruce forests
in Himachal Pradesh are also facing the same issue.
• Replacing Natural Regeneration by artificial means : Due to an increase in the biotic pressure, the
natural regeneration in several areas is lacking, slow, and uncertain. Therefore, it is necessary to
regenerate that area with the help of artificial means to speed up the regeneration process
(Remember, here, we do not just supplement the natural regeneration process. We actually remove
the majority of natural seedlings and replace them with plantation).
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• Restocking & revegetate (Reforestation) our degraded and overexploited forest. That was damaged
due to heavy biotic pressure. We already have the target of 26 million hectares of degraded land
that should be reforested by 2030.
• Reclamation & Afforestation of Wastelands, abandoned mining areas, and industrial dumping
grounds.
• Increasing Proportion of Valuable Species : called - Forest enrichment***, it also helps in making
forest fire-resistant by planting evergreen trees.
• Changing crop composition by introducing some fast-growing exotics, i.e., Poplar, Eucalyptus, Salix.
• Rural employment generation + Support particular industries like Rasin, Kattha, Fibres, silk, cricket
bat, paper & pulp etc.
• Increase production & productivity of the forest
• Promote social & Agroforestry programs, i.e., Roadside plantations, Green highway corridors.
• Environmental conservation, coastal protection.

13.3 | ARTIFICIAL v/s NATURAL REGENERATION

▪ ECOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS : From the ecological IFoS 2019 : Discuss the factors which
perspective, the plantations (AR) differ from the natural influence the choice between natural &
forests in many ways. The plantation is raised for one or artificial regeneration (8)

two species in a given area. In contrast, the nearby IFoS 2013 : Explain various factors affecting
the choice between artificial and natural
natural forest may contain hundreds of species of trees
regeneration with reasoning (10m).
and shrubs (Tropical rain forest contains ≈ 75 to 100
IFoS 2012 : Differentiate clearly between
species in a unit area). The trees in a natural forest have natural and artificial regeneration of forests.
all age classes, whereas, in a plantation, the trees are of Describe the manner in which the natural
regeneration of Teak, Sal and Deodar takes
the same age, and the variation in their sizes is slight. The
place.
plantation contains one layer of the canopy, whereas the
IFoS 2011 : Difference between Natural &
natural forest contains many layers of canopy. artificial regeneration (5 m) [Also in,
[Himachal PSC Civil (Main) 2013, 2014;
The plantations affect the eco-system in the following
UPPSC (ACF) 2020].
ways :

 Reduction in Richness and Diversity - Due to lack of

Define Regeneration. Write, in detail,
diversity, wild animals, birds, etc., are also less than about natural and artificial
natural forests. regeneration and methods of
propagation used in forest nursery
 leaves of single species = slow decomposition rate =
[OPSC (ACF) 2019-20 | 20 m].
poor physical & chemical property = Soil Productivity
What is forest regeneration? Write in
↓ = forest productivity ↓ brief about natural and artificial
 Higher risk of insect-pest damages. regeneration of forests [Himachal PSC
Civil (Main) 2018| 10 m].
 There is a higher threat of soil erosion when soil
exposed after felling operation carried out.

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 NR utilized the site potential more effectively than

If you are given an option to choose
the AR.
between artificial and natural
▪ ECONOMIC CONSIDERATION : Artificial regeneration regeneration, list the essential factors
which you may consider to choose
(AR) provides the opportunity to select & raise the most
between artificial and natural
profitable species, which may be occurring on the site or regeneration [Karnataka PSC 2015 |
exotic species suitable for the site. However, AR is labor- 4m].

intensive and increase production cost. What do you understand by the term
‘regeneration’? Write an account on
 Cost of production : AR >>> NR
methods of artificial regeneration of
 Product yield & Quality : AR >>> NR forests. What are the advantages of
 Employment generation (under MGNREGA ☺ ) : AR artificial regeneration over natural
regeneration? [Mizoram PSC (ACF)
>>> NR
2015 | 20 m].
▪ GENETICAL ASPECTS : AR plantation contains more Compare natural and artificial
improved and superior phenotypic, genetic base trees regeneration in forests with reference

than the NR. to forest development [UKPSC (RFO)

2012 | 20 m].
▪ CROP STOCKING : Crop produced in AR are of the same
What do you mean by Natural
age, the same size, evenly distributed, and fully stocked.
Regeneration? Explain the merits and
Whereas, The crop growing in natural forests is uneven demerits of natural regeneration
and irregular. [Mizoram PSC (ACF) 2009 | 10 m].

Why artificial regeneration is preferred

[ Note : Remember, Comparison in AR & NR is just like a over natural regeneration? Give
comparison in Even & Uneven aged crops.] reasons [OPSC Civil (Main) 2006 | 20
m].
13.4 | FACTORS AFFECTING PLANTATION ACTIVITY

• Finance : one of the most important considerations in deciding the rate of the plantation. There are
three primary sources of finance, (a) Local state government or the government of India, (b)
International funding agencies, and (c) Commercial banks. Most of the funds for plantations are
coming up from local state governments or the government of India sources. Now CAMPA fund + 2%
share of the project cost under green highway corridor. International funding agencies like World
Bank, USAID, SEDA, etc.
• Land : Land must be available in large chunks for raising plantations. The land should be made
available to the planting organization 1 to 5 years in advance to carry out preliminary surveys and
other pre-plantation works. The availability of land in small pockets creates a supervision problem
and increases plantation costs.
• Labour : Plantation activity is labor-intensive, and therefore, sufficient labor, both trained and
untrained, should be available for raising plantations.
• Infrastructure : Several other infrastructures such as nurseries, roads, workshops, transport facilities,
housing, etc., are required. Without these infrastructures, plantations on a large scale are difficult.

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• Marketing and pricing : The main purpose of raising plantations in the production of either firewood
or timber or pulpwood. Several times market conditions change, which leads to a change in the
utilization pattern. If market support is available, the plantations become self-sustaining.
• Social and cultural factors : Social and cultural factors also affect the rate of development of the
plantation. Local demands adversely affect industrial plantations.

DO 'RUSSIAN POPLAR' SEEDS May CAUSE ILLNESS IN KASHMIR?

Over the years, people in the Valley have started to prefer the "Russian poplar" over the native
Kashmiri popular for its rapid growth, 10-15 years to reach full size compared to 30 - 40 years for the
Kashmiri poplar. It was introduced in Kashmir in 1982 under a Word Bank-aided social forestry scheme.
The tree is a Western American species known as Eastern Cottonwood (Populus deltoides) in the US. In
May every year, hospitals and doctors in the Kashmir Valley find themselves treating many patients,
especially children, with respiratory diseases. The patients complain of sore throat, cold, cough, and
fever. While a common cause is pollen shed by various plants, the spike in illness has often been
attributed to a phenomenon during this season.

RESULT : In 2014, J & K High Court banned the sale, purchase, and plantation of the female "Russian
poplars" in Srinagar.

IFoS 2017 : Some rural communities are opposed to Chir pine and advocate the removal of Chir pine and
its replacement with broadleaved multipurpose trees. What is your reaction to this matter? (10 m).
[Question, based on similar issues, so it needs to analyze and prepare such issue during preparation].

13.5 | PLANTATION ORGANISATION

Plantation activity requires a great deal of organization and planning. A number of operations are
required to be performed in a plantation program. Some of the essential activities relating to plantations
are as follows -
(i) Seed collection and storage
(ii) Identification of land where the plantation is to be raised
(iii) Nursery operation for raising planting stock
(iv) Pre-planting activities
(v) Sowing and planting
(vi) Protection and maintenance
(vii) Tending operations
a. Weeding
b. Pruning
c. Thinning
d. Others
(viii) Rotation and harvesting

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13.6 | PLANTATION SCHEDULE (Time table)

One of the key factors for the success of plantations is

IFoS 2014 : What do you mean by
timely operations. A schedule usually exists in each state for the
plantation schedule ? Give in detail
completion of various activities involved in plantations. The layout, the factors which decide the success
demarcation, marking, etc., of the felling coupe or plantation area of the plantation program (10 m).

should be completed about one year in advance. Similarly, the

collection of seeds and sowing in the nursery should start at least one to 3 years in advance, depending
upon the plants' species and required size. The felling of trees and shrubs in the plantation area should be
completed about 6 to 8 months in advance. The trees should be logged, and saleable material should be
removed from the coupe at least six months in advance. The disposal of slash and debris and working of
the soil should be completed by April-May, and the plantation should start as early as possible after the
onset of the monsoon. After planting is over, the plantation should be inspected, and the seedlings which
have died should be replaced. In the first year, 2 to 3 weedings are done. Thinning is done after five years
of age.

PLANTATION SCHEDULE FOR CHIR, DEODAR, TEAK, AND BAMBOO

Species
Types of Work
Chir Deodar Teak Bamboo
A. Nursery
1. seed collection Y - 19 Y - 31 Y - 27 Y - 26
2. Seed sowing (after seed treatment) Y - 18 Y - 30 Y - 15 Y - 14
3. Transplanting Y - 10 Y - 20 Y - 10 Y - 10
4. Grading of nursery stock Y-1 Y-1 Y-1 Y-1

5. Preparation of stumps/Rhizomes - - Y – 0.5 Y – 0.5

B. Plantation

6. Demarcation of the plantation site Y - 18 Y - 12 Y – 12 Y – 12

7. Map preparation Y - 18 Y - 12 Y – 12 Y – 12

8. cleaning the area Y - 12 Y-6 Y–6 Y–6

9. Soil working Y-3 Y-3 Y–3 Y–3

10. Fencing Y-2 Y-2 Y–2 Y–2

11. Transport of planting stock Y – 0.5 Y – 0.5 Y – 0.5 Y – 0.5

12. Plantation of stumps & rhizomes - - Y - 0.5 Y – 0.5

13. Plantation of seedlings Y Y Y 0.5

Here, Y = Period of planting (July of the planting year) and figures and. Values are months before the
period of planting. Y-19 means 19 months before the planting period.

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13.7 | SUCCESS OF PLANTATION

The success of the plantation program depends upon several factors. Technical factors, like
selecting the suitable species, correct soil working, the proper size of nursery stock, proper planting
technique, etc., are important. Besides these, several socio-economic
IFoS 2012 : Comment critically :
factors also decide the success of the plantation. Some of them are as
Failure of Forest plantations (5)
follows :

• Participation and involvement of the LOCAL POPULATION

• Commitment and the financial provisions by the government over a long period of time. Change in
government should not alter the allotment.
• Plantation should be done as a part of integrated land use.
• There should be a competent organization to carry out the plantation. There should be an
arrangement for proper training.
• Infrastructure should be well developed in respect of nursery, seed, store, etc.
• The plantations need to be protected against biotic interference for a more extended period from
the local population.

13.8 | ADVANTAGES OF PLANTATION

Human-made plantations cannot replace the functions of natural IFoS 2014 : describe the characteristics
forests. Even then, the human-made plantations have several and structure of an even-aged stand
advantages, as enumerated below – (10 m) [ Linked Q ].

• The plantations can be grown on degraded and denuded lands, which have become unfit for
agricultural crops. The plantations can also be grown in areas under grazing pressure.
• They can be grown near the market or industries where the raw material to be obtained from
plantations is actually required. It will drastically reduce the cost of transportation and end products.
• The present-day shortage of lands has made it obligatory to adopt various agroforestry practices so
that trees can be grown along with the cultivation of agricultural crops.
• From the economic point of view, plantations give more outstanding timber volume production and,
consequently, greater economic returns = higher benefit/cost ratio.
• Human-made plantations are easy to manage because they have uniformity over the area. The
intermediate and end products are also uniform and modern techniques of planting, cultural
operations, harvesting, and fire prevention methods can be adopted with minimum costs.
• The spacing between plants & crop composition can be regulated in man-made plantations.
• The choice of species can be made according to the actual requirements of the market.
• The plantations can be a rise in areas which are beyond the natural forest zones and consequently
de-pressurize our forest.
• The short-rotation crop and a long rotation crop can be grown together in a human-made forest.

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• It is easy to forecast the future yield of timber and firewood and their gradual removal, so the
sustained yield principle is brought into practice.
• The exotic species can also be introduced through man-made plantations.
• By means of artificial plantations, the tree-breeding program can be introduced in addition to the
creation of seed orchards. This ensures the production and utilization of good seeds to create gene
banks (germplasm conservation).
• Check Soil erosion by wind & water.
• Provide large-scale employment to the rural masses = by Plantations works + its future management.
• High-value timber obtained by large-scale plantations can be exported to earn foreign exchange.
Presently our country is importing newsprint paper and pulp; even the paper of your notes comes
from Malaysia.
• The inadequate stock of standing crops can be replaced by valuable timber species like teak and
tropical pines, and the full potential and productivity of land can be taken advantage of.
• Large-scale plantations can also help in controlling the present-day global warming issue.
• The planted areas invite a large number of flora and fauna and create recreational, aesthetic, sports,
and meditational opportunities. In addition to these, planted areas also provide research
opportunities to scientists and foresters.

13.9 | EXERCISE

Define regeneration. Write in detail, about natural and artificial regeneration and methods of
propagation used in forest nursery [OPSC Forest Service (Main) 2019-20 | 20m]
Explain, in brief, the objectives of reforestation [OPSC Civil (Main) 2020 | 10m]
Comments on the following - Objects of afforestation [OPSC Civil (Main) 2020 | 10m]
What are the merits and demerits of natural regeneration as compared to artificial regeneration?
Discuss the status of natural regeneration in Chir (pinus roxburghii) and deodar (Cedrus deodara)
forests [Himachal PSC Civil (Main) 2016| 20 m].
If you are given an option to choose between artificial and natural regeneration, list the essential
factors with you may consider to choose between artificial and natural regeneration [Karnataka PSC
(ACF/RFO) 2015].

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14 CHOICE OF SPECIES

In artificial regeneration, one of the most critical decisions is the selection of species. The choice of
species deserves thoughtful consideration as it controls the success of artificial regeneration. A minor
error in the selection of species may result in the plantation's failure, which will lead to a huge loss of
money, time, and energy. Several factors need consideration in the selection of species for artificial
regeneration. Essential factors to be taken under consideration in the choice of species are as follows -
(A) Site factors = 4
(B) Purpose of plantation ? = Commercial + Envi + Social ?
(C) Silvicultural characteristics of a species.
(D) Economic factors.

Extra Notes : Hardwood v/s Softwood; Indigenous v/s Exotics species; Fast-growing v/s Slow-growing
species; Pure crop v/s Mix crop; Nurse crop & Cover crop. Controversies - Poplar, Eucalyptus, and P.
Cineraria, etc.

14.1 | FACTORS

A. SITE FACTORS

 Climatic factors : Every species requires a specific environment for its growth and development
and we have to choose accordingly. For sites located in hot, dry conditions like the semi-arid
region of Rajasthan, we have to choose species like Acacia, Albizzia, Prosopis (in short, AAP,
jhaduwale ☺ ). whereas, for cold deserts, we have to choose species like Salix, Populus &
Juniperus spp. We can't interchange these species.

Rainfall (mm) Climate Suitable species

Acacia tortilis, A. Senegal, Prosopis spp,
Hot desert
Less than 250 Tamarix spp.
Cold desert Salix, Populus, and Juniperus spp.
Tropical semi-arid AAP + Neem + Pongamia pinnata (karanj)
250 to 750 mm
Temperate semi-arid Salix, Populus, and Juniperus spp.
Eucalyptus, Casuarina, Dalbergia sissoo, Teak,
Tropical semi-humid
1250 – 2000 mm Gmelina arborea,
Temperate semi-humid Populus, Robinia, Pine, Deodar

Here, we need just to understand their distribution pattern; no needs to mug-up everything.
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 Edaphic factors : every soil types have some specific

IFoS 2021 : What factors are considered
properties and challenges, so we have to select
important while choosing a species under
species accordingly. In Black cotton soil, Acacia avenue plantation? (8 m)
nilotica & Pongamia pinnata can sustain themselves
IFoS 2018 : Write in brief on the criteria of
during the development of cracks. In contrast, many selection of tree for resistance to adverse
other species did not survive after facing damage to environments for high-quality timber
production (8m).
root hairs due to these cracks.
IFoS 2013 : Enumerate the factors which
 Biotic factors : is our site facing grazing pressure?
decide the choice of species for plantation
Illegal lopping? If yes, then we can plant Gliricidia (8) [Also in, OPSC Civil (Main) 2018-19].
maculata for more fodder production. IFoS 2012 : What are ecological aspects for
Selecting the tree species ? Discuss (8m).
B. PURPOSE OF PLANTATION
IFoS 2010 : Write on tree species for smoke
 To fulfill industrial demands – like Poplar, and dust pollution control (5 m).
Eucalyptus and bamboo plantation for paper and
What factors influence the choice of
pulp industry, Chir pine plantation for resin
species in artificial regeneration?
production, Mulberry plantation for Silk production, Discuss with suitable examples [OPSC
Diospyros melanoxylon (Tendu) for Bidi industry, Civil (Main) 2019 | 20 m].
Salix for cricket bat industry. How choice of species influence
 To fulfill social demands – of fuelwood, fodder, success or failure of a forest
regeneration drive? Explain [UKPSC
timber, etc.
(RFO) 2012 | 10 m].
 Environment protection : like air pollution in New
Delhi, Green buffer around industrial complexes, checking the effect of hot & cold wind by
windbreaks and shelterbelt, etc.
 Aesthetic needs : development of parks, picnic spots, avenues & urban plantations, etc.

C. SILVICULTURAL NEEDS OF THE SELECTED SPECIES

 Ecological requirements : newly formed ravine beds or abandoned mines required pioneer
species. If we plant Climax vegetation, our plantation never succeeds here.
 Silviculture system : species selected for clear felling system should be light demanders like
Teak, Chir pine, Khair, etc.
 Effect of species on Site factors : Monoculture = overexploit the site = decrease soil productivity
after 2/3 rotation.
 Growth rate : Fast growth rate or slow growth rate.
 Resistance to insect – pests & diseases: Pink disease in Eucalyptus.
 Easy to establishment

D. ECONOMIC FACTORS

 Production cost v/s Net return

 Demand and supply in Local, national, and international markets, i.e., Poplar plantation in Tarai
because of paper & Pulp industrial demands in Lalkuan (Nainital).

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14.2 | HARDWOOD AND SOFTWOOD

▪ Hardwoods are basically the broad-leaved trees in which woods are comparatively hard, durable,
and solid due to vessels, heavy deposition of gum, and lignin. So, they are suitable for construction
work. Whereas, Softwoods are conifers, with a lack of lignin and gum deposition, so suitable for the
paper and pulp industry.

Characters Hardwoods Softwoods

Wood

Colour Darker in color, Heavy in weight Lighter in color, Lighter in weight

Species Broad leaves Conifers

14.3 | INDIGENOUS v/s EXOTIC SPECIES

 INDIGENOUS SPECIES are the ones that are growing naturally

Why should indigenous species
in the country or a particular region of it. be preferred in plantation?
Discuss their merits and
Advantages of indigenous species
demerits with example [OPSC
 The growth of indigenous species is known, and timber, Civil (Main) 2017 | 30 m].

fiber, and firewood production can be forecast easily.

 They have well-established markets.
 They have already adopted the local environment, so they are less susceptible to severe
damage from insect pests, Fire & harsh environment, etc.
 Conservation of native flora : indigenous species are ecologically more desirable. The animals
would love to eat leaf fodder of indigenous species. The exotics may not be suitable for their
health.
 Seed collection, storage, and treatment are no problem. The seeds can be collected in bulk
quantity, and plantation techniques are standardized.

Disadvantages : The advantages of exotics are the disadvantages of an indigenous one.

 EXOTIC SPECIES : Exotic species are grown outside the limits

IFoS 2018 : Write the problems and
of their natural zone of distribution, i.e., Teak is exotic in UP. prospects of exotic tree species in
For practical purposes, an exotic is defined as an introduction India with suitable examples (15 m).

of a species from a foreign country.

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ADVANTAGES OF EXOTICS

 Exotics Provide a much wider choice of species IFoS 2021 : Are non-native tree species an
suited to the site and other requirements, especially option or a threat in forest ecosystem /
Plantation under climate change? (8m)
when there are no suitable indigenous species
IFoS 2016 : Discuss the reasons for
 R & D of 1 country can be shared and utilized by
widespread use of exotics for plantations
other countries. and specific advantages of exotics over
 Some may perform well in exotic land than in their native species (8m) [Also in, OPSC Civil
(Main) 2018 | 20 m].
natural habitat due to the absence of pests &
IFoS 2012 : Comments unon - Exotics in
diseases outside of their natural habitat, at least for
Indian Forestry (5m) [UKPSC (RFO) 2015;
some rotation, i.e., the leaf-eating insect in OPSC Civil (Main) 2018].
Eucalyptus species is quite common in Australia, IFoS 2000 : What are the exotic species ?
whereas in India it is totally absent. Briefly describe the advantages and
problems associated with exotic forestry ?
 Fast-growing + higher quality of product = increase
[Also in, Karnataka PCS (RFO) 2007, 2011].
productivity and production of our forest. Plantation forestry in India is based on
exotics. Justify your views with suitable
DIS-ADVANTAGES OF EXOTICS examples [OPSC Civil (M) 2017 | 20m].
Write the botanical names of five
 They are considered ecologically less valuable than exotic trees along with their country of
indigenous species; they do not have any linkage origin [MHPSC (ACF) 2012 | 10 m].
What are the relative merits of
with the local ecosystem for the next few years.
indigenous species and exotic species
Even in the absence of insect-pest (Controlling biotic [Arunachal PSC Civil (mains) 2015-16 ]
factors), this species can become obnoxious.
 Become susceptible to new insect-pest, i.e., Pink disease in Eucalyptus spp.
 The introduction & acclimatization process took a long time and may not serve the purpose of
immediate needs.
 Unable to produce viable seeds, i.e., after more than 200 years of introduction, Eucalyptus is still
unable to produce viable seeds outside of Nilgiri.
 The health issue of Russian poplar in Kashmir valley. Prosopis cineraria' issue in Telangana.

[ A public interest litigation (PIL) was initiated in December 2016 by a Madurai division bench of Madras
High court on the removal of seemai karuvelam (Prosopis juliflora) trees. An invasive species which is
considered harmful to the maintenance of groundwater table and many river beds was filled with this
tree. Their order was first implemented in 13 districts under the jurisdiction of the Madurai Bench before
being expanded to the entire State ].

EXOTICS' INTRODUCTION STEPS

• Identify climatic and other locality site factors as well as Homo-climes or iso-climes in the world.
• Check Plasticity & adaptability of the targeted species into the wide ranges of periodic environmental
stresses, i.e., Eucalyptus cameldulensis can grow in the semi-arid region whereas Eucalyptus Globulus
in normal mesophytic conditions. So, they require almost similar silvicultural operation and
management practices.

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• Procurement of germplasm : by Gift / Purchase / Collection

IFoS 2020 : What are the different factors
• Quarantine : Keep material isolated to prevent disease
governing the successful introduction of an
spreading / Fumigation / other necessary treatments. exotic tree species ? (10 m) [Similar Q,
• Cataloging: Name, Place of origin, Features, etc. Karnataka PSC (ACF/RFO) 2015 ].

• Germplasm Evaluation & Preliminary trials in the IFoS 2008 : Explain in details norms to be
arboretum : for testing its performance in the local followed while introducing exotic tree
species. Outline and explain the steps to be
environment; seed viability, its physical & mechanical
considered for the introduction of exotic
properties, and to identify its obnoxiousness or harmful species (20 m).
effect on the local environment, if any.
• Multiplication & Distribution.

EXAMPLES

sn Species Place of introduction Country of origin

1 Acacia auriculiformis North Indian plain Australia
2 A. decurrens Nilgiri Australia
3 A. mangium Coastal area of West Bengal Australia
4 A. mearnsii Nilgiri Australia
5 Acacia albida Dry area Africa
6 A. tortilis Dry area of Rajasthan (jodhpur) Israel
7 Bambusa burmanica FRI campus Burma
8 Casuarina equisetifolia Mainly coastal areas Indonesia
9 Cinnamomum camphora South India (KR-KN-TN) China - Japan
10 Cryptomeria japonica Darjeeling region Japan
11 Dendrocalamus giganteus NE India Burma
12 Eucalyptus camaldulensis UP – Punjab - Rajasthan Australia
13 E. citriodora KN Australia
14 E. globulus Nilgiri Australia
15 E. tereticornis Pan India Australia
16 Hevea brasiliensis KR - TN Brazil
17 Pinus caribaea Assam, MP, UK Honduras
18 Populus deltoides Tarai region North America
19 Prosopis juliflora Central India Mexico

Native of Europe - Western Asia

20 Salix alba J & K + HP region, but in India, it
introduced from china.

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EUCALYPTUS

WHY DO WE ADOPT THIS?

 Fast-growing species = 10-years rotation

 The high degree of adaptability
 Easy to raise & manage
 High survival rate
 Grazing issue = ×
 Strong coppice – 1-time plantation can use
up to 3/4 rotations.
 High return (economic viable) – Timber used
in the paper & pulp industry.

CONTROVERSIES?

 High Water consumption – 20 to 40 litter per pay per tree = lowering the water table. (However,
it has higher water use efficiency as per litter volume production).
 Allelopathy – prevent undergrowth and seed germination, so it helps in increasing runoff & soil
erosion.
 Eucalyptus makes soil Acidic due to a higher rate of calcium recycling.

WHY IN NEWS AGAIN ? In mid of 2017, the Karnataka government ban on Eucalyptus plantations. In
Karnataka, a large-scale planting of Eucalyptus under the Social Forestry scheme aided by the World
bank was carried out in the 1980s to meet the firewood and timber demand not only squeezed the
underground water table but also made soil unfertile and annual rainfall in the region a mirage of its
former self.

14.4 | Pure crop v/s Mixed crop

▪ PURE CROP : plantation of a single species (if several species = mix crop)

Advantages of pure plantation

 Easy to manage & execute silvicultural operations

 High yield return,
 Clean and straight bole with minor tapering rate,
 Mechanization possible so economical in production
Disadvantages
 Poor ecological value,
 More susceptible to the damage of insects and pests,
 Poor resistance against forest fire, snow, frost, and wild animals damages,

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 High production of only targeted goods but overall productivity is poor than the mixed crop.

▪ MIX CROP : growing of several species on a single plot,

TYPES : (1) Temporary & (2) permanent, or (3) Horizontal mixing & (4) vertical mixing.

ADVANTAGES

 The top canopy provides early protection to the ground vegetation in its early stage (as Nurse
crop), i.e., Ricinus communis protect sal seedlings against frost.
 Provide completion in early-stage to make the straight and boost height & strong taproot
system growth.
 Additional revenue with the main crop

14.5 | Cover crop v/s Nurse crop

▪ NURSE CROP : Nurse crops are those which are raised with the primary object of helping up a less
hardy species from the hot sun, frost, and other natural and biotic factors. They are usually removed
at an early stage as soon as they have served their purpose.
Differentiate between -
Suppose the nurse crops are raised to protect frost-tender Nurse crop and cover crop
species in the initial stages; we have not to select such crops as [Himachal PSC Civil (Main)
2012, 2016 ]
the nurse crop, which becomes leafless during the winter season.

Examples

 Arhar, Castor, Macaragca spp. are used to protect Teak & sal seedling from the hot sun.
 We used Gmelina arborea to protect Dipterocarpus terbinatus plantation from the sun.
 Castor to protect Tephrosia from frost etc.

▪ COVER CROP : The cover crops are subsidiary species, usually low shrubs, but sometimes small trees
or even herbs intentionally introduced into a plantation with the primary object of restoring a cover over
the soil as quickly as possible to minimize the risk of soil erosion due to exposure. The cover crop checks
surface erosion, adds organic matter, restores humus to the soil, and improves soil's physical and
chemical properties, and keeps away injurious weeds and grasses.

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The cover crop is often required for tea, rubber, and other economic crops. The
leguminous shrubs and creepers are efficient cover crops. Tephrosia Candida has been most widely
used in forest plantations (i.e., Sal) of Bengal and Assam. The other cover crops are Indigofera
tinctoria (in the first year of Sal plantation), Crotalaria juncia, Imperata grass, etc.

14.6 | FAST AND SLOW-GROWING SPECIES

The concept of fast growth and slow growth is relative because maybe one species that is slow-growing in
its early stage may become fast-growing at a later stage; even locality affects it (fast-growing in 1 location
while slow at another). So it depends on various factors such as the site's productive capacity, the
purpose of planting, the age at which maximum volume is produced, and the age at which the tree
develops defects or deteriorates due to the effect of wind, frost, pests, and diseases.

CRITERIA

 if a species produces ≥ 10 m3/ha/year of timber volume considered as a fast-growing species.

 In the case of the younger plantation, if its height grows ≥ 60 cm per year, considered as fast growth.

THE ADVANTAGES OF PLANTING FAST-GROWING SPECIES ARE

 Plantation becomes early merchantable + Higher yield per unit are = high profitable.
 Able to fulfill rising industrial demands
 Fast growth = early maturity. It means less probability of damage due to fire, insect & disease
attacks.

DISADVANTAGES

 Poor physical & mechanical properties, so timber is not fit for furniture or construction work. Fast-
growing species like poplar & Eucalyptus are mainly produced for the paper & pulp industry.
 Defective production
 Exhausted soil and water resources = reduce site productivity.

14.7 | EXERCISE

Enumerate the factor, which decide the choice of species for plantation [OPSC Forest Service (Main)
2019-20 | 10m]
Write a note on - choice of species for afforestation [OPSC Civil (Main) 2011 | 20 m].
Twenty hectares of degraded Sal forests are to be artificially regenerated. Describe all steps from
choice of species to plantation management you would follow [OPSC Civil (Main) 2015 | 30 m].
Explain the problems encountered normally when using the exotic species and also narrate the
reason why poor sources or wrong species are used in exotic forestry programmes [Karnataka PCS
RFO - 2008 | 12 m].

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SEED SUPPLY
15

WHY DO WE REQUIRE SEED SUPPLY ?

1. Our forests were already experiencing very heavy biotic pressure and other stresses, and now
climate change & global warming are further stressing them. The result? Most of our natural forests
now start failing to regenerate naturally. Therefore, if we want to sustain our forest or our
ecosystem, we have to artificially supplement them through nursery-raised plantations. (Can you
recall the issue of Cardinal temperature that we learn in chapter 3).
2. Restoration of wasteland, abandoned mines, industrial dumping grounds, etc., require artificially
raised planting material.
3. Our commitment to the INDC (under the Paris Agreement) to the creation of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes
of additional CO2 sinks by 2030. Apart from this, we further commit to restoring our 26 million
hectares of degraded land by 2030 under UNCCD (2019, Greater Noida).
4. Artificial plantation requirements under – CAMPA, National green highway project, raising Industrial
demands of timber, pulp & papers.

STEPS (A review of this chapter)

Figure 15.1 : basic steps in the seed collection process

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15.2 | SEED COLLECTION

Once we determined the species according to our plantation objectives, site factors, and economic
considerations. We usually start identifying its provenance to ensure that it should be the genetically best
plant. Now on the third step, we start thinking about How many seeds we require for our targeted work
as per our targeted plantation work area, spacing, seed germination %, etc.

The quantity of seeds of a given species required for a plantation program should be worked out in
advance by the following formula.
IFoS 2017 : Calculate the number of
seeds required to raise a 20 hectare
plantation with 4 m x 4 m spacing and an
extra plant in the centre of each square.
Where, Q = quantity of seed required. Plant percent of the species is 75% (8 m).
A = Area to be planted during a year in ha.
IFoS 2011 : How do we calculate the
D = Density of plants per ha. seed requirement of a species while
S - Survival percentage of plantation in a given raising nursery? Also explain the method
of calculating the number of plants
locality expressed in decimal.
required per hectare for plantation (
N = Number of seeds in one kilogram. 10m).
G = Germination percentage in decimal.
M = Mortality percent in the nursery in decimal [ We know that this is wrong at some point, but
we have seen many books, and we have found this formula repeatedly].

Note - The quantity of seed required for raising plants for casualty replacement also has to be considered.

Methods of seed collection

▪ COLLECTING FROM STANDING TREE : (a) The collector can climb the tree and pick the ripe fruits. (b)
In the case of small shrubs and trees, the collector can collect seeds and fruits either directly or with
the help of tools while standing on the ground.

▪ SEED COLLECTION FROM THE CROWN OF FELLED TREES : Seeds and fruits can be collected from the
trees during commercial felling. However, this required synchronizing commercial felling with the
seed ripening season of the tree. So, limited application.

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▪ SEED COLLECTION FROM FALLEN FRUITS : Seeds and fruits can be picked from
the ground after natural seed fall. This seed collection method is usually cheap
and followed in several species in which fruits are large in size, i.e., Tectona
grandis, Gmelina arborea, Terminalia arjuna, etc.

Disadvantages of this method – (a) there is a risk of collecting immature and

unsound seeds, (b) Uncertainty about the mother trees, and (c) rodents and
insects possibly damage a large number of them.
Seed collection
Time of seed collection from the ground

We usually collect during the Good seed year (the year when the plant produces seeds abundantly).
however, we follow some criteria like –

We can collect seeds from Do not collect from

 Ripened fruits  Over mature, rotten, and fallen fruits

 From middle-age trees  Young or middle-aged trees
 Dominant & co-dominant trees  Suppressed trees
 Good form (small crown, straight bole,  Poor formed wolf trees, Isolated (self-
less tapering rate) & pollinated) trees
 Healthy trees  diseases & infected tree

15.3 | SEED PROCESSING

• Cleaning : blowing, winnowing, sieving, screening, etc., to remove

impurities.
• Pre-curing : deliberately storage of immature seeds for ripening
• de-pulping of Fleshy fruits.
• De-winging of winged fruits/seeds, i.e., Arjun fruits.
• Grading of seeds as per their size, shape (quality) Figure : Seed screening

15.4 | SEED STORAGE

AIM : (1) Preservation of viable seeds from their collection to the time when they were used for sowing.
(2) Maintain its viability.

▪ TYPES OF SEED : Orthodox or recalcitrant.

▪ TEMPERATURE : relative low temperature lowering down seeds' respiration rate***, which means this
increases seed life. However, if seeds have 4 to 8 % moisture (Orthodox seeds), they have no freezing
threat and can be stored below 0oC for a long period. Whereas in the case of recalcitrant higher % of
moisture creasing issue of freezing cell sap.

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▪ SEED MATURITY : Ripened seeds can be stored for a longer time than immature ones. Even some
species also require time delay after ripening to start germination (that we are known as Seed
dormancy).
▪ Damages : by Insect/pests, during de-pulping & de-winging.

TYPES OF SEEDS

▪ ORTHODOX SEEDS : seeds that can be dried up to low moisture content (≈ 5%, wet basis) and can be
stored for low or sub-freezing temperatures for a long time without losing their viability. Orthodox
seeds are mostly hard coated and include many tropical leguminous species, i.e., Acacia, Albizzia,
Prosopis, Cassia spp. etc.

▪ RECALCITRANT SEED : Seeds that do not survive low moisture content stresses (below 20 to 30 %) and
loss their germination capacity, i.e., Seeds of Neem, Jamun, Sal, Dipterocarpus spp. etc. These seeds
are primarily large and have high moisture content, which cannot be dried without causing injury.

Features Orthodox Recalcitrant

Dominating in arid and semi-arid

Natural environments and pioneers in humid Prevalent in warm, humid climates, also
occurrence climates. Also prevalent in temperate some temperate and few dry zones
and tropical high-altitude species

Tolerant to desiccation and low Intolerant to desiccation and low

Seed moisture temperatures. Conventional storing 5- temperature. Tolerance level depends
content and 7% moisture content & 0-50 C storage on species, average minimum 20-30%
temperature
during storage temperature. Cryopreservation 2-4% moisture and 12-150 C for tropical
moisture content and -150C to - 200C . species

With optimal storage conditions several From a few days for extremely
Potential storage years for most species; for some several recalcitrant species to several months
period
decades. for more tolerant ones

Small to medium-size seed, often with Usually, medium to large size and heavy
Seed character
hard seed coat seeds partly attributed to high moisture

Accumulation of dry weight ceases Accumulation of dry weight up to the

before maturation. The decline of time of seed dispersal. Little or no
Maturation moisture content typically to 6-10% at maturation drying moisture content at
characters
maturity. Little variation between maturity 30-70% with significant
individual seeds. variation between individual seeds

Dormancy Dormancy often occurs Dormancy absent or weak

IFoS 2020 : What are Orthodox and Recalcitrant seeds? Give five examples for each of these categories of seeds (10 m).
IFoS 2014 : Explain the following – Orthodox & recalcitrant seeds (5 m).

Differentiate between - Orthodox seeds and recalcitrant seeds [UPPSC ACF/RFO (Main) 2020 | 8m; HPPSC Civil
(Main) 2019 | 2m]

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TYPES OF SEED STORAGE

▪ Open storage : In this type of storage, moisture and temperature are not controlled. Seeds are kept
in cans, baskets, sacks, or tins and stored in a cool and dry place. The seeds' viability varies with the
climatic factors, and usually, warm and humid climates are not suitable, whereas dry and cold
regions are the best. Seeds having impervious seed coats remain viable for many years when stored
by this method, i.e., Acacia spp., Albizia spp., Prosopis spp.,
etc. SEED VIABILITY IN NORMAL STORAGE

▪ Warm Storage with Humidity Control : The seeds are first  3 weeks = Sal, Neem, Dipterocarpus
 3 Month = Mango
dried and then stored in humidity-controlled rooms or
 1 Year = Teak, Bamboo
chambers. The desirable temperature range is 20-28°C, and  Above 2 years = Acacia, Albizzia,
relative humidity should not be higher than 45 to 60%. Cassia, Prosopis, etc.
▪ Cold Storage with or without Humidity Control : The
storage temperature is kept 10°C or below, and the relative humidity should not be higher than 50%.
We generally use containers for storing, and they should be sealed to prevent ice crystals formed,
i.e., Conifers.
▪ Cold Moist Storage : The seeds are not dried and are stored in a container that maintains high
moisture content, or seeds are mixed with moisture-retaining material. Inside the container, relative
humidity is 80-90% and temperature between 0-10°C. Seeds that can be stored by this method are
Acer, Juglans, Quercus, Litchi, etc. Pines, deodar, spruce, and Fir can also be stored for 10 years at
3°C.

PRECAUTIONS REQUIRED DURING STORAGE

 Temperature, Humidity & oxygen level in the chamber.

 Protection against rodents, insects & fungi
 Proper levelling, Tagging & arrangements.

SOIL SEED BANK?

The soil seed bank is the natural

storage of seeds, often dormant,
within most ecosystems' soil. It helps
in the survivability of a species against
attacks of rodents, adverse climatic,
and other factors. It also helps in the
rapid re-vegetation of sites after
disturbances like a forest fire,
catastrophic weather, severe
grasshopper attacks.

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15.5 | SEED TREATMENT

Seed treatment

1 2 3
Break dormancy Seed treatment (Coating, Improving the
pelleting, dressing) to protect uniformity of seeds
them against pests, diseases
and adverse weather
To accelerate seed
germination.

(A) | SEED DORMANCY

Many species' seeds do not germinate immediately after the ripening of seeds/fruits, even though
we provide all the appropriate conditions necessary for its germination. Why? Because they require a
specific time period for rest before they can germinate. This state of physiological inactivity is called
DORMANCY.

▪ DEFINITION : Dormancy is the state of physiological inactivity in which the viable seeds fail to
germinate even in the presence of a favorable environment – (1) Moisture, (2) proper aeration & (3)
Suitable cardinal temperature for the radical emergence and seedling growth.

Or

Dormancy is the state of physiological inactivity in which the seed does not germinate even in the
presence of a favorable environment.

NOTE : QUIESCENCE is the condition of a seed when it is not able to germinate when the external
factors required for growth (i.e., (1) temperature, (2) moisture and (3) proper aeration) are not
present. The embryo is called quiescent or non-dormant when the seed can germinate soon after
getting these 3 requires conditions. In contrast, dormancy is the condition of seed when it fails to
germinate if internal factors required for germination are not present even if the external conditions
are suitable.

TYPES OF SEED DORMANCY

▪ EXOGENOUS or SEED COAT DORMANCY : This type of dormancy is caused due to hard seed coats or
pericarp, which are impermeable to oxygen and moisture. The embryo is quiescent but is sealed
inside a water-impermeable coat. Seed coat dormancy occurs in Teak, Betula, and several
Leguminous species.

How seed coat prevents this ?

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 A hard seed coat prevents the entry of water into the seed.
 Hard coat obstructs the exchange of gases, especially oxygen. Oxygen is necessary for
respiration.
 A hard seed coat causes mechanical resistance. Thus radicle does not come out.

▪ ENDOGENOUS, INTERNAL or EMBRYO DORMANCY : Endogenous dormancy includes the cases of

embryos that are morphologically underdeveloped at the time of separation from the parent tree
and which need a subsequent period for further growth before they can germinate. It also includes
the cases of embryos that are morphologically mature at the time of seed dispersal or collection but
are physiologically incapable of germination until certain biochemical changes, still little understood,
take place. [In short, The dormancy factors are located in the inner tissues of the seed and
determined by the properties of the embryo or endosperm].
 It occurs in both orthodox and recalcitrant seeds.
 Embryo dormancy is a prominent feature in some temperate genera, i.e., Abies pindrow.

REASONS FOR EMBRYONIC DORMANCY

 Immature embryo
 Lack of metabolic reaction. Although the seeds are fully developed, they do not germinate
because of some factors associated with the embryo itself.
 Presence of some inhibitory substances like ammonia, ethylene, phenols, unsaturated lactones,
etc. ABA & CCC is responsible for endogenous dormancy in Fraxinus spp.
▪ COMBINED or DOUBLE DORMANCY : In which both seed coat and embryo dormancy occur at the
same time. So, more than one treatment is required to break it, i.e., Fraxinus excelsior.

NOTE : Secondary Dormancy : The non-dormant seeds, if maintained under unfavorable conditions,
may become dormant. This induced dormancy is called secondary dormancy.

REMOVING SEED COAT DORMANCY

• Water soaking for 24 hours : Several legume species respond to water soaking for 24 to 48 hours,
i.e., Acacia nilotica, Albizzia lebbeck, etc. Coldwater soaking treatment for Deodar seeds.

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• Weathering, Partial fermentation, and alternate wetting & drying : helpful in breaking hard seed coat
dormancy of Tectona grandis.
• Scarification : To make it permeable to water by creating scratches (damage) in the seed coat. It is
the most used method for large-sized seeds, i.e., Acacia catechu, A. nilotica, Albizia lebbeck, Cassia
fistula, Santalum album, Terminalia arjuna, etc.
 Mechanical damages – by rubbing the seeds on sandpaper or cut with a knife.
 Acid treatment, i.e., pouring seeds in H2SO4 solution.
 Hot water treatment : 80 to 100o C for a few minutes, i.e., Acacia spp., Albizzia spp., Prosopis
spp., etc.
• Passages through animals body : Acacia nilotica and Santalum album seeds.
• Light fire, i.e., Teak seed
• Immature fruits harvesting – before the development of hard seed coat.

REMOVING EMBRYONIC DORMANCY

• Cold stratification to overcome physiological dormancy : In cases where seeds are fully developed at
dispersal or collection, but they are inhibited from immediate germination for physiological reasons.
It is an adaptation to wait up to the onset of a favorable season, i.e., Deodar seeds wait for the
ending of the winter season and starting of snow melting. So, we provide them with a moist cold
treatment or cold stratification to overcome this dormancy.

Gunny bag layers

Seeds

• To remove morphological dormancy : give Hormonal treatments, i.e., Gibberellic acid treatment.

 X-rays, Gamma ray's treatment, and high-frequency sound waves have all been used
experimentally to overcome dormancy and stimulate germination.

(B) | SEED DRESSING

• Seed dressing is the act of coating seeds' surface with some chemicals called seed
pelleting or seed dressing.

• AIM ? Small seeds become large, so easy to scatter and aerial sowing + (given in
the below table)

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Chemical used in pelleting Aim?

Fertilizers Nourishment
Growth stimulates hormones Root-shoot initiation
Fungicides/Insecticides To prevent dumping off type diseases

(C) | SEED TESTING

The tests of the quality of seeds need to be performed at many stages, from the parent tree to the
nursery bed. Generally, we have the following objectives –

(a) Estimation of the accurate capacity of given seed lots to produce healthy and vigor plantation.
(b) Determined the required quantity,
(c) Determination of genuineness of seed lot.
(d) Provide methods by which the quality of samples can be determined accurately and perform the
tests in the most economical manner.

▪ PURITY TEST : for determining the percentage of true seeds and some other material in a seed lot. A
tree seed sample may contain the following types of impurities –
 Weed seeds.
 Seeds of other tree species
 Leaf/twigs parts
 Damaged, decayed, deformed, and under mature seeds, etc.

The main objective of purity analysis is to determine the composition of seed lots by the weight of
seeds of other species. For this, the sample seed lot is first weighted to get its original weight and
then separated impurities by hand into three components parts – (i) pure seed, (ii) Other seeds, and
(iii) Inert matter.
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑑
Purity percentage = × 100
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒

▪ SEED WEIGHT : the wight of 100 seeds

▪ TEST WEIGHT : the weight of 1000 seeds
▪ GERMINATION TEST : the test in which seeds are actually induced to germinate and commence
growth is called the germination test.
➢ Germination percentage : to indicate the percentage of seeds in a given lot that is expected to
produce seedlings.
➢ Germinatio capacity : the total number of seeds that germinate in the test plus the number of
sound seeds that remain ungerminated at the end of the test, expressed as a percentage.
220+60
Germination capacity = × 100 = 70 %
400

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➢ Germination energy : It is the percentage of seeds in a sample that have germinated in a test up
to the time when the rate of germination (the number of seed germinating per day) reaches its
peak.
 It is the measurement of germination speed.
 The number of days required to reach the peak is called germinating energy period.

For example, if we take 400 seeds of a

Germination energy
species, daily rates of germination on the
5th, 6th, 7th, 8th and 9th day after sowing Numbers of
were 20, 60, 80, 70, and 55, respectively, germinated
seeds
then germinative energy= {(20+60+80)/
400} x 100= 40 percent and germination
period is said to be 7 days.
Days

Seed germination is the emergence and development of embryo from the see which can produce
a normal plant under favourable conditions.

TYPES OF SEED GERMINATION

▪ Hypogeal Germination : In this, the cotyledons remain at the ground level, and the
PLUMULE* pushes upwards and emerges above the ground, i.e., Pongamia pinnata (Karanj),
Dendrocalamus strictus, Shorea robusta (Sal), etc.
▪ Epigeal Germination : In this the HYPOCOTYLS begins to elongate in an arch, breaking
through the soil and pulling out the cotyledons in the air, i.e., Azadirachta indica (Neem),
Tectona grandis (Teak), Pinus roxhurghii, etc.

▪ VIABILITY TEST : to check how much % of seeds are viable (living)

 Tetrazolium test : put seeds of a species in the solution of 1 % 2,3,5 triphenyl tetrazolium
chloride solution, and after 4/5 hours, inspect under a microscope. The living part of seeds
absorbs stain and becomes red in colour.
 Excised Embryo test : put seeds in 1 to 4 days water-soaked condition, then move to filter paper
for germination and count actual germination % after two days.

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 X-Rays testing : Easier & quicker method, here even no needs to dissect seeds. Based on the
principle that living cell membranes work as semi-permeable membranes.

▪ MOISTURE CONTENT TEST :

𝑊𝑒𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 − 𝐷𝑟𝑦 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

𝑀𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 = × 100
𝑊𝑒𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

NOTE : Many things still remain unexplained related to Seed science like Seed certification, Seed production
areas, Seed production orchards, seed stand, seed orchard management, etc. We will discuss all of
them in Subject Seed science and technology in Paper 1, Section B.

15.6 | EXERCISE

▪ Describe, in brief, the seed collection, processing and storage of forest tree seeds [Modified Q, OPSC
Civil (Main) 2011, 2015; OPSC Forest service (M) 2015-16].

▪ What is dormancy? Discuss pre-treatments used in overcoming dormancy in tree seeds [OPSC Civil
(Main) 2016 | 20 m].

▪ Write short notes on the following

(a) Seed coating and pelleting [IFoS 2010 | 5m].
(b) Seed viability test [Himachal PSC Civil (Main) 2013, 2014].
(c) Quick viability test of forest seeds [IFoS 2009; Mizoram PSC (ACF) 2015, 2017]
(d) Treatment for breaking exogenous dormancy [IFoS 2009 | 5m].
(e) Pre-treatments of legume seeds [Mizoram PSC Civil (mains) 2017]
(f) Explain the - Pre-sowing treatments of seed [OPSC Civil (Main) 2020 | 10m]

▪ Differentiate between Germinative capacity and germinative energy [OPSC Civil (Main) 2020 | 10m;
Himachal PSC Civil (Main) 2016|2.5 m]

▪ What is seed rain, seed bank and bud bank? Why does forester need to know about them ? explain
with examples [OPSC Civil (Main) 2017 | 30 m].

▪ How will you raise the nursery of Dalbergia sissoo? Describe all operations from seed collection till
uprooting of plants for transplanting. Write the various methods of viability tests and pre-sowing
seed treatments of Acacia catechu [Himachal PSC Civil (Main) 2016|2.5 m].

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15 FOREST NURSERY

A Forest nursery is an area where plants are growing for transplanting for use as stocks for vegetative
reproduction (i.e., budding, grafting).

Seedlings are young plants obtained from seed sowing. These young plants can be about one
meter in height. Transplants are seedlings that have transferred from one bed to another to make the
seedlings suitable for planting. Seedlings, transplants, and other planting material, i.e., rooted cuttings
etc., together are generally called planting stock.

16.1 | REQUIREMENTS OF NURSERY ?

Artificial regeneration of forests and afforestation of wastelands is carried out either by sowing seeds
directly in the field or/and planting nursery raised seedlings, stumps, cuttings, etc. The easiest and the
cheapest method of artificial regeneration of forests and afforestation of wastelands is to sow the seed of
desired species directly in the field and tend them to grow after seeds have germinated. Artificial
regeneration by seed sowing has not shown desired results in case of several species due to several
problems. Planting of Nursery-raised seedlings, stumps, cuttings, rhizomes, etc., offers several advantages
over seed sowing. These advantages are as follows

• Several species are initially slow grown. If seeds of these species are sown in the field, the seedlings
are most likely to be swamped by weeds and killed by intense competition. The Nursery raised
seedlings are better equipped to compete with weeds and tolerate adverse site factors, and
therefore, better success is ensured in planting nursery raised seedlings.
• Several species do not seed every year and produce good quality seeds during a good seed year only.
So, we can produce seedlings in the Nursery by collecting seeds through the years.
• Several species, when grown by direct sowing, are not successful as compared to planting. In such
species, a nursery becomes an essential component of an artificial regeneration program.
• Nursery-raised seedlings tend to reduce the rotation as growth is faster, plus they already achieved
some growth outside of the field before plantation.
• Nursery-raised seedlings are capable of tolerating adverse growing conditions as their root and other
systems are very well developed.
• For faster afforestation of wasteland, and areas facing heavy biotic pressure.
• Only way for introduction of exotics in India.
• Easiest & cheapest method
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16.2 | TYPES OF NURSERY IFoS 2018 : Enlist different types of

nurseries and write different types of
▪ Permanent Nursery : These nurseries are usually centrally nursery beds used in a nursery (7.5 m).
located and conveniently situated by the roadside for
supplying planting material for plantations over a large
Define Nursery. Write, in detail, about
area. Permanent nurseries have a suitable layout, road,
different types of forest nurseries and
inspection paths, beds for sowing and transplanting, preparation of beds for quality
irrigation and drainage facilities, seed store, labor hut, production of planting material [OPSC
etc. The nurseries are suitably protected by fencing. (ACF) 2019-20 | 20 m].
What is community nursery? How will
These nurseries have permanent staff, i.e., a mali or a
you develop it? Describe step by step
forest guard, and a permanent labor force.
in detail [OPSC Civil (Main) 2017 |30].
▪ Temporary Nursery : Established to meet the What is forest Nursery? Explain
requirement of one or two years plantation work, and different types of forest nursery
generally established near or inside the plantation area. [MPPSC (ACF) 2017| 10 m].

These nurseries are usually made near the available What is forest nursery? Discuss
different types of forest nurseries.
water source, e.g., stream or river. These nurseries keep
What are important factors for
on shifting as plantation area shifts from felling series to success in production of nursery
felling series. No elaborate layout for beds, roads, stock? Briefly describe the virous
fencing, etc. is done. methods of pre-sowing treatments of
seed [Himachal PSC Civil (Main) 2017|
▪ Dry Nurseries : maintained without irrigation or artificial
20 m].
watering. Usually inside the forest area.
What is forest nursery? Discuss
▪ Wet Nursery : If the water source is available. different types of forest nurseries.
What are the main components of a
A nursery bed is a prepared area in the Nursery where seeds
hi-tech forest nursery? Describe
are sown for the production of seedlings. Nursery beds can be
advantages of root trainers over
of two types depending upon the kind of plants growing there, polybag [Himachal PSC RFO (Main)
i.e., (a) seedling beds and (b) transplant beds. 2017| 20 m].

▪ Seedling Nursery : A nursery that has only seedling beds,

i.e., where only seedlings are raised, is called the seedling nursery.
▪ Transplant Nursery : A transplant bed in which seedlings are transplanted in preparation for the
forest planting. A nursery, which has only transplant beds, i.e., in which seedlings are transplanted in
preparation for the forest planting stock, is called a transplant nursery. In India, a nursery has both
seedlings and transplants.
▪ Ownership basis : Govt. nursery, Private, Cooperative nursery, etc.
▪ Uses : Ornamental nursery, Vegetable, Fruit, Forest nursery, etc.

16.3 | ESTABLISHEMENT OF A PERMANENT NURSERY

Establishment of a permanent nursery

Site selection Layout Size Site preparation

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(A) | SITE SELECTION

Several factors influence the selection of site for Nursery. Important factors are as follows -

• Central location : The Nursery should be centrally located with reference to plantation areas to avoid
high transport costs.
• Accessibility : The area should be easily accessible by road so that supervision is easier. It should be
located near Division/sub-Division or Range Office.
• Topography : The selected site should be preferably flat or having a gentle slope. Undulating terrain
may require leveling or terracing, which may be costly.
• Soil : Soil should be well-drained, sandy loam to loam in texture, rich in nutrients and humus, slightly
acidic to neutral in reaction, and free from injurious salts and chemicals. If plants are raised in
containers then topography and soil factors become less important. For coniferous species, acidic
soils having pH 5.0 to 6.50 is reported to be good.
• Water : Availability of water is very important for a good nursery. The choice of the nursery site is
greatly influenced by the (a) source of water, (b) quantity of water, and (c) quality of water. Water
may be available from a stream, well, natural pond, lake or artificial reservoir. It is necessary that
water must be available in adequate quantity throughout the year.
• Availability of skilled/unskilled labor forces.
• Vegetation : The nursery site should not be very well wooded. At the same time, it should not be
completely devoid of trees. There should be enough trees in the boundary and a few scattered in the
Nursery to protect the seedlings from the cold, hot sun and strong winds.
• Aspect and altitude : In hills, altitude and aspect both are important for the selection of a site for the
Nursery. In the western Himalayas, the northerly aspect should be preferred, but towards the upper
limits of the species' altitudinal zone, the southern aspect is better. Plus, as far as possible, nursery
sites should be selected within the species' altitudinal limit.

After examining all these factors, the final choice of site for the Nursery may be made

(B) | NURSERY LAYOUT

The layout of the Nursery is an important factor. It affects the

working of the Nursery to a great extent. The main features of Give diagrammatical representation
of a forest nursery depicting different
a permanent Nursery are : (i) external fencing, (ii)
components [OPSC Civil (Main) 2016
road/inspection paths, (iii) buildings, e.g., office, store, labor | 20 m].
sheds, etc. (iv) seed germination and central growing area What are the advantage of raising
nursery? Discuss the layout and
consisting of nursery beds, (v) proper irrigation systems, (vi)
essential features of forest nursery
drainage systems, etc. The arrangement of these components [Himachal PSC Civil (Main) 2012| 30
in the given nursery area should be such that it facilitates m].

working. The entire Nursery must be fenced by 5 strands of

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barbed wire. Usually, a perimeter road is also recommended encircling the Nursery. It acts as a road and
buffer between the land outside the fence and the Nursery proper. In the case of a large nursery, it is
advisable to divide the Nursery into two or four sections.

The Nursery buildings such as office, store, labor shed, residential accommodation, etc., should
be located in such a way that the working is facilitated. It is better if these buildings are located in the
center of the Nursery. The building should be double-storeyed with a store on the ground and an office on
the upper floor. This facilitates supervision. The seed germination area should be located nearer to the
office so that close supervision is possible. The growing area occupies a greater part of the Nursery and
consists of beds where seedlings and transplants are grown for a period, not less than 4 to 8 months prior
to planting in the field. If potted plants are also raised, there should be a proper facility for keeping them.
Planning water supply and irrigation systems are very important in the Nursery. This factor depends upon
the water source, the quantity of water required, the water source's distance from the Nursery, and its
elevation relative to the delivery point. If the water source is available at a higher elevation, the
advantage of gravity feed can be obtained. If the water source is at a lower elevation, water has to be
pumped up to nursery level. In areas where hot, cold, and dry winds blow, it is advisable to surround the
Nursery with windbreaks which should consist of trees and shrubs.

Office/Store house

Fencing / Wind break Buffer between nursery and

land outside of it

Seedling growing
area Manure/soil shed + Bag
filling shed

Inspection path (2m)

Labour shed Irrigation sys

Pump house

Mali quarter

Figure : Layout of a nursery

(C) | SIZE OF NURSERY

Depending upon the (a) Species, (b) Age of seedling or transplant required at the time of plantation, (c)
area of the plantation, (d) method of transplantation, (e) the area required for buildings, sheds, etc., and
(f) systems of road, inspection paths, irrigation, drainage, etc. Example :

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• In South India, Tectona grandis is raised at 1.8 m x 1.8 m, with one-year-old nursery stock, one-
hectare nursery area is considered enough for a plantation of 200 hectares of the plantation, i.e., the
size of the Nursery is 0.5 percent of the plantation area.
• Cedrus deodara is raised at a spacing of 1.8 m x 1.8 m with 2.25 years old plants. One hectare nursery
is considered enough for planting a 40-hectare area, i.e., the area of the Nursery required works out
2.5 percent of the plantation area.

(D) | PREPARATION OF THE NURSERY SITE

Once the site for Nursery is selected, depending upon the seedlings requirement, the area is determined,
and its layout is finalized on paper. The next step would be to prepare the nursery site as per layout. If the
land is undulating, it may require leveling. If the land is hilly, terracing may be required. Several kinds of
surface dressings are usually done in some countries to induce rapid drainage in areas where rainfall is
scanty; such surface dressings are unnecessary.

16.4 | SEED BEDS OR NURSERY BEDS

A seedbed or a nursery bed is a prepared area in the Nursery where seeds are sown or where the
transplants or cuttings are raised.

SIZE OF BED : As a rule, rectangular-shaped beds are preferred with 1 to 1.2 m width and 10 to 12.5 m
length. The bed's width should be kept such that a laborer from both sides can weed it without entering
into the bed.

Standard size of Nursery beds

 10 m × 1 m
 12.5m x 1.2m (40" x 4")
 12.2 m x 1.2 m
The length of the bed may be kept smaller if
sufficient space is not available

TYPES OF NURSERY BEDS

▪ Raised bed : made in high rainfall areas, about 10-15 cm above ground level with the support of
bricks, stones, or bamboo culms. Suitable for seeds that do not require too much moisture.
▪ Level beds : in Normal rainfall area, i.e., Teak.
▪ Sunken beds : in Dry localities, where water loss is an issue. It takes about 10 to 30 cm deeper. The
prime aim for making this type of bed is to avoid water flow outside the bed.

Based on use, we can further divide them as (a) Seedling beds : used for raising seedlings, (b) Transplant
beds : seedling is transplanted for further development and easy transportation.

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Flat seedbed Raised seedbed Sunken seedbed

PREPARATION OF NURSERY BEDS

Soil working is essential to provide the most optimum conditions as far as possible for seeds to
germinate and grow as healthy seedlings. By losing the soil, removing the boulders, large pebbles, etc. If
soil is clayey, surface dressing by washed river sand and small gravels for improving the soil's physical
condition. Plus, add Farmyard manure, Insecticides-pesticides, and mycorrhizal inoculum.

METHODS OF SOWING

Usually, three methods of seed sowing in nursery beds are adopted –

IFoS 2018 : Enlist different
types of containers used in a
▪ broadcast sowing : desired quantity of seeds are sown directly by
forest nursery and explain
hand. However, it required that the seed should be larger in size. In different methods of seed
the case of minute seeds of species, i.e., Eucalyptus spp. It should sowing followed in a nursery.
be mixed with earth or sand before broadcasting.
Challenges : Challenges: (a) it is not possible to maintain adequate
spacing, (b) the seeds lying on the surface are prone to attacks by
rodents, pests, and pastes, (c) where they grow in very dense, high
death. Weeding is also difficult, along with poor growth with rate.
▪ Dibbling : both space and depth can be maintained.
▪ Drill sowing : very good method of sowing and can be practiced for
small and large seeds. The width of the board is usually kept equal Hand broadcasting

to the width of the bed. When the board is pressed, the trenches are made and then seeds are
'Sown in the trenches made by the board.

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Time of sowing

Depending upon the availability of seed/ Planting material, moisture (Irrigation), labor, and suitable
weather for proper growth performance.

 Several species e.g. Dipterocarpus spp., Shorea robusta, Azadirachta indica, Mangifera indica, etc.
should be sown soon after collection as these species have seed viability for a short period.
 Teak & Khair seeds : Around may-June
 Neem & Sal seed : July - August

16.5 | PLANTING STOCK

Generally, the following methods are employed for raising the nursery stock

• Sowing the seed in the bed and transplanting in the polythene bags.
• Sowing the seed directly in the polythene bag
• Sowing the seed in the nursery bed and growing the seedling for planting out either with the ball of
earth or naked root planting
• Sawing the seed in the bed, growing the seedlings for preparation of stumps.
• Preparation of cutting from the stem and planting them in the Nursery

Naked root planting

Stump, i.e., Teak

Root trainer

Polybag
Plantation

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PROTECTION MEASURES

• Seed dressing – coating of seeds by fungicide (i.e., Captain), seed repellents (i.e., Red lead, Kerosene
oil, Kapoor etc.), and Ash, cow-dung, earth etc.
• Soil sterilization by using soil solarization, fumigation, and pesticide spray.
• Mulching of nursery beds.
• Shading nursery bed during hot-dry season.
• Weeding, cleaning after an interval.

TRANSPLANTING : Moving of plants from 1 nursery bet to another for better root-shoot growth.

Advantage : (a) Improve root-shoot growth = more hardy to adverse weather. (b) Space manipulation =
promote faster growth, (c) New environment and nutrient base.

16.6 | USE OF CONTAINERS FOR RAISING SEEDLINGS

The use of containers for raising seedlings has become widespread with a large number of species. Either
the seed is directly sown in the containers, or most commonly, the seedlings are transplanted into the
containers and allowed to grow for some period, and thereafter, these are planted out in the field. The
container planting gives better results because (a) this entails minimum disturbance to the root-shoot
system during transport & planting, (b) the plant in the containers can be kept in the field for a longer
period without any loss in growth while naked root plants require immediate planting otherwise start
wilting.

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▪ TYPES :-
IFoS 2018 : Enlist different types of
1. Brick container : prepared with a mixture of local
containers used in a forest nursery and
soil, sand, and, Farmyard manure ( in 1 : 1 : 1 ratio). explain different methods of seed sowing
A 10 cm deep cavity is created at its top for followed in a nursery (7.5 m).

plantation. A most suitable method of plantation in IFoS 2010 : What are the different types of
containers used in raising forest nursery ?
sandy areas.
List their advantages and disadvantages (5).
2. Dona or cup : cups made by leaves of Bauhinia vahlii
were sometimes used in Madhya Pradesh to plant
teak seedlings. Write, in detail, about the various
types of containers used in raising
3. Bamboo basket & Bamboo tubes :
nursery stock, describe the
4. Earthen pots made locally have been used for advantages and disadvantages of
planting in some areas. using polythene containers. [OPSC
Forest service (Main) 2015-16 | 20 m].
5. Polybag : most commonly used material in recent
time because – (a) are light in weight (b) have Plant containers used in forest
nurseries [Karnataka PCS (RFO) 2008]
greater strength and durability (c) comparatively
cheaper (d) Available in abundance with any size/shape/dimension, (e) Negligible weight.
Issue : Root coiling due to (a) delayed in transplantation work or (b) due to heavy soil mixture.

6. Root trainers : Root Trainers are an excellent growing system for seeds seedlings. To remove
your plants easily without any damage to their root system.

[When polythene bags are used instead, this root tends to go through the bag into the ground
and is then broken off when the tree is moved for planting. The
other roots are insufficiently developed to cope with the shock
caused by this, and so the tree's chances of survival are reduced.
The root trainer is mounted in a stand above ground so that,
when the tap root emerges, it is dried by the air. This air pruning
causes the root inside the pot to thicken with stored
carbohydrates that support vigorous root growth when the plant
is put in the ground. The other lateral roots of the plant grow to
compensate for this—so a stronger root ball forms, which
improves the sapling's chances].

Brick container Polybag Roots trainer

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COIR ‘ROOT TRAINER’

Eco-friendly, cost effective, biodegradable coir ‘roots trainer’ to tack the environmental issues caused by
abandoning the plastic covers after planting the saplings
 Advantages : (a) Offer better air circulation, (b) Absense of
root coiling, (c) More stronger and well growns taproot
system, (d) Employment generation, etc.
 Disadvantage : (a) Price  5 rs per pot, (b) Limited availability
of coir & market.

16.7 | PREPARING STUMP Stump preparation

In Tectona grandis and Dalbergia sissoo stump planting has

been found to give better results than seedling or transplant
planting. Stump is the cutting of root and shoot. For making
stump, plants are taken out of the bed with naked roots.
Plants that have collar diameter equal to the thickness of thumb (1.5-2.0 cm) and have tap root not less
than 30 cm in length are selected to prepare stumps. Plants with collar diameter less than 1.5 cm or
greater than 2.0 cm may be discarded. After selecting the plant, the shoot should be cut off with a sharp
knife or pruning scissors leaving only 3 cm of the shoot portion. All the lateral roots should be pruned. The
taproot should be cut at a distance of 20-22 cm from the collar. In moist areas, the root length may be
reduced to 15 cm, and in dry areas, it may be increased to 30 cm.

16.8 | Grading of planting material

IFoS 2021 : Why is grading operation
Success in plantations largely depends on the quality of the of nursery seedlings essential for
successful forest plantations? (10 m).
seedlings and transplants used for planting. It is therefore,
necessary that the seedlings may be graded in the Nursery before IFoS 2015 : Explain the necessity of
grading of seedlings before plantation
these are prepared for transport to the plantation site. The criteria
(10 m).
that may be adopted for grading the seedlings may include the
IFoS 2009 : Write short notes on
seedlings' age, size of the seedlings, root-shoot characteristics,
Grading and hardening of seedlings
vigor, infection of insect-pest and diseases, etc.

The seedlings should have a balanced root shoot ratio. The root-collar diameter should be such that it is
sturdy and capable of supporting itself. In a nursery, even large-sized seedlings are supported easily by
small root system in them. But when they are planted out, they are susceptible to desiccation because a
small root system cannot support the seedlings. The container-grown seedlings, when kept for too long,
the shoot grows but roots growth is restricted in the container. Transplanting of seedlings from one bed
to another and pruning of roots help to develop a fibrous and stronger root system.

Several categories of seedlings need to be rejected. These include: (i) undersized seedlings, (ii) seedlings
with poor root growth, (iii) seedlings infested with insect-pest and disease and (iv) damaged seedlings. In

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nurseries, height of the seedlings and their age is usually considered for grading the seedlings. For
conifers, the seedling height of 25 to 50 cm and broad-leaved species, a height of 50-100 cm, is
considered the optimum size.

16.9 | NURSERY CALENDER

Nursery operations are year round activities. Month-wise details of important operations taken in the
Nursery are as following –

16.10 | NURSERY REGISTER

To keep detail record of work and progress of plant nursery. The information mention in this are as follow –

• Name of Nursery : . . . . . . . . . . .
• Name of the person in-charge of the nursery : . . . . . . . . . . .
• Address : . . . . . . . . . . .
• Distance from department office/Main road/ Local village etc.
• Date of commencement
• Type of Nursery
• Area of Nursery
• Map of Nursery
• Survey no.
• Type of land or soil
• Watering arrangement
• Type of fencing aground the Nursery
• Shading facility
INFORMATION REGARDING SEED

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• Time of seed collection

• Pre-treatment of seeds (details of)
• Germination test details

TRANSPLANTATION FROM BED TO BAGS

IFoS 2015 : Describe the methods of pre-sowing treatment of seeds for raising Nursery [Also in, Himachal PSC
Civil (Main) 2017; OPSC Civil (Main) 2018].
IFoS 2020 : Write down the pre-sowing seed treatments for the following tree species (15 m) [Linked Q].

(a) Tectona grandis (b) Santalum album (c) Dalbergia sissoo (d) Albizia lebbeck (e) Acacia nilotica

Pre-sowing seed treatment such as seed coating, pelleting, and seed priming could improve the seed germination and
seedling vigor, particularly under unfavorable environmental conditions and protection against insect/pest damages.

▪ Seed coating or seed dressing : Seed coating is the application of exogenous materials onto the surface of seeds
to improve seed appearance and handling characteristics (e.g., seed weight and size) and/or delivering active
compounds (e.g., plant growth regulators, micronutrients, and microbial inoculants) that can protect the seed
against phytopathogens and increase germination and plant growth.
▪ Seed pelleting : heavy coating of inert materials with aim to increase its size, shape, and weight to give them
uniformity. That will improves plantability by allowing for precise metering, spacing, and depth of seed in the
field.
▪ Seed priming is the process of controlled hydration of seeds to a level that permits pre-germinative metabolic
activity to proceed, but prevents actual emergence of the radicle. Types of priming - Hydro priming (use of water
double the volume of seed), Halo priming (use of salt solution-NaCl), Osmo priming (use of osmotic solution) etc.

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16.11 | EXERCISE

IFoS 2021 : Why is grading operation of nursery seedlings essential for successful forest plantations? (10
m).
IFoS 2011 : Explain the following points in relation to nursery management (4 × 5 = 20 m)
(a) Site selection and layout
(b) Soil working
(c) Methods of raising nursery stock
(d) Plant protection measures
(e) Nursery register

Define nursery. Write, in detail about different types of forests nurseries and preparation of beds for
quality production of planting material [OPSC Forest Service (Main) 2019-20 | 20m]
Write a short note - Modern nursery techniques for quality planting stock [UPPSC ACF/RFO (Main)
2020 | 8m]
How will you select nursery site? What will be your strategy for Pre-sowing seed treatments and use
of plant containers? [HPPSC Civil (Main) 2020 | 10m]
What are the factore influencing selection of site for establishing a forest nursery [Karnataka PCS (RFO)
2011] or What are the important considerations for selection of nursery site? [MHPSC (ACF) 2012].
What are the factors to be kept in view while establishing a good forest nursery? Describe a schedule
of operation to raise a good nursery [Himachal PSC Civil (Main) 2011| 30 m].
Describe the essential features of a centralized nursery [Bihar PSC (ACF) 2020].
Steps involved in establishment of a forest nursery [Mizoram PSC Civil (mains) 2018 | 5 m]
What is the importance of nurseries for tree seedling production also describe various nursery
operations [Himachal PSC ACF (Main) 2017| 15 m].
How will you raise the Nursery of Dalbergia sissoo? Describe all operations from seed collection till
uprooting of plants for transplanting. Write the various methods of viability tests and pre-sowing and
treatments of acacia catechu [Himachal PSC Civil (Main) 2018| 20 m].
Write short notes on - Hardning of seedlings [UPPSC (ACF) 2020], (b) Root coiling in nursery seedlings
[Karnataka PCS (RFO) 2011]

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17 VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION

A Forest nursery is an area where plants are growing for transplanting for use as stocks for vegetative
reproduction (i.e., budding, grafting).

OBJECTIVE OF PLANT PROPAGATION ?

• Increase number of plants of same species

• Preserving the essential characteristics of the plants
• Way to introduce exotics

METHODS OF PLANT PROPAGATION ?

• Sexual : by seeds
• Asexual : by vegetative parts like cutting, Root suckers, etc.

VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION ?
IFoS 2006 : Define vegetative
• The method to regenerate the new independent plant from the body propagation and discuss in detail the
tissue of the parent plant. various techniques adopted in
• Also known as asexual propagation. vegetative propagation.

METHODS OF VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION ?

ADVANTAGES OF VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION

• Vegetative propagation helps to produce genetically identical plants.

• This method eliminates variability and maintains clonal fidelity.
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• Many tree species do not produce viable seeds, and some trees do not produce seeds at all. Such
species can be propagated through vegetative means easily.
• Vegetative propagation through grafting helps to produce pest IFoS 2017 : Enlist the advantages
and disadvantages of vegetative
and disease-free plants.
propagation. What future do you
• It also helps to induce early flowering and reduce rotation. foresee for it in forestry?
• Vegetative propagation helps to accelerate the breeding process
and has excellent application in potted or controlled breeding.
• It is more rapid, uniform, and large-scale multiplication is economically viable compared to seed
propagation.
• It helps to preserve the genotype through the clonal bank approach.

DIS-ADVANTAGES OF VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION

• Vegetative propagation is expensive than seed propagation in many species.

• Vegetative propagules lack a taproot system and hence prone to damage due to winds and
cyclones.
• Chances of epidemic pest and disease occurrence are more compared to seed propagation.
• It requires skill and expertise.

17.2 MACRO - VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION METHODS

1. Root Suckers
2. Coppice
3. Cutting
4. Budding
5. Grafting
6. Layering

1 | ROOT SUCKER

When the shoot arises from the Figure 17.1 Root suckers in Sissoo.
roots are called root sucker.
Propagation through root suckers
can be promoted by injury to the
root through trenching around the
main stem or felling of it
(Mainstem), i.e., Dalbergia sissoo.

2 | COPPICE

New shoots are sprouted out from the epicormic buds of a tree stump or pollarded tree, i.e., Stool
coppice, Seedling coppice, etc.

3 | CUTTING

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Cutting refers to any portion removed from the parent plant which is meant for regeneration. it is the
easiest, cheapest, and most commonly used method of propagation.

• TYPES : (1) Rhizome cuttings, (2) Stem & Branch cuttings, (3) Root section cutting, (4) leaf cuttings
etc.
Rhizome cutting : A piece of Bamboo rhizome is capable of
growing and reproducing when planted out. Bamboos are
by large propagated by Rhizome plantings i.e., Bambusa
arundinacea, Bambusa vulgaris, and Dendrocalamus
strictus.
Root section cutting : a small root section of 5 to 30 cm
length and 0.5 to 2 cm diameter cut and planted
horizontally during its dormant season so when the
favorable conditions come to its dormant buds generate
new plants, i.e., Bombax ceiba, Ailanthus excels, Robinia
pseudoacacia, etc.
Stump cutting : Stumps are prepared from nearly one-year- Bamboo rhizome
old seedlings raised in the nursery beds. The plants are
taken out with bare roots. The plant's central axis is cut to include a portion of stem and taproot
having nearly 30 cm in length. The cut is given just 2 or 3cm above the collar with a sharp knife,
i.e., Tectona grandis, Bombax ceiba, Gmelina Arborea, or Dalbergia Sissoo.
Stem and Branch Cuttings : it maybe three types (1) softwood cutting, (2) semi-hardwood, and
(3) hardwood cutting.
 The softwood cuttings : when we used a portion
of soft tissue that does not typically develop wood
or cuttings taken prior to its lignification i.e.
herbaceous cuttings or greenwood cuttings.
 Hardwood cutting : after lignifications of it.

FACTORS AFFECTING ROOTING OF CUTTINGS : despite

having the easiest and cheapest method of propagation, it Salix hardwood cutting of 20 – 25 cm
has a significant setback... the majority of cutting work failed length and 1 to 2 cm collar diameter
to establish a root system because of few factors that are - collected before nursery work.

 Age of the stock plant : old plants have insufficient rooting power
 Condition of the cutting : chances of rooting increases when we did it in its dormant phase. It
should have proper length and diameter too.
 Nutritional and hormonal conditional of the plant
 The relative position of the shoot
 Maturity of the tissue
 Position of the basal cut with reference to the node.

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 Effect of leaves and buds

 Time of collection of cuttings
 Light, Temperature, Humidity, water quality, etc.
 Rooting media i.e., Hormone treatment.

4 | BUDDING

• Budding is a form of grafting in which the scion consists of a single bud and a small section of
bark with or without the wood. In other forms of grafting, the scion has several buds.
• Under this s bud, some portion of the bark of a genetically superior plant is grafted on an inferior
plant by making a T-shaped incision on it to produce shoot when the old shoot of the stock is cut
off.
• TYPES : (1) Chip budding, (2) T-budding (Shield Budding), (3) Patch budding, (4) I-budding.

1. Chip budding : Under this, we replace a triangular-shaped piece of bark with an epicormic
bud. Chip budding works well in
regions with shorter growing
seasons (e.g., Temperate region).
2. T-budding or Shield budding : "T-
bud" name arises from the T-like
appearance of the cut in the
rootstock, whereas the "shield
bud" is derived from the shield-
like appearance of the bud piece
Figure 17.5 : Chip budding
when it is ready for insertion in
the rootstock.
In Chandrapur (Maharashtra), 70-
90% of success during the October
and February months was
achieved in bud grafting of teak.

5 | GRAFTING

Grafting is the art of joining plant parts together in such a way that they will readily unite and continue
to grow as one plant.

• There are two most important terms (1) Stock and (2) Scion.

• TYPES OF GRAFTING

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(1) Whip-and-tongue graft : The cuts made at

the top of the rootstock should be the same
as those made at the bottom of the scion.
The rootstock and scion are then inserted
into each other, with the tongues
interlocking. The vascular cambium layers
must match along at least one side,
preferably along both sides.
(2) Splice Graft or Whip grafting : It is the same
as the whip-and-tongue graft except that the Figure 17.7 : Whip and tongue grafting

second, or "tongue," cut is not made in either the rootstock or scion.

(3) Cleft grafting & (4) Wedge grafting : both grafting techniques work when the size of
rootstock is much larger than the size of the scion piece.
(4) Side veneer grafting
(5) Side tongue grafting IFoS 2019 : What are the different types of

(6) Approach Graftage grafting ? Explain 'Cleft Grafting' with neat

sketches (8 m).
(7) Bridge graft
IFoS 2005 : What are the different grafting
(8) Inarching
methods used for forest tree species ?

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Figure 17.9 : Cleft

grafting

Side veneer grafting Wedge grafting Approach grafting Inarching

FACTORS CONTROLLING THE SUCCESS OF GRAFTING

 Compatibility of the graft union

 Closeness of fit
 Cambial contact
 Time of grafting
 Growing condition

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6 | LAYERING

Layering is a way of rooting cuttings in which adventitious roots are initiated on a stem while still
attached to the plant. The rooted stem (layer) is then detached, transplanted, and becomes
a separate plant on its own roots.

REASONS FOR LAYERING SUCCESS : (1) Maintaining physical attachment of the stem to the mother
plant. (2) Increased accumulation of photosynthates and hormones in the rooting area of the stem. (3)
Excluding light to the stem in the rooting zone.

• Types : (1) Simple layering, (2) Air layering, (3) Mound layering.
• Simple layering : An intact shoot is bent to the ground, and a single portion of the stem between
the base and shoot tip is covered with soil or rooting medium so that adventitious roots form.
• Air layering : A portion of the above-ground stem is girdled and covered with a rooting substrate
(sphagnum moss in a polyethylene covering). The girdled part of the stem roots.
• Mound layering : Shoots are cut back to the ground, and soil or rooting substrate (sawdust) is
mounded around them to stimulate roots to develop at their bases.
• Trench layering : The initial stem used to establish the layering system is laid horizontally in a
trench. Shoots develop from nodes along the stem that are then covered with the mounded
rooting substrate (sawdust) similar to mound layering.

Figure : Various types of layering

Trench Layering

HORMONE STIMULANT TO ROOTING IN VEGETATIVE PROPAGATING MATERIAL

Several hormone stimulants, i.e., indole acetic acid (IAA), indole butyric acid (IBA), naphthalene acetic
acids (NAA) and their salts, etc., have been used in several tree species to induce rooting. Auxins have
been used to induce rooting in Eucalyptus, Dendrocalamus, etc., and under controlled conditions of
temperature and humidity in mist chambers.

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USE OF MIST CHAMBERS IN VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION

Though there are several vegetative propagation methods, rooting of branch cuttings is the most
convenient, lesser expensive. It has already proved to be successful for the mass multiplication of
selected elite trees in many cases. There are several tree species like poplars and willows, in which
branch cuttings root very easily. These species' clonal plantations are already being raised, but cuttings
of a large number of forest tree species are difficult to root.

Many factors lead to the failure of cuttings to root. Season of taking cuttings, vigor, and
maturity of the parent tree, the branch's position in the crown, treatment of the cuttings, and
environmental conditions during rooting have a profound effect on roots' success strike.

Generally, the best season for making cutting is just before the beginning of bud swelling or the rainy
season. If the branch is infected With a disease or pest, it may fail to root. More vigorous branches
generally. Root more profusely and produce a better root system. Therefore the stock plants should be
properly managed to ensure their good growth. Cuttings taken from mature trees generally fail to
root, and even if they root, the further development of the
propagules is of undesired quality.

Mist propagation

For survival and rooting, cutting must be able to maintain

a healthy water balance and replenish water lost in
transpiration. Water stress within the cutting hinders
metabolic activity and cell regeneration and consequently
initiation of roots. Desiccation completely inhibits root
formation. An adequate amount of water is required in the
medium in which cutting is placed. Also, a high degree of humidity is needed to be maintained in the
environment. By controlled water spray, it is possible to avoid excess or deficit conditions around the
environment of the cutting. Moisture is efficiently provided by intermittently spraying with mist, which
forms a film on the leaves, lowers their surface temperature, and reduces the amount of water lost by
transpiration.

Mist chambers are an essential part of an environmental control system. In this system, water is
forced through nozzles by compressed air to produce very fine mist and 95-100 percent relative
humidity. In mist chambers, it is possible to maintain both humidity conditions by water spray as well
as temperature.

Hardening off is a term used to refer to the processes necessary for a plant to become acclimated to its
environment. It’s common practice to gradually accustom greenhouse vegetable seedlings to full
sunlight and drying winds before planting them in the spring.

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17.3 MICRO - VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION (Tissue Culture)

▪ TISSUE CULTURE : In vitro culture of the plant cell, tissue or organ under ascetic and controlled
environmental conditions.

IMPORTANCE OF MICRO-PROPAGATION

• A relatively large number of clones can be preserved in a

Give the application of vegetative
small space and for a long time. propagation technique using in-vitro
• Rapid and large-scale multiplication of clones is possible (tissue culture) technology in forestry

in a small space. [OPSC Civil (Main) 2006 | 20 m].

• Production of artificial seeds. Discuss the importance of in vitro-

culture in forest regeneration [OPSC
• Transportation is easier because plants can be stored,
Civil (Main) 2011 | 20 m].
preserved, and transported in small culture flasks, and
its quarantine is easy.
• Production of quality planting stock which possesses superior traits, to increase volume and
quality of production. To achieve more significant genetic gains than under traditional tree
breeding.
• Propagation of problem-free trees - There are many tree species, which generally produce little
or no viable seeds, and some tree seeds have poor germination capacity. Such trees can easily be
propagated vegetatively.
• Clonal repository - also helps to preserve the genotypes in clonal banks.
• Somaclonal variations and Somatic hybridization help us in the development of an insect, pest,
disease, and salinity-resistant tree crops.
• Maintenance of genetic uniformity - Most of the tree species are cross-pollinated, and naturally,
they are highly heterozygous. The progenies of such cross-pollinated trees are not uniform, and

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many lose their unique characteristics. Hence, asexual clonal propagation helps in maintaining
the genetic characteristics of each species.
• Production of disease-free plants - Certain tree species are often susceptible to some pests and
diseases, and others may be partially or entirely resistant.
• Early flower induction - Vegetatively propagated plants are precocious in bearing, i.e., Flower
earlier than seed propagated plants. This will help to reduce the rotation of the tree species and
also to increase productivity.
• Maintenance of genetic gain - Vegetative propagation ultimately helps to capture maximum
genetic gains when used for regeneration in an operational planting program

LIMITATIONS OF CLONAL PROPAGATION

• Clonal propagation in many forestry tree species is more expensive than seed propagation. It is a
specialist's job and requires special training and knowledge.
• Vegetatively propagated plants are comparatively short-lived. Lack of tap root system in
vegetatively propagated trees results in poor anchorage in the soil; consequently, such trees are
easily uprooted during heavy winds or storms.
• Heavy intensive management operation may harm the environment.

EXERCISE

IFoS 2019 : What are the different types of grafting ? Explain 'Cleft Grafting' with neat sketches (8 m).

IFoS 2017 : Enlist the advantages and disadvantages of vegetative propagation. What future do you
foresee for it in forestry?

IFoS 2006 : Define vegetative propagation and discuss in detail the various techniques adopted in
vegetative propagation.

IFoS 2005 : What are the different grafting methods used for forest tree species ?

Define different methods of vegetative propagation in forest trees. Elaborate the role of
auxins, gibberellins and cytokinin in vegetative propagation in woody plants [Himachal PSC
RFO (Main) 2017| 20 m].
Define vegetative propagation. What are its advantages? Discuss in detail various methods
employed in vegetation propagation with reference to commercially exploited tree species
in India [Mizoram PSC Civil (Main) 2017| 20 m].
Differentiate between (a) Seedling and grafted plant [UPPSC (ACF) 2017 | 10 m].
Explain the various micro and macro propagation techniques in practice for the production
of quality planting materials [OPSC Civil (Main) 2011 | 20 m].
Discuss the different methods of vegetative propagation by using different part of the plant
in bamboo and prescribe the management practices for obtaining desired quality of culms
[Karnataka PSC (RFO) 2008 | 12m].

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IFoS-2019 : Explain the modern nursery techniques for production of quality planting stock (8 m)
[Similar Q, OPSC Civil (Main) 2015 | 20 m].

Planting stocks are in higher demand to fulfill various plantation projects like Green Highway projects, tree
plantation campaigns, and various plantation programs undertaken by State Forest Departments. By
adopting modern nursery techniques, we can ensure the quality and quantity of planting stock. Some
advanced technologies for the production of planting stock are as follows:

• Tissue culture /micropropagation : To produce disease-free high-quality clonal stock in large numbers
in relatively shorter periods. Artificial Seeds production through tissue culture is now replacing our
issue of unavailability of good quality seed with specific insect/pest or climatic factors resistance
power.
• Propagation structures : Growing planting stocks in highly controlled conditions such as in poly
houses, mist chambers, glasshouses, or in green net areas enhances the vigor and survival rate of the
seedlings.
• Seed treatment : Proper adoption of seed treatment improves the germination percentage and
storage period of treated seeds. Example : Gamma-ray treatment
• Root trainers : Root coiling can be reduced considerably by using root trainers, and it also improves
the root structure of the planting stock.
 Eco-friendly, cost effective, biodegradable coir ‘roots trainer’ to tack the environmental issues
caused by abandoning the plastic covers after planting the saplings.
 Root architecture modification : The root modification was achieved by allowing the air pruned
roots at the drainage hole of the root trainer cup to grow into a root elongation tube (RET) filled
with coir pith as potting medium, which is fitted to the lower part of the cup.
• Automated sensors : By incorporating automatic sensors giving a timely reading on soil temperature,
soil water level, soil nutrient content, soil pH, humidity, etc., timely and effective management can be
undertaken.

BEEMA (OR) BHEEMA BAMBOO

• BEEMA BAMBOO is a fast-growing high yielding superior clone,

selected from Bambusa balcooa, a higher Biomass yielding
Bamboo species.
• This clone is thorn less, sterile, superior bamboo.
• It can grow in the field for more than hundred years with no
need for replanting.
• Beema Bamboo is NOT a product of Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO), the clone was developed
from Naturally Occurred Half Sibs which was derived out of Open Pollinated Population. The selected
clones were further purified by selective breeding and the Superior Characters are fixed by Asexual
Propagation through Micro Propagation in a Tissue Culture Lab.

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18 SOWING & PLANTING

Content :

• Site selection, including planting survey

• Site preparation : soil working and stacking
• Seed sowing : Direct sowing, Hydro/Aerial seeding etc.
• Planting-out : When ? /Size/Age, Method, Spacing, Planting pattern etc.

18.1 | SITE SELECTION

The selection of a site is one of the vital considerations in the success of the plantation program. If the
plantation is raised in a regeneration area or under CAMPA plantation, the area is generally known.

Plantation sites are usually of four types - (a) degraded forest areas, where soil conditions are generally
poor, and soil erosion is rampant, (b) wastelands where sites have one or several limiting factors, (c)
forest area where the plantation is to be established either due to absence of natural regeneration or
replacement of existing crop and (iv) plantation work along the rail, road, canal sides and agroforestry
plantation in agricultural lands.

In most cases, the following points must be taken into consideration in the selection of site :

• The sites for plantation, as far as possible, should be easily approachable. If the site is not
approachable, there are problems in the transport of planting stock, plantation work, weeding, and
other operations. There is a problem in the disposal of produce also.
• There must be enough area for undertaking plantation for several years. It facilitates supervision and
protection.
• The site selected should be such that it is easy to obtain participation and involvement of the local
population.
Site Selection
Site allotted by the Govt.

Green Highway Corridor CAMPA Forest

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PRE-PLANTING SURVEY

Once the plantation site is decided, it is necessary to carry out a pre-planting survey of the area. This type
of survey is needed to identify –

• Topographic factors, i.e., Identifying terrain, local drainage, level of erosion etc.
• Biotic factors, i.e., status and consition of local vegetation and biodiversity.
• Tribal rights, i.e., Minor forest collection rights.
• Soil types and its properties.
• Climatic factors

and decide (a) which portion of the land should be planted and what should be left unplanted for
protection, conservation, or for other reasons, (b) determining what type of site preparation is required
for different areas, and (c) planning the internal layout of roads, water points, etc.

And, finally prepare detailed site and treatment maps for the plantation area on 1 : 15000 scale.

18.2 | SITE PREPARATION

The degree of site preparation depends mainly on - (a) species to be planted, (b) existing local vegetation,
(c) site conditions, (d) finance and connectivity.

Site preparation

Clearing the existing Treatment of forest Soil working Stacking

vegetation floor

• Tree cutting
• Stumps removal
• Slash disposal
Burning Scarification

Fumigation, Soil
Deep ploughing Pits/ridge-ditch
solarisation

The objectives of site preparation are –

• to clear the site of existing vegetation by falling trees and cutting shrubs, herbs, etc.
• to reduce weed growth = facilitate the seedling establishment,
• To minimize soil erosion by creating physical barriers to surface runoff and conserve soil moisture
• To encourage root development and growth of seedlings,

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• to remove all surface and sub-surface obstruction in plant growth and

• to improve drainage conditions in wet areas.

Site preparation usually consists of the following operations :

• Cutting of trees and shrubs : It is always necessary to clear the sites from existing vegetation. To
reduce competition for light, space, water, and minerals as well as a possible source of disease
infection. However, if the selected species is shade demander, it may leave some overhead
vegetation cover.
• Removal of stumps : if the old stumps are suffering from diseases like root rot and stem rot,
removing them is necessary to avoid infection to new crops.
• Disposal of slash and debris : it is advisable to dispose of them off because (a) slash is a fire hazard,
(b) it adversely affects soil working, (c) it may cast heavy shade and create mechanical obstruction on
seedlings and regeneration, and (d) it can be a source of heart rot and root rot in the future crop.
• Treatment of forest floor :
 Burning,
 Scarification - consists of removing organic matter from the forest floor or mixing it with the
mineral soil by mechanical means.
• Treatment to the mineral soil : Treatment of the mineral soil consists of (a) soil working, (b) Soil
fumigation, soil solarization and application of insecticides, etc., and (c) adding fertilizers and
manures if necessary.

SOIL WORKING

• Deep ploughing : The whole area to be planted is ploughed with disc plow or sub-soilers to make the
surface flat and gentle
• Making of Pits, Ridge-ditch, Self-trench, warli, mound, etc. for plantation work

Pits Trenching

• Ordinary pits : recommended for clayey and clayey loam soils in

almost all rainfall classes. Standard size - 30 x 30 x 30 cm3 or 60 x 60 x
60 cm3
• Saucer pits : Saucer-shaped pits are suitable for sandy soils, i.e., Arid
Ordinary pit
and sandy areas.
• Ring pits : Ring pits are dug in areas with comparatively less rainfall and very sandy soils. A trench is
made around the pits so that
Shallow saucer pit
maximum accumulation' of water
takes place in the root zone.

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Ridge ditch Trench

20 m Accumulate maximum amount of

water for the benefits of roots

30-40 cm

Ridge-Ditch

Ridge-ditch is a partly filled-in trench. Sowing and plantings are done at the bottom of the trench or
slopping areas. The Ridge-ditch method of soil working is done on sloping sites.

Selfed trench

The selfed trench is dug in two types of areas : (a) murramy regions, and (b) where hardpan formation
exists in the sub-soil. Selfed trenches are shallow filled or deep filled depending upon areas, Shallow filled
trenches are suitable for areas with moderate rainfall, and deep filled trenches are the best suited for
sandy gravelly and saline-alkali soils.

Deep felled
shelfed trench Double trench
Shallow field
shelfed trench

Double trench : Double trench and trench pit method of soil working is recommended in bad stony and
detrital slopes, which contain a small number of soils.

Trench mounds

Trench mounds are made in average rainfall areas. Sowing is done on the mound and planting in the
trench. This method of soil working is suitable for areas with low, erratic, and badly distributed rainfall.

Trench = not half

Ridge Inclined trench
filled
mound

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Contour-trenching & bunding

Where rainfall is uncertain, and land is slopy

2M

Warli

It is only a type of shallow trench-ridge for gentle slope in high and well-distributed rainfall areas with
loamy or granular soil.

Ridge

Shallow trench

Mound

It water-logged area

STAKING

Marking of planting spots or working soil spots with the help of sticks is called staking. Since soil working
is done by untrained labor, to maintain the spacing in plantation, the planting spots are marked with the
help of sticks made of bamboo or other locally available material.

18.3 | SEED SOWING

• Direct seed sowing : Seed sown directly in the ground. Successful only for few species particularly
large size seeds, i.e., Acacia spp.
• Its success depends upon
 Seed size: large size > medium size

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 Seed should be available in cheap and abundant.

 Weed growth should be nil or at least.
 Soil should be good and fine texture.
 Low biotic pressure.
▪ ADVANTAGES
 Cheaper method
 Suitable for species, which seeds available in abundance.
 Plants did not disturb after germination
 A suitable mixture of species can be introduced easily.
▪ DISADVANTAGES
 Required seeds in large quantity, and majority of them damaged by rodents and insects.
 Spacing is not uniformly maintained
 Easily affected by climatic, edaphic, biotic factors.
 Seed rate always required higher than other methods.
▪ METHODS
 Broad-casting : (a) Hand broad-casting, (b) Aerial broad-casting, (c) Hydro-broadcasting etc.
 Dibbling
 Line sowing
 Strip sowing, i.e., Sal
 Patch-sowing

Hand broadcasting Dibbling Line sowing

AERIAL SEEDING

In India, Aerial seeding has been carried out during 1980 – 1986 in the Chambal valley of central
India, Aravali region, and in western ghat with the aim to check soil erosion.

SPECIES : Prosopis Juliflora, Acacia nilotica, A. catechu,

Dendrocalamus strictus, Albizia lebbeck, and Dalbergia sissoo at
the rate of 20 - 40 kg/ha.
AIM : (a) Control soil erosion, (b) Provide nutritious pods to wild +
domestic animals, and (c) Increase succession progress.

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HYDRO SEEDING is a seed sowing technique in which seeds

are mixed with fertilizers, mulching materials, insecticides,
etc. The mixture is sprayed on the soil surface with
pressurized sprayers mounted on trucks. It is done during
good weather so that the seeds can have direct contact with
soil. seed

Fungicide insecticide
18.4 | PLANTING OUT
Mulching material
TIME OF PLANTING

 Pre-monsoon planting : Where pre-monsoon shower or irrigation facilities are available, we usually
do teak 'stump ' plantation in May-June.
 Monsoon planting : After a good shower. But, in the Western Ghats, heavy rains wash away our
planting works. Therefore, we usually start plantation work towards the end of the monsoon season.
 Winter planting : In the temperate region (Himalayas), plantation work is carried out before snowfall.
The advantage of this is that when the snow starts melting in February, these seeds will also begin to
germinate and grow without losing time. Because until the favorable weather arrives, the employees
are generally unable to go to such areas to do so and here we have a loss of about a month.
 Spring planting : Salix cutting plantation work in February.

SIZE AND AGE OF PLANTING STOCK : depending upon the species, planting method, and site
characteristics. Here, we used collar diameter or root-shoot ratio, or height of stock as a standard.

▪ In broad leaves species : 0.5 to 1-meter height and root-shoot ratio should be about 1:2 for better
survival.
▪ In conifers, i.e., Abies pindrow, we usually used 2.4 to 4.5 years old planting material for plantation.

PREPARATION OF STOCK FOR PLANTING : Before carrying the material for plantation work, we need to
prepare it properly to avoid unnecessary damages in transit.

 The plants are taken out from the bed in such a way that roots are not disturbed. This can be
done by digging a trench along the bed's width up to a depth of the plants' root zone, and plants
are taken out by pushing the plants into the trench gently.
 Stripping : removing or cut the leaves to reduce transpiration rate

METHODS OF PLANTING :

▪ Naked root planting : Usually done in temperate areas when the seedlings are in the dormant phase,
i.e., Salix cuttings; Or in tropical regions where humidity is too high.
1. Advantages : easiest, Quickest, and cheapest method.
2. Disadvantages : High mortality rate, Need continuous irrigation, suitable for those species which are
available in plenty and are moderately drought hardy.

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• Planting with ball of earth plants : Under this, plants along with soil are taken out from the nursery
bed by a plant extractor. Special care is necessary while transporting so that the soil remains
undisturbed.

Naked roots
Plating with ball of
earth Brick planting Stump planting
i.e., Teak, Sissoo Container plantation

• Brick planting : Brick planting is generally done in arid areas. A mixture of soil, sand, clay, and
farmyard manure is used for making bricks. The bricks are usually 30 cm high and 15 cm square at
the top with a cavity of 2.5 cm diameter and 15 cm deep. Sowing or pricking out is done in the hole
of earthen brick. In sandy areas and dunes, the earthen brick and the plant are planted about 10 cm
deep below the soil surface.
• Stump planting : Stump planting is practiced in Tectona grandis, Dalbergia sissoo, Bombax ceiba,
Gmelina arborea, Pterocarpus marsupium, etc. Stumps are planted in crowbar holes or pits. In the
case of teak, Stumps are produced before the monsoon's onset, which gives good success and is the
most common planting practice.
Advantage : Easy handling and transport of planting stock.

Poplar cuttings plantation Large size tree plantation

• Container planting : the most common practice of planting. The most common containers used are
polythene bags of different sizes. The seedlings are raised in
Write advantages of bare
polythene bags. These seedlings are generally 50 cm 100 cm long. rooted and containerized
• Planting of cuttings : Several species such as Ficus spp., Bombax seedlings. Also quote some
examples of each type
ceiba, Salix spp., Populus spp., etc., are planted by cuttings. [MPSC (ACF) 2008]
Cuttings are generally rooted in the nursery and planted out.
Branch cuttings can also be planted directly in the field. The average size of cuttings is 20-25 cm long
and 1 cm in diameter. In dry areas, long cuttings are planted. In the case of Populus deltoides, the
cutting of the entire plant (2 to 3 m long) is planted in larger holes at a depth of about 75 cm.
• Tall plant's planting : Large plants along with root systems are excavated and planted in large pits.

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SPACING : Spacing is the distance between plant to plant. Depending upon the (a) Species growth rate, (b)
Growth forms (branching habit), Cost of weeding, availability of fund, Soil nitrogen, moisture and object
of management, etc.

SN Crops Growth and management criteria Spacing in meter

Maximum yield, short rotation ( 5 years),

1. Firewood 1 x 1 to 1.5 x 1.5 m
no limit for small size, High bark percentage

Maximum yield, short rotation (5 to 15 yrs),

2. Pulpwood 2 to 3 meter
size limit 10-40 cm diameter class

Sawtimber and
3. Long 2.5 to 4.5 meter
veneer logs
Wind breaks &
4. 1.5 x 1.5 m, 2x1 m, 3 x 2 m
shelterbelt

PLANTING PATTERN :

• Liner planting : the distance between plant to plant in the same row is small than the row to row.
• Square planting : the distance between row to row and plant to plan is the same.
• Triangular planting : plant-occupied three corners of an equilateral triangle.
• Quincunx planting : an extra planting is done at the center of a square plantation.

Method of calculation of the number of plants

The number of plants required per hectare in various patterns of planting can be calculated by the
formulae given below, but in actual practice, 10 to 20 percent of plants have to be arranged extra to
provide for mortality of plants during transport to the planting site or while planting
100 ×100
▪ Line planting : Number of plants required = 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 ×𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠

When Eucalyptus is planted at a spacing of 1m x 2m the number of plants will be [ICAR (JRF)
2019].
100 ×100
Number of plants required = 1 ×2
= 5,000

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▪ Square planting :
100 ×100
Number of plants = 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

Number of plants required for 10 hectares of plantation in which the plants are planted at 2.5m x
2.5m in square [MPPSC (ACF) 2011]
100 ×100
Number of plants required per hectare = = 1600
2.5 ×2.5

For 10 hectare 1600 x 10 = 16,000 plants

Calculate quantity of seed that would be required for raising 10-hectare plantation of Sal. Given
planting distance is 3x3 meter, no. of seed/kg is 500 and plant percent is 70 [OPSC Civil (Main)
2016 | 20 m].

▪ Triangular planting :
100 ×100 × 1.155
Number of plants = 𝑆𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑖.𝑒.𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒)

Example : Calculate the number of plants required for one hectare of plantation in which the plants
are planted in a triangular pattern, 2.5 m apart.
100 ×100 ×1.155
Number of plants = 2.5 ×2.5
= 1848

▪ Quincunx planting :
2×100 ×100
Number of plants = 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒

Example : Calculate the number of plants required for one hectare of the plantation, planted at an
escapement of 2.5m x 2.5m with 6 plants in the center of each square.
2×100 ×100
Number of plants requirement = 2.5 ×2.5
= 3200

Approximately, how many plants can be planted in 27 ha of land in quincunx type of planting with
an espacement of 3m x 3m ? [ICAR (JRF) 2020]
2×100 ×100
Number of plants = = 2222.2
3 ×3

For 27 hectare 2222.2 x 27 = 60,000 plants

18.5 | GENERAL RULES OF PLANTING

For all planting methods, the following general rules have to be followed

• Place the plants in the pits, trenches, or crowbar holes in such a way that it is kept into the soil up to
root-collar (Figure A). After the soil is set, the seedling/ root-shoot/ cutting collar should be in the
same position or only slightly deeper with reference to the soil as it was in the nursery.

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• Only good soil should be placed in contact with roots. The surface soil should be placed in the pit or
hole. Leaf litter or undecomposed organic matter should not be placed in contact with roots.
• Avoid damaging roots and shoots by bending, breaking, crushing, etc.
• The soil must be thoroughly firmed around the plant by heel or foot pressure
• The impervious plant containers, i.e., polythene pots, should be removed before planting.
• The plant should be positioned according to the site. In dry sites, planting should be done deeper in
the pits of furrow bottoms to make maximum water available to the plant. The pit should be filled up
to the ground level so that a depression is left to collect rainwater. In wet sites, planting should be
done on raised mounds.
• Planting should be done in the cloudy days or in the evening.
• Seedlings should be planted when soil moisture is at the level of field capacity or when the soil has
become wet after a first few showers.
• Planting should be done soon after the onset of rains. Delay in planting will reduce the growing
season

18.6 | TERMINOLOGY

 Plantation : Artificial raising of forest crop, either by seed sowing or planting.

 Irrigated Plantations are being raised in the country, particularly along the canal side, i.e., Eucalyptus
tereticornis, Populus deltoides, Casuarina equisetifolia, etc. Now after getting market support,
farmers also start undertaking irrigated conditions.
 Enrichment plantation : Planting of valuable tre species at relatively wide interwals in degraded or
naturally poor forest area, with a view to improving the value of the crop. Also called Improvement
planting.

18.7 | EXERCISE

IFoS 2017 : Calculate the number of seeds required to raise a 20 hectare plantation with 4 m x 4 m spacing
and an extra plant in the centre of each square. Plant percent of the species is 75%.

IFoS 2016 : write the importance of soil organic matter in forest. How is calculation of number of seedlings
carried under line, square, triangular and Quincunx methods of planting (20 m).

Calculate the number of seeds required to raise a 20 hec plantation with 4m x 4m spacing and an
extra plant in the centre of each square. Plant percent of the species is 75% [OPSC Civil (Main) 2018 |
20 m].
Calculate the quantity of seed required for raising 12 hectares of deodar plantation by naked root
planting at spacing 2.5 x 02.5 m 200 grams of seed is required to raise 1000 plants (Fit for planting)
and general mortality of seedling is 20 % [MPPSC (ACF) 2017| 15 m].

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Write short notes on –

(a) Aerial seeding [IFoS 2012; UPPSC (ACF) 2020].
(b) Stump planting [IFoS 2012].
(c) Factors affecting the choice of spacing in plantation [Karnataka PCS (RFO) 2011].
(d) Enrichment planting [Mizoram PSC Civil (mains) 2015; UPPSC (ACF) 2020].
Define plantation. Write are the plantation techniques? Write, in detail, about factor affecting the
plantation [OPSC Forest Service (Main) 2019-20 | 20m].
Differentiate - Square planting and triangular planting [UPPSC ACF/RFO (Main) 2020 | 10m]
Define plantation. Write are the plantation techniques? Write, in detail, about factor affecting the
plantation [OPSC (ACF) 2019-20 | 20 m].
What are the relative merits of direct seeding and transplanting [Arunachal PSC Civil (mains)
2015-16; Mizoram PSC Civil (mains) 2018].
Define seedling establishment. Write in detail, about the various factors affecting establishment
of seedlings [OPSC Forest Service 2015-16 | 20 m].
What do you mean by sowing and planting ? What are the different methods of planting? Discuss
the general rules of planting [OPSC Forest Service 2015-16 | 20 m].

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MAINTENANCE OF
19 PLANTATION

After a plantation work over, several planted seedlings have died due to –

 Defective & carelessness in planting work, i.e., root coiling, shallow planting, unfirm soil, etc.
 defective and injured seedlings
 Poor soil conditions, i.e., waterlogged, presence of injurious salt concentration, Sub-surface
hardpan formation etc.
 adverse post-planting weather, i.e., Frost, drought
 Insect & pest attacks.
IFoS 2012 : Comment upon – Failure of
 Competitive weed growth
forest plantation (5 m).
 Grazing, browsing and trampling – by both domestic as
IFoS 2012 : Reasons of dying Dalbergia
well as wild animals. sissoo (5 m) [Linked Q].
 Forest fire.

SOLUTIONS
Define seedling establishment. Write
 Replace of casualties in detail, about the various factors
affecting establishment of seedlings
 weeding
[OPSC Forest service 2015-16 | 20 m].
 soil working
Why do plantations fall? Explain, in
 watering detail. With examples [IFoS 2014;
 abnormal slow growth – replacing the seedlings OPSC Civil (Main) 2017].

 Staking
 Singling or re-spacing
 Bud pruning
 Mulching.
 Protection against - brutal weather, insect-pest & grazing-browsing.

REPLACEMENT OF CASUALTIES (REFILLING)

If seedling mortality is high, weak & dead plants should replaced by healthy ‘Refilling’ process
seedlings. This operation should be done within a month of planting out so that also know as –
the seedling gets a sufficient amount of rain for its establishment and growth. • Beating-up
• Blanking
Because if causalities replacement delayed, replaced seedlings never catch-up the
• In-felling
other. With this, it is also needed to remove or correct the reasons for mortality.

WEEDING : removing the weeds.

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Types of weeding?

Complete Inter row

weeding Line weeding Spot ringed weeding

SOIL WORKING : to improve infiltration rate, remove sub-surface hardpan and improve soil aeration.

WATERING : During the dry season or in case of monsoon failure. Light soil requires more water than
heavy soil.

Types of irrigation

(a) Flood basin irrigation – in flat and gently sloping lands.

(b) Border irrigation
(c) Furrow irrigation
(d) Spot irrigation
(e) Drip irrigation : Advantages = low water loss + check weed growth + Optimize fertilizer uses
+ can use on sloppy and undulating terrains.

Flood irrigation Furrow irrigation Border strip

Check basin Ring basin

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STACKING : providing support to the plantation so it can withstand against a strong

wind.

SINGLING & RE-SPACING : carried out usually after 2/3 years of plantation

 Singling – under this forked or multiple stems plantations are reduced to a

single stem to improve the stem form + better spacing for growth.
 Re-spacing : Competing plants of the same or similar species are removed to
provide proper spacing and remove unnecessary competition. Stacking of a plant

MULCHING : A mulch is a layer of material applied to the surface of the soil. Reasons for applying
mulch include conservation of soil moisture (reduce runoff + evaporation), check weed growth,
provide thermal insulation to the soil, improving fertility and health of the soil by favoring soil
microbial activities.

FENCING : To protect our plantation against domestic + Wild animals

Types :-

 Live fencing : growing non-eatable and obnoxious plants to the animals around the
plantation boundaries like Euphorbia’s, Agave, jatropha plantation, etc.
 Brushwood fencing : dense-plantation of woody plants, i.e., Acacia nilotica.
 Stone fencing : places where stone available easily, i.e., Aravali region in Rajasthan.
 Trench fencing : for elephant. IFoS 2010 : What are live fences ?
 Wire fencing : Barbed wire & woven wire Name 5 plant species most commonly
used as live fences. How do these
 Electric fencing : electric current pass through this
differ from the other types of fences (
FIRE PROTECTION : by clearing the strips around the plantation. 10m).

Planting evergreen trees at fire lines, control burning, and regular inspection.

PROTECTION AGAINST DANGEROUS INSECT-PEST: before the plantation work starts, we usually dig up
pits during March-April to open the soil during summer heat that can naturally reduce pathogens.
During the plantation, give fumigation, a spray of fungicide, pesticide, and soil working. Once the
plantation process over – regular check the weed and insect growth and if it can catch and killed
manually, [Use physical, chemical, biological and mechanical methods of weed/insect-pest controlling
that you learned in Forest protection].

PROTECTION AGAINST ADVERSE WEATHER

PLANTATION RECORD : maintained for each plantation, it includes the various operations, their
period, costs, etc., it also includes the remarks of inspecting officers and record data of plantation
performance.

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CHAPTER
TENDING OPERATION
20

WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY TENDING OR TENDING OPERATION ?

From the establishment of the regeneration and subsequent growth to the harvesting, several
operations are carried out at different stages of
IFoS 2021 : What do you mean by tending operations?
growth in order to provide a healthy environment Enumerate various tending operations carried out in
for their growth. These operations are called forest crops. Discuss improvement felling (15 m).

tending operations – Explain briefly the tending operations carried out in

a forest [UKPSC (ACF) 2018].
 Weeding,
Explain different types of tending operations used in
 Cleaning,
forestry [MPPSC (ACF) 2017| 20 m].
 Thinning & improvement felling
What do you understand by tending? Write in detail
 Climber cutting about various tending operations in forest trees.
 Pruning How are tending operations different from cultural
operations [Himachal PSC Civil (Main) 2017| 20 m].
 Girdling of unwanted growths.

CULTURAL OPERATION ?
IFoS 2011 : Short notes on – cultural
All operations are carried out to assist existing regeneration or
operation (5 m).
promote its proper development with minimum damage
IFoS 2010 : Distinguish between ‘Tending
during felling operations such as weeding, cleaning, Girdling operation’ and Cultural operation in
or poisoning of unwanted growth, climber cutting, and Forestry (10 m) [Also in, Arunachal PSC civil
(Main) 2015-16; Odisha PSC Civil (Main)
controlled burning.
2018].
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Tending operation Cultural operation

Carryout for the benefit of a forest crop Not only to promote proper development
Definition by creating the best possible condition of but also assist regeneration and minimize
growth side effect

It does not aim at obtaining natural It's one of the objectives is to support
Aim
regeneration existing regeneration.

It is often carried out on natural

Carried out to Natural as well as artificial regeneration regeneration because of its association
with the silvicultural system.

Operations It includes pruning but does not include Included controlled burning, but not
included controlled burning. pruning

These operations are carried out every These operations were carried out in the
Periodicity year initially. However, later, the interval year following a felling. Thus, these
increases gradually. depend upon felling done in the area.

20.1 | WEEDING
IFoS 2008 : Differentiate
between weeding and
• Removal of all unwanted plants from a particular site.
cleaning in forest stands with
• Objectives : (1) reduce competition for water, nutrients, light, space, etc. suitable examples (10 m).
(2) remove shelters for harmful Insect-pathogen.
• Pattern :-
• Method :-
(a) Mechanical weeding
(b) Chemical weeding
(c) Biological methods.

20.2 | CLEANING

• Removal or topping of undesirable species or poor performing desirable species in order to better
the growth of desired species individuals.
• Cutting is made to free the best individuals from the competition by undesirable once of the same
age that interferes or is likely to interfere with the growth of desirable individuals.
• Purpose?
 Reduce competition for light, nutrients, and space.
 Proper regulation of shape and size of the crown
 regulating crop composition
Example : To obtain Sal regeneration in moist Sal forest,
climber cutting of Mallotus phillipensis and
Clerodendron was carried out.

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Weeding Cleaning

1. Removal of unwanted plant species 1. Both wanted and unwanted

2. Purpose : reduce competition + check insect- 2. Reduce light & root competition, regulate the
pest growth. composition and structure of crops.

3. Required at the initial stage of development 3. Mainly during the sapling stage

20.3 | CLIMBER CUTTING

Generally, in the old forest where lianas, vines, and climbers

make strongholds around the tree stunk.

20.4 | PRUNING

• Pruning is an operation of removing live or dead branches

IFoS 2008 : What is pruning? Under
from the standing crop for the betterment or improvement of what situations it is used in forest
trees or their timber. Pruning helps to get straight, knot-free, stand and why? (10 m)

less taper, and good quality bole.

• The elimination of branches by natural or biotic agencies is
called natural pruning. The artificial pruning is the removal of
branches from the selected portion of the trees by mechanical
means.
• Types :
 Dry pruning : Pruning of dead branches.
 Green pruning : Pruning of live branches

20.5 | IMPROVEMENT FELLING

• The improvement felling is the removal or destruction of the

Discuss the importance of
less valuable trees in a crop in the interest of the better
pruning and improvement
growth of the more valuable individuals. This is usually fellings in forest management
carried out in a mixed, uneven-aged forest (Whereas thinning [OPSC Civil (Main) 2011 | 30 m].

is carried out in an even-aged forest). The operation is mainly

silvicultural, and revenue realization is not the criteria.
• The operation is usually performed in mixed forests beyond the sapling stage to improve the
composition and character of the crop.
• Improvement fellings should be prescribed for the inferior forest which has attained poor conditions
due to over felling, excessive grazing, or burning. This gives an opportunity of bringing the fore into
regular production.

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OPERATIONAL PRESCRIPTION FOR IMPROVEMENT FELLING

• Removal of dead, dying, and diseased trees.

• Removal of unsound and over mature trees which are not likely to survive or may deteriorate
further.
• Removal of bad-shaped and unsound trees, if their removal is likely to benefit the other better form
trees.
• Thinning out crowded groups of trees and poles. Larger trees should be excluded so that such trees
having larger diameters may contribute to revenue in the main felling.
• Cutting back badly shaped stunted or injured saplings and advance growth from which better new
coppice shoots may be obtained.
• Removal of inferior species and undergrowth which are interfering or likely to interfere regeneration
or growth of the major and valuable species.
• Cutting of climbers.

THE OTHER TWO OPERATIONS THAT ARE SIMILAR TO IMPROVEMENT FELLINGS ARE : SALVAGE
CUTTINGS AND INCREMENT FELLING

• Salvage Cuttings : The salvage cuttings are made for the primary purpose of removing trees that
have been or are in imminent danger of being killed or damaged by injurious agencies other than the
competition between trees. After removing such trees, the blank area needs to be regenerated
naturally or artificially.
• Increment Felling : Increment felling is carried out at the end of the rotation to obtain the desired
result, like obtaining price increment by concentrating all the possible increments on selected good
stems.

20.6 | THINNING

• DEFINITION : A felling made in an immature stand for the IFoS 2019 : Explain different grades of
thinning. Discuss in brief the thinning
purpose of improving the growth and form of the trees that
practices adopted for teak plantations (15
remain without permanently breaking the canopy. m) [IFoS 2005; OPSC Civil (Main) 2019]

 It is carried out in a crop beyond the sapling stage IFoS 2018 : Explain different kinds of thinning
and its application in the forest ( 8m).
and up to the beginning of the regeneration period.
IFoS 2017 : Name the method of thinning
 Thinning principles are applicable only to pure and
that best promotes the genetic improvement
even-aged or relatively even-aged crops or even- of the regular stand besides controlling
aged groups of the trees in a crop. density. Give reasons in support of your
answer.
• The thinning science is based on the biological law of IFoS 2016 : Describe important objectives of
struggle for life and survival of the fittest. A stand has thinning. Differentiating crown thinning from
ordinary thinning. Write grades of ordinary
many trees per hectare at the start, but as it grows,
thinning (8m).
many trees are left out of the race, and at maturity, only

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a few trees remain per hectare. However, survivors do not have the desired quality of timber. So,
thinning is planned in accordance with this.

Reasons / Objectives of thinning?

• To remove dead, dry, diseased, and weakened trees that may become a source of infection to the
remaining healthy ones.

more susscaptible to
Weak tree source of infection
disease attack

• To obtain a desirable crop composition : sometimes, it is not possible to control the undesirable spp.
During regeneration operations, those unwanted species and other less valuable species are
eliminated in a manner to ensure uniform and proper distribution of trees all over the area.
• To reduce the number of trees in the stand so that the
IFoS 2009 : Write short notes on – Different
remaining ones get more space for crown and root grades of ordinary thinning (5 m).
development, which accelerates the stand's growth IFoS 2008 : Write down the objective of
rate? thinning in forest stand (10 m).

• To remove trees of poor form such as crooked, forked, IFoS 2007 : Define thinning describe
different kinds of thinning which are
roughly branched, or moribund form so that all future important in forestry.
increment is concentrated only on the best trees. IFoS 2006 : What is ordinary thinning?
• Due to thinning, the remaining plants get more space for Explain briefly different grades of ordinary
thinning.
crown and root development, that increases their
diameter growth.
• Provide intermediate financial return – from the sale of material obtained by thinning.
• To provide grazing, obtain poles, and meet the specific requirement of the industry.
• In the temperate forest, thinning increases light and temperature on the forest floor, which helps in
the decomposition of raw hummus and release of nutrients, etc.

METHODS OF THINNING

1. Mechanical thinning.
2. Ordinary thinning
3. Crown thinning.
4. Free thinning
5. Advance thinning
6. Numerical thinning

MECHANICAL THINNING

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• A thinning in which we cut the trees by using some thumb rule, i.e., alternate trees in alternate rows
or every 2nd, 3rd, 4th. . . etc., or a minimum spacing gauged by a standard stick (stick thinning).
• Usually applied to young crops or young plantations before the crown differentiation has taken
place. Therefore, it is not possible to identify the vigor trees because most of them grow with more
or less the same vigor at an early age.
• Some thumb rule methods have been developed to facilitate less technical staff, like cutting
alternate trees in each row or removing alternate rows. it may be by using a stick or developing some
formula like –

Glover's formula for deodar : D = d

Warren's formula for Sal : D = 1 ½ d
Here, D = spacing b/w trees in feet,
d = average diameter of trees in inches
DISADVANTAGES

 Arbitrary selection of the tree in rows & lines, which may result in the removal of good trees and
leaving of poor ones in the crop.
 Area productivity is not uniform. It may be possible to remove trees grown in a better place and are
likely to produce less final yield.

TYPES : (a) Row-thinning, (b) Space-thinning.

Row thinning Space thinning

APPLICATION

➢ Deodar forest : the 1st mechanical thinning is carried out with cleaning work when the plants achieve
≈ 6 feet height. The 2nd one, when its ≈ diameter reached 20 cm.
➢ Teak plantation : teak initially planted at 2 m × 2 m
IFoS 2005 : Explain thinning operation with
spacing; the 1st mechanical thinning is done when the respect to the teak plantation [Also in,
crop attains a height of ≈ 8/9 meters (4th year after Karnataka PSC (RFO) 2007].

plantation). In this thinning, alternate plants are removed Define thinning operations what are the
objectives of thinning? What are the
in each row resulting 50 % reduction in the number of
different kinds of thinning undertaken
plants. 2nd mechanical thinning is carried out after the in a regular teak plantation? [OPSC Civil
next 4/5 year in which we remove alternate lines (Main) 2019 | 20 m].

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2m
2m 2m

2m
2m

2m
Teak stumps are placed at a 1st Mechanical thinning 2nd Mechanical thinning
distance of 2 m x 2 m (Diagonal line removal) (Alternate line removal)

4m
2m
2.8 m
2m

4m

Increasing distance between plants after each thinning operation

LOW or ORDINARY THINNING

• Also known as 'german thinning' or thinning from the below.

• It consists of the removal of inferior individuals starting from the suppressed class and then
taking the dominated class and ultimately some of the dominant class. It is a very common form of
selective thinning in regular crops.

CROWN THINNING
Also known as Thinning from above
or French thinning or High thinning.

ORDINARY THINNING
Low Thinning or German thinning
or thinning from the below.

ADVANTAGES OF ORDINARY THINNING

 It is very simple and easy to execute.

 It is useful in areas where there a market of small timber.
 It is most suited for light demander species, e.g., teak, Sal, Chir-pine etc.
 It helps to improve the hygienic condition because several diseased and insect-infested trees are
removed.

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 This thinning is preferred where climber infestation is a problem but should not be carried out where
there is a danger of soil erosion.
 In this method, since smaller and less vigorous trees are removed, the vigorous trees are retained for
fast growth. However, to achieve the desired result, some dominant trees may also be removed to
reduce root competition.
 Removal of lower crown classes helps in the natural regeneration of the species.

DISADVANTAGES

 In areas where the thorny bushes, undesirable trees, and climber infestation are heavy, the removal
of trees of lower crown classes is expensive.
 The sudden removal of competition affects the growth of the remaining crop.
 In a situation where the predominant and dominants are not able to utilize the site perfectly, the
lower classes may be useful in nutrients recycling and carbon storage.
 Complete operation become irrelevant if there is no market of small timber
 There is always the danger of exposure to the soil.

GRADES OF ORDINARY THINNING : on the level of felling is divided into five grades -

Grade of thinning Remarks

Light thinning : Removal of dead, dying diseased, and suppressed trees, i.e.,
A grade
canopy Class V, IV & III.

Moderate thinning: In addition to trees in A grade, further removal of defective

dominated stems and whips. Branchy advance growth that can not be pruned
B Grade
or lopped may also be removed, i.e., class V, IV, III, II(b), I(d), and an occasional I
(c).

Heavy thinning : This includes trees in grades A and B and all remaining
C Grade dominated, defective co-dominants that may be removed without making
lasting gaps in the canopy, i.e., class V, IV, III, II, and I (b), I(c) and I (d).

Very heavy thinning : This includes trees of all the above grades and some good
dominants so that no lasting or permanent gap develops in the canopy. The
D Grade leftover trees are with good boles and crowns, well-spaced, and evenly
distributed over the site for future development. The removal of trees is made
from classes V, IV, III, II, I(b), 1 (c), I (d), and some I (a).

Extremely heavy thinning : This type of thinning is adopted mainly for research
purposes. This is the heaviest thinning that can be made in the crop without
E Grade
creating permanent canopy gaps. Many dominant stems, including all trees of
class I (a), are also removed.

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Application of Ordinary thinning ?

 Where there is a market for small-size timber.

 Areas, which are infested with climbers and where there is a
danger of crown fire.
 Areas where there is no danger of soil deterioration.
 Lower canopy competes for light, so were there a regeneration
issue for light demander species. Figure : ‘D’ Grade ordinary thinning

CROWN THINNING

• It is also known as 'thinning from above' & French thinning or high thinning, and primarily directed to
the dominant trees.

• Under this, the less promising once trees of the top crown are being removed in the best available
individuals' interest. The dominated and suppressed stems are retained to help in natural pruning of
them in natural pruning unless they are dead, dying, or diseased.

Figure : crown thinning

OBJECTIVES : To promote the crown development of selected potential final trees.

TYPES OF CROWN THINNING

(i) Light Crown Thinning (L.C. Grade) : under this, we removed dead, dying, diseased and wolf
trees of the top crown to leave room for further development of the best available trees evenly
distributed over the area. Here, we removed trees of classes V, VI, I (d), I (c), many of I (b), and a
few of I (a) but not III and II are removed.
(ii) Heavy Crown Thinning (H.C. Grade): to promote further support, we removed all other trees
except Class II, III, and very few of I (a), without creating a permanent gap in the canopy.

ADVANTAGES

 As lower canopy retained = Checks soil erosion + Weeds & shrubs growth + damaging effect of frost,
snow etc.

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 Shade bearing trees are also protected.

 The side branches are naturally pruned due to the presence of lower crown classes.

DISADVANTAGES OF CROWN THINNING

 Dominants trees may adversely be affected due to tough root competition for moisture and
nutrients with a lower canopy.
 It requires experience and skill.
 Lower tree classes also created difficulties while carrying out silvicultural operations, e.g., marking,
felling, logging, and extraction of the thinned material.
 The diseased and insect-infested trees of lower crown classes are always sources of infection for the
main crop.

APPLICATION

 it is applicable in the case of moderately shade-tolerant species such as Sal growing under the lower
canopy and required to continue protection.
 It is suitable for areas where there is a demand for relatively big-size timber, i.e., Plywood industry.
 Also suitable for areas where there a danger of frost, snow, drought, and wind damage persist and
the areas where they're a threat of soil erosion due to the removal of the lower canopy.

FREE THINNING

• Also called HECK'S free thinning or Elite Thinning or Single Stem Silviculture.
• It is a modification of crown thinning.
• Under this, 'elites' are first selected in number appropriate to the crop's size or age with particular
regard to their stem form and uniform spacing. Once the elites are identified, the remaining crop is
considered from the point of view of their effect on the elites, if their removal is likely to help the
elite will remove it or if it helps in site protection or no effect of the elite can left them to avoid
unnecessary labor cost.

• MERITS

 Thus, the trees that form the final crop grow free from interference from their youth and, thus,
put on a very rapid increment.

 The method of thinning is simple and offers greater administrative convenience.

DISADVANTAGES

 It is not possible to select elite trees in their early stage of development as, in many cases, they
failed to show superior crown and height growth.
 Subsequent thinning is more time-consuming.
 If the elite is damaged by wind or wild animals/insect-pest attacks, there may be no suitable
substitute near it.

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ADVANCE THINNING

• Also known as Craib's thinning. Why??? because the method was

developed by Craib & O'Connor.
• It differs from all other methods described above as thinning is
carried out before the competition among individual trees has set in.
The surplus individuals are taken out regularly to remove the
unnecessary competition from the residual ones.
• Application : Advance thinning was tried for Sal, teak, and Chir-pine stands.

MAXIMUM/NUMERICAL THINNING

• Various factors such as the number of stems per ha and DBH relationship, number of stems per
hectare and height relationship (N/H2), Tree area ratio, bole area, Basal area, etc., can be used to
understand optimum crop density at a particular age. So, we can manipulate overstocked or
understocked forests. The numerical relationship maybe like -

• N/D Relationship Curve : Number of trees corresponding to a given diameter for different species
based on stand density index.
• N/H2 Relationship curve : for a given site, the optimum number of trees per unit area is inversely
proportional to the square of the stand's height.
• Basal area: basal areas of trees linked with stand density.

NOTE : THINNING IN IRREGULAR CROP

• Thinning in an irregular crop is usually called selection thinning. In an irregular crop, it is difficult to
classify crown as in regular crop because trees of all sizes and age classes are present. Therefore,
here we consider the degree of crown freedom as a base. In selection thinning, as all trees are likely
to be cut. So, it requires great skill. Here we cut all possible trees that restricting or interfering with
the development of neighbors.
• Aim: To maintain the stand composition with the presence of all diameter classes insufficient
number and ensure maximum sustained yield.
• The removal is usually carried out in the following order :-
 Dead, dying, and diseased trees.
 Inferior trees and wolf trees which restrict the growth and development of valuable neighbour.
 Inferior trees of the same or similar species.
 Trees which have no importance.
 Mature and inferior trees standing over groups of well-grown advance growth
 Thinning among well-grown advance growth.

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FACTORS AFFECTING THINNING PRACTICE

• Nature of species : Light demanders are less tolerant of crowding than shade bearers and
therefore, frequent thinning are required to remove competition in light demander species. Light
demanders usually respond better to ordinary thinning, while shade bearers require crown
thinning.
• Age : In a young age, when the crown formation has not completed, mechanical thinning or stick
thinning by some numerical formula is carried out with success. Some species particularly light
demanders require heavy thinning in young crop and at frequent intervals
• Site quality : On poor sites, heavy thinning is not recommended because the rate of growth on
such sites is poor and the heavy openings created may not be occupied. On steep slopes, drier
areas and poor sites, heavy thinning should not be done. In areas, where the opening is likely to
be invaded by grasses and weeds, thinning should be done carefully and judiciously

20.7 | EXERCISE

Write short notes on –

 Tending operations in forestry [Himachal PSC (RFO) 2017; Mizoram PSC Civil (mains) 2017].
 Selection thinning [Himachal PSC Civil (Main) 2011 | 6m]
 Cultural operations [IFoS 2011 | 5m].
 Improvement felling [Himachal PSC Civil (Main) 2011| 5m]
 Operatios usually prescribed in improvement felling [Karnataka PCS (RFO) 2009]
 Operations usually prescribed in improvement felling [Karnataka ACF 2009]
 Crown thinning [Karnataka PCS (RFO) 2012-13].
Differentiate between –
 Chemicial and biological weed control [Himachal PSC Civil (Main) 2018]
 Thinning and pruning [Himachal PSC Civil (Main) 2012| 5 m]
 Pruning and lopping [Mizoram PSC (ACF) 2018].
 Mechanical thinning and ordinary thinning [Himachal PSC Civil (Main) 2011, 2016]
 Ordinary thinning and crown thinning [Arunachal PSC Civil (mains) 2017-18]
 Selection thinning and crown thinning [Arunachal PSC civil (Main) 2015-16 | 5m]
 Increment felling and improvement felling [Mizoram PSC (ACF) 2018].
 Girdling and pollarding [UPPSC ACF/RFO (Main) 2020 | 10m]
 Mechanical thinning and Ordinary thinning [HPPSC Civil (Main) 2019 | 2m]
Describe different silvicultural operations undertaken for the Forest stock improvement. [GPSC RFO
(Main) 2020-21 | 10m]
Why thinning is important? Discuss pointwise objectives of thinning. Explain kinds of thinning in
brief. [OPSC Civil (Main) 2020 | 20m]

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Explain the impact of green felling from the forests on the regeneration, growing stock and sustained
yield [OPSC Forest Service (Main) 2019-20 | 10m]
What is improvement felling? Discuss pointwise operations of improvement fellings [OPSC Civil
(Main) 2020 | 10m]
Briefly describe Tending practices. How tending is different from cultural operations? [HPPSC Civil
(Main) 2020 | 10m]
Write objectives of - (1) Weeding (2) Cleaning [OPSC Civil (Main) 2020 | 20m]
Define thinning. Describe the important objectives of thinning. Discus the different kind of thinning
with example [OPSC Civil (Main) 2018 | 20 m].
What is the importance of thinning? How will you perform thinning operations in one of the
important trees of Himachal Pradesh [Himachal PSC Civil (Main) 2018| 10 m].
Define thinning. What is the object of thinning ? Discuss ordinary thinning in detail [OPSC Civil (Main)
2016 | 20 m]
What is thinning? Explain the effects of thinning on physiological and mensurational aspects of tree
growth [Mizoram PSC Civil (mains) 2016]

Variation in stand density induced by thinning causes very large variation in diameter growth but
remarkably little in height growth discuss [Arunachal PSC Civil (mains) 2015-16].
Define mechanical thinking. Describe it for Sal and teak. How is it different from ordinary and crown
thinking ? [OPSC Civil (Main) 2015 | 30 m].
During an interaction with citizen forum people expressed concern abut thin immature green teak trees
being felled in nearby teak plantations by your forester. As a range forest officer, you knew that thinning
operation was being carried out. What are the reasons sunstantiated by you make the citizen forum
understand about the reasons for thinning [Karnataka PSC (ACF/RFO) 2015].

There are large of mixed uneven aged forests which have been degraded due to heavy felling, grazing and
burning. How would you improve the condition of the forest and what felling operations would be most
suitable [Karnataka PSC (ACF/RFO) 2015].
Explain the methods of thinning and factors affecting thinning [OPSC Civil (Main) 2011 | 20 m].
Explain about the effects of thinning on physiological and mensurational aspects of tree growth [Karnataka
PCS (RFO) 2007]
Describe crown thinning and the different grades. How crown thinning is different from ordinary
thinning? [OPSC Civil (Main) 2006 | 30 m].

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