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Chapter Outline
• Classification of sources of water
• Surface source of water
Water Supply Engineering • Selection of site for a storage reservoir
• Storage capacity of a reservoir
(Chapter 3) • Zones of storage in a reservoir
• Reservoir yield and relation between capacity and yield of a reservoir
SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY
• Determination of capacity of a storage reservoir
• Mass curve and determination of capacity of a storage reservoir required from a
Dr. Ali Mohammad Rahmani specific yield or demand using mass curve
Kandahar University • Reservoir losses
• Reservoir sedimentation
Engineering Faculty • Dam classification
Water & Environmental Engineering Department • Factors governing the selection of a source of water supply for a particular area
• Illustrative examples
Semester : Sep ,2024 2

Classification of Sources of Water Classification of Sources of Water (Contd.)

(1): Lakes and Ponds: Collecting a big amount of water through natural
• As discussed early, a water supply system should be supported either by depression or hollow on the earth’s surface is called lake, while Pond is
surface water or subsurface water.
a man made of standing water less than lake.
Surface Water Subsurface Water
The quality of water in both lakes and pond depends upon the
1. Lakes and ponds 1. Infiltration galleries
2. Infiltration wells
characteristics of the catchment area.
2. Streams or Rivers
3. Storage Reservoirs 3. Springs (2): Stream and Rivers: Natural channel which carries surface water
4. Oceans 4. Wells and tube wells received by them from its catchment or drainage basin. In addition, it is
also carrying ground water and snow melt.
(3): Storage Reservoir: Collecting a big amount of water through a dam
for different purposes such as public water supply, irrigation,
hydropower, navigation, and etc is a storage reservoir.

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Classification of Sources of Water (Contd.) Site Selection for a Storage Reservoir

(4) Oceans: A very huge amount of water which is equal to 94-97 % of Site selection for a storage reservoir
total quantity of water available in the earth. 1. Should have suitable site for construction.

 Mostly saline water. 2. River valley should be narrow.

3. The surrounding hills should be tight to avoid leakage.
 Desalination is to be done for ocean water. 4. Should submerge minimum land and property.
5. Should not be near to impure sedimentation.
 Desalination is not common and possible with several methods, but
6. Should have enough capacity.
expensive and costly.
7. The depth should be greater to avoid evaporation losses and land submergence.
 Desalination is done where the source of fresh water is scarce like 8. Site should not have objectionable minerals.

Saudi Arabia and Israel (Palestine). 9. Site should be accessible in terms of roads, houses and colonies construction.

10. The quality of water stored in the reservoir must be satisfactory for intended use.
11. The site should be such that the cost of associated works such as roads, housing colonies for
workers and other staff, etc., are not excessive.
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Zones of a storage reservoir Zones of a storage reservoir (Contd.)

A reservoir may have different water surface levels and storages which Minimum Pool Level : The lowest water stage in a reservoir
are indicated in the figure bellow: form which the water is drawn through the lowest outlet in
the reservoir.
Normal Pool Level (NPL): The maximum water stage to
which the water surface will rise in the reservoir during
ordinary operation conditions. The more incoming water
will be spilled either controlled spill way or uncontrolled
spillway. This level also known as full reservoir level (FRL)
or full tank level(FTL).
Maximum Pool Level: A water stage which rises during
design flood (Worst Flood). It is also known as high flood
level (HFL).
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Zones of a storage reservoir (Contd.) Reservoir Yield

Storages in reservoir
Reservoir Yield: An amount of water which can be
Useful Storage: The volume of water which is stored supplied from a reservoir in a specific time , and can be :
between normal pool level and minimum pool level.
Dead Storage: The volume of water which is stored below Safe or firm yield: Maximum amount of water which can
minimum pool level. be supplied from a reservoir in critical dry period.
Surcharge Storage: The volume of water which is stored Secondary yield: The amount of water which can be supplied
between normal pool level and maximum pool level. in excess of safe yield or during high inflow.
Bank Storage: Water stored in permeable banks of reservoir Average yield: is the arithmetic mean of firm and
and when reservoirs gets empty, it drains.
secondary yield.
Valley Storage: Water held by natural streams channel or
rivers. Inflow – Yield = Change in storage
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Determination of storage reservoir capacity • Analytical method

• The storage capacity of a reservoir can be determined mainly by

inflow and demand of consumers. The following method are to be
used for determination of storage capacity of a reservoir:
1. Analytical Method
2. Mass Curve Method
3. Bar Graph Method
1. Analytical Method: A simple method to determine the storage
capacity of a reservoir with analysis of inflow and demand for
each month of the year. Hence, The following data are needed :
• Total inflow
• Total losses of water (Eva., percolation, etc.)
• Total precipitation
• Total released water.
• Total demand of water for consumers for each month of year.

September/Semester (2016) 12
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Determination of storage reservoir capacity (Contd.) Determination of storage reservoir capacity (Contd.)

2. Mass Curve of inflow/demand 2. Mass Curve

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Determination of Determination of storage reservoir capacity (Contd.)

Yield from a
reservoir of given 3. Bar Graph Method
capacity (Contd.)

• Draw slope to the capacity of the

reservoir and tangent at high points
• Draw demand curve parallel to
• The flatter is the safest

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Reservoir Losses Reservoir Losses (Contd.)

Evaporation losses can be controlled by:
Water supply engineer should keep in mind that some water
1. Construction reservoir with less surface area.
could be lost from source (Reservoir). Hence, these water
2. Growing tall trees on the wind ward side of the reservoir.
should be calculated in order to avoid management gap. They
3. Spraying chemical or fatty acid to cover surface area.
are as follows:
4. Providing outlet in such a way that the hot water is released.
 Evaporation losses
5. Removing weeds and plants from the periphery of the reservoir.
 Absorption losses 6. Providing covering of thin polythene sheets (for small ponds).

Percolation (Seepage)losses 7. Developing underground reservoir.

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Reservoir Losses (Contd.) Reservoir Losses (Contd.)

Absorption losses: Percolation (or Seepage) loss:
• This kind of losses mainly depends on types of soils forming the Percolation or seepage loss are mainly due to leakage
reservoir basin. surrounding the reservoir which is not considered if the leakage
• This loss my be quite large in the beginning but will be gradually is not serious.
reduced at the pores get saturated. Hence, this losses are not so much
The site selection and hill tightness is there for important in
considered significantly while planning and designing a reservoir.
geological survey to avoid the said loss.
The total losses of a reservoir in particular period can be
measured by:
Total loss = Inflow - Outflow + change in the storage, Or
(I−𝑂 + ∆𝑆).
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Reservoir Sedimentation Reservoir Sedimentation (Contd.)

• Sediment (Sediment load) are transferred along the water to reservoirs Measurement of sediment load:
through rivers and it is due to erosion of the catchment area.
• To measure both suspended and bed loads of sediment, we
• The erosion of catchment area is dependent on:
1. Nature of soil in the catchment area.
need:
2. Topography of the catchment area. Suspended load:
3. Vegetal cover.
4. Intensity of rainfall. • Several samples at several depth are taken and then water
and sediment are separated by filtration and drying
• The sediment could be:
sediment to find out its weight. It is shown in ppm (parts
1. Suspended load
per million), dividing weight of sediment by weight water
2. Bed load
sample.
Bed load:
• Not found practically, but is considered as 15% of
21 suspended load. 22

Reservoir Sedimentation (Contd.) Reservoir Sedimentation (Contd.)

Useful life a reservoir:
Density Current: is defined as a flow of one fluid under
another fluid of a slightly different density under the effect
of gravity. It is developed in many reservoirs , specially
during flooding.

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Reservoir Sedimentation (Contd.) Reservoir Sedimentation (Contd.)

Method to determine useful life a reservoir: Sediment Control:
For determination following steps required: In order to increase the useful life of a reservoir, it is necessary to
1. Determine the required capacity of the reservoir and average annual control sediment deposition. To do so, the various methods are adopted
inflow to find out trap efficiency. as pre-construction and post-construction methods.
2. Divide reservoir capacity to several intervals like 10%, 90%. If 10%
of reservoir capacity is silted up. So, the capacity reduced to 90% Pre-construction methods:
and the trap efficiency should be calculated for 90% capacity. 1. Selection of reservoir site
3. Find the mean of trap efficiencies. 2. Reservoir design
4. Determine average annual stream sediment and multiply them by 3. Control of sediment inflow by (small check dams, vegetation
mean trap efficiency as obtained in step 3. screens)
5. Divide the 10% capacity of the reservoir by volume of sediment
deposited annually to obtain number of years which will take to fill Post-construction methods:
this 10%. 1. Control of sediment deposition.
6. Repeat this up to 80 percent. 2. Removal of sediments deposits.
and 2. which is average for 10% silted up capacity. 3. Erosion control in the catchment area.
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Dam Classification Dam Classification (Contd.)

Classifications based on type and materials of construction
Gravity Dam
Criteria for selection of best dam type:
1. Feasibility • Gravity dams are dams which resist the horizontal thrust of the
-topography, geology, and climate (& its effect on materials)
2. Cost water entirely by their own weight.
-availability of construction materials near the site; accessibility
of transportation facilities • They use their weight to hold back the water in the reservoir.
No Types Materials of Construction
• Dam Can be made of earth or rock fill or concrete.
A. Gravity Concrete, rubble masonry
B. Arch Concrete
C. Buttress Concrete, also timber & steel
D. Embankment Earth or rock

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Dam Classification (Contd.) Dam Classification (Contd.)

Gravity Dam (Cont.) Gravity Dam (Cont.)
• Depends on its own weight for stability Forces on Gravity Dam (cont.)
• Usually straight in plan although slightly curved 3. Uplift: the water under pressure that comes b/t dam and foundation
Forces on Gravity Dam and results
1. Gravity (weight of dam) in upward (uplift) forces against the dam
W = Vxγ = (volume)(specific weight of material) h1 = depth of water @ upstream face, aka “heel” (higher)
(lb) = (ft3)(lb/ft3) h2 = depth of water@ downstream face, aka “toe” (lower)
2. Hydrostatic pressure γ = specific weight of water
Hh= γ h2 / 2 (horizontal component) t = base thickness of dam.
(lb/ft) = (lb/ft3) (ft)2/2 4. Ice pressure
where, h = depth of water at that section pressure created by thermal expansion exerts thrust against upstream
γ = specific weight of water face of the dam.
Hv= γ V/ h (vertical component) 5. Earthquake forces
(lb/ft) = (lb/ft3) (ft3)/ft results in inertial forces that include vertical motion, oscillatory
Where,V = volume of the dam at that point increase, or decrease in hydrostatic pressure (all put force against dam).
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Dam Classification (Contd.) Dam Classification (Contd.)

Gravity Dams (cont.) Gravity Dams (cont.)

Causes of Failure:
1. Sliding along horizontal plane (shear failure)
Net force > shear resistance at that level
2. Rotation about the toe
3. Failure of material

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Dam Classification (Contd.) Dam Classification (Contd.)

Arch Dams Arch Dams (Cont.)
• Curved dam which is dependent upon arch action for its
strength. Arch dams includes:
• Transmits most of horizontal water thrust behind them to the • series of horizontal arches
abutments by the arch action.
• Thinner and requires less material than any other type of dam. • series of vertical cantilevers
• Used only in narrow canyons. In load distribution, most of load carried by near bottom of
dam cantilevers (Known as Trial Load near top of dam
arches Method)
I. Constant-center (Constant radius) best for U-shaped
canyons
II. Variable-center (Variable radius, constant-angle) best for
V shaped canyons
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Dam Classification (Contd.) Dam Classification (Contd.)

Arch Dams (Cont.)
Buttress Dams

• Buttress dams are dams in which the face is held up by a series of

supports.

• Buttress dams can take many forms -- the face may be flat or curved.

• Usually, buttress dams are made of concrete and may be reinforced

with steel bars.

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Dam Classification (Contd.) Dam Classification (Contd.)

• Sloping membrane that transmits the water load to a series of Buttress Dams (Cont.)
buttresses @ right angles to axis of dam.
• Increased formwork & reinforced steel compared w/gravity dam.
• Less massive than gravity dam (requires 1/3 to 1/2 as much
concrete), use on weaker foundation.
• Same forces as gravity and arch dams, however, ice pressures not as
prevalent; gaps b/t buttresses relieve majority of uplift forces.

No Types Water Supporting Membrane

1. Flat-slab flat, concrete-reinforced slabs
2. Multiple-arch series of arches

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Dam Classification (Contd.) Dam Classification (Contd.)

Embankment Dams Embankment Dams (Cont.)

Types:
• Embankment dams are massive dams made of earth or rock. • Simple Embankment (homogeneous throughout) (upstream less
permeable material)
• Impervious Foundation
• They rely on their weight to resist the flow of water, just like • Impervious Core (Zoned Embankments)
concrete gravity dams. Composite Dams
• Composite dams are combinations of one or more dam types. Most
often a large section of a dam will be either an embankment or gravity
dam, with the section responsible for power generation being a buttress
or arch.

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Dam Classification (Contd.) Dam Classification (Contd.)

Selection of suitable type of dam Fixing the height of dam (Cont.)
The most suitable type of dams could be selected on the basis of 4. The difference between the normal pool level and bed level give the
followings: height of dam up to normal pool level.
1. The nature of foundation 5. The maximum pool level or highest flood level of the reservoir is
2. Material available for the construction
determined by flood routing, and a suitable free board is added to
3. Shape of canyon or gorge
maximum pool level.
4. Requirement of spillway
5. Environmental consideration 6. The foundation level is determined by geological team.
6. Overall cost of construction and maintenance of dam 7. The difference between the lowest foundation level and top or crest
7. Consideration of stream diversion during dam construction. level of the dam gives the overall height of dam.
Fixing the height of dam Economic height of dam
The height of dam for a required capacity could be decided as follows:
• The economic height of dam is that height of the
1. Calculation of useful storage.
2. Decision of dead storage to be provided in the reservoir. dam corresponding which the cost of the dam 42

3. Summation of useful and dead storages and then , checking the figure as shown: Per unit of storage is minimum.
41 • It could be found from the figure indicated:

The following table gives the monthly inflows during a critical low water
The following factors are generally considered while period at a site of a proposed dam, the corresponding monthly evaporation
and precipitation at a near by station, and the estimated monthly demand of
selection a water supply source for a town or city: water. Prior water rights require a release of full natural flow or 6.5 hectare-
meter per month, which ever is less. Assume that 30 percent of rainfall on the
1. Quality of water land area to be flooded by the reservoir has reached the stream in the past.
Using a net increased pool area of 520 hectares, find the required useful
2. Quantity of water storage. Take pan evaporation coefficient equal to 0.7.
Inflow at The proposed dam Pan Evaporation Precipitation
Month Demand (ha-m)
3. Location of source January
site(ha-m)
0
(mm)
25
(mm)
0 5.5
February 0 32 0 5.5
March 2.7 35 0 10.5
4. Cost of water supply project April
May
6
6.7
62
110
15
20
13.0
15.5
June 138.3 132 90 15.5
July 210.2 117 208 8.0
August 80.8 91 60 8.0
September 34.2 78 45 9.5
October 8.8 54 0 13.0
43 November 3 37 0 15.5
December 0 23 0 15.5 44

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Solution (Cont.):
Solution:
Pan- Downstream Evaporation Precipitation Adjested Required
Month Inflow Precipitation Demand
Re servoir area  pan evaporation  0.7 Evaporation Requirment E P Inflow Storage
Evaporation  (1) (ha-m)2
(mm)3
(mm)4 (ha-m)5
(ha-m)6 (ha-m)7 (ha-m)8 I(ha-m)9 (ha-m)10
1000
520  0.7  Column  3 
January 0.0 25 0 5.5 0 9.1 0.00 -9.10 14.60
  0.364  column  3  h  m February 0.0 32 0 5.5 0 11.65 0.00 -11.65 17.15
1000 March 2.7 35 0 10.5 2.7 12.74 0.00 -12.74 23.24
Re servoir area  Pr ecipitation  0.70 April 6.0 62 15 13 6 22.57 5.46 -17.11 30.11
Pr ecipitation  May 6.7 110 20 15.5 6.5 40.04 7.28 -32.56 48.06
1000 June 138.3 132 90 15.5 6.5 48.05 32.76 116.51 Nil
520  Column  4   0.70 July 210.2 117 208 8 6.5 42.59 75.71 236.82 Nil
  0.364  column  4  h  m August 80.8 91 60 8 6.5 33.12 21.84 63.02 Nil
1000 September 34.2 78 45 9.5 6.5 28.39 16.38 15.69 Nil
Column  9  gives the adjusted inf low I October 8.8 54 0 13 6.5 19.66 0.00 -17.36 30.36

I  Column  2   Column  6   Column 7   Column  8 

November 3.0 37 0 15.5 3 13.47 0.00 -13.47 28.97
December 0.0 23 0 15.5 0 8.37 0.00 -8.37 23.87
Column  10  gives the quantity of water S required from storage to meet the required Total 490.7 796 438 135.0 50.7 289.75 159.43 309.68 213.36

demand . S  Demand  Adjusted inf low  Column  5   Column  5 

The sum of column gives the required useful storage.

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Solution (Cont.):
The yield of water from a catchment area during each
successive month is given below. Determine the minimum Month Inflow Demand Deficit Total deficit Surplus
capacity of a reservoir required to allow the above volume
Jan 1.40 4.78 3.38
of water to be drawn off at a uniform rate assuming that Feb 2.10 4.78 2.68
there is no loss of water over the spillway. Use (i) Mar 2.80 4.78 1.98 8.04
Analytical method, (ii) Mass curve method . Apr 8.40 4.78
May 11.90 4.78 3.62
Month J F M A M J J A S O N D
Jun 11.90 4.78 7.12
Inflow(Mm) 1.40 2.10 2.80 8.40 11.90 11.90 7.70 2.80 2.52 2.24 1.96 1.68
Jul 7.70 4.78 7.12
Solution:
Aug 2.80 4.78 1.98 2.92
Sep 2.52 4.78 2.26
Total inf low   1.40  2.10  2.80  8.40  11.90  11.90  7.70  2.80  2.52 Oct 2.24 4.78 2.54
 2.24  1.96  1.68   10 6 m 3  57.4  10 6 m 3 Nov 1.96 4.78 2.82
Dec 1.68 4.78 3.10 12.7
57.4  10 6
Monthly demand   4.78  10 6 m 3
12  Minimum storage required   8.04  12.70   10 6  20.74  10 6 m3
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Thank You 49

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