Operating systems

Operating system (OS): is a collection of software that manages computer hardware.

The purpose of an operating system is to provide an environment in which a user can
execute programs in a convenient and efficient manner.

 Hardware: provides basic computing resources (CPU, memory, I/O devices).

 Operating system: Controls and coordinates use of hardware among
various applications and users.
 Application programs: define the ways in which the system resources are
used to solve the computing problems (Word processors, compilers, web
browsers, database systems, video games)
 Users: People, machines, other computers
Bootstrap: an initial program stored in the hardware of a computer in read-only
memory (ROM).

Kernel: is central component of an operating system that manages operations

of computer and hardware.

System call (also called a monitor call): a special operation executed by the software to
trigger an interrupt.

Interrupt: an order executed by device controller to inform CPU that it has finished its
operation.

 The most common secondary-storage device is a magnetic disk, which provides storage
for both programs and data.
Storage Structure: consists of registers, main memory, magnetic disks and other secondary
storage devices.

Registers cache main memory hard disk optical disk

Faster/smaller larger/slower

Multiprocessor systems (parallel systems, tightly-coupled systems): some systems have

two or more processors in close communication, sharing the computer bus and sometimes
the clock, memory, and peripheral devices.
Advantages of having Multiprocessors include:

 Increased throughput: By increasing the number of processors, more work can be done
in less time.
 Economy of scale: Multiprocessor systems can cost less because they can share
peripherals, mass storage, and power supplies.
 Increased reliability: If functions can be distributed properly among several processors,
then the failure of one processor will not halt the system, only slow it down.
Asymmetric Multiprocessing: each processor is assigned a specific task.
Symmetric Multiprocessing: each processor performs all tasks.
Multicore: in CPU design is to include multiple computing cores on a
single chip. They can be more efficient because on-chip communication
is faster than between-chip communication.

 multicore systems are multiprocessor systems, but not all multiprocessor systems are
multicore.
Clustered system: This gathers together multiple CPUs. They are composed of two or more
individual systems joined together.

 Usually sharing storage via a storage-area network (SAN)

 Provides a high-availability service which survives failures
 Asymmetric clustering: one machine is in hot-standby mode while the other is running
the applications. The hot-standby host machine does nothing but monitor the active
server. If that server fails, the hot-standby host becomes the active server.
 Symmetric clustering: two or more hosts are running applications and are monitoring
each other. This structure is more efficient; however, it does require that more than one
application be available to run.
Multiprogramming: increases CPU utilization by organizing jobs (code and data) so that the
CPU always has one to execute.
Time sharing (or multitasking): the CPU executes multiple jobs by switching among them,
but the switches occur so frequently that the users can interact with each program while it is
running.
Dual-mode: allows OS to protect itself and other system components.
Mode bit: provided by hardware. It is added to the hardware of the computer to indicate
the current mode: kernel (0) or user (1).

 With the mode bit, we can distinguish between a task that is executed on behalf of the
operating system and one that is executed on behalf of the user.
 When the computer system is executing on behalf of a user application, the system is in
user mode
Transition from user to kernel mode:
Process Management:

 A program does nothing unless its instructions are executed by a CPU. A program in
execution is a process.
A program is a passive entity; process is an active entity.

 A Process needs resources to accomplish its task (CPU, memory, I/O, files, Initialization
data).
 Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable resources.
 A Single-threaded process has one program counter specifying location of next
instruction to execute.
 Process executes instructions sequentially, one at a time, until completion.
 A Multi-threaded process has one program counter per thread.
Process management: The operating system is responsible for the following activities:
 Scheduling processes and threads on the CPUs
 Creating and deleting both user and system processes
 Suspending and resuming processes
 Providing mechanisms for process synchronization & communication
Memory management: The operating system is responsible for the following activities:
 Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being used and who is using
them
 Deciding which processes and data to move into and out of memory
 Allocating and deallocating memory space as needed
Storage management: The operating system is responsible for the following activities:
 Creating and deleting files and directories
 Supporting primitives for manipulating files and directories
 Mapping files onto secondary storage
 Backing up files on stable (nonvolatile) storage media
Operating system services:
User interface: Almost all operating systems have a user interface (UI). Varies
between Command-Line (CLI), Graphics User Interface (GUI), touch-screen, Batch
Program execution: The system must be able to load a program into memory and to
run that program, end execution, either normally or abnormally.
I/O operations: A running program may require I/O, which may involve a file or an
I/O device
File-system manipulation: Programs need to read and write files and directories,
create and delete them, search them, list file Information, permission management.
Communications: Processes may exchange information, on the same computer or
between computers over a network.
Error detection: OS needs to be constantly aware of possible errors
 Another set of OS functions exists for ensuring the efficient operation of the system
itself via resource sharing:
Resource allocation: When multiple users or multiple jobs running concurrently,
resources must be allocated to each of them
Many types of resources: CPU cycles, main memory, file storage, I/O devices.
Logging: To keep track of which users use how much and what kinds of computer
resources.
Protection and security: The owners of information stored in a multiuser or
networked computer system may want to control use of that information, concurrent
processes should not interfere with each other.
Types of Operating Systems:

Batch Operating System: the similar jobs are grouped together into batches with the help of
some operator and these batches are executed one by one.

Time-Sharing Operating System: more than one process is being executed at a particular
time with the help of the time-sharing concept.

Distributed Operating System: we have various systems, and all these systems have their
own CPU, main memory, secondary memory, and resources. These systems are connected to
each other using a shared communication network.

Embedded Operating System: designed to perform a specific task for a particular device
which is not a computer. It allows the access of device hardware to the software that is
running on the top of the Operating System.

Real-time Operating System: is used where we are dealing with some real-time data. So, as
soon as the data comes, the execution of the process should be done and there should be
no delay. Real-time OS is a time-sharing system that is based on the concept of clock
interrupt.
Two types of real-time OS:

Hard Real-time: a small delay can lead to drastic change.

Soft Real-time: the time constraint is not that important but here also we are
dealing with some real-time data.
Security environment: Threats

Operating systems have goals:

 Confidentiality
 Integrity
 Availability
Kinds of intruders are there:
  Casual prying by nontechnical users
 Snooping by insiders
 Determined attempt to make money
 Commercial or military espionage
Other threats:

 Hardware or software error

 CPU malfunction
 Disk crash
 Program bugs (hundreds of bugs found in the most recent Linux kernel)
 Human errors
 Data entry
 Wrong tape mounted
User authentication:

Authentication using passwords:

The Login is rejected after name and incorrect password entered:
 Don’t notify the user of incorrect username until after the password is
entered!
 Early notification can make it easier to guess valid usernames
Authentication using passwords:
 A biometric: measurements of human beings that can be used to identify them
for authentication.
 A biometric security system: a security system that is based in some way on
biometrics.
 Examples of biometrics that can be used for authentication: Face; Fingerprint;
Iris pattern; Voice.

Main drawback: many biometrics are not secret and so can be imitated.
Authentication Mechanisms: Basis of most protection mechanisms
Two types of authentication:
 External: verify the user
 Usually username/password combination

 May require two passwords or other identification

 Internal: verify the process
 Don’t allow one user’s process to appear to be that of another user
Authorization: is the process of giving someone permission to do or have something.