Static Electricity

Charge & Electrons

• Electrons are nega�vely charged par�cles

• Usually the number of electrons around an atom is equal to the number of (posi�ve) protons in
the nucleus of the atom, and hence the atom is neutral

The number of negative electrons in an atom balances the number of positive protons

• If, however, and object gains extra electrons, it will gain an overall nega�ve charge
• If it loses some of its electrons it will be le� with a posi�ve charge
o Nega�ve charges are the result of gaining electrons
o Posi�ve charges are the result of losing electrons

Electrons & Conduction

• A conductor is a material that allows charge to flow through it

• An insulator is a material that does not allow the flow of charge through it

The table below lists some common conductors and insulators:

 Conductors, Insulators & Electrons
Conductors

• A conductor is a material that allows charge (usually electrons) to flow through it easily
• Examples of conductors are:
o Silver
o Copper
o Aluminium
o Steel

• Conductors tend to be metals

Different materials have different properties of conductivity

• On the atomic scale, conductors are made up of posi�vely charged metal ions with their
outermost electrons delocalised
o This means the electrons are free to move

• Metals conduct electricity very well because:

o Current is the rate of flow of electrons
o So, the more easily electrons are able to flow, the beter the conductor

The lattice structure of a conductor with positive metal ions and delocalised electrons
Insulators

• An insulator is a material that has no free charges, hence does not allow the flow of charge
through them very easily
• Examples of insulators are:
o Rubber
o Plas�c
o Glass
o Wood

• Some non-metals, such as wood, allow some charge to pass through them
• Although they are not very good at conduc�ng, they do conduct a litle in the form
of sta�c electricity
o For example, two insulators can build up charge on their surfaces and if they touch this
would allow that charge to be conducted away

Positive & Negative Charges

• Objects can be given one of two types of electric charge:

o Posi�ve
o Nega�ve
• When two charged objects are brought close together, there will be a force between those
objects

Like charges repel; opposite charges attract

• Remember:
o Opposite charges atract
o Like charges repel

• Electric charge is measured in units called coulombs (C)

Tip
Whilst electrostatic forces share many similarities with magnetic forces, they are different
phenomena – take care not to confuse the two!
Demonstrating Electric Charges

• Electrosta�c repulsion is caused by the force between charges

o When these charges are the same as each other, they repel (push apart)
• In simple experiments showing the produc�on of electrosta�c charges by fric�on, insula�ng
solids such as plas�cs are given a charge
o This is done using fric�on to transfer electrons from the surface
• By removing electrons, which have a nega�ve charge, the insulator is le� with a posi�ve charge

Method:

• Suspend one of the insulating materials using a cradle and a length of string so that the
material can rotate freely
• Rub one end of the material using a cloth (in order to give it a charge)
• Now take a second piece of insulating material and charge that by rubbing with a cloth
• Hold the charged end of the second piece close to the charged end of the first piece:
o If the first piece rotates away (is repelled) from the second piece then the
materials have the same charge
o If the first piece moved towards (is attracted to) the second piece then they have
opposite charges

Tip
Experimental demonstrations, such as the one above, are different from experiments in which
you have to take measurements. In the case of this demonstration, your results are
your observations.

When describing a demonstration you should state a conclusion – in other words, explain what
you expect to happen and what it means.

Methods of Electric Charge Transfer

• There are several methods by which electric charge can be transferred

o Charging by fric�on
o Charging by electrosta�c induc�on
o Charging by contact

Charging by Friction

• When certain insula�ng materials are rubbed against each other they become electrically
charged
o This is called charging by fric�on

• The charges remain on the insulators and cannot immediately flow away
o One becomes posi�ve and the other nega�ve
 • An example of this is a plas�c or polythene rod being charged by rubbing it with a cloth
o Both the rod and cloth are insula�ng materials

A polythene rod may be given a charge by rubbing it with a cloth

• This occurs because nega�vely charged electrons are transferred from one material to the other
o The material, in this case, the rod, loses electrons
• Since electrons are nega�vely charged, the rod becomes posi�vely charged
o As a result, the cloth has gained electrons and therefore is le� with an
equal nega�ve charge

Charging by Electrostatic Induction

• Electrosta�c Induc�on is defined as:

A process which generates an electrostatic force in a material by bringing an electrically

charged object near it

• This causes the electrical charges within the material to be redistributed

o So, one side has an excess of either posi�ve or nega�ve charges

• When a charged object is held close to a conductor, electrons in the conductor are able to move
towards (or away from) the charged object:

Negative electrons in the aluminium are attracted to the positive rod

 • In the diagram above, electrons in the aluminium foil are atracted to the posi�vely charged rod
• This causes the top of the foil to become nega�vely charged, whilst the botom edge of it will be
le� with a posi�ve charge
• The electrosta�c atrac�on between the posi�ve rod and the nega�ve charges on the top
surface of the foil causes the foil to be atracted to the rod

Charging by Contact

• Charge can also be transferred via contact

• For this to happen one of the two bodies involved must have a considerably higher net posi�ve
or nega�ve charge build-up
• An insulator must prevent this charge from flowing out into neighbouring bodies
o When the two bodies touch electrons flow from one to the other to reduce the
difference between the charges of the two objects

• An example of charge transfer via contact is a 'shock' from a doorknob

• As you walk across a carpet the fric�on creates a build-up of nega�ve charge on your shoes
o Now you have a high net nega�ve charge

A negative charge builds up on the bottom of your shoes as you walk across the carpet to the
neutrally charged door

• During this process, you are insulated, as you are not in contact with anything that can conduct
electricity
o However, when you touch a metal doorknob, electrons flow from you to the doorknob
to reduce the difference between your charge and the doorknob's charge

• This is because metal conducts electricity, and you are no longer insulated
 Upon contact with the metal door knob, the negative charge is transferred to the door and
the charge balances out

Tip
At this level, if asked to explain how things gain or lose charge, you must discuss electrons and
explain whether something has gained or lost them.Remember when charging by friction, it is
only the electrons that can move, not any 'positive' charge, therefore if an object gains a
negative charge, something else must have gained a positive charge

Electric Fields
• A charged object creates an electric field around itself
o This is similar to how magnets create magne�c fields
• The electric field is the region in which another charge will experience a force
o Since force is a vector, the direc�on of this force depends on whether the charges are
the same or opposite
• This can be shown by electric field lines
o Fields lines always point away from posi�ve charges and towards nega�ve charges
• The force is either atrac�ve or repulsive
o If the charges are the same (nega�ve and nega�ve or posi�ve and posi�ve), this force
will be repulsive and the second charged object will move away from the charge
crea�ng the field
o If the charges are the opposite (nega�ve and posi�ve), this force will be atrac�ve and
the second charged object will move toward the charge crea�ng the field
 Electric fields are always directed away from positive charges and towards negative charges

The direction of the field lines in an electric field is described as:

The direction of the force on a positive charge at that point

Field lines show the direction that a positive charge would experience if it was at that point

• Although the defini�on of the force direc�on refers to a posi�ve charge, in demonstra�ons it is
always electrons (nega�ve charges) which are free to move according to that force
• The electric field strength is a measure of the strength of the electric field

The electric field strength is defined as the magnitude of the electric force per unit charge experienced
by a small positive test charge placed at that point

• The strength of an electric field depends on the distance from the object crea�ng the field:
o The field is strongest close to the charged object - this is shown by the field lines
being closer together
o The field becomes weaker further away from the charged object - this is shown by the
field lines becoming further apart
 Electric Field Patterns

Electric field lines show force direction and force strength

The size of the force depends on the strength of the field at that point

• This means that the force becomes:

o Stronger as the distance between the two charged objects decreases
o Weaker as the distance between the two charged objects increases
• The rela�onship between the strength of the force and the distance applies to both the force of
atrac�on and force of repulsion
o Two nega�ve charges brought close together will have a stronger repulsive force than if
they were far apart
• The strength of the electric field is proportional to the number of lines per unit cross-
sectional area
o A stronger electric field is represented by arrows that are closer together

Field Lines Between Two Oppositely Charged Parallel Conducting Plates

• The electric field between two parallel plates is a uniform electric field
• The field lines are:
o Directed from the posi�ve to the nega�ve plate
o Parallel
o Straight lines

The electric field between two parallel plates.

 • The field lines between opposite charges are connected, showing attraction
• The field lines between like repelling charges never connect
• This field is known as a uniform field.

Electric field lines showing attraction between a positive and a negative charge, and repulsion between two positive charges

• The electric field helps to explain the non-contact force between charged objects since
the electric field cannot be seen but can be detected by another charged object that
moves within that field due to the electric force
o This is a non-contact force because the charged objects do not touch for the
force to be exerted
• If an electric field becomes strong enough, the charges are forced through insulators
such as air, creating a spark
o This is what happens for example, when a charged person touches a conductor

Uniform and Non-Uniform Electric Fields

• A uniform electric field is a field of force in which the strength of the electric force is the same
throughout
o It is represented by parallel and equally spaced field lines
 • Whenever the spacing between the field lines changes, the electric field is non-uniform

Uniform and non-uniform electric fields between two parallel plates

Field Lines Around a Charged Conducting Sphere

• The field lines around a charge conduc�ng sphere are symmetrical, as with a point charge
o This is because the charges on the surface of the sphere will be evenly distributed
o The charges are the same, so they repel
o The surface is conduc�ng, allowing them to move

• This field line patern can be demonstrated using a Van der Graaff Generator
• One method using streamers is shown
• Other methods o�en demonstrated in schools include
o Small pieces of paper
o Polystyrene beads
o Aluminium foil containers
 Static Electricity

• Static electricity is the stationary electric charge which is produced by friction which
causes sparks, or the attraction of other small objects such as dust or hair
o This is caused by the imbalance between negative and positive charges in two
objects
• This only works for insulators, since in conductors, the charge will move through them
instead of remaining stationary
• Static electricity and sparking is produced by rubbing surfaces which causes insulators
to become charged by friction
o This applies to solids, liquids and gases

All objects are initially electrically neutral, meaning the negative (electrons) and
positive charges are evenly distributed

• However, when the electrons are transferred, one object becomes negatively charged
and the other positively charged
• This difference in charges leads to a force of attraction between itself and other objects
which are also electrically neutral, by attracting the opposite charge to the surface of the
objects they are attracted to

Electrons are rubbed onto the cloth leaving the cloth negatively charged and the rod positively charged

• One example is sticking a balloon to the wall:

o Rubbing a balloon on a woolen jumper transfers electrons onto the balloon by
friction
o The balloon is now negatively charged whilst the jumper is
left positively charged
o The wall is still neutral, however, when the balloon is placed near the wall, the
positive charges in the wall are brought to the surface because they
are attracted to the negative charge of the balloon
o Since opposite charges attract, the balloon sticks to the wall from only
the electrostatic attraction
 • Examples of static electricity in everyday life are:
o Dust and dirt attracted to TV screens and computer monitors
o Dust build-up on the edges of a fan
o Clothes clinging to each other after being in a tumble dryer, especially those
made of synthetic fabrics
o Hair sticking up after pulling a hat off
o Combing dry hair with a plastic comb and the hair stays attracted to the comb
o A child's hair sticking up after going down a plastic slide
o Photocopiers use black powder to stick to white paper to create a copy of a
document

Common examples of static electricity

• These experiences are most common in dry air conditions

• This is because it is much harder for the charges to dissipate so they build up instead,
and make static electricity more noticeable
• Some of these can cause sparking
• Feel free to try the following examples yourself after charging a balloon by rubbing it
against a surface such as a cloth:
o Hover the balloon over small pieces of paper and they will jump up to it
o Place the balloon near a wall or curtain and it will stay there
o Place it over your (or your friends) hair and it will lift up some strands

Sparking

• The build-up of electrostatic charge can be quite dangerous and can

cause sparking (also known as an electric shock)
• A static electric spark occurs when two objects which are charged by friction and
become oppositely charged and have a surplus of electrons so large that the electrons
'jump' across to an object that is neutral
• Since a current is the flow of electrons, this causes a small current to flow between the
objects, called a spark
• An example of sparking is the small electric shock felt from touching a door handle, or
another person, after walking on a vinyl floor or nylon carpet with rubber shoes or whilst
wearing socks
• Sparking often occurs between a charged insulator and an earthed conductor
o An earthed conductor is a wire, usually made from copper, that allows a
current to flow to the Earth
o A current will always take the path of lower resistance
o Since copper has a lower resistance than, for example, a person, the
current will flow from the insulator to the Earth through the copper wire
rather than the person

• Sometimes, when a potential difference between two objects becomes very

large, the electric field may become strong enough to cause the breakdown of
air
o As a result, an electrical discharge (large spark) can travel through the air
to allow the current to flow

Examples of sparking from touching a door handle or another person

• An extreme example of sparking is lightning

o Since the ground is neutral, the negative charge jumps to meet the positive
charges on the ground creating a big spark
o This is what is known as lightning
• In a storm, ice crystals in clouds rub against each other causing a movement of
electrons between them
• The top of the cloud becomes positively charged, and the bottom
becomes negatively charged
 • The electrons on the ground are strongly repelled by the negative charge on the
cloud, which causes it to become positively charged
• The potential difference between the cloud and the ground becomes
increasingly large (~106 V)
• Eventually, the cloud discharges a large spark as the negative charges jump to
meet the positive charges on the ground
• The discharge will happen along the shortest possible path (as the flow of
charges i.e current will automatically chose the path of least resistance)

Lightning is caused by the build up of charge in clouds

• Sparks can become quite dangerous and can cause a fire by igniting flammable gases
and liquids, such as petrol

Tip
Answers to exam questions in this topic are mainly looking for the words 'friction' and the
transfer of 'electrons'. Avoid saying the transfer of 'charge' since this is too vague and will not
get you full marks
 Applications of static electricity
• Electrosta�c charges are used in everyday situa�ons such as photocopiers and inkjet printers

Photocopiers

• Photocopiers use sta�c electricity to copy paper documents, most commonly in black and white
• An image of the document is projected onto a posi�vely charged copying plate
• The plate loses its charge in the light areas and keeps the posi�ve charge in the dark areas (i.e
the text)
• A nega�vely charged black toner powder is applied to the plate and s�cks to the part where
there is a posi�ve charge
• The toner is then transferred onto a new blank sheet of white paper
• The paper is heated to make sure the powder s�cks (hence why photocopied paper feels warm)
o The photocopy of the document is now made
• Inkjet printers work in a similar way, but instead of the black toner powder, a small jet of
coloured ink is nega�vely charged and atracted to the correct place on the page

Insecticide Sprayers

• Insec�cides are chemicals used to kill pests in order to protect crops

• In order to spray crops effec�vely whilst using a minimal amount of chemicals, the sprayer has to
deliver the chemicals as a fine mist and cover a large area
 • To achieve this, the insec�cide is given an electrosta�c charge (e.g. posi�ve) as it leaves the
sprayer
• The droplets of insec�cide then repel each other since they are the same charge
o This ensures that the spray remains fine and covers a large area
• They are also atracted to the nega�ve charges on Earth, so they will fall quickly and are less
likely to be blown away
• A similar technique is used in the spray pain�ng of cars

Dangers of Static Electricity

• Sta�c electricity can cause sparking

• There are various situa�ons where sta�c electricity can pose a hazard, for example:
o The risk of electrocu�on (e.g from lightning)
o The risk of a fire or explosion due to a spark close to a flammable gas or liquid
• There are dangers of sparking in everyday situa�ons such as fuelling vehicles such as cars and
planes
• Earthing is used to prevent the dangerous build-up of charge
o This is done by connec�ng the vehicles to the Earth with a conductor

Fuelling Vehicles

• A build-up of sta�c charge is a poten�al danger when refueling aero planes

• Fuel runs through pipes at a fast rate
o This fuel is very flammable
• The fric�on between the fuel (a liquid insulator) and the pipe causes the fuel to gain charge
• If this charge were to cause a spark, the fuel could ignite and cause an explosion
 • This is prevented by the fuel tank being connected to the Earth with a copper wire called
the bonding line during the refuelling
• The conductor earths the plane by carrying the charge through to the Earth which removes the
risk of any sparks

Tip

• You could be asked to explain other dangers and uses in your exams
• They may ask you to explain the movement of charge in terms of electrons
• If asked to explain a danger:
o State what the danger is (electrocu�on? fire?)
o Explain how the charge can be removed to get rid of the risk i.e earthing (think about
which way the electrons have to move)
• If asked to explain a use, think carefully about the forces exerted due to sta�c electricity and
what they will do
 Earthing

• Earthing this is the process of removing excess charge by the movement of electrons
o This is used when an object or body is charged and the charge needs to be removed to
avoid sparking
o It is some�mes called grounding/earthing

The electrical symbol for Earth

• The Earth can be imagined to be a giant reservoir of electrons, so it can give and take excess
electrons
• Earthing is done by connec�ng the charged object to the Earth by a conductor
o A conductor is used since charge can flow through it, unlike an insulator
• Many electrical appliances have metal cases
o If a live wire (inside the appliance) came into contact with the case, the case
would become electrified and anyone who touched it would risk being
electrocuted

• The electrical appliance can be connected to an earthing system via an earth wire

A problem in the electric appliance causes a surge of current which passes through the earth wire and is grounded into the
earth. The person in contact with the appliance does not get an electric shock.
If there is a sudden surge of current within the system:

o The earth wire provides a direct low resistance path to the earth
o So the current flows through the earth wire
o Into the ground
• It makes the appliance safe to touch and fix

• If a posi�vely charged object is connected, electrons will be atracted up through the conductor
and to the posi�ve charge, cancelling them out
o This is because opposite charges atract

A positively charged object when earthed will move electrons up the conductor

• If a nega�vely charged object is connected to the earth, electrons travel down the conductor
and into the earth
o This is because like charges repel

A negatively charged object when earthed will move electrons down the conductor

Tip
If asked to explain how things gain or lose charge, you must discuss electrons and explain whether something has
gained or lost them. Remember when charging by friction, it is only the electrons that can move, not any 'positive'
charge, therefore if an object gains a negative charge, something else must have gained a positive charge.

It can be harder than you anticipate to explain the process of earthing and the transfer of charge. Practice
explaining it to someone to check you don't get tangled up and that they understand what you are saying.