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SIGNAL ENCODING

Unit Structure
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction to Signal Encoding
8.2 Synchronization
8.3 Digital Data to Digital Signal
8.3.1 Line EnCoding
8.3.2 Classification of Line Coding Schemes
8.3.2.A Unipolar - NRZ
8.3.2.B Polar-NRZ, NRZ-L, NRZ-I, RZ, Biphase
8.3.2.C Bipolar - AMI, Pseudoternary
8.3.2.D Multilevel - mBnL, 4D-PAMS
8.3.2.E MultiTransision- MLT-3
8.3.3 Block Coding
8.4 (Analog data to analog signal conversion)
8.4.1. Modulation
8.4.2 Types of Modulation
8.4.2.1 Analog Modulation types
8.4.2.1.1 AM
8.4.2.1.2 FM
8.4.2.1.3 PM
8.4.2.2 Digital Modulation Types(Digital to Analog
signal conversion)
8.4.2.2.1 ASK
8.4.2.2.2 FSK
8.4.2.2.3 PSK
8.4.2.2.4 QAM
8.4.2.3 Analog to Digtal conversion using modulation)
8.4.2.3.1 PAM
8.4.2.3.2 PCM
8.4.2.3.3 PWM
8.5 Review Questions
8.6 References & Further Reading
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8.0 OBJECTIVES

The objectives of this chapter are:

1. Understand what is signal encoding
2. Different ways of converting analog signal to digital
3. Different ways of converting digital signal to analog
4. Modulation

8.1 INTRODUCTION TO SIGNAL ENCODING

Data can be analog or digital, so can be the signal that

represents it.
Signal encoding is the conversion from analog/digital data
to analog / digital signal.

Figure: Signal Encoding

In the Figure above,

A) Demonstrates Digital Signaling where data from an
analog/digital source is encoded into Digital Signal

B) Demonstrates Analog signaling in which the analog/digital

source modulates a continuous carrier signal to produce an
analog signal.
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The possible encodings are:

1. Digital data to Digital Signal
2. Digital data to Analog Signal
3. Analog data to Digital Signal
4. Analog data to Analog Signal

8.2 SYNCHRONIZATION

In order to receive the signals correctly, the receivers bit

intervals must correspond exactly to the senders bit
intervals.

The clock frequency of the transmitter and receiver should

be the same.

If the clock frequency at the receiver is slower or faster than

the bit intervals are not matched and the received signal is
different than the transmitted one.

Figure : Synchronization
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In the above figure, the receiver clock frequency is twice that

of the transmitter frequency. Hence the received data is
totally different than the transmitted one

To avoid this, receiver and transmitter clocks have to be

synchronized.

To achieve this the transmitted digital signal should include

timing information which forces synchronization

8.3 Digital Data to Digital Signal

Coding methods Coding methods are used to convert digital

data into digital signals.

There are two types of coding methods:

1 Line Coding
2 Block Coding

Scrambling is also one of the ways to convert digital data to digital

signals but is not used.

8.3.1 Line Encoding

It is the process of converting Digital data into digital
signal.
In other words, it is converting of binary data(i.e. A sequence of
bits) into digital signal (i.e. a sequence of discrete,
discontinuous voltage pulses)

Figure: Line Coding

8.3.2 Classification of Line Codes

The following figure shows the classification of Line coding
schemes:
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Figure : Classification of line coding schemes

8.3.2.A Unipolar
All signal levels are either above or below the time axis.
NRZ - Non Return to Zero scheme is an example of this
code. The signal level does not return to zero during a
symbol transmission.

8.3.2.B Polar
NRZ-voltages are on both sides of the time axis.
Polar NRZ scheme can be implemented with two voltages.
E.g. +V for 1 and -V for 0.

There are two variations:

o NZR - Level (NRZ-L) - positive voltage for one
symbol and negative for the other

o NRZ - Inversion (NRZ-I) - the change or lack of

change in polarity determines the value of a symbol.
E.g. a ―1‖ symbol inverts the polarity a ―0‖ does not.

Polar – RZ
 The Return to Zero (RZ) scheme uses three voltage
values. +, 0, -.
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 Each symbol has a transition in the middle. Either from

high to zero or from low to zero

 More complex as it uses three voltage level. It has no

error detection capability

Figure : Unipolar(NRZ) & Polar(RZ & NRZ) Encoding

Polar - Biphase: Manchester and Differential Manchester

Manchester coding is a combination of NRZ-L and RZ
schemes.
Every symbol has a level transition in the middle: from
high to low or low to high.
It uses only two voltage levels.

Differential Manchester coding consists of combining

the NRZ-I and RZ schemes.
Every symbol has a level transition in the middle. But
the level at the beginning of the symbol is determined
by the symbol value. One symbol causes a level
change the other does not.
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Figure : Polar biphase: Manchester and differential Manchester

coding schemes

8.3.2.C Bipolar - AMI and Pseudoternary

This coding scheme uses 3 voltage levels: - +, 0, -, to
represent the symbols

Voltage level for one symbol is at ―0‖ and the other

alternates between + & -.

Bipolar Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI) - the ―0‖ symbol

is represented by zero voltage and the ―1‖ symbol
alternates between +V and -V.

Pseudoternary is the reverse of AMI

Figure: Bipolar coding scheme - AMI and Pseudoternary

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8.3.2.D Multilevel
Here the number of data bits is increased per symbol to
increase the bit rate.
2 types of data element a 1 or a 0 are available, it can be
combined into a pattern of n elements to create 2m symbols.
Using L signal levels we can have n signal elements to
create Ln signal elements. The following possibilities can
occur:
With 2m symbols and Ln signals:
If 2m > Ln then we cannot represent the data elements,
we don‘t have enough signals.
If 2m = Ln then we have an exact mapping of one symbol
on one signal.
If 2m < Ln then we have more signals than symbols and
we can choose the signals that are more distinct to
represent the symbols and therefore have better noise
immunity and error detection as some signals are not
valid
These types of codings are classified as mBnL schemes. In
mBnL schemes, a pattern of m data elements is encoded as
a pattern of n signal elements in which 2m≤ Ln.
2B1Q (two binary, one quaternary)
Here m = 2; n = 1 ; Q = 4. It uses data patterns of size 2 and
encodes the 2-bit patterns as one signal element belonging
to a four-level signal.

Figure: Multilevel coding scheme : 2B1Q

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8B6T(eight binary, six ternary)

Here a pattern of 8 bits is encoded a pattern of 6 signal
elements, where the signal has three levels
Here m = 8; n = 6 ; T = 3
So we can have 28 =256 different data patterns and 36
=478 different signal patterns.

Figure : Multilevel coding scheme : 8B6T

4D-PAM5 (Four Dimensional Five-Level Pulse Amplitude

Modulation)
4D -means that data is sent over four channels at the
same time.
It uses five voltage levels, such as -2, -1, 0, 1, and 2.

8.3.2.E Multitransition
Because of synchronization requirements we force
transitions. This can result in very high bandwidth
requirements -> more transitions than are bits (e.g. mid bit
transition with inversion).

Codes can be created that are differential at the bit level

forcing transitions at bit boundaries. This results in a
bandwidth requirement that is equivalent to the bit rate.

In some instances, the bandwidth requirement may even be

lower, due to repetitive patterns resulting in a periodic signal.

MLT-3
o Signal rate is same as NRZ-I
o Uses three levels (+v, 0, and - V) and three transition
rules to move between the levels.
 If the next bit is 0, there is no transition.
 If the next bit is 1 and the current level is not 0,
the next level is 0.
 If the next bit is 1 and the current level is 0, the
next level is the opposite of the last nonzero
level.
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8.3.3 Block Coding

Block coding adds redundancy to line coding so that error
detection can be implemented.

Block coding changes a block of m bits into a block of n bits,

where n is larger than m.

Block coding is referred to as an mB/nB encoding

technique.

The additional bits added to the original ―m bits‖ are called

parity bits or check bits

m : message bits
Figure : Block Coding

Example: 4B/5B encoding

Here a 4 bit code is converted into a 5 bit code
8.4 Analog data to analog signal
8.4.1 Modulation
The Process of converting analog data to analog signal is
called Modulation.
Modulation is used to send an information bearing signal
over long distances.
Modulation is the process of varying some characteristic
of a periodic wave with an external signal called carrier
signal.
These carrier signals are high frequency signals and can
be transmitted over the air easily and are capable of
traveling long distances.
The characteristics (amplitude, frequency, or phase) of
the carrier signal are varied in accordance with the
information bearing signal(analog data).
The information bearing signal is also known as the
modulating signal.
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The modulating signal is a slowly varying – as opposed

to the rapidly varying carrier frequency.

8.4.2 Types of Modulation:

Signal modulation can be divided into two broad categories:
 Analog modulation and
 Digital modulation.
Analog or digital refers to how the data is modulated
onto a sine wave.
If analog audio data is modulated onto a carrier sine
wave, then this is referred to as analog modulation.
Digital modulation is used to convert digital data to
analog signal. Ex ASK, FSK, PSK.

8.4.2.1 Analog Modulation can be accomplished in three ways:

1. Amplitude modulation (AM)
2. Frequency modulation (FM)
3. Phase modulation (PM).

8.4.2.1.1 Amplitude modulation (AM)

Amplitude modulation is a type of modulation where the
amplitude of the carrier signal is varied in accordance
with modulating signal.
The envelope, or boundary, of the amplitude modulated
signal embeds modulating signal.
Amplitude Modulation is abbreviated AM.

Figure : Amplitude modulation (AM)

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8.4.2.1.2 Frequency modulation (FM)

Frequency modulation is a type of modulation where the
frequency of the carrier is varied in accordance with the
modulating signal. The amplitude of the carrier remains
constant.

The information-bearing signal (the modulating signal)

changes the instantaneous frequency of the carrier.
Since the amplitude is kept constant, FM modulation is a
low-noise process and provides a high quality modulation
technique which is used for music and speech in hi-
fidelity broadcasts.

Frequency Modulation is abbreviated FM.

Figure : Frequency modulation (FM)

8.4.2.1.3 Phase modulation (PM).
In phase modulation, the instantaneous phase of a
carrier wave is varied from its reference value by an
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amount proportional to the instantaneous amplitude of

the modulating signal.

Phase Modulation is abbreviated PM.

Figure : Phase modulation (PM).

Figure : Comparison of AM, FM & PM

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8.4.2.2 Digital Modulation Types(Digital to Analog signal

conversion)
Digital modulation is used to convert digital data to
analog signal.
It can be accomplished in the following ways:
1. ASK
2. FSK
3. PSK
4. QAM

8.4.2.2.1 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

In amplitude shift keying, the amplitude of the carrier signal is
varied to create signal elements.
Both frequency and phase remain constant while the
amplitude changes.

Binary ASK (BASK)

ASK is normally implemented using only two levels and is
hence called binary amplitude shift keying.
Bit 1 is transmitted by a carrier of one particular amplitude.
To transmit Bit 0 we change the amplitude keeping the
frequency is kept constant

Figure : Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK

8.4.2.2.2 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

In Frequency shift keying, we change the frequency of the
carrier wave.
Bit 0 is represented by a specific frequency, and bit 1 is
represented by a different frequency.
In the figure below frequency used for bit 1 is higher than
frequency used for bit 0
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Figure : Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

8.4.2.2.3. Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

Phase shift keying (PSK) is a method of transmitting and
receiving digital signals in which the phase of a transmitted
signal is varied to convey information.
Both amplitude and frequency remain constant as the phase
changes.
The simplest from of PSK has only two phases, 0 and 1.
If the phase of the wave does not change, then the signal
state stays the same (low or high).
If the phase of the wave changes by 180 degrees, that is, if
the phase reverses, then the signal state changes (from low
to high or from high to low)
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Figure: Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

8.4.2.2.4 QAM
The concept of Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
involves use of two carriers, one for phase and the other for
quadrature, with different amplitude levels for each carrier.
It is a combination of ASK & PSK.

8.4.2.2 Analog to Digital Conversion using modulation

The definition of the term modulation is described in the
next section. Here we discuss 3 modulation techniques:
1. PAM
2. PCM
3. PWM

8.4.2.3.1 PAM (Pulse Amplitude Modulation)

Pulse Amplitude Modulation refers to a method of

carrying information on a train of pulses, the information
being encoded in the amplitude of the pulses.

8.4.2.3.2 PCM (Pulse Code Modulation)

PCM is a general scheme for transmitting analog data
in a digital and binary way, independent of the
complexity of the analog waveform. With PCM all
forms of analog data like video, voice, music and
telemetry can be transferred.

To obtain PCM from an analog waveform at the

source (transmitter), the analog signal amplitude is
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sampled at regular time intervals. The sampling rate

(number of samples per second), is several times the
maximum frequency of the analog waveform. The
amplitude of the analog signal at each sample is
rounded off to the nearest binary level (quantization).

The number of levels is always a power of 2 (4, 8, 16,

32, 64, ...). These numbers can be represented by
two, three, four, five, six or more binary digits (bits)
respectively.

At the destination (receiver), a pulse code

demodulator converts the binary numbers back into
pulses having the same quantum levels as those in
the modulator. These pulses are further processed to
restore the original analog waveform.

8.4.2.3.3 PWM (Pulse Width Modulation)

Pulse Width Modulation refers to a method of carrying
information on a train of pulses, the information being
encoded in the width of the pulses. In applications to
motion control, it is not exactly information we are
encoding, but a method of controlling power in motors
without (significant) loss.

There are several schemes to accomplish this technique.

One is to switch voltage on and off, and let the current
recirculate through diodes when the transistors have
switched off. Another technique is to switch voltage
polarity back and forth with a full-bridge switch
arrangement, with 4 transistors.

This technique may have better linearity, since it can go

right down to an cycles, and may jitter between
minimum duty cycles of positive and negative polarity.

In battery systems PWM is the most effective way to

achieve a constant voltage for battery charging by
switching the system controller's power devices on and
off.

The generation of exact working PWM circuitry is

complicated, but it is extremely conceptually important since
there is good reason to believe that neurons transmit
information using PWM spike trains.
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8.5 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Explain the different ways of converting data to signal and

viceversa.
2. Eplain in detail what is signal encoding
3. What are the different ways of converting analog data to digital
data?
4. What is modulation? What are its two types?

8.6 REFERENCES & FURTHER READING

1. Data Communication & Networking – Behrouz Forouzan.

2. Computer Networks – Andrew Tannenbaum

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3.42 Communication Enginnering

3.11 Types of Line Coding

Line Coding

Unipolar Bipolar Bipolar

Unipolar Unipolar NRZ RZ B8ZS 4DB3

NRZ RZ (or)
AMI

Biphase
Polar NRZ Polar RZ

Biphase level Biphase mark Biphase space

(Bi-f-L) (Bi-f-M) (Bi-f-S)
(or)
Manchester

Fig .3.12 Classification of line codes

3.11.1 Unipolar
• Unipolar encoding is single non-zero voltage level and zero voltage
level are used.
• It is primary and very simple coding.

Unipolar Non Return Zero (NRZ)

Non-Return zero is a code in which ‘1’ is represented by a voltage level
and ‘0’ is represented by another voltage level. There is no neutral or rest
condition in both 0’s and 1’s.
Amplitude

1 0 1 1 0
+A

0
Tb 2Tb 3Tb 4Tb 5Tb t

1’s → +A voltage
0’s → 0 voltage
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Source Codes, Line Codes & Error Control 3.43

Unipolar Return Zero (RZ)

Tb
Waveform comes back to zero level after half of bit intervals ‘ ’.
2
Amplitude

1 0 1 1 0
+A

0
Tb 2Tb 3Tb 4Tb 5Tb t

Tb
1’s → +A voltage for 0 to intervals
2
0’s → 0 voltage

3.11.2 Polar
• Polar encoding uses two levels (positive and negative voltage).
• It has single positive voltage and single negative voltage and no non-
zero voltage level.

Non Return Zero Polar NRZ

0’s are represented by -A voltage for full duration and 1’s are represented
by +A voltage for half duration.
Amp

1 0 1 1 0

+A

0
Tb 2Tb 3Tb 4Tb 5Tb t

-A

1’s → +A voltage
0’s → -A voltage

Polar RZ
0’s are represented by -A voltage for half duration and 0 voltage for an-
other half duration.
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3.44 Communication Enginnering

Amp
1 0 1 1 0

+A

0
Tb Tb 2Tb 3Tb 4Tb 5Tb t

-A 2

Tb1
1’s → (+A)
2
Tb2
(0)
2
Tb1
0’s → (−A)
2
Tb2
(0)
2
Biphase
The signal changes at the middle of the bit intervals but does not return to
zero.
Biphase encoding is divided into 3 types.

(i) Biphase level (Bi-φ-L) or Manchester coding

(ii) Biphase mark (Bi-φ-M )
(iii) Biphase space (Bi-φ-S)

(i) Biphase level (Bi-φ-L) or Manchester coding:

Amplitude
1 0 1 1 0
+A

0
Tb 2Tb 3Tb 4Tb 5Tb t

-A

• 0’s represented as transition from negative voltage (-A) positive

Tb
voltage (+A) for every duration.
2
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Source Codes, Line Codes & Error Control 3.45

• 1’s represented as transition from positive voltage (+A) nega-

Tb
tive voltage (-A) for every duration.
2
0 → -A to +A
1 → +A to -A
(ii) Biphase mark (Bi-φ-M ):
Amplitude
1 0 1 1 0
+A

t
Previous
stage
-A

• 0’s represented by a single transition and 1’s represented by a

Tb
double transition for every duration.
2
0 → single transition and
1 → double transition
• For the transition consider the previous state as negative volt-
age (-A).
(iii) Biphase space (Bi-φ-S):
Amplitude

1 0 1 1 0
+A

0
t
Previous
State
-A

• It is inverse of Biphase-mark
• 0’s represented by a double transition and 1’s represented by a
Tb
single transition for ever duration.
2
0 → single transition
1 → double transition
• For a transition, consider the previous state as negative voltage
(-A).
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3.46 Communication Enginnering

3.11.3 Bipolar
Bipolar coding uses three voltage levels, positive, negative and zero.
0’s → 0 voltage
1’s → represents alternating positive and negative voltage.

Bipolar NRZ

Amplitude
1 0 1 1 0
+A

-A

0’s → 0 voltage
1’s → alternate +A and -A voltage

Bipolar RZ (or) alternate mark inversion (AMI)

Amplitude
1 0 1 1 0
+A

-A

0’s → always 0 voltage

Tb1 Tb2
1’s → for first duration (+A) and second half duration (0V) it
2 2
Tb1 Tb2
is represented as alternate manner like (-A) and (0V).
2 2
Bipolar 8-zero substitution (B8ZS)
• To provide synchronization of long strings of 0’s B8ZS is used. This
encoding is used in North America.
• Whenever eight or more consecutive 0’s are encountered in the data
stream. the pattern of data stream is modified in two ways based on
the polarity of the previous one.