Introduction to AC Circuits

Lecture 16 1
Generation of Sinusoidal Voltage

2
 Direct Current (DC)
• DC sources have fixed polarities and magnitudes.
• DC voltage and current sources are represented by E and I.

For Example consider the circuit with given parameter

3
 Characteristics of Alternating Current

➢ All periodic waves can be constructed from sine waves, that is why sine waves
are called fundamental waves.
➢ Alternating voltage ( ) and Alternating current(i) vary continuously in
magnitude and reverses its polarity with respect to time.

4
 Representation of a Sinusoidal Signal
The sinusoidal waveform (i.e. sine wave) is the fundamental
alternating current (ac) or alternating voltage waveform.

AC sources are represented by lowercase v(t) or i(t).

5
 Direction of Sinusoidal AC Current
AC current changes direction each cycle with the source voltage.

First half-cycle Second half-cycle

6
 Generating AC Voltage
Rotating a coil in fixed magnetic field generates sinusoidal voltage.

7
Equation of Alternating Voltage

8
Equation of Alternating Voltage

9
Note:
Induced emf in a coil is represented as “e(t)” and AC voltage applied is represented as “v(t)”
Similarly peak value of induced emf is “Em” and AC voltage is “Vm”

10
 Time Scales
• Horizontal scale can represent degrees or time

11
 Frequency
➢ Frequency (f) is the number of cycles per second of a waveform.
➢ Unit of frequency is hertz (Hz).

➢ 1 Hz = 1 cycle per second.

50

50 50

12
 Period
• Period of a waveform:
– Time it takes to complete one cycle.
• Time is measured in seconds.
• The period (T) is the reciprocal of frequency:
1
= (s)
f

13
 Amplitude and Peak-to-Peak Value

• Amplitude of a sine wave is the distance from its average to its peak.
• We use Vm for amplitude
• Peak-to-peak voltage is measured between minimum and maximum peaks
• We use Vp-p

Amplitude

Peak-to-Peak

14
 Example Problem 1
What is the waveform’s period, frequency, Vm and VPP?

Amplitude

Peak-to-Peak

T = 0.4s Vm = 8V
1 1
=
f
=> f =
T V pp = 8V − (−8V ) = 16V
1
f= = 2.5Hz
0.4 s
15
 The Basic Sine Wave Equation
• The equation for a sinusoidal source is given:

v(t ) = Vm sin t
where Vm is peak coil voltage and ωt is the angular position.

16
 Angular Velocity
• The rate that the generator coil rotates is called its angular velocity
().
• Angular position can be expressed in terms of angular velocity and
time.
θ=  t (radians)
• Rewriting the sinusoidal equation:
v(t) = Vm sin  t (V)

17
 Relationship Between , T and f
• Conversion from frequency (f) in Hz to angular velocity
() in radians per second

 = 2 f (rad/s)

• In terms of the period (T)

2
 = 2 f = (rad/s)
T

18
 Phase Shifts
• A phase shift occurs when v(t) does not pass through
zero at t = 0 sec.
• If v(t) is shifted left (leading), then:

v = Vm sin ( t + )

• If v(t) is shifted right (lagging), then:

v = Vm sin ( t - )

19
 Phase shift
• The angle by which the wave LEADS or LAGS the zero point can
be calculated based upon the Δt.

• The phase angle is written in DEGREES.

20
 Phase Relationships

i leads v by 80° i leads v by 110°

V and i are in phase

21
 Average and effective values of periodic functions

The average (or mean) and effective (or RMS) values, are common
used terms to indicate the magnitude of a periodic signal.

Lecture 16 22
 Average Value of Sinusoidal Voltage
Average value of any quantity is the mean of all values over a time
period.

23
 RMS Value of Sinusoidal Voltage

Root Mean Square (or) RMS value of Alternating current is

defined as that value of steady current, which would
generate the same amount of heat in a given resistance is
given time, as is done by AC current, when maintained
across the same resistance for the same time.

24
 RMS Value of Sinusoidal Voltage
An RMS voltage is defined as the square root of the mean square of instantaneous values
of the voltage signal. The RMS is also known as the quadratic mean.

Lecture 16 25
Average, RMS and Peak Value of Sinusoidal Voltage

Vm = Maximum Voltage (or)

Vp = Peak Voltage
26
 Form Factor and Crest Factor
Form Factor
The form factor of an alternating current waveform (signal) is the ratio of
the RMS (Root Mean Square) value to the average value.
Form Factor = RMS value/average value
For a pure sinusoidal waveform the Form Factor will always be equal to
1.11.
Crest Factor
It is the ratio between the RMS value and the Peak value of the
waveform .

Lecture 16 27
A Sine wave or Sinusoidal Waveform

Lecture 16 28
 Instantaneous Value
• The instantaneous value is the value of the voltage at a particular
instant in time.

• The instantaneous value of the waveform can be determined

by solving the equation for a specific value of θ.
• For example, if θ = 37⁰ and amplitude were 10V, then the
instantaneous value at that point would be:
e(37) = 10sin(37) V = 6.01 V
 Example
A sine wave has a value of 50V at  = 150˚. What is the value
of Em (the amplitude)?

e = Em sin( ) V
e(150) = Em sin(150) =50V
50V
Em = =100V
sin(150)
30
 Effective (RMS) Values

• An effective value is an equivalent DC value.

• It tells how many volts or amps of DC that an AC
waveform supplies in terms of its ability to produce the
same average power.
• They are “Root Mean Squared” (RMS) values:
• The terms RMS and effective are synonymous.

Vm
Vrms = = 0.707Vm
2
Im
I rms = = 0.707 I m
2 31
 Radian Measure
• Conversion for radians to degrees:
2 radians = 360º
 Radians = 180º
/2 radians = 90º
1 radian = 57.296º

32
Phasor Diagram of a Sinusoidal Waveform

Lecture 16 33
 AC through a Purely resistive circuit

V = iR (ohms law)
V = Vm Sin (ωt)
I = V/R
=Vm Sin (ωt)/R
= Im Sin(ωt)

No phase difference between Voltage and current

 Power in a purely resistive circuit

P=V*I
= Vm Sin(ωt) * Im Sin(ωt)
=Vm Im Sin2(ωt)
= (VmIm/2) (1-Cos(2ωt))
= (VmIm)/2 - ( Vm Im Cos(2ωt))/2
Power being scalar quantity and considering Average power, the fluctuating part is
zero over a complete cycle

35
AC through a purely inductive circuit
Due to the applied voltage , Current I flows and self induced

VL emf (VL) is generated in the coil.

Circuit being purely inductive, resistance=0 and ohmic
loss=0
Hence applied voltage has to overcome self induced emf

I = (Vm/ωL)(Sin(ωt-90))
For Imax , Sin(ωt-90)=1
i.e Im= Vm/ωL
Where ωL= Inductive reactance (XL)
I = Im Sin(ωt-90)

36
 Current Lags voltage by 90o

P=VI
Integrating over one cycle i.e 0 to 2π
=VmIm Sin(ωt) Sin (ωt-π/2)
and applying limits
= VmIm Sin(ωt) Cos (ωt) P= 0
= VmIm Sin(2ωt) / 2
37
 AC through pure capacitor

Q = CV
1/ωc = Capacitive reactance (Xc)
= C Vm Sin(ωt)
I = dq/dt Maximum current when, Sin(ωt+ ∏/2)=1
= d/dt ( CVm Sin(ωt))
Im = Vm/ Xc
= C Vm Cos(ωt) .ω
Current leads Voltage by ∏/2
= {Vm / (1/cω) } Sin (ωt+ ∏/2)