WRE4203/CIV4213

HYDRAULICS
Pre-requisite: CIV3311 (Fluid Mechanics II)
2023/2024 session

Water Resources & Environmental Engineering Department

Aliko Dangote University of Science & Technology, Wudil
 
 MNSE, MNICE, MIWRA, MIHS, COREN-Reg.

[email protected]
@dankyaran_23


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 
HYDRAULICS: Assessment

● Test / Assignment (30%)

‒ 20% Tests and Quiz
‒ 10% Assignment

● Exam (70%)
‒ 4 Questions out of 6 (free choice)
 HYDRAULICS: Topics

A. Open-channel flow

B. Physical Modelling
A. Open-Channel Flow
TOPIC 1: FLOW IN CHANNELS
 OBJECTIVES

1. Relate normal depth to discharge for uniform flow in

open channels.
 FLOW IN PIPES AND OPEN CHANNELS

PIPE FLOW OPEN-CHANNEL FLOW

Fluid: LIQUIDS or GASES LIQUIDS (free surface)

Driven by: PRESSURE, GRAVITY or BOTH GRAVITY (down slope)

Size: DIAMETER HYDRAULIC RADIUS

Volume: FILLS pipe Depends on DEPTH

Equations: DARCY-WEISBACH (head loss) MANNING’S FORMULA

COLEBROOK-WHITE (friction factor)
 NORMAL FLOW

h
Q

• Normal flow = steady, uniform flow

(constant-depth flow under gravity)

• At best, an approximation for rivers / natural channels

• For any given 𝑄 there is a particular normal depth

 NORMAL FLOW
V
2 EGL
2g hf
HGL (fr
ee surfa
ce): p =
0
h

In normal flow:
• Equal hydrostatic pressure forces at any cross section
• Downslope component of weight balances bed friction
• Channel bed, free surface (= HGL) and EGL are parallel;
i.e. loss of fluid head equals drop in height
• Usual to assume small slopes
 PART 1: BALANCE OF FORCES
𝐴 = area of fluid cross-section
A
𝑃 = wetted perimeter
P

L (downslope) component of weight = friction on sides

𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃 = 𝜏𝑏 × wetted surface area

𝜌𝐴𝐿𝑔 sin 𝜃 = 𝜏𝑏 𝑃𝐿
mg

b 
𝐴
𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃 = 𝜏𝑏
𝑃

cross − sectional area 𝐴

Hydraulic radius (*** depends on depth ***): 𝑅ℎ ≡ =
wetted perimeter 𝑃

Normal-flow relationship: 𝜏𝑏 = 𝜌𝑔𝑅ℎ 𝑆

 PART 2: EXPRESSION FOR FRICTION
𝜏𝑏 = 𝜌𝑔𝑅ℎ 𝑆 𝑅ℎ is the hydraulic radius

1 2
𝑐𝑓 ( 𝜌𝑉 ) = 𝜌𝑔𝑅ℎ 𝑆 definition of the skin-friction coefficient
2

2
2𝑔
𝑉 = 𝑅 𝑆
𝑐𝑓 ℎ

Chézy’s Formula: 𝑉 = 𝐶 𝑅ℎ 𝑆

Robert Manning (compilation of experimental data):

1/6
𝐶 = 𝑅ℎ × function of roughness
1/6
𝑅
= ℎ
𝑛

1 2/3 1/2
Manning’s Formula: 𝑉= 𝑅 𝑆
𝑛 ℎ
MANNING’S ROUGHNESS COEFFICIENT
Channel type Surface 𝒏 (m–1/3 s)
Glass 0.01
Brass 0.011
Steel, smooth 0.012
painted 0.014
riveted 0.015
Cast iron 0.013
Concrete, finished 0.012
Artificial lined channels
unfinished 0.014
Planed wood 0.012
Clay tile 0.014
Brickwork 0.015
Asphalt 0.016
Corrugated metal 0.022
Rubble masonry 0.025
Clean 0.022
Gravelly 0.025
Excavated earth channels
Weedy 0.03
Stony, cobbles 0.035
Clean and straight 0.03
Natural channels Sluggish, deep pools 0.04
Major rivers 0.035
Pasture, farmland 0.035
Light brush 0.05
Floodplains
Heavy brush 0.075
Trees 0.15
 CALCULATION FORMULAE (SUMMARY)
1 2/3 1/2
Manning’s Formula: 𝑉 = 𝑅ℎ 𝑆
𝑛

𝑉 = average velocity
𝑛 = Manning’s roughness parameter
𝑆 = slope (gradient)
𝐴 cross − sectional area
𝑅ℎ = hydraulic radius = =
𝑃 wetted perimeter
Method
For a given channel:
1. Write area 𝐴 and perimeter 𝑃 as functions of a parameter (often depth, ℎ)
2. Calculate hydraulic radius
3. Calculate average velocity
4. Calculate quantity of flow

Two Main Types of Problem

• Given ℎ find 𝑄
• Given 𝑄 find ℎ
 EXAMPLE SHEET

A V-shaped channel with sides sloping at 30° to the

horizontal has a gradient of 1 in 100 and an estimated
Manning’s 𝑛 of 0.012 m−1/3 s. Calculate:

(a) the discharge for a depth of 0.5 m;

(b) the depth when the discharge is 2 m3 s −1 .

 CONVEYANCE
1 2/3 1/2 𝐴
(a) Manning’s formula: 𝑉 = 𝑅ℎ 𝑆 𝑅ℎ =
𝑛 𝑃
(b) Discharge: 𝑄 = 𝑉𝐴
2/3
1 𝐴
𝑄= 𝑆 1/2 × 𝐴
𝑛 𝑃

1/2 1 𝐴5/3
𝑄 = 𝐾𝑆 𝐾=
𝑛 𝑃2/3
conveyance

For compound channels (e.g. river plus flood plain) simply add the conveyances:
1 2 3

flood plain river flood plain

𝐾eff = 𝐾1 + 𝐾2 + 𝐾3
 COMMON SHAPES OF CHANNEL
rectangle trapezoid circle

h h  R

h
b b

ℎ2 1
area, 𝑨 𝑏ℎ 𝑏ℎ + 𝑅2 (𝜃 − sin 2𝜃)
tan 𝛼 2

2ℎ
wetted perimeter, 𝑷 𝑏 + 2ℎ 𝑏+ 2𝑅𝜃
sin 𝛼
 EXAMPLE SHEET

A culvert used to divert run-off has a rectangular cross

section with base width 0.4 m and side heights of 0.3 m.
Manning’s coefficient may be taken as 𝑛 = 0.012 m–1/3 s.

(a) Find the minimum slope 𝑆 necessary to carry a

discharge 𝑄 = 0.3 m3 s –1 .

(b) If the slope from part (a) is doubled for the same
discharge, calculate depth of flow.
 EXAMPLE SHEET

A concrete pipe 750 mm in diameter is laid to a gradient of 1 in

200. The estimated value of Manning’s 𝑛 is 0.012 m−1/3 s.

Calculate the discharge when:

(a) the pipe is full;

(b) the depth is 90% of maximum.

Explain why the answer in (b) exceeds that in (a).

 A. Open-Channel Flow

1. Introduction

2. Gradually-varied flow

3. Similitude and Dimensional Analysis

 Introduction

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Classification
1.2 Normal flow
1.3 Flow energy: fluid head
1.4 Froude number
Characteristics of Open-Channel Flow

● Free surface (𝑝 = 0)

● Balance between gravity and friction

● Variable depth ℎ
 Classification of Open-Channel Flow
GVF RVF GVF RVF GVF RVF GVF RVF GVF UF

sluice hydraulic
gate weir change
jump
of slope

● Steady vs unsteady
● Uniform flow (steady uniform flow = normal flow)
‒ requires a uniform channel!
‒ the limiting behaviour, given sufficient distance

● Rapidly-varied flow
‒ short distance; bed friction unimportant;
‒ examples: hydraulic jump, weir, venturi, sluice, …

● Gradually-varied flow
‒ long distance; depth adjustment following disturbance
‒ result of imbalance between bed friction and component of weight
 Introduction

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Classification
1.2 Normal flow
1.3 Flow energy: fluid head
1.4 Froude number
 Normal Flow: Balance of Forces
L
flow
A
P mg

b 

𝜏𝑏 × (𝑃𝐿) = (𝜌𝐴𝐿) × 𝑔 sin θ stress × wetted area = weight × sin 𝜃

𝐴
𝜏𝑏 = 𝜌 𝑔 sin 𝜃
𝑃
𝐴
𝜏𝑏 = 𝜌𝑔𝑅ℎ 𝑆 hydraulic radius: 𝑅ℎ ≡
𝑃

𝜏𝑏 = 𝑐𝑓 (12𝜌𝑉 2 ) definition of skin-friction coefficient 𝑐𝑓

2𝑔
𝑐𝑓 (12𝜌𝑉 2 ) = 𝜌𝑔𝑅ℎ 𝑆 𝑉= 𝑅ℎ 𝑆
𝑐𝑓
 Normal Flow: Friction Laws
2𝑔
𝑉= 𝑅ℎ 𝑆
𝑐𝑓

Darcy 𝜆 = 4𝑐𝑓 𝐷ℎ = 4𝑅ℎ 𝐷ℎ

𝑉= 2𝑔 𝑆
𝜆

Chézy 𝐶= 2𝑔/𝑐𝑓 𝑉 = 𝐶 𝑅ℎ 𝑆

1 1/6 1 2/3 1/2

Manning 2𝑔/𝑐𝑓 = 𝑅ℎ 𝑉 = 𝑅ℎ 𝑆
𝑛 𝑛
Typical Values of Manning’s n
𝑛 (m–1/3 s)
Glass 0.01
Brass 0.011
Steel, smooth 0.012
painted 0.014
riveted 0.015
Cast iron 0.013
Concrete, finished 0.012
Artificial lined channels
unfinished 0.014
Planed wood 0.012
Clay tile 0.014
Brickwork 0.015
Asphalt 0.016
Corrugated metal 0.022
Rubble masonry 0.025
Clean 0.022
Gravelly 0.025
Excavated earth channels
Weedy 0.03
Stony, cobbles 0.035
Clean and straight 0.03
Natural channels Sluggish, deep pools 0.04
Major rivers 0.035
Pasture, farmland 0.035
Light brush 0.05
Floodplains
Heavy brush 0.075
Trees 0.15
 Normal Flow: Calculation Formulae

Discharge: 𝑄 = 𝑉𝐴

A
1 2/3 1/2
Manning’s equation: 𝑉 = 𝑅ℎ 𝑆 P
𝑛

𝐴
Hydraulic radius: 𝑅ℎ =
𝑃

𝐴 and 𝑃 depend on the channel geometry and the water depth ℎ

𝑄 = 𝑓(ℎ)
The more common problem is to find depth ℎ, given discharge 𝑄
 Hydraulic Radius For Particular Shapes
𝑏ℎ ℎ
Rectangular: 𝑅ℎ = = h
𝑏 + 2ℎ 1 + 2ℎ/𝑏
b
Wide: 𝑅ℎ = ℎ

ℎ(𝑏 + 𝑚ℎ) h
Trapezoidal: 𝑅ℎ = 1
𝑏 + 2ℎ 1 + 𝑚2 m
b

2(12𝑅2 𝜃 − 12𝑅 sin 𝜃 𝑅 cos 𝜃)

Circular: 𝑅ℎ =
2𝑅𝜃
 R
𝑅 sin 2𝜃 h
= 1−
2 2𝜃
 Two Special Cases

Wide channel:

h 𝑅ℎ = ℎ

Full circular pipe:

𝑅ℎ = 𝑅/2
D
𝐷 = 4𝑅ℎ
 Example

The discharge in a channel with bottom width 3 m is 12 m3 s–1. If

Manning’s 𝑛 is 0.013 m–1/3 s and the streamwise slope is 1 in 200,
find the normal depth if:

(a) the channel has vertical sides (i.e. rectangular channel);

(b) the channel is trapezoidal with side slopes 2H:1V.

The discharge in a channel with bottom width 3 m is 12 m3 s–1. If Manning’s 𝑛
is 0.013 m–1/3 s and the streamwise slope is 1 in 200, find the normal depth if:
(a) the channel has vertical sides (i.e. rectangular channel);
𝑏 =3m
𝑄 = 12 m3 s −1
𝑛 = 0.013 m−1Τ3 s h

𝑆 = 0.005 b

1 2Τ3 1Τ2 𝐴 𝑏ℎ ℎ
𝑄 = 𝑉𝐴 𝑉 = 𝑅ℎ 𝑆 𝐴 = 𝑏ℎ 𝑅ℎ ≡ = =
𝑛 𝑃 𝑏 + 2ℎ 1 + 2 ℎΤ𝑏
𝑃 = 𝑏 + 2ℎ
2/3
1 ℎ
𝑄= 𝑆 1/2 𝑏ℎ
𝑛 1 + 2ℎ/𝑏
2/5
ℎ = 0.8316 1 + 2ℎ/3
𝑏 𝑆 ℎ 5 Τ3
𝑄= 2/3
0.8316
𝑛 1 + 2ℎ/𝑏
0.9921 ANS
𝑛𝑄 1.0188
(1 + 2ℎ/𝑏)2Τ3 = ℎ5/3
𝑏 𝑆
3 Τ5
𝑛𝑄 1.024 m
ℎ= (1 + 2ℎ/𝑏)2Τ5
𝑏 𝑆 𝒉𝒏 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟐 𝐦
The discharge in a channel with bottom width 3 m is 12 m3 s–1. If Manning’s 𝑛
is 0.013 m–1/3 s and the streamwise slope is 1 in 200, find the normal depth if:
(a) the channel has vertical sides (i.e. rectangular channel);
(b) the channel is trapezoidal with side slopes 2H:1V.

2ℎ

ℎ
ℎ 5

1
𝐴 = 𝑏ℎ + 2 × ℎ(2ℎ) = 𝑏ℎ + 2ℎ2 = 𝑏ℎ(1 + 2ℎ/𝑏)
2
𝑃 = 𝑏 + 2ℎ 5 = 𝑏(1 + 2 5ℎ/𝑏)

𝐴 𝑏ℎ 1 + 2ℎ/𝑏 1 + 2ℎ/𝑏
𝑅ℎ ≡ = =ℎ
𝑃 𝑏(1 + 2 5ℎ/𝑏) 1 + 2 5ℎ/𝑏
 Introduction

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Classification
1.2 Normal flow
1.3 Flow energy: fluid head
1.4 Froude number
 Fluid Head
1 2
Total pressure: 𝑝 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧 + 𝜌𝑉
2

𝑝 𝑉2
Total head (𝐻): +𝑧+
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

zs(x)
h
zb(x)

If hydrostatic: 𝑝 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧 is constant along a vertical line

𝑝 𝑝
+𝑧= +𝑧 = 𝑧𝑠
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔 𝑠

𝑉2
Total head in (gradually-varied) open-channel flow: 𝐻 = 𝑧𝑠 +
2𝑔
 Introduction

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Classification
1.2 Normal flow
1.3 Flow energy: fluid head
1.4 Froude number
 Froude Number in Open-Channel Flow
𝑉
Fr ≡
𝑔ℎത

Wide or rectangular channel: ℎത = depth

𝐴
Non-rectangular channel: ℎത = mean depth =
𝑏𝑠
bs

A h

Fr < 1: subcritical (tranquil)

Fr > 1: supercritical (rapid)
Fr = 1: critical
 Interpretations of Froude Number
𝑉
Fr ≡
𝑔ℎ

● (Square root of) ratio of inertial to gravitational forces

● Ratio of water velocity 𝑉 to long-wave speed 𝑔ℎ
● Critical depth (Fr = 1)  minimum specific energy
● Separates:
‒ deep, slow, subcritical flow (Fr < 1)
‒ shallow, fast, supercritical flow (Fr > 1)

● Occurs at a control point in critical-flow devices such as

broad-crested weirs and venturi flumes.
 Example

The discharge in a rectangular channel of width 6 m with Manning’s

𝑛 = 0.012 m–1/3 s is 24 m3 s–1. If the streamwise slope is 1 in 200
find:
(a) the normal depth;
(b) the Froude number at the normal depth;
(c) the critical depth.

State whether the normal flow is subcritical or supercritical.

The discharge in a rectangular channel of width 6 m with Manning’s 𝑛 = 0.012 m–1/3 s is
24 m3 s–1. If the streamwise slope is 1 in 200 find:
(a) the normal depth;
𝑏 =6m
𝑛 = 0.012 m−1Τ3 s
𝑄 = 24 m3 s −1 h

𝑆 = 0.005 b

1 2Τ3 1Τ2 𝐴 𝑏ℎ ℎ
𝑄 = 𝑉𝐴 𝑉 = 𝑅ℎ 𝑆 𝐴 = 𝑏ℎ 𝑅ℎ ≡ = =
𝑛 𝑃 𝑏 + 2ℎ 1 + 2 ℎΤ𝑏
𝑃 = 𝑏 + 2ℎ
2/3
1 ℎ
𝑄= 𝑆 1/2 𝑏ℎ
𝑛 1 + 2ℎ/𝑏
𝑏 𝑆 ℎ 5 Τ3
𝑄= 2/3
𝑛 1 + 2ℎ/𝑏

𝑛𝑄
(1 + 2ℎ/𝑏)2Τ3 = ℎ5/3 2/5
𝑏 𝑆 ℎ = 0.7926 1 + ℎ/3
3 Τ5 𝒉𝒏 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟕𝟖𝟑 𝐦
𝑛𝑄
ℎ= (1 + 2ℎ/𝑏)2Τ5
𝑏 𝑆
The discharge in a rectangular channel of width 6 m with Manning’s 𝑛 = 0.012 m–1/3 s is
24 m3 s–1. If the streamwise slope is 1 in 200 find:
(a) the normal depth;
(b) the Froude number at the normal depth;

ℎ𝑛 = 0.8783 m

𝑉 𝑄 𝑄
Fr ≡ 𝑉= 𝑉𝑛 = = 4.554 m s −1
𝑔ℎ 𝐴 𝑏ℎ𝑛

Fr𝑛 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟓𝟏
The discharge in a rectangular channel of width 6 m with Manning’s 𝑛 = 0.012 m–1/3 s is
24 m3 s–1. If the streamwise slope is 1 in 200 find:
(a) the normal depth;
(b) the Froude number at the normal depth;
(c) the critical depth.
State whether the normal flow is subcritical or supercritical.

ℎ𝑛 = 0.8783 m Fr𝑛 = 1.551

Fr 2 = 1 Fr𝑛 = 1.551 > 1 normal flow is supercritical

𝑉2
=1
𝑔ℎ
𝑄 𝑞 𝑄 ℎ𝑐 = 1.177 m (Fr = 1)
𝑉= = where 𝑞 =
𝑏ℎ ℎ 𝑏 ℎ𝑛 = 0.8783 m (Fr > 1)
= 4 m2 s−1
𝑞2
=1
𝑔ℎ3
ℎ↓ 𝑉↑ Fr ↑
2 1 Τ3
𝑞
ℎ𝑐 = = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟕𝟕 𝐦
𝑔
ℎ𝑛 < ℎ𝑐 normal flow is supercritical
Open-Channel Flow

1. Gradually-Varied Flow
 Gradually-Varied Flow

1. GRADUALLY-VARIED FLOW
1.1 Normal flow vs gradually-varied flow
1.2 Derivation of the gradually-varied-flow equation
1.3 Finding the friction slope
1.4 Profile classification
1.5 Qualitative examples of open-channel-flow behaviour
1.6 Numerical solution of the GVF equation
 Normal Flow
EGL (en
2 ergy gra
V /2g de line)
Friction
slope Sf
h

Geome
tric slop
e S0

Normal flow:
• Downslope component of weight balances bed friction
• Uniform depth and velocity
• Bed slope or geometric slope (𝑆0) is the same as the slope of
the total head line or friction slope (𝑆𝑓)
• “Preferred” depth, to which flow tends given sufficient fetch
 Gradually-Varied Flow
GVF RVF GVF RVF GVF RVF GVF RVF GVF UF

sluice hydraulic
gate weir change
jump
of slope

Gradually-varied flow (GVF):

• Downslope component of weight does not balance bed friction
• Geometric slope (𝑆0) is different to friction slope (𝑆𝑓)
• Depth ℎ changes with distance

The gradually-varied-flow equation gives the change of depth with

distance
 Gradually-Varied-Flow Equation
dℎ 𝑆0 − 𝑆𝑓
=
d𝑥 1 − Fr 2

Assumptions:
• Small slopes
• Quasi-1d
• Hydrostatic pressure

Depends on:
• Difference between geometric and friction slopes (𝑆0 – 𝑆𝑓)
• Sub- or supercritical flow (Fr)
 Gradually-Varied Flow

1. GRADUALLY-VARIED FLOW
1.1 Normal flow vs gradually-varied flow
1.2 Derivation of the gradually-varied-flow equation
1.3 Finding the friction slope
1.4 Profile classification
1.5 Qualitative examples of open-channel-flow behaviour
1.6 Numerical solution of the GVF equation
 Derivation of the GVF Equation (1)
zs
g
2
𝑉2 𝑉
Total head: 𝐻 = 𝑧𝑠 + = 𝑧𝑏 + ℎ +
2𝑔 2𝑔 zb h h cos 


𝐻 = 𝑧𝑏 + 𝐸

d𝐻 d𝑧𝑏 d𝐸
= +
d𝑥 d𝑥 d𝑥

Define: d𝐻 friction slope

= −𝑆𝑓
d𝑥
d𝑧𝑏 geometric slope
= −𝑆0
d𝑥

d𝐸
GVF equation (specific-energy form): = 𝑆0 − 𝑆𝑓
d𝑥
 Derivation of the GVF Equation (2)
𝑉2 𝑄 d𝐸
Specific energy: 𝐸 =ℎ+ 𝑉= = 𝑆0 − 𝑆𝑓
2𝑔 𝐴 d𝑥
𝑄2
𝐸 =ℎ+
2𝑔𝐴2
d𝐸 dℎ 𝑄2 d𝐴 d𝐴 = 𝑏𝑠 dℎ
bs
= − 3 dh
d𝑥 d𝑥 𝑔𝐴 d𝑥
A

d𝐸 dℎ 𝑄 2 𝑏𝑠 𝑄 𝐴
= 1− 𝑉= ℎത =
d𝑥 d𝑥 𝑔𝐴3 𝐴 𝑏𝑠

d𝐸 dℎ 𝑉2
= 1−
d𝑥 d𝑥 𝑔ℎത

dℎ
𝑆0 − 𝑆𝑓 = (1 − Fr 2 )
d𝑥
dℎ 𝑆0 − 𝑆𝑓
GVF equation (depth form): =
d𝑥 1 − Fr 2
 Gradually-Varied Flow

1. GRADUALLY-VARIED FLOW
1.1 Normal flow vs gradually-varied flow
1.2 Derivation of the gradually-varied-flow equation
1.3 Finding the friction slope
1.4 Profile classification
1.5 Qualitative examples of open-channel-flow behavior
1.6 Numerical solution of the GVF equation
 Finding the Friction Slope, Sf
dℎ 𝑆0 − 𝑆𝑓
=
d𝑥 1 − Fr 2

Quasi-uniform-flow assumption:
rate of energy loss is the same as uniform flow of the same depth.
1 2/3 1/2
𝑉 = 𝑅ℎ 𝑆𝑓
𝑛

𝑛2 𝑉 2 𝑛2 𝑄 2
𝑆𝑓 = 4/3
= 4/3
= function of depth ℎ
𝑅ℎ 𝑅ℎ 𝐴2

Greater depth  lower velocity  smaller 𝑆𝑓

Smaller depth  higher velocity  greater 𝑆𝑓
 Gradually-Varied Flow

1. GRADUALLY-VARIED FLOW
1.1 Normal flow vs gradually-varied flow
1.2 Derivation of the gradually-varied-flow equation
1.3 Finding the friction slope
1.4 Profile classification
1.5 Qualitative examples of open-channel-flow behaviour
1.6 Numerical solution of the GVF equation
 Slope Classification
Critical depth ℎ𝑐 : depth at which Fr = 1
Normal depth ℎ𝑛: depth of uniform flow (𝑆𝑓 = 𝑆0 )

e.g. wide channel: ℎ𝑐 = (𝑞 2 /𝑔)1/3 ℎ𝑛 = (𝑛𝑞/ 𝑆0 )3/5

(For a given discharge) a slope is:

• steep, if the normal flow is supercritical
(i.e. the normal depth is less than the critical depth)
• mild, if the normal flow is subcritical
(i.e. the normal depth is greater than the critical depth)
 Increasing or Decreasing Depth
+
+
dℎ 𝑆0 − 𝑆𝑓 +
or
−
= − +
d𝑥 1 − Fr 2 −
−

𝑆0– 𝑆𝑓 > 0 if and only if ℎ is greater than normal depth

1– Fr2 > 0 if and only if ℎ is greater than critical depth

dℎ
<0 depth decreasing ...
d𝑥
... if and only if ℎ lies between normal and critical depths.
 Water-Profile Classification

2 characters (e.g. S1, M3 etc.):

• S, C, M, H, A (Steep, Critical, Mild, Horizontal, Adverse)

• 1, 2, 3 (where ℎ lies with respect to ℎ𝑐 and ℎ𝑛)
Type Symbol Definition Sketches Examples

S1 Hydraulic jump upstream with obstruction or

S1 h > hc > hn hc
reservoir controlling water level downstream.
STEEP S2
hn
(normal flow S2 hc > h > hn Change to steeper slope.
supercritical) S3

S3 hc > hn > h Change to less steep slope.

CRITICAL C1 h > hc = hn hc= hn C1

(undesirable;
undular unsteady C3
flow) C3 hc = hn > h

Obstruction or reservoir controlling water level

M1 h > hn > hc hn M1
downstream.
MILD hc M2
(normal flow M2 hn > h > hc Approach to free overfall.
subcritical) M3

hn > hc > h Hydraulic jump downstream; change from steep

M3
to mild slope or downstream of sluice .

H2 h > hc H2 Approach to free overfall.

HORIZONTAL
(limiting mild slope; hc
hn → ) H3 hc > h H3 Hydraulic jump downstream; change from steep
to horizontal or downstream of sluice.

A2
A2 h > hc
ADVERSE
(upslope) hc A3
A3 hc > h
 Gradually-Varied Flow

1. GRADUALLY-VARIED FLOW
1.1 Normal flow vs gradually-varied flow
1.2 Derivation of the gradually-varied-flow equation
1.3 Finding the friction slope
1.4 Profile classification
1.5 Qualitative examples of open-channel-flow behaviour
1.6 Numerical solution of the GVF equation
 Control Points
Definition: locations at which there is a known relationship
between depth and flow rate (stage-discharge relationship)

Examples:
• Critical flow points: weir, venturi, free overfall, ...
• Sluices
• Entry/exit from reservoir
• Hydraulic jump

A control point often yields a boundary condition from which to

start a GVF calculation
 General Principles
• Supercritical  controlled by upstream conditions.
Subcritical  controlled by downstream conditions.

• Given a long-enough fetch the flow will try to revert to normal

flow.

• A hydraulic jump occurs between regions of supercritical and

subcritical gradually-varied flow at the point where the jump
condition for the sequent depths is correct.

• Where the slope is mild (i.e. the normal flow is subcritical), and
any downstream control is far away, a hydraulic jump can be
assumed to jump directly to the normal depth.
Qualitative Examples: Weir (Mild Slope)

normal M1
normal
hc
hn h1
h2 M3 hydraulic hn
WEIR
jump ℎ𝑐

SUB SUB CP CP
SUPER
SUB
 Qualitative Examples: Sluice

Mild slope
normal M1
normal
hn h1
h2 M3 hydraulic hn
jump
CP CP

Steep slope
S1
normal
hn
h1
h2 S3
SUPER normal ℎ𝑐
SUB CP hn
SUPER
SUPER
 Qualitative Examples: Flow From Reservoir
CP
normal
Mild slope hn

RESERVOIR

CP

hc S2
Steep slope
normal
RESERVOIR
 Qualitative Examples

normal M1 CP
hn
Flow into reservoir (mild slope)
RESERVOIR

normal
M2
hn CP
Free overfall (mild slope) hc
critical
 Qualitative Example: Exercise
Sketch the water profile for:
• Flow over weir (steep slope)

HJ

WEIR ℎ𝑐
SUPER
SUB
SUPER
SUPER
 Qualitative Example: Exercise
Sketch the water profile for:
• Flow into reservoir (from a steep slope)

ℎ𝑐
HJ

SUPER
RESERVOIR
SUB
 Gradually-Varied Flow

1. GRADUALLY-VARIED FLOW
1.1 Normal flow vs gradually-varied flow
1.2 Derivation of the gradually-varied-flow equation
1.3 Finding the friction slope
1.4 Profile classification
1.5 Qualitative examples of open-channel-flow behaviour
1.6 Numerical solution of the GVF equation
 The GVF Equation
Three forms:

d𝐻
Total head: = −𝑆𝑓
d𝑥

Specific energy: d𝐸
= 𝑆0 − 𝑆𝑓
d𝑥

Depth: dℎ 𝑆0 − 𝑆𝑓
=
d𝑥 1 − Fr 2
 Solving the GVF Equation
dℎ 𝑆0 − 𝑆𝑓
=
d𝑥 1 − Fr 2

Impossible to solve analytically (in most circumstances)

h4
h3
h1 h2
h0

x x x x

Find depths ℎ1, ℎ2, ℎ3, … at discrete points 𝑥1, 𝑥2, 𝑥3, …

dℎ Δℎ
approximated by where Δℎ = ℎ𝑖+1 − ℎ𝑖
d𝑥 Δ𝑥
Δ𝑥 = 𝑥𝑖+1 − 𝑥𝑖
 Starting Point and Direction
dℎ 𝑆0 − 𝑆𝑓
=
d𝑥 1 − Fr 2

Start at a control point.

Proceed:

• forward in 𝑥 if supercritical CP
flow

(upstream control);

• backward in 𝑥 if subcritical CP

(downstream control). flow

 Types of Method
dℎ 𝑆0 − 𝑆𝑓
=
d𝑥 1 − Fr 2
h4

1. Standard-step methods h0 h1 h2
h3

Solve for depth ℎ𝑖 at specified distance intervals Δ𝑥

x x x x

2. Direct-step methods
Solve for distance 𝑥𝑖 at specified height intervals Δℎ h
h
h
d𝑥 1 − Fr 2
=
dℎ 𝑆0 − 𝑆𝑓 x0 x1 x2 x3
 Standard-Step Method: Total Head
h4
h3
h1 h2
h0

x x x x

d𝐻 𝑉2
= −𝑆𝑓 𝐻 = 𝑧𝑏 + ℎ +
d𝑥 2𝑔

𝐻𝑖+1 − 𝐻𝑖 𝑆𝑓,𝑖 + 𝑆𝑓,𝑖+1

= −( )
Δ𝑥 2

Adjust depth ℎ𝑖+1 (iteratively) at each step until LHS = RHS.

Direct-Step Method: Specific Energy
h
h
h

x0 x1 x2 x3

d𝐸 𝑉2
= 𝑆0 − 𝑆𝑓 𝐸 =ℎ+
d𝑥 2𝑔

d𝑥 1
=
d𝐸 𝑆0 − 𝑆𝑓

Δ𝐸
Δ𝑥 = Δ𝐸 = 𝐸𝑖+1 − 𝐸𝑖 𝐸 = 𝐸(ℎ)
(𝑆0 − 𝑆𝑓 )av
 Direct-Step Method: Depth
h
h
h

x0 x1 x2 x3

dℎ 𝑆0 − 𝑆𝑓
=
d𝑥 1 − Fr 2
d𝑥 1 − Fr 2
= Write 𝑆𝑓 and Fr 2 as functions of ℎ
dℎ 𝑆0 − 𝑆𝑓

Δ𝑥 d𝑥 d𝑥
≈ Δ𝑥 = Δℎ
Δℎ dℎ dℎ av
av
 Example
A long, wide channel has a slope of 1:2747 with a Manning’s 𝑛 of 0.015 m–1/3 s.
It carries a discharge of 2.5 m3 s–1 per metre width, and there is a free overfall
at the downstream end. An undershot sluice is placed a certain distance
upstream of the free overfall which determines the nature of the flow between
sluice and overfall. The depth just downstream of the sluice is 0.5 m.

(a) Determine the critical depth and normal depth.

(b) Sketch, with explanation, the two possible gradually-varied flows between
sluice and overfall.

(c) Calculate the particular distance between sluice and overfall which
determines the boundary between these two flows. Use one step in the
gradually-varied-flow equation.
A long, wide channel has a slope of 1:2747 with a Manning’s 𝑛 of 0.015 m–1/3 s. It
carries a discharge of 2.5 m3 s–1 per metre width, and there is a free overfall at the
downstream end. An undershot sluice is placed a certain distance upstream of the
free overfall which determines the nature of the flow between sluice and overfall.
The depth just downstream of the sluice is 0.5 m.

(a) Determine the critical depth and normal depth.

𝑆0 = 1/2747
𝑛 = 0.015 m−1/3 s
𝑞 = 2.5 m2 s −1
1/3
𝑞2
Critical: ℎ𝑐 = = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟎𝟓 𝐦
𝑔

1 2Τ3 1/2
Normal: 𝑞 = 𝑉ℎ 𝑉= 𝑅 𝑆 𝑅ℎ = ℎ ("wide")
𝑛 ℎ 0
1 5/3
𝑞= ℎ 𝑆0 (*)
𝑛
𝑛𝑞 3 Τ5
ℎ𝑛 = = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝐦
𝑆0
(b) Sketch, with explanation, the two possible gradually-varied flows between
sluice and overfall.

ℎ𝑐

ℎ𝑐
(c) Calculate the particular distance between sluice and overfall which determines
the boundary between these two flows. Use one step in the gradually-varied-
flow equation.

ℎ𝑐

ℎ1 = 0.8605 m

ℎ0 = 0.5 m 0.8605 − 0.5

Δℎ =
1

= 0.3605 m
(c) Calculate the particular distance between sluice and overfall which determines
the boundary between these two flows. Use one step in the gradually-varied-
flow equation.
dℎ 𝑆0 − 𝑆𝑓
=
d𝑥 1 − Fr 2
2 2 0.6371
d𝑥 1 − Fr 2 𝑉 𝑞 𝑆0 = 3.640 × 10−4
= Fr 2 = = 3 =
dℎ 𝑆0 − 𝑆𝑓 𝑔ℎ 𝑔ℎ ℎ3

1 𝑛𝑞 2 14.06 × 10−4
(*) 𝑞 = ℎ5/3 𝑆𝑓 𝑆𝑓 = 5Τ3 =
𝑛 ℎ ℎ10Τ3
0.6371
d𝑥 1− 3
= ℎ
dℎ 14.06
3.640 − 10Τ3 × 10−4
ℎ

Δ𝑥 d𝑥 d𝑥
≈ Δ𝑥
Δℎ dℎ 𝑖 ℎ𝑖 𝑥𝑖 ℎmid
dℎ mid
d𝑥 0 0.5 0
Δ𝑥 = Δℎ
dℎ mid 0.6803 217.1 78.26
Δℎ = 0.3605 1 0.8605 78.26
 Direct-Step Method: Depth
h
h
h

x0 x1 x2 x3

dℎ 𝑆0 − 𝑆𝑓
=
d𝑥 1 − Fr 2

d𝑥 1 − Fr 2
= Write 𝑆𝑓 and Fr 2 as functions of h
dℎ 𝑆0 − 𝑆𝑓

Δ𝑥 d𝑥 d𝑥
= Δ𝑥 = Δℎ
Δℎ dℎ dℎ av
av
 Example
A long rectangular channel of width 2.5 m, slope 0.004 and Manning’s roughness
coefficient 𝑛 = 0.022 m−1/3 s carries water at 4 m3 s −1 . Temporary works
narrow the channel at one location to 1.1 m for a short distance.

(a) Find the normal depth in the main channel and show that the slope is
hydraulically mild.

(b) Show that a hydraulic transition takes place at the narrow point and find the
depth just downstream of the narrowed section, confirming that
supercritical flow is possible here.

(c) Use two steps in the gradually-varied-flow equation to estimate the distance
from the end of the narrow section to the downstream hydraulic jump.
A long rectangular channel of width 2.5 m, slope 0.004 and Manning’s roughness coefficient
𝑛 = 0.022 m−1/3 s carries water at 4 m3 s −1 . Temporary works narrow the channel at one
location to 1.1 m for a short distance.

(a) Find the normal depth in the main channel and show that the slope is hydraulically mild.
𝑏 = 2.5 m (main channel)
𝑆0 = 0.004
𝑛 = 0.022 m−1Τ3 s
𝑄 = 4 m3 s −1

1 Τ 𝑏ℎ ℎ
𝑄 = 𝑉𝐴 𝑉 = 𝑅ℎ2 3 𝑆 1Τ2 𝐴 = 𝑏ℎ 𝑅ℎ = =
𝑛 𝑏 + 2ℎ 1 + 2 ℎΤ𝑏
𝑃 = 𝑏 + 2ℎ
1 𝑏ℎ5Τ3 1 Τ2
𝑄= 2/3
𝑆 (*)
𝑛 1 + 2ℎ/𝑏

3 Τ5
𝑛𝑄 2/5 2/5
ℎ= 1 + 2ℎ/𝑏 ℎ = 0.7036 1 + 0.8ℎ
𝑏 𝑆
ℎ𝑛 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟗𝟎 𝐦

𝑄 𝑉𝑛
𝑉𝑛 = = 1.841 m s −1 Fr𝑛 ≡ = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟑𝟎𝟓 subcritical normal flow
𝑏ℎ𝑛 𝑔ℎ𝑛  mild slope
(b) Show that a hydraulic transition takes place at the narrow point and find the depth just
downstream of the narrowed section, confirming that supercritical flow is possible here.
Critical conditions at the throat (𝑏𝑚 = 1.1 m):
2 1 Τ3 𝑄
𝑞𝑚 𝑞𝑚 = = 3.636 m2 s −1 ℎ𝑐 = 1.105 m
ℎ𝑐 = 𝑏𝑚
𝑔
3
𝐻𝑐 = 𝑧𝑏 + 𝐸𝑐 = 0 + ℎ𝑐 = 1.658 m
2

Approach flow:
𝑉𝑛2
𝐻𝑎 = ℎ𝑛 + = 1.042 m 𝐻𝑎 < 𝐻𝑐  hydraulic transition occurs
2𝑔
𝐻 = 𝐻𝑐 = 1.658 m throughout

Main channel width (𝑏 = 2.5 m):

𝑄2 0.1305 0.1305
𝐻=ℎ+ 1.658 = ℎ + ℎ= ℎ2 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟏𝟏𝟑 𝐦
2𝑔𝑏2 ℎ2 ℎ2 1.658 − ℎ

Mild slope, so any supercritical GVF would have to increase in depth with distance.
ℎ𝑛
ℎ𝐽 = −1 + 1 + 8Fr𝑛2 = 0.4539 m ℎ2 < ℎ𝐽  supercritical GVF occurs
2
(c) Use two steps in the gradually-varied-flow equation to estimate the distance from the
end of the narrow section to the downstream hydraulic jump.
ℎ2 = 0.4539
ℎ1
ℎ0 = 0.3113 0.4539 − 0.3113
Δℎ = = 0.0713 m
2
𝑥0 𝑥1 𝑥2

dℎ 𝑆0 − 𝑆𝑓
=
d𝑥 1 − Fr 2

d𝑥 1 − Fr 2 𝑉2 𝑄2 0.2610
= Fr 2 = = 2 3 = 𝑆0 = 0.004
dℎ 𝑆0 − 𝑆𝑓 𝑔ℎ 𝑔𝑏 ℎ ℎ3

1 𝑏ℎ5Τ3 1/2
(*) 𝑄= 𝑆
2/3 𝑓
𝑛 1 + 2ℎ/𝑏
2 4/3
𝑛𝑄 1 + 0.8ℎ
𝑆𝑓 = 1 + 2ℎ/𝑏 4/3 = 1.239 × 10−3
𝑏ℎ5Τ3 ℎ10Τ3
0.2610
d𝑥 1 −
= ℎ3
dℎ −3 (1 + 0.8ℎ)4/3
0.004 − 1.239 × 10
ℎ10/3
(c) Use two steps in the gradually-varied-flow equation to estimate the distance from the
end of the narrow section to the downstream hydraulic jump.

0.2610 ℎ2 = 0.4539
d𝑥 1−
= ℎ3 ℎ1
dℎ −3 (1 + 0.8ℎ)4/3 ℎ0 = 0.3113
0.004 − 1.239 × 10
ℎ10/3
𝑥0 𝑥1 𝑥2
d𝑥
Δ𝑥 = Δℎ Δℎ = 0.0713
dℎ mid

d𝑥
𝑖 ℎ𝑖 𝑥𝑖 ℎmid Δ𝑥
dℎ mid
0 0.3113 0
0.34695 96.27 6.864
1 0.3826 6.864
0.41825 87.70 6.253
2 0.4539 13.12
 Example

A long rectangular channel of width 2.2 m, streamwise slope 1:100 and

Chézy coefficient 80 m1/2 s–1 carries a discharge of 4.5 m3 s–1.

(a) Find the normal depth and critical depth and show that the slope is
steep at this discharge.

(b) An undershot sluice gate causes a hydraulic transition in this flow. The
depth of parallel flow downstream of the gate is 0.35 m. Find the
depth immediately upstream of the gate and sketch the flow.

(c) Using 2 steps in the gradually-varied-flow equation, find the distance

between the gate and the hydraulic jump.
A long rectangular channel of width 2.2 m, streamwise slope 1:100 and Chézy
coefficient 80 m1/2 s–1 carries a discharge of 4.5 m3 s–1.

(a) Find the normal depth and critical depth and show that the slope is steep at this
discharge.
𝑏 = 2.2 m 𝑆0 = 0.01 𝐶 = 80 m1/2 s−1 𝑄 = 4.5 m3 s −1

Normal depth:
1/2 1/2
𝑏ℎ ℎ
𝑄 = 𝑉𝐴 𝑉= 𝐶𝑅ℎ 𝑆0 𝐴 = 𝑏ℎ 𝑅ℎ = =
𝑏 + 2ℎ 1 + 2ℎ/𝑏
1/2 𝑃 = 𝑏 + 2ℎ
ℎ 1/2
𝑄=𝐶 𝑆0 𝑏ℎ
1 + 2ℎ/𝑏
𝑄 ℎ3/2
= (*)
𝐶𝑏 𝑆0 (1 + 2ℎ/𝑏)1/2
2/3
𝑄
ℎ= (1 + 2ℎ/𝑏)1/3 ℎ = 0.4028(1 + 0.9091ℎ)1/3 ℎ𝑛 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟓𝟏𝟖 𝐦
𝐶𝑏 𝑆0

Critical depth:
1 Τ3
𝑞2 𝑄
ℎ𝑐 = 𝑞= = 2.045 m2 s −1 ℎ𝑐 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟔 𝐦 ℎ𝑛 < ℎ𝑐 steep
𝑔 𝑏
(b) An undershot sluice gate causes a hydraulic transition in this flow. The depth of
parallel flow downstream of the gate is 0.35 m. Find the depth immediately
upstream of the gate and sketch the flow.
gate
𝑄 = 4.5 m3 s −1 𝑏 = 2.2 m
total head line
ℎ2 = 0.35 m

𝑉12 𝑉22 h1
𝑧𝑠1 + = 𝑧𝑠2 +
2𝑔 2𝑔 D h2

𝑄2 𝑄2
ℎ1 + = ℎ2 +
2𝑔𝑏2 ℎ12 2𝑔𝑏2 ℎ22

0.2132
ℎ1 + = 2.090
ℎ12

0.2132
ℎ1 = 2.090 −
ℎ12

ℎ1 = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟑𝟗 𝐦
... sketch the flow.

S1
normal
hn
h1
h2 S3 normal

CP hn
(c) Using 2 steps in the gradually-varied-flow equation, find the distance between
the gate and the hydraulic jump.

2.039 m
1.166 m

0.4518 m

ℎ𝑛 = 0.4518 m

𝑄
𝑉𝑛 = = 4.527 m s −1
𝑏ℎ𝑛
𝑉𝑛
Fr𝑛 = = 2.150
𝑔ℎ𝑛
ℎ𝑛
ℎ𝐽 = (−1 + 1 + 8Fr𝑛2 )
2
= 1.166 m
(d) Use 2 steps in the gradually-varied-flow equation to determine how far upstream
of the sluice a hydraulic jump will occur.
ℎ1 ℎ0 = 2.039
ℎ2 = 1.166
1.166 − 2.039
Δℎ = = −0.4365 m
2

𝑥2 𝑥1 𝑥0

dℎ 𝑆0 − 𝑆𝑓 2
𝑉2 𝑄2 0.4263
= Fr = = 2 3 =
d𝑥 1 − Fr 2 𝑔ℎ 𝑔𝑏 ℎ ℎ3

d𝑥 1 − Fr 2 𝑆0 = 0.01
=
dℎ 𝑆0 − 𝑆𝑓
𝑄 ℎ3/2
(*) =
𝐶𝑏 𝑆𝑓 (1 + 2ℎ/𝑏)1/2
2
𝑄 (1 + 2ℎ/𝑏) (1 + 0.9091ℎ)
𝑆𝑓 = = 6.537 × 10−4
𝐶𝑏 ℎ3 ℎ3

0.4263
d𝑥 1−
3
= ℎ
dℎ 0.01 − 6.537 × 10−4 1 + 0.9091ℎ
ℎ3
(d) Use 2 steps in the gradually-varied-flow equation to determine how far upstream
of the sluice a hydraulic jump will occur.
ℎ1 ℎ0 = 2.039
ℎ2 = 1.166
0.4263
d𝑥 1− 3
= ℎ
dℎ 0.01 − 6.537 × 10−4 1 + 0.9091ℎ
ℎ3 𝑥2 𝑥1 𝑥0

d𝑥
Δ𝑥 = Δℎ Δℎ = −0.4365
dℎ mid

d𝑥
𝑖 ℎ𝑖 𝑥𝑖 ℎmid Δ𝑥
dℎ mid
0 2.039 0
1.821 95.69 - 41.77
1 1.6025 - 41.77
1.384 88.87 - 38.79

2 1.166 - 80.56
Open-Channel Flow

2. Rapidly-Varied Flow
GVF RVF GVF RVF GVF RVF GVF RVF GVF UF

sluice hydraulic
gate weir change
jump
of slope
 Rapidly-Varied Flow (RVF)
● Examples
‒ hydraulic jump, weir, venturi, sluice, …

● Flow transitions between:

‒ deep, slow flow (subcritical; Fr < 1)
‒ shallow, fast flow (supercritical; Fr > 1)

● Changes over short distances (a few depths)

‒ bed friction not important
‒ total head approximately constant (except hydraulic jump)

● Either:
‒ smooth transition (e.g. weir); negligible change in head
‒ abrupt transition (hydraulic jump); significant head loss
 Rapidly-Varied Flow

2. RAPIDLY-VARIED FLOW
2.1 Hydraulic jump
2.2 Specific energy
2.3 Critical-flow devices
2.4 Forces on objects
 Hydraulic Jump

V2 A2
A1 V1

● Abrupt change from shallow (Fr > 1) to deep (Fr < 1)

● Occurs where up- and downstream depths are not compatible
● Smooth transition Fr > 1 to Fr < 1 not possible on a flat bed

ℎ1
ℎ2 = (−1 + 1 + 8Fr12 )
2
 Hydraulic Jump: Assumptions

V2 A2
A1 V1

Assume (for now):

● uniform velocities upstream and downstream
● small slope (weight component not important)
● short extent (bed friction not important)
● wide or rectangular cross-section
 Hydraulic Jump
Continuity: Flow rate 𝑄 = 𝑉𝐴 constant
V2
𝑄 A2
𝑉= A1 V1
𝐴

Momentum: Net pressure force = change in momentum flux

𝑄
𝑝1ҧ 𝐴1 − 𝑝ҧ2 𝐴2 = 𝜌𝑄(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 ) 𝑝ҧ = 𝜌𝑔𝑑ҧ 𝑉=
𝐴
1 1
𝜌𝑔𝑑1ҧ 𝐴1 − 𝜌𝑔𝑑ҧ2 𝐴2 = 𝜌𝑄2 ( − )
𝐴2 𝐴1

Restrict attention to a rectangular (or wide) channel

1 h
𝑑ҧ = ℎ 𝐴 = ℎ𝑏 𝑄 = 𝑞𝑏
2 b

1 2 1 2
1 1
2
𝜌𝑔ℎ1 𝑏 − 2
𝜌𝑔ℎ2 𝑏 = 𝜌𝑞 2 𝑏 ( − )
ℎ2 ℎ1

1 2
1 1
2
𝑔(ℎ1 − ℎ22 ) = 𝑞 2 ( − )
ℎ2 ℎ1
 Hydraulic Jump (Rectangular Channel)

1 2
1 1 V2
2
𝑔(ℎ1 − ℎ22 ) = 𝑞 2 ( − ) h2
ℎ2 ℎ1 h1 V1

1 ℎ1 − ℎ2
2
𝑔(ℎ1 − ℎ2 )(ℎ1 + ℎ2 ) = 𝑞 2 ( )
ℎ1 ℎ2

1 𝑞2
2ℎ1 ℎ2 (ℎ1 + ℎ2 ) =
𝑔

1 ℎ2 ℎ2 𝑞2 𝑞2 (𝑞/ℎ1 )2 𝑉12
(1 + ) = 3 3 = = = Fr12
2 ℎ1 ℎ1 𝑔ℎ1 𝑔ℎ1 𝑔ℎ1 𝑔ℎ1

2
1 ℎ2 ℎ2 ℎ2 ℎ2 ℎ2 −1 + 1 + 8Fr12
(1 + ) = Fr12 + − 2Fr12 = 0 =
2 ℎ1 ℎ1 ℎ1 ℎ1 ℎ1 2
 Hydraulic Jump (Rectangular Channel)
Mass and momentum:
V2 h2
1 ℎ2 ℎ2 ℎ1
(1 + ) = Fr12 ℎ2 = (−1 + 1 + 8Fr12 ) h1 V1
2 ℎ1 ℎ1 2
So far:
1 and 2 could be either upstream or downstream;
Jump could be either shallow-to-deep or deep-to-shallow.

Energy:
𝑉12 − 𝑉22 𝑞
Head loss: 𝐻1 − 𝐻2 = 𝑧𝑠1 − 𝑧𝑠2 + 𝑉=
2𝑔 ℎ
𝑞2 1 1 𝑞2 1
𝐻1 − 𝐻2 = ℎ1 − ℎ2 + ( 2 − 2) = ℎ1 ℎ2 (ℎ1 + ℎ2 )
2𝑔 ℎ1 ℎ2 𝑔 2
(ℎ2 − ℎ1 )3
𝐻1 − 𝐻2 =
4ℎ1 ℎ2

Loss of mechanical energy  ℎ2 > ℎ1 Jump ... from shallow to deep

Fr1 > 1 and Fr2 < 1 ... supercritical to subcritical

ℎ1 and ℎ2 are called sequent depths

 Rapidly-Varied Flow

2. RAPIDLY-VARIED FLOW
2.1 Hydraulic jump
2.2 Specific energy
2.3 Critical-flow devices
2.4 Forces on objects
 Specific Energy
𝑉2
Total head: 𝐻 = 𝑧𝑠 + (open channel, hydrostatic)
2𝑔
zs(x)
𝑉2
= 𝑧𝑏 + ℎ + h
2𝑔
zb(x)

Specific energy 𝐸 is the head relative to the bed:

𝑉2
𝐸 =ℎ+
2𝑔

𝐻 = 𝑧𝑏 + 𝐸

Increase in 𝑧𝑏  decrease in 𝐸
Rectangular (or Wide) Channel
𝑉2 𝑞
𝐸 =ℎ+ 𝑉=
2𝑔 ℎ
𝑞2
𝐸 =ℎ+
2𝑔ℎ2
h

Large ℎ: 𝐸≈ℎ

E
h

constant
Small ℎ: 𝐸 ≈
ℎ2
E
Specific Energy in a Rectangular Channel

𝑞2
𝐸 =ℎ+
2𝑔ℎ2
Depth, h

hc

Ec
Specific Energy, E
 Minimum Specific Energy
𝑞2 d𝐸 𝑞2
𝐸 =ℎ+  =1− 3
2𝑔ℎ2 dℎ 𝑔ℎ

Depth, h
`

1/3
d𝐸 𝑞2 𝑞2 hc

=0  =1  ℎ=
dℎ 𝑔ℎ3 𝑔 Ec
Specific Energy, E

𝑞2 1 𝑞2 1 3
𝐸 =ℎ+ =ℎ+ ℎ =ℎ+ ℎ = ℎ
2𝑔ℎ2 2 𝑔ℎ3 2 2

For a rectangular or wide channel:

1/3
𝑞2 3
ℎ𝑐 = 𝐸𝑐 = ℎ𝑐
𝑔 2
 Critical Depth – Froude Number
𝑞2
Minimum 𝐸 where =1
𝑔ℎ3
𝑉 2
𝑞
Fr 2 = 𝑉=

Depth, h
𝑔ℎ ℎ
`

𝑞2 Fr<1
= hc
𝑔ℎ3 Fr>1

=1 Ec
Specific Energy, E

● For a given flow rate there is a (strictly positive) minimum specific energy,
occurring at the critical depth where Fr = 1.

● For any energy 𝐸 > 𝐸𝑐 there are two possible depths:

– a shallow (ℎ < ℎ𝑐), high-speed flow with Fr > 1
– a deep (ℎ > ℎ𝑐), low speed flow with Fr < 1
These are called alternate depths.
 Calculating the Alternate Depths
𝑉2
𝐸 =ℎ+
2𝑔

For a wide or rectangular channel:

Depth, h
𝑞2 `

𝐸 =ℎ+ Fr<1
2𝑔ℎ2 hc

Fr>1
(Specific energy = head, if bed height = 0)
Ec
Specific Energy, E

𝑞2
Subcritical - rearrange for deep solution: ℎ=𝐸−
2𝑔ℎ2
𝑞
Supercritical - rearrange for shallow solution: ℎ=
2𝑔(𝐸 − ℎ)
 Example

A 3 m wide channel carries a total discharge of 12 m3 s–1.

Calculate:
(a) the critical depth;
(b) the minimum specific energy;
(c) the alternate depths when 𝐸 = 4 m.
A 3 m wide channel carries a total discharge of 12 m3 s–1. Calculate:
(a) the critical depth;
(b) the minimum specific energy;
(c) the alternate depths when 𝐸 = 4 m.

𝑏 =3m 𝑄
𝑄 = 12 m3 s −1 } 𝑞≡
𝑏
= 4 m2 s −1

1/3
𝑞2
ℎ𝑐 = = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟕𝟕 𝐦
𝑔

3
𝐸𝑐 = ℎ = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟔𝟔 𝐦
2 𝑐

0.8155
𝑉2 𝑞 Deep: ℎ =4−
𝐸 =ℎ+ 𝑉= ℎ2
2𝑔 ℎ
4, 3.949, 3.948, … 3.948 m
𝑞2
𝐸 =ℎ+
2𝑔ℎ2
0.8155
Shallow: ℎ=
0.8155 4−ℎ
4=ℎ+
ℎ2 0, 0.4515, 0.4794, … 0.4814 m
 Flow Over a (Small) Bump
𝐻 = 𝑧𝑏 + 𝐸 = constant

Depth, h
𝑧𝑏 increases  𝐸 decreases Fr<1
`

hc

Fr>1

Ec
Specific Energy, E

subcritical
subcritical
Subcritical
– depth decreases over the bump.

supercritical
supercritical
Supercritical
– depth increases over the bump.
 Surface Level (𝒛𝒔 ) vs Depth (𝒉)
𝑉2
𝐻 = 𝑧𝑠 +
2𝑔
𝑞2
= 𝑧𝑠 + (wide or rectangular channel)
2𝑔ℎ2

𝑞2
d𝐻 = d𝑧𝑠 − 3 dℎ
𝑔ℎ
= d𝑧𝑠 − Fr 2 dℎ

For constant head (d𝐻 = 0): d𝑧𝑠 = Fr 2 dℎ

At constant head ...
(1) surface level changes in the same direction as depth;
(2) if Fr is very small, surface displacement is negligible.
 Non-Rectangular Channel
𝑉2 𝑄
Total head: 𝐻 = 𝑧𝑠 + 𝑉= 𝑧𝑠 = 𝑧𝑏 + ℎ bs
2𝑔 𝐴
𝑄2 A
𝐻 = 𝑧𝑏 + 𝐸 𝐸=ℎ+
2𝑔𝐴2

d𝐸 d 𝑄2 d𝐴 𝑄2 d𝐴
Minimise specific energy: =1+ × =1− 3
dℎ d𝐴 2𝑔𝐴2 dℎ 𝑔𝐴 dℎ

d𝐸 𝑄2 d𝐴
=0 ⇒ =1 d𝐴 = 𝑏𝑠 dℎ
dℎ 𝑔𝐴3 dℎ
bs
𝑄2 𝑏𝑠
=1 dh
𝑔𝐴3
(𝑄/𝐴)2
=1
𝑔(𝐴/𝑏𝑠 )
𝑉2
=1
𝑔ℎത
𝑉
Fr =
Minimum specific energy occurs at Fr = 1 𝑔ℎത
 Rapidly-Varied Flow

2. RAPIDLY-VARIED FLOW
2.1 Hydraulic jump
2.2 Specific energy
2.3 Critical-flow devices
2.4 Forces on objects
Critical-Flow Devices

● Broad-crested weir
● Venturi flume
● Sluice gate
● Free overfall
 Critical-Flow Devices
normal GVF
normal
hc
hn h1
WEIR h2 GVF hydraulic hn
jump
CP CP

For weir or venturi, given sufficient flow restriction:

● to attain the required minimum energy to pass the flow, the depth
must increase just upstream; (i.e. the flow “backs up”)
● the flow accelerates smoothly from sub- to supercritical, with
critical conditions at the restriction;
● there is fixed relationship between depth (“stage”) and discharge:
‒ measurement of discharge
‒ control point for GVF calculations
 Critical-Flow Devices
total-head line

WEIR

Unlike a hydraulic jump:

● smooth transition: no loss of head
● sub- to supercritical transition
WEIR
 Broad-Crested Weir
Upstream: subcritical, with specific energy 𝐸𝑎 .

Bed raised by Δ𝑧𝑏. Δ𝑧𝑏

Specific energy reduced: 𝐸 → 𝐸𝑎 – Δ𝑧𝑏. margin

Subcritical, so loss in depth.

Depth, h
Ea

hc

WEIR Ec
Specific Energy, E

But 𝐸 cannot be less than the critical value 𝐸𝑐 at this discharge.

If Δ𝑧𝑏 exceeds the allowed margin there must be an increase in depth immediately
upstream to provide sufficient specific energy.

Increase in upstream depth is just sufficient to allow critical flow over the weir.

WEIR
 Broad-Crested Weir: Flow Depths
When the weir controls the flow:
● Smooth acceleration from sub- to supercritical flow
● Critical flow over the top: 1/3
𝑞2 3
ℎ𝑐 = 𝐸𝑐 = ℎ𝑐
𝑔 2

● The total head immediately up or downstream of the weir is the same as

that over the top: total-head line

𝐻 = 𝑧weir + 𝐸𝑐 WEIR

● Depths immediately up- or downstream of the weir can be found as the

sub- and supercritical depths with this head.

normal GVF
normal
hc
hn h1
WEIR h2 GVF hydraulic hn
jump
CP CP
 Broad-Crested Weir: Test For Critical
First find, for the given discharge 𝑄:
• approach-flow conditions (often normal): ℎ𝑎 and 𝐸𝑎
• weir critical conditions (ℎ𝑐 and 𝐸𝑐 )

Then either:

Method 1
• Calculate specific energy following rise, 𝐸𝑎– 𝑧weir, assuming not critical.
• If this is less than 𝐸𝑐 then the flow must actually be critical over the weir.

Method 2 (my preference)

• Calculate total head over weir assuming critical; i.e. 𝐻𝑐 = 𝑧weir + 𝐸𝑐 .
(This is the minimum energy needed to get over the weir at this flow rate.)
• If this exceeds the available head, 𝐻𝑎, then critical conditions occur. (The
depth just upstream must increase to supply the necessary head.)
 Example
(a) Define:
(i) specific energy
(ii) Froude number
for open-channel flow. What is special about these quantities in critical conditions?

A long, wide channel has a slope of 1:1000, a Manning’s 𝑛 of 0.015 m–1/3 s and a
discharge of 3 m3 s–1 per metre width.

(b) Calculate the normal and critical depths.

(c) In a region of the channel the bed is raised by a height of 0.8 m over a length
sufficient for the flow to be parallel to the bed over this length. Determine the
depths upstream, downstream and over the raised bed, ignoring frictional losses.
Sketch the key features of the flow, indicating all hydraulic transitions caused by the
bed rise.

(d) In the same channel, the bed is lowered by 0.8 m from its original level. Determine
the depths upstream, downstream and over the lowered bed, ignoring frictional
losses. Sketch the flow.
(a) Define:
(i) specific energy
(ii) Froude number
for open-channel flow. What is special about these quantities in critical conditions?

Specific energy is head (energy per unit weight) relative to the bed of the channel
or
𝑉2
𝐸 =ℎ+
2𝑔

𝑉
The Froude number is Fr =
𝑔ℎത

In critical conditions, Fr = 1, and the specific energy is a minimum at the given

discharge.
A long, wide channel has a slope of 1:1000, a Manning’s 𝑛 of 0.015 m–1/3 s and a discharge of
3 m3 s–1 per metre width.
(b) Calculate the normal and critical depths.
𝑆 = 0.001
𝑛 = 0.015 m−1Τ3 s
𝑞 = 3 m2 s−1
Normal:
1 2Τ3 1Τ2
𝑞 = 𝑉ℎ 𝑉= 𝑅 𝑆 𝑅ℎ = ℎ ("wide")
𝑛 ℎ
1 2 Τ 3 1 Τ2
𝑞= ℎ 𝑆 ℎ
𝑛
ℎ 5 Τ3 𝑆
𝑞=
𝑛
3 Τ5
𝑛𝑞
ℎ𝑛 = = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟑𝟔 𝐦
𝑆

Critical:
1 Τ3
𝑞2
ℎ𝑐 = = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟕𝟏𝟕 𝐦
𝑔
(c) In a region of the channel the bed is raised by a height of 0.8 m over a length sufficient
for the flow to be parallel to the bed over this length. Determine the depths upstream,
downstream and over the raised bed, ignoring frictional losses. Sketch the key features
of the flow, indicating all hydraulic transitions caused by the bed rise.
Minimum head required (critical conditions):
ℎ𝑐 = 0.9717 m
3
𝐸𝑐 = ℎ𝑐 = 1.458 m 𝑧𝑏 = 0.8 m
2
𝐻𝑐 = 𝑧𝑏 + 𝐸𝑐 = 2.258 m

Head available without backing up (normal flow):

𝑉𝑛2
𝐻𝑎 = 0 + 𝐸𝑎 = ℎ𝑛 +
2𝑔
𝑞2
= ℎ𝑛 + ℎ𝑛 = 1.236 m 𝑞 = 3 m2 s−1
2𝑔ℎ𝑛2
= 1.536 m
Available head (𝐻𝑎 ) is less than the minimum required (𝐻𝑐 ). Hence:
• the water depth must increase (“back up”), to raise the head immediately upstream;
• a hydraulic transition (subcritical to supercritical) must take place;
• the head throughout is critical: 𝐻 = 𝐻𝑐 = 2.258 m
(c) In a region of the channel the bed is raised by a height of 0.8 m over a length sufficient
for the flow to be parallel to the bed over this length. Determine the depths upstream,
downstream and over the raised bed, ignoring frictional losses. Sketch the key features
of the flow, indicating all hydraulic transitions caused by the bed rise.

normal GVF RVF

normal
hc
hn h1
h2 GVF hydraulic hn
jump

Over the weir:

ℎ = ℎ𝑐 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟕𝟏𝟕 𝐦

Just up or downstream (ℎ1 and ℎ2 ):

𝑉2 𝑞
𝐻 = 𝑧𝑠 + 𝑧𝑠 = ℎ 𝑉=
2𝑔 ℎ
𝑞2
𝐻=ℎ+
2𝑔ℎ2
0.4587 0.4587
2.258 = ℎ + Deep (ℎ1 ): ℎ = 2.258 − 𝒉𝟏 = 𝟐. 𝟏𝟔𝟎 𝐦
ℎ2 ℎ2

0.4587
Shallow (ℎ2 ): ℎ = 𝒉𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟏𝟐𝟕 𝐦
2.258 − ℎ
(d) In the same channel, the bed is lowered by 0.8 m from its original level.
Determine the depths upstream, downstream and over the lowered bed,
ignoring frictional losses. Sketch the flow.
normal RVF
normal
hn
hn

No flow transition: 𝐻 = 𝐻𝑎 = 1.536 m

Upstream/downstream: ℎ1 = ℎ2 = ℎ𝑛 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟑𝟔 𝐦

𝑉2 𝑞
In the depressed-bed region: 𝐻 = 𝑧𝑠 + 𝑧𝑠 = −0.8 + ℎ 𝑉=
2𝑔 ℎ
𝑞2
1.536 = −0.8 + ℎ +
2𝑔ℎ2
0.4587
2.336 = ℎ +
ℎ2

0.4587
Subcritical (deep): ℎ = 2.336 − 𝒉 = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟒𝟓 𝐦
ℎ2
 Broad-Crested Weir: Test For Critical
First find, for the given discharge 𝑞:
• approach-flow conditions (often normal): ℎ𝑎 and 𝐸𝑎
• weir critical conditions (ℎ𝑐 and 𝐸𝑐 )

Then either:

Method 1
• Calculate specific energy following rise, 𝐸𝑎– 𝑧weir, assuming not critical.
• If this is less than 𝐸𝑐 then the flow must actually be critical over the weir.

Method 2 (my preference)

• Calculate total head over weir assuming critical; i.e. 𝐻𝑐 = 𝑧weir + 𝐸𝑐 .
(This is the minimum energy needed to get over the weir at this flow rate.)
• If this exceeds the available head 𝐻𝑎 (= 𝐸𝑎 ) then critical conditions occur.
(The depth just upstream must increase to supply the necessary head.)
 Broad-Crested Weir: Total Head

• If the flow does go critical then:

– the total head throughout is critical;
WEIR
– the flow goes smoothly from sub- to supercritical.

• If the flow does not go critical then:

– the total head throughout is that from upstream;
WEIR
– there is simply a localised dip in the free surface.

• In both cases the total head through the device is:

– constant
– equal to the larger of the critical or the approach-flow head
 Broad-Crested Weir: Downstream Conditions
On a mild slope (i.e. where the normal flow is subcritical), the flow must go through
a hydraulic jump back to subcritical flow.

Depths either side of the hydraulic jump are connected by the sequent-depth
formula.

On a mild slope, any supercritical GVF increases in depth (see later).

hydraulic
Case 𝒉𝟐 < 𝒉𝑱 jump

Region of supercritical GVF between weir and h1

WEIR
h2
hJ
jump.

Case 𝒉𝟐 > 𝒉𝑱 hydraulic

jump
No region of supercritical GVF between weir and h1
jump. Hydraulic jump occurs immediately. WEIR
 Example

A long channel of rectangular cross-section with width 3.5 m

and streamwise slope 1 in 800 carries a discharge of 15 m3 s–1.
Manning’s 𝑛 may be taken as 0.016 m–1/3 s. A broad-crested weir
of height 0.7 m is constructed at the centre of the channel.

Determine:
(a) the depth far upstream of the weir;

(b) the depth just upstream of the weir;

(c) whether or not a region of supercritical gradually-varied flow

exists downstream of the weir.
A long channel of rectangular cross-section with width 3.5 m and streamwise slope 1 in 800
carries a discharge of 15 m3 s–1. Manning’s 𝑛 may be taken as 0.016 m–1/3 s. A broad-crested
weir of height 0.7 m is constructed at the centre of the channel. Determine:
(a) the depth far upstream of the weir;

𝑏 = 3.5 m
𝑆 = 0.00125
𝑄 = 15 m3 s −1 h

𝑛 = 0.016 m−1Τ3 s b

1 2Τ3 1Τ2 𝑏ℎ ℎ
𝑄 = 𝑉𝐴 𝑉 = 𝑅ℎ 𝑆 𝑅ℎ = =
𝑛 𝑏 + 2ℎ 1 + 2 ℎΤ𝑏
2/3
1 ℎ
𝑄= 𝑆 1/2 𝑏ℎ
𝑛 1 + 2ℎ/𝑏

𝑏 𝑆 ℎ 5 Τ3
𝑄= 2/3
𝑛 1 + 2ℎ/𝑏
𝑛𝑄
(1 + 2ℎ/𝑏)2Τ3 = ℎ5/3
𝑏 𝑆
3 Τ5
𝑛𝑄 2/5
ℎ= (1 + 2ℎ/𝑏)2Τ5 ℎ = 1.488 1 + 0.5714ℎ
𝑏 𝑆
𝒉𝒏 = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟐𝟑 𝐦
(b) the depth just upstream of the weir;

Available head in the approach flow:

𝑉𝑛2 𝑄
𝐻𝑎 = 0 + 𝐸𝑎 = ℎ𝑛 + 𝑉=
2𝑔 𝑏ℎ
𝑄2
= ℎ𝑛 + ℎ𝑛 = 2.023 m 𝑄 = 15 m3 s−1 𝑏 = 3.5 m
2𝑔𝑏2 ℎ𝑛2
= 𝟐. 𝟐𝟓𝟐 𝐦

Minimum head required (critical conditions):

1 Τ3 1Τ3
𝑞2 𝑄2
ℎ𝑐 = = 2 = 1.233 m
𝑔 𝑏 𝑔
3
𝐸𝑐 = ℎ𝑐 = 1.850 m 𝑧weir = 0.7 m
2
𝐻𝑐 = 𝑧𝑏 + 𝐸𝑐 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝟓𝟎 𝐦

Available head (𝐻𝑎 ) is less than the minimum required (𝐻𝑐 ). Hence:
• the water depth must increase (“back up”), to raise the head immediately upstream;
• a hydraulic transition (subcritical to supercritical) must take place;
• the head throughout is critical: 𝐻 = 𝐻𝑐 = 2.550 m
(b) the depth just upstream of the weir;

Total head near the weir:

𝐻 = 2.550 m

Just upstream (or downstream):

𝑉2 𝑄
𝐻 = 𝑧𝑠 + 𝑧𝑠 = ℎ 𝑉=
2𝑔 𝑏ℎ
𝑄2
𝐻 =ℎ+
2𝑔𝑏2 ℎ2
0.9362
2.550 = ℎ +
ℎ2

Upstream (deep):
0.9362
ℎ = 2.550 −
ℎ2
𝒉𝟏 = 𝟐. 𝟑𝟖𝟓 𝐦
(c) whether or not a region of supercritical gradually-varied flow exists downstream of the
weir. hydraulic
jump
Total head near the weir: h1
h2
WEIR
0.9362 hJ

2.550 = ℎ +
ℎ2
Downstream of the weir (if supercritical flow is reached):
hydraulic
jump
0.9362
ℎ= ℎ2 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟏𝟒𝟏 𝐦 h1
2.550 − ℎ WEIR

Hydraulic jump:
𝑄 𝑉𝑛
Downstream: ℎ𝑛 = 2.023 m 𝑉𝑛 = = 2.118 m s−1 Fr𝑛 = = 0.4754
𝑏ℎ𝑛 𝑔ℎ𝑛

ℎ𝑛
Upstream: ℎ𝐽 = (−1 + 1 + 8Fr𝑛2 ) = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟖𝟑𝟓 𝐦
2

ℎ2 > ℎ𝐽 , so there is no room for supercritical flow between weir and hydraulic jump
The hydraulic jump occurs immediately, at the downstream end of the weir
 Measurement of Discharge
Head over weir = head upstream total-head line

3 𝑉12 freeboard, h0
ℎ = ℎ0 + h1
2 𝑐 2𝑔 WEIR
1/3
3 𝑞2 𝑞2
= ℎ0 +
2 𝑔 2𝑔ℎ12

𝑞 2 3/2
Discharge per unit width: 𝑞 = (2/3)3/2 𝑔 (ℎ0 + 2)
2𝑔ℎ1
𝑄2
Ideal total discharge: 𝑄 = (2/3)3/2 𝑔𝑏 (ℎ0 + 2 2)
3/2
2𝑔𝑏 ℎ1

Actual total discharge: 𝑄 = 𝑐𝑑 𝑄ideal

total-head line
freeboard, h0

If discharging from still water, 𝑉1 = 0: WEIR

1/3
3 𝑞2 RESERVOIR
= ℎ0
2 𝑔
 Example

A reservoir discharge is controlled by a weir of width 8 m and

discharge coefficient 0.9.

(a) Calculate the flow rate over the weir when the freeboard is
0.65 m.

(b) Assuming negligible inflow and a constant plan area for the
reservoir of 1.5 km2, calculate the time in hours to reduce
the level of the reservoir by 0.4 m.
A reservoir discharge is controlled by a weir of width 8 m and discharge coefficient 0.9.
(a) Calculate the flow rate over the weir when the freeboard is 0.65 m.
(b) Assuming negligible inflow and a constant plan area of 1.5 km2 for the reservoir,
calculate the time in hours taken to reduce the level of the reservoir by 0.4 m.
total-head line
freeboard, h0

𝑏 =8m WEIR
RESERVOIR
𝑐𝑑 = 0.9

Head in reservoir = head over weir

3
Relative to the top of the weir: ℎ0 = ℎ𝑐
2
1 Τ3
3 𝑞2
ℎ0 =
2 𝑔
3
2 𝑞2
ℎ =
3 0 𝑔
3 Τ2
𝑞= 2/3 3 𝑔ℎ03 = 1.705ℎ0

𝑄 = 𝑐𝑑 𝑄ideal = 𝑐𝑑 𝑞𝑏

3Τ2
𝑄 = 12.28ℎ0
A reservoir discharge is controlled by a weir of width 8 m and discharge coefficient 0.9.
(a) Calculate the flow rate over the weir when the freeboard is 0.65 m.
(b) Assuming negligible inflow and a constant plan area of 1.5 km2 for the reservoir,
calculate the time in hours taken to reduce the level of the reservoir by 0.4 m.
𝑄 = 12.28ℎ3/2

(a) When ℎ = 0.65 m, 𝑄 = 𝟔. 𝟒𝟑𝟓 𝐦𝟑 𝐬 −𝟏

d
(b) Generally: (volume) = 𝑄in − 𝑄out
d𝑡
dℎ
𝐴𝑤𝑠 = 0 − 12.28ℎ3Τ2 𝐴𝑤𝑠 = 1.5 × 106 m2
d𝑡
dℎ
1.5 × 106 3 Τ 2
= −12.28 d𝑡
ℎ
−1.5 × 106 0.25 −3Τ2 𝑇
න ℎ dℎ = න d𝑡
12.28 0.65 0
0.25
ℎ−1Τ2
−122100 =𝑇
− 1Τ2 0.65

1 1
244200 − =𝑇 𝑇 = 185500 s = 51.5 hours
0.25 0.65
 Maximum Discharge (Per Unit Width) at Given Energy
𝑉2 𝑞
𝐸=ℎ+ 𝑉= (rectangular channel)
2𝑔 ℎ

𝑞2
𝐸=ℎ+  𝑞 2 = 2𝑔ℎ2 (𝐸 − ℎ) = 2𝑔(𝐸ℎ2 − ℎ3 )
2𝑔ℎ2
d 2
(𝑞 ) = 2𝑔(2𝐸ℎ − 3ℎ2 )
dℎ

d(𝑞 2 ) 3
=0  𝐸= ℎ
dℎ 2

 𝑞 2 = 𝑔ℎ3

Depth, h
𝑉2 𝑞2 Fr<1
Fr 2 = = 3 =1 hc

𝑔ℎ 𝑔ℎ Fr>1

qmax

Discharge per unit width, q

● For a given specific energy there is a maximum discharge per unit width, occurring at
the critical depth where Fr = 1.
 Venturi Flume
PLAN VIEW
bmin
A venturi is any narrowing of a channel.

If a channel narrows then the discharge

WATER PROFILE
per unit width, 𝑞 = 𝑄/𝑏, increases. critical

BUT, this cannot exceed the maximum discharge

Depth, h
per unit width, 𝑞max, at this specific energy.
hc Fr<1

The maximum discharge occurs at a flow depth Fr>1

such that 3
qmax

𝐸= ℎ Fr = 1 Discharge per unit width, q

If the discharge per unit width does exceed this then the flow is choked and backs
up, the upstream depth increasing so as to increase the specific energy. Critical
conditions are maintained at the venturi throat.
 Venturi Flume: Water Profile

PLAN VIEW
bmin

WATER PROFILE
critical
 Venturi Flume: Critical Flow
If critical conditions occur:

• There is smooth acceleration from sub- to supercritical flow through the

throat.

2 1/3
𝑞𝑚 𝑄
• At the venturi throat: ℎ𝑐 = 𝑞𝑚 =
𝑔 𝑏min
3
𝐸𝑐 = ℎ𝑐
2
• Total head throughout the device is fixed by that at the throat:
𝐻 = 𝐻𝑐 = 𝑧𝑏 + 𝐸𝑐
where 𝑧𝑏 is the bed level (often 0).

• Depths anywhere in the flume are the solutions of

𝑉2 𝑄2
𝐻 = 𝑧𝑠 + or 𝐸 =ℎ+
2𝑔 2𝑔𝑏2 ℎ2
 Venturi Flume: Determining Criticality
Compare:
• head in approach flow, 𝐻𝑎
• critical head at the throat, 𝐻𝑐 = (𝑧𝑏 + 𝐸𝑐 )throat

If 𝐻𝑎 < 𝐻𝑐, critical conditions occur, the flow backs up and a flow
transition occurs.

If 𝐻𝑎 > 𝐻𝑐, the flow just dips, then returns to original depth.

As for the broad-crested weir …

the total head through the device is constant and equal to the
larger of the critical head and approach-flow head.
 Example
A venturi flume is placed near the middle of a long rectangular
channel with Manning’s 𝑛 = 0.012 m–1/3 s. The channel has a width
of 5 m, a discharge of 12.5 m3 s–1 and a slope of 1:2500.

(a) Determine the critical depth and the normal depth in the
main channel.

(b) Determine the venturi flume width which will just make the
flow critical at the contraction.

(c) If the contraction width is 2 m find the depths just upstream,

downstream and at the throat of the venturi flume (neglecting
friction in this short section).

(d) Sketch the surface profile.

A venturi flume is placed near the middle of a long rectangular channel with Manning’s
𝑛 = 0.012 m–1/3 s. The channel has a width of 5 m, a discharge of 12.5 m3 s–1 and a slope of
1:2500.
(a) Determine the critical depth and the normal depth in the main channel.

𝑛 = 0.012 m−1Τ3 s
𝑏 = 5 m (main channel)
h
𝑄 = 12.5 m3 s−1
𝑆 = 0.0004 b

Critical depth:
1 Τ3
𝑞2 𝑄
ℎ𝑐 = 𝑞= = 2.5 m2 s−1
𝑔 𝑏
𝒉𝒄 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟎𝟓 𝐦

Normal depth:
3 Τ5
𝑛𝑄
ℎ= (1 + 2ℎ/𝑏)2Τ5
𝑏 𝑆
ℎ = 1.275(1 + 0.4ℎ)2Τ5
𝒉𝒏 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟒𝟔 𝐦
(b) Determine the venturi flume width which will just make the flow critical at the
contraction.

Just critical if: 𝐻𝑎 approach flow = 𝐻𝑐 (contraction)

Approach flow :
𝑄
ℎ𝑎 = 1.546 m 𝑉𝑎 = = 1.617 m s−1
𝑏ℎ𝑎
𝑉𝑎2
𝐻𝑎 = 0 + 𝐸𝑎 = ℎ𝑎 + = 1.679 m
2𝑔

Critical head at the contraction:

2 1 Τ3 1 Τ3
3 𝑞𝑚 3 𝑄2 3.774
𝐻𝑐 = = = 2/3
2 𝑔 2
2 𝑔𝑏𝑚 𝑏𝑚

3.774
1.679 = 2/3
𝑏𝑚

𝒃𝒎 = 𝟑. 𝟑𝟕𝟎 𝐦
 (c) If the contraction width is 2 m find the depths just upstream, downstream and at the
throat of the venturi flume (neglecting friction in this short section)

2 m < 3.370 m There is a hydraulic transition

Critical depth at the throat:

𝑞𝑚2 1/3 𝑄
ℎ𝑐 = 𝑞𝑚 = = 6.25 m2 s −1 𝑏𝑚 = 2 m
𝑔 𝑏𝑚
ℎ𝑐 = 1.585 m

Total head:
3
𝐻 = 𝐻𝑐 (contraction) = 0 + ℎ𝑐 = 2.378 m
2

Just upstream and downstream in main channel (𝑏 = 5 m):

𝑉2 𝑄
𝐻 = 𝑧𝑠 + 𝑧 𝑠 = ℎ 𝑉=
2𝑔 𝑏ℎ

𝑄2 0.3186 𝒉𝟏 = 𝟐. 𝟑𝟏𝟗 𝐦
𝐻 =ℎ+ Upstream (deep): ℎ = 2.378 −
2𝑔𝑏2 ℎ2 ℎ2

0.3186 0.3186
2.378 = ℎ + Downstream (shallow): ℎ = 𝒉𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟎𝟏𝟓 𝐦
ℎ2 2.378 − ℎ
(d) Sketch the surface profile.

PLAN VIEW
bmin

WATER PROFILE
critical
 Sluice Gate
gate
RVF: total head the same both sides total head line
𝐻1 = 𝐻2
h1
𝑉12 𝑉22
𝑧𝑠1 + = 𝑧𝑠2 +
2𝑔 2𝑔 D h2

ℎ1 and ℎ2 are the subcritical and supercritical values in

𝑞2 𝑞2
total head = ℎ1 + = ℎ2 +
2𝑔ℎ12 2𝑔ℎ22

ℎ2 is the depth at the vena contracta (≈ 0.6  gate opening)

Gate opening plus either upstream head or upstream depth determine the
discharge.
 Example

The water depth upstream of a sluice gate is 0.8 m and the

depth just downstream (at the vena contracta) is 0.2 m.

Calculate:

(a) the discharge per unit width;

(b) the Froude numbers upstream and downstream.

 The water depth upstream of a sluice gate is 0.8 m and the depth just downstream (at the
vena contracta) is 0.2 m. Calculate:
(a) the discharge per unit width;
(b) the Froude numbers upstream and downstream.
gate
ℎ1 = 0.8 m total head line

ℎ2 = 0.2 m
h1
𝑉12 𝑉22 𝑞 D
𝑧𝑠1 + = 𝑧𝑠2 + 𝑧𝑠 = ℎ 𝑉= h2
2𝑔 2𝑔 ℎ
𝑞2 𝑞2
ℎ1 + = ℎ2 +
2𝑔ℎ12 2𝑔ℎ22
0.8 + 0.0796𝑞 2 = 0.2 + 1.2742𝑞 2

0.6 = 1.1946𝑞 2
𝒒 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟖𝟕 𝐦𝟐 𝐬 −𝟏

𝑉 𝑞
Fr = 𝑉=
𝑔ℎ ℎ

𝑞
Fr = 𝐅𝐫𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟏𝟔𝟐 𝐅𝐫𝟐 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝟑𝟎
𝑔ℎ3
 Example

A sluice gate controls the flow in a channel of width

2 m. If the discharge is 0.5 m3 s–1 and the upstream
water depth is 1.5 m, calculate the downstream
depth and velocity.
 A sluice gate controls the flow in a channel of width 2 m. If the discharge is 0.5 m3 s–1 and the
upstream water depth is 1.5 m, calculate the downstream depth and velocity.
gate
𝑏 =2m total head line
𝑄 = 0.5 m3 s−1
ℎ1 = 1.5 m h1

D h2
𝑉12 𝑉22 𝑄
𝑧𝑠1 + = 𝑧𝑠2 + 𝑧𝑠 = ℎ 𝑉=
2𝑔 2𝑔 𝑏ℎ

𝑄2 𝑄2
ℎ1 + = ℎ2 +
2𝑔𝑏2 ℎ12 2𝑔𝑏2 ℎ22
0.003186
1.501 = ℎ2 +
ℎ22
Downstream: shallow (supercritical) solution:

0.003186
ℎ2 = 𝒉𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟔𝟖𝟏 𝐦
1.501 − ℎ2

𝑄
𝑉2 = 𝑽𝟐 = 𝟓. 𝟑𝟒𝟏 𝐦 𝐬 −𝟏
𝑏ℎ2
 Sluice Gate: Ideal Discharge
𝑉2 𝑉2 gate
Constant head: 𝑧𝑠1 + = 𝑧𝑠2 +
2𝑔 2𝑔 total head line

𝑞2 𝑞2
ℎ1 + 2 = ℎ2 + h1
2𝑔ℎ1 2𝑔ℎ22
D h2
2𝑔ℎ1
𝑄 = 𝑏ℎ2
1 + ℎ2 /ℎ1
Ideal approximations:
• RVF (no losses)
• ℎ2 = 𝐷
• ℎ2 ≪ ℎ1 𝑄ideal = 𝑏𝐷 2𝑔ℎ1

Actual discharge: 𝑄 = 𝑐𝑑 𝑄ideal

 Drowned Gate

h1

Gate opened too far or downstream control too close

 Free Overfall
hc
Supercritical (Fr > 1) approach flow:
• upstream control;
• supercritical flow continues over the overfall.

hc critical
Subcritical (Fr < 1) approach flow:
• downstream control;
• flow passes through critical near the overfall.
 Rapidly-Varied Flow

2. RAPIDLY-VARIED FLOW
2.1 Hydraulic jump
2.2 Specific energy
2.3 Critical-flow devices
2.4 Forces on objects
 Forces On Objects

h2 V2
F BAFFLE
F
h1 V1 BLOCK

● Obstacles in the flow provide a reactive force

● Often they provoke a flow transition; e.g. hydraulic jump
● Analysis by momentum principle
 Baffle Blocks
Baffle blocks are widely used in stilling basins to dissipate
fluid energy before discharging into rivers.
Baffle Blocks
 Control-Volume Analysis

h2 V2
F BAFFLE
h1 V1 BLOCK

Force = rate of change of momentum

−𝐹 + 𝑝1ҧ 𝐴1 − 𝑝ҧ2 𝐴2 = 𝜌𝑄(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 ) 𝑝ҧ = 𝜌𝑔(12ℎ) 𝐴 = 𝑏ℎ

−𝐹 + 12𝜌𝑔ℎ12 𝑏 − 12𝜌𝑔ℎ22 𝑏 = 𝜌𝑄(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )

𝐹 = (𝜌𝑄𝑉1 + 12𝜌𝑔ℎ12 𝑏) − (𝜌𝑄𝑉2 + 12𝜌𝑔ℎ22 𝑏)

𝐹 = (𝑀1 + 𝐹𝑝1 ) − (𝑀2 + 𝐹𝑝2 ) 𝑀 = 𝜌𝑄𝑉 = momentum flux

𝐹𝑝 = 12𝜌𝑔ℎ2 𝑏 = pressure force

Special case: hydraulic jump (𝐹 = 0)

 Example
Water flows at 0.8 m3 s-1 per metre width down a long, wide spillway
of slope 1 in 30 onto a wide apron of slope 1 in 1000. Manning’s
roughness coefficient 𝑛 = 0.014 m–1/3 s on both slopes.

(a) Find the normal depths in both sections and show that normal
flow is supercritical on the spillway and subcritical on the apron.

(b) Baffle blocks are placed a short distance downstream of the

slope transition to provoke a hydraulic jump. Assuming that flow
is normal on both the spillway and downstream of the hydraulic
jump, calculate the force per metre width of channel that the
blocks must impart.

(c) Find the head loss across the blocks.

Water flows at 0.8 m3 s-1 per metre width down a long, wide spillway of slope 1 in 30 onto a
wide apron of slope 1 in 1000. Manning’s roughness coefficient 𝑛 = 0.014 m–1/3 s on both
slopes.
(a) Find the normal depths in both sections and show that normal flow is supercritical on the
spillway and subcritical on the apron.

𝑞 = 0.8 m2 s−1
ℎ1
𝑆1 = 1Τ30 𝑆2 = 1Τ1000 ℎ2
𝑛 = 0.014 m−1Τ3 s
Normal depths: 1 2Τ3 1Τ2
𝑞 = 𝑉ℎ 𝑉 = 𝑅ℎ 𝑆 𝑅ℎ = ℎ ("wide")
1 2 Τ3 1 Τ2 𝑛
𝑞= ℎ 𝑆 ℎ
𝑛
ℎ 5 Τ3 𝑆
𝑞=
𝑛
3 Τ5
𝑛𝑞
ℎ= 𝒉𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟖𝟕𝟒 𝐦 𝒉𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟑𝟔𝟓 𝐦
𝑆
Critical depth:
1 Τ3
𝑞2
ℎ𝑐 = = 0.4026 m
𝑔
Spillway: ℎ1 < ℎ𝑐 supercritical
Apron: ℎ2 > ℎ𝑐 subcritical
(b) Baffle blocks are placed a short distance downstream of the slope transition to
provoke a hydraulic jump. Assuming that flow is normal on both the spillway and
downstream of the hydraulic jump, calculate the force per metre width of channel
that the blocks must impart.
ℎ1
ℎ2

ℎ2

ℎ1 f

𝑞
−𝑓 + 𝑝1ҧ ℎ1 − 𝑝ҧ2 ℎ2 = 𝜌𝑞(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 ) 𝑝ҧ = 𝜌𝑔(12ℎ) 𝑉=
ℎ
𝑞 𝑞
−𝑓 + 12𝜌𝑔ℎ12 − 12𝜌𝑔ℎ22 = 𝜌𝑞( − )
ℎ2 ℎ1
1 1
𝑓 = 12𝜌𝑔 ℎ12 − ℎ22 + 𝜌𝑞 2 ( − ) 𝑞 = 0.8 m2 s −1 ℎ1 = 0.1874 m
ℎ1 ℎ2
ℎ2 = 0.5365 m
𝒇 = 𝟗𝟖𝟐. 𝟕 𝐍 𝐦−𝟏
(c) Find the head loss across the blocks.

𝑉2 𝑞
𝐻 = 𝑧𝑠 + 𝑧𝑠 = ℎ 𝑉=
2𝑔 ℎ

𝑞2
𝐻=ℎ+ 𝑞 = 0.8 m2 s−1 ℎ1 = 0.1874 m
2𝑔ℎ2
ℎ2 = 0.5365 m

𝐻1 = 1.1162 m

𝐻2 = 0.6498 m

Head loss = 𝐻1 − 𝐻2 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟔𝟔𝟒 𝐦

Hydraulic Jumps in Expanding Channels

● Sudden expansion causes a rapid drop in velocity.

● May be sufficient to trigger a hydraulic jump

● Analysed by momentum principle:

‒ control volume in expanded section only
‒ assume hydrostatic pressure on walls
 Example

A downward step of height 0.5 m

causes a hydraulic jump in a wide
channel when the depth and velocity h2
of the flow upstream are 0.5 m and h1
10 m s–1, respectively. 

(a) Find the downstream depth.

(b) Find the head lost in the jump.

A downward step of height 0.5 m causes a hydraulic jump in a wide channel when the depth
and velocity of the flow upstream are 0.5 m and 10 m s–1, respectively.
(a) Find the downstream depth.
Δ = 0.5 m
ℎ1 = 0.5 m
−1
ℎ1 ℎ2
𝑉1 = 10 m s

Δ
𝑞 = 𝑉1 ℎ1 = 5 m2 s−1
1 1 𝑞
𝜌𝑔 ℎ1 + Δ × ℎ1 + Δ − 𝜌𝑔ℎ2 × ℎ2 = 𝜌𝑞(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 ) 𝑉=
2 2 ℎ
2𝑞 𝑞 𝑞
ℎ1 + Δ 2 − ℎ22 = ( − )
𝑔 ℎ2 ℎ1
2
5
1 − ℎ2 = 1.019( − 10)
ℎ2
5.095
11.19 = ℎ22 +
ℎ2
Deep solution:

5.095
ℎ2 = 11.19 − 𝒉𝟐 = 𝟑. 𝟎𝟖𝟗 𝐦
ℎ2
(b) Find the head lost in the jump.

Δ = 0.5 m
ℎ1 = 0.5 m 𝑉1 = 10 m s −1
𝑞
ℎ2 = 3.089 m 𝑉2 = = 1.619 m s−1 ℎ1 ℎ2
ℎ2

Δ
𝑉2
𝐻 = 𝑧𝑠 +
2𝑔
102
𝐻1 = 1.0 + = 6.097 m
2𝑔
1.6192
𝐻2 = 3.089 + = 3.223 m
2𝑔

Head loss = 𝐻1 − 𝐻2 = 𝟐. 𝟖𝟕𝟒 𝐦

B: PHYSICAL MODELLING
 OBJECTIVES

1. Understand the requirements of physical modeling and its

limitations.
 USES OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

• Checking equations

• Presenting and interpreting experimental data

• Attacking problems not amenable to a direct theoretical

solution

• Establishing the relative importance of particular physical

phenomena

• Physical modelling
 PHYSICAL MODELLING

Side weir, Valehouse reservoir

1/100 - scale model tested in the Pariser Hydraulics Lab

Maximum flow capacity in the laboratory: 1 L s-1

What is the maximum flow capacity at full scale? 100000 L s-1
 DERIVED DIMENSIONS
Quantity Symbol Dimensions
Area 𝐴 L2
Geometry Volume 𝑉 L3
Second moment of area 𝐼 L4
Velocity 𝑈 LT–1
Acceleration 𝑎 LT–2
Angle 𝜃 1
Kinematics
Angular velocity 𝜔 T–1
Volume flow rate 𝑄 L3T–1
Mass flow rate 𝑚ሶ MT–1
Force 𝐹 MLT–2
Moment, torque 𝑇 ML2T–2
Dynamics Energy, work, heat 𝐸, 𝑊 ML2T–2
Power 𝑃 ML2T–3
Pressure, stress 𝑝, 𝜏 ML–1T–2
Density 𝜌 ML–3
Viscosity 𝜇 ML–1T–1
Kinematic viscosity 𝜈 L2T–1
Fluid properties Surface tension 𝜎 MT–2
Thermal conductivity 𝑘 MLT–3Θ–1
Specific heat 𝑐𝑝, 𝑐𝑣 L2T–2Θ–1
Bulk modulus 𝐾 ML–1T–2
 PHYSICAL MODELLING

Perform experiments at one scale ... in order to deduce

results at another.

Laboratory-scale model ... of a full-scale prototype

 COMPLETE DYNAMICAL SIMILARITY

All (relevant) dimensionless groups must be the

same in model and prototype.

Π1 model = Π1 prototype

Π2 model = Π2 prototype

...
 EXAMPLE
A prototype gate valve which will control the flow in a conduit conveying paraffin is
to be studied in a model. List the significant variables on which the pressure drop
across the valve would depend. Perform dimensional analysis to obtain the relevant
non-dimensional groups.

A 1/5-scale model is built to determine the pressure drop across the valve with water
as the working fluid.

(a) For a particular opening, when the velocity of paraffin in the prototype is
3.0 m s–1 what should be the velocity of water in the model for dynamic
similarity?

(b) What is the ratio of the quantities of flow in prototype and model?

(c) Find the pressure drop in the prototype if it is 60 kPa in the model.

(The density and viscosity of paraffin are 800 kg m–3 and 0.002 kg m–1 s–1 respectively.
Take the kinematic viscosity of water as 1.010–6 m2 s–1).
Variable Dimension # variables: 𝑛=6
Δ𝑝 ML−1 T −2 # independent dimensions: 𝑚 = 3 (M, L, T)
ℎ L # dimensionless groups: 𝑛−𝑚 =3
𝑑 L
𝑉 LT −1 Choose 𝑚 = 3 dimensionally-independent scales: 𝑑, 𝑉, 𝜌
𝜌 ML−3 Non-dimensionalise other variables: Δ𝑝, ℎ, 𝜇
𝜇 ML−1 T −1

Π1 = Δ𝑝 𝑑 𝑎 𝑉 𝑏 𝜌𝑐
M 0 L0 T 0 = ML−1 T −2 (L)𝑎 (LT −1 )𝑏 (ML−3 )𝑐 Π1 = Δ𝑝𝑉 −2 𝜌−1
M: 0 = 1 + 𝑐 ⇒ 𝑐 = −1 Δ𝑝
T: 0 = −2 − 𝑏 ⇒ 𝑏 = −2 Π1 =
𝜌𝑉 2
L: 0 = −1 + 𝑎 + 𝑏 − 3𝑐 ⇒𝑎=0
ℎ
Π2 =
𝑑
Π3 = 𝜇𝑑 𝑎 𝑉 𝑏 𝜌𝑐
𝜇
M 0 L0 T 0= ML−1 T −1 (L)𝑎 (LT −1 )𝑏 (ML−3 )𝑐 Π3 = 𝜇𝑑 −1 𝑉 −1 𝜌−1 =
𝜌𝑉𝑑
M: 0=1+𝑐 ⇒ 𝑐 = −1
T: 0 = −1 − 𝑏 ⇒ 𝑏 = −1 1 𝜌𝑉𝑑
Replace Π3 by Π3′ = =
L: 0 = −1 + 𝑎 + 𝑏 − 3𝑐 ⇒ 𝑎 = −1 Π3 𝜇
 A 1/5-scale model is built to determine the pressure drop across the valve with water as the
working fluid.
(a) For a particular opening, when the velocity of paraffin in the prototype is 3.0 m s–1 what
should be the velocity of water in the model for dynamic similarity?
(b) What is the ratio of the quantities of flow in prototype and model?
(c) Find the pressure drop in the prototype if it is 60 kPa in the model.
𝜌𝑝 = 800 kg m−3 𝜌𝑚 = 1000 kg m−3
𝜇𝑝 = 0.002 kg m−1 s−1 𝜈𝑚 = 1.0 × 10−6 m2 s −1 𝜈 = 𝜇/𝜌
length𝑚 1 Δ𝑝 ℎ 𝜌𝑉𝑑
= = 𝑓( , )
length𝑝 5 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑑 𝜇
Π1 Π2 Π3′
𝜌𝑉𝑑 𝜌𝑉𝑑 Δ𝑝 Δ𝑝
(c) =
(a) = 𝜌𝑉 2 𝜌𝑉 2
𝜇 𝑝
𝜇 𝑚 𝑝 𝑚
2
𝑉𝑝 𝜇/𝜌 Δ𝑝 𝑝 𝜌𝑝 𝑉𝑝
𝑝 𝑑𝑚 0.002/800 1 =
= = × = 0.5 Δ𝑝 𝜌𝑚 𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑚 𝜇/𝜌 𝑚 𝑑𝑝 1.0 × 10−6 5 𝑚
800
1 1 = × 0.52
𝑉𝑚 = 𝑉𝑝 = × (3.0 m s−1 ) = 6.0 m s −1 1000
0.5 0.5
= 0.2
Δ𝑝 𝑝 = 0.2 × Δ𝑝 𝑚
(b) 𝑄𝑝 velocity × area 𝑝
= = 0.5 × 52 = 12.5 = 0.2 × (60 kPa)
𝑄𝑚 velocity × area 𝑚
= 12 kPa
 EXAMPLE SHEET
The safety of nuclear and chemical plants depends on the knowledge of the rise velocity of “slugs” of gas
in liquid-containing pipes. The rise velocity, 𝑈, of such bubbles is assumed to depend on pipe diameter,
𝐷, gravitational acceleration, 𝑔, liquid density, 𝜌, viscosity, 𝜇, and the surface tension, 𝜎.
(a) Use dimensional analysis to show that
Fr = 𝑓(Rb, Eo)
where
𝑈
Fr = Froude number
𝑔𝐷
𝜌 𝑔𝐷3
Rb = buoyancy Reynolds number
𝜇
𝜌𝑔𝐷2
Eo = Eötvös number
𝜎

(b) Use the figure below to deduce the rise velocity of gas bubbles in pipes of diameter 13 mm carrying
oil of density 950 kg m–3 , dynamic viscosity 0.022 Pa s and surface tension 0.0788 N m–1 .
0.4

0.35 Eo=80
Eo=40
0.3
Eo=20
0.25
Fr

0.2

0.15
Eo=10

0.1

0.05
Eo=5

0
1 10 100 1000 10000
Rb
Variable Dimension # variables: 𝑛=6
𝑈 LT −1 # independent dimensions: 𝑚 = 3 (M, L, T)
𝐷 L
𝑔 LT −2 # dimensionless groups: 𝑛−𝑚 =3
𝜌 ML−3
Choose 𝑚 = 3 dimensional scales: 𝐷, 𝑔, 𝜎
𝜇 ML−1 T −1
Non-dimensionalise other variables: 𝑈, 𝜇, 𝜌
𝜎 MT −2
Π1 = 𝑈𝐷𝑎 𝑔𝑏 𝜎 𝑐
M 0 L0 T 0 = LT −1 L𝑎 (LT −2 )𝑏 (MT −2 )𝑐
M: 0 = 𝑐 ⇒𝑐=0
T: 0 = −1 − 2𝑏 − 2𝑐 ⇒ 𝑏 = −1/2 Π3 = 𝜌𝐷𝑎 𝑔𝑏 𝜎 𝑐
L: 0 = 1 + 𝑎 + 𝑏 ⇒ 𝑎 = −1/2 M 0 L0 T 0 = ML−3 L𝑎 (LT −2 )𝑏 (MT −2 )𝑐
𝑈
Π1 = 𝑈𝐷−1/2 𝑔−1/2 = M: 0 = 1 + 𝑐 ⇒ 𝑐 = −1
𝑔𝐷 T: 0 = −2𝑏 − 2𝑐 ⇒𝑏=1
Π2 = 𝜇𝐷𝑎 𝑔𝑏 𝜎 𝑐 L: 0 = −3 + 𝑎 + 𝑏 ⇒ 𝑎 = 2
2 1 −1 𝜌𝑔𝐷2
M 0 L0 T 0 = ML−1 T −1 L𝑎 (LT −2 )𝑏 (MT −2 )𝑐 Π3 = 𝜌𝐷 𝑔 𝜎 =
𝜎
M: 0 = 1 + 𝑐 ⇒ 𝑐 = −1
T: 0 = −1 − 2𝑏 − 2𝑐 ⇒ 𝑏 = 1/2
L: 0 = −1 + 𝑎 + 𝑏 ⇒ 𝑎 = 1/2
Π2 = 𝜇𝐷1/2 𝑔1/2 𝜎 −1 = 𝜇 𝑔𝐷
𝜎
 𝑈 𝑈 𝜌 𝑔𝐷3 𝜌𝑔𝐷2
Π1 = Question requires: = 𝑓( , )
𝑔𝐷 𝑔𝐷 𝜇 𝜎

𝜇 𝑔𝐷
Π2 =
𝜎

𝜌𝑔𝐷2
Π3 =
𝜎
′
Π3 𝜌𝑔𝐷2 𝜎
Replace Π2 by Π2 = = ×
Π2 𝜎 𝜇 𝑔𝐷
𝜌𝑔1/2 𝐷3/2
=
𝜇
𝜌 𝑔𝐷3
=
𝜇

Π1 = 𝑓(Π2′ , Π3 )

𝑈 𝜌 𝑔𝐷3 𝜌𝑔𝐷2
= 𝑓( , )
𝑔𝐷 𝜇 𝜎
(b) Use the figure below to deduce the rise velocity of gas bubbles in pipes of diameter 13 mm carrying
oil of density 950 kg m–3 , dynamic viscosity 0.022 Pa s and surface tension 0.0788 N m–1 .
0.4

0.35 Eo=80
Eo=40 𝑈
0.3 Fr =
𝑔𝐷
Eo=20
0.25
𝜌 𝑔𝐷3
Rb =
Fr

0.2
𝜇
0.15
Eo=10 𝜌𝑔𝐷2
Eo =
0.1 𝜎
0.05
Eo=5

0
1 10 100 1000 10000
Rb

𝐷 = 0.013 m 𝜌 𝑔𝐷3 From graph: Fr = 0.265

Rb = = 200.5
𝜇
𝜌 = 950 kg m−3 𝑈 = Fr 𝑔𝐷
𝜌𝑔𝐷2 = 19.99
𝜇 = 0.022 Pa s Eo = = 0.265 × 9.81 × 0.013
𝜎
𝜎 = 0.0788 N m−1 = 0.095 m s−1
 INCOMPLETE DYNAMICAL SIMILARITY

Almost impossible to achieve complete similarity!!!

For hydraulic flows that are:

• driven by gravity (e.g. free-surface flows)
• fully turbulent (molecular viscosity unimportant)

𝑈
– maintain Froude number, Fr =
𝑔𝐿

𝜌𝑈𝐿 𝑈𝐿
– sacrifice Reynolds number, Re = =
𝜇 𝜈
 CONDITIONS FOR FROUDE SCALING

For free-surface flows driven by gravity, one can maintain Fr

but sacrifice Re provided:

• Model and prototype are both fully turbulent

– molecular viscosity has negligible effect

• Model and prototype are both hydraulically rough

– surface drag is form drag, not viscous drag
𝑘𝑠 𝑢𝜏
>5
𝜈
OTHER PROBLEMS WITH SCALE-SIMILARITY

• Surface finish (smooth; rough; erodible)

• Horizontal:vertical length scales (e.g. river modelling)

• Other fluid phenomena (e.g. surface tension)

 FROUDE SCALING
The Froude number is the same in model and prototype:

𝑈 𝑈
=
𝑔𝐿 𝑔𝐿
𝑚 𝑝

Scalings:
𝑈𝑚 𝐿𝑚
Velocity: =
𝑈𝑝 𝐿𝑝

5/2
𝑄𝑚 𝐿𝑚
Quantity of flow: =
𝑄𝑝 𝐿𝑝

3
𝐹𝑚 𝐿𝑚
Force: =
𝐹𝑝 𝐿𝑝

𝑡𝑚 𝐿𝑚
Time: =
𝑡𝑝 𝐿𝑝
 EXAMPLE
The force exerted on a bridge pier in a river is to be tested in a 1:10
scale model using water as the working fluid. In the prototype the
depth of water is 2.0 m, the velocity of flow is 1.5 m s–1 and the
width of the river is 20 m.

(a) List the variables affecting the force on the pier and perform
dimensional analysis. Can you satisfy all the conditions for
complete similarity? What is the most important parameter to
choose for dynamic similarity?

(b) What are the depth, velocity and quantity of flow in the model?

(c) If the hydrodynamic force on the model bridge pier is 5 N, what

would it be on the prototype?
NON-DIMENSIONAL GROUPS IN FLUID MECHANICS

mass × acceleration = force1 + force2 + force3 + ⋯

"𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐭𝐢𝐚𝐥 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞"

Many non-dimensional groups are (or are simple powers of)

the fractional contribution of an individual force:

force𝑖 force𝑖
or
total force mass × acceleration
NON-DIMENSIONAL GROUPS IN FLUID MECHANICS

𝜌𝑈𝐿
Reynolds number Re = (viscous flows)
𝜇
𝑈
Froude number Fr = (free-surface flows)
𝑔𝐿

𝜌𝑈 2 𝐿
Weber number We = (surface tension)
𝜎

𝑈
Rossby number Ro = (rotating flows)
Ω𝐿

𝑈
Mach number Ma = (compressible flows)
𝑐