~W~te r

ualit
2~7 93~

Defluoridation
Techniques

RAJIV GANDHI NATIONAL DRINKING WAT~ERMISSION

NEW DELHI
257—11871
PREVENTiON AND CONTROL OF FLUOROSIS

WATER QUALITY
AND
DEFLUORIDATION TECHNIQUES
Volume U

~
AND SANITATION (IRC)
CENTRE FOR COMMUNITY WATER SUP1L?
P.O. B0K 93190, 2509 AD The Hagu*
Tel. (070) 814911 ext. 1411142

~
•~
ót’ ~____—

RAJIV GANDHi NATIONAL DRINKiNG WATER MiSSiON

MINISTRY OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT

9TH FLOOR, B-I BLOCK
PARYAVARAN BHAVAN
C.G.O. COMPLEX
NEW DELHI -110003

1993

Reprinted 1994
B.. N. YUGANDHAR Iil&aut Ic1cb~l
SPECIAL SECRETARY ~ 110001
MINISTRY OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT
KRISHI BHAVAN, NEW DELHI 110001
-

PREFACE June 10, 1993

Fluorosis is a scourge affecting a large number of our population. It is endemic in as many
as 15 important States in India. The excess fluoride is often based on drinking water fluoride
content. It is further compounded by the fluoride content in the food and cosmetics consumed by
these people. Control of fluorosis through provision of safe and sufficient water of acceptable
quality is the main objective of the Sub-MIssion on “Control of Fluorosis~.Attack on this problem has
to be multifaceted involving the individual, families and communities, and through the active
participation of Public Health Engineers, Health sector peprsonnel, district level Administrators
and grass-root level field workers. The first priority, of course is to provide safe water from good
sources identified in the village or in the neighbourhood. Where this is not possible, technologies
developed by National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI) etc., are being used
in the Sub-Mission for providing of community tanks, pump attachments and domestic Iiiters.
The Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission of Ministry of Rural Development,
Government of India seeks to fight fluorosis and eliminate it completely in the country in a time
bound manner. In this campaign the present volume is to be used as a guide book for all those
involved and interested in this problem. This book will be particularly useful to those who actually
collect the samples, analyse the physico-chemical content of water and plan for the type of
technology suitable to local conditions It is hoped that the users will find the volume simple and
easy to handle. Experts who have prepared the volume and edited it carefully, have done a
commendable job of presenting the facts in simple and lucid manner. The work was co-ordinated
by Dr. A.K. Susheela, Co-Ordinator, Huorosis Control Cell, All India Institute of Medical Sciences,
New Delhi I wish to congratulate Dr Susheela and all other experts for this excellent effort and am
sure that their continued dedication and work would contribute significantly towards the success
of this important Sub-Mission.

B. N. YUGANDHAR

UBI~A~Y

INTERNATIONAL RFFEREN~ECENTRE
FOR COMMUNITY WATER SUPPLY ANØ
SANITATION (IRC~
 CONTRIBUTED BY:
K. R. Bulusu,
Scientist Gr. IV(6)
National Environmental Engineering Research institute,
Nagpur 440 020, Maharashtra
-

W. G. Nawlakhe,
Scientist Gr IV (2)
National Environmental Engineering Research insUtute,
Nagpur 440 020, Maharashtra
-

AR. Path,
Professor of Chemical Engineering,
Rural Engineering College,
Hulkoti, Dharwad,
Karn ataka

G. Karthikeyan,
Professor of Chemistry,
Department of Chemistry,
Gandhi Gram Rural University,
Madurai, Tamil Nadu

Edited By:

Mr. K A. Bulusu,
Scientist Gr. IV (6) & Head
Water Division
National Environmental Engineering Research Institute
Nagpur 440 020, Mahrashtra
-

Dr S.K. Biswas
AddI Adviser (TM)
Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission,
9th Floor, B 1 Block, Paryavaran Bhawan,
-

New Delhi 110003.

-
 CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION 9
SAMPLING 9
Planning of Sampling
Site Selection
Type of Samplers
Grab or catch samples
Composite samples
Integrated samples
Sampling Frequency
Number of Samples
Sample Containers
Sampling Procedure
Recording of Information
Field Measured Parameters
PHYSICO-CHEMICAL ANALYSIS 17
Conductivity
Turbidity
Total Dissolved (Filtrable) Solids
pH
Alkalinity
Hardness
Chloride
Sulphate
Fluorides
Preliminary Distillation Step
SPADNS Method
Ion Selective Electrode Method
DEFLUORIDATION OF WATER USING NALGONDA TECHNIQUE 31
Mechanism of Defluoridation by Nalgonda Technique
Salient Features of Nalgonda Technique
When to Adapt Nalgonda Technique
 Domestic Defluoridation
Fill-and-Draw Defluoridation Plant for Small community
Fill-and-Draw Defluoridation Plant Technology for Rural Water Supply
Configuration of Reactors
Cost Estimations (1991 base)
DEFLUORIDATION OF WATER USING ACTIVATED ALUMINA PROCESS 46
Media Specifications
Laboratory Experiments
Column Studies
Components of AA Defluoridation Plant Cost aspects (1991 base)
-

Total Quantity of Water treated in 40 Cycles of Operation

Operating and Treatment Costs(1991 base)
Observed Limitations of Activated Alumina Process
Essential Information Required on any Other Grade of Activated
Alumina to Determine its Application in Rural Areas of India
CURRICULUM FRAMES WATER QUALITY TESTING AND DEFLUORIDATION
- 55
OF DRINKING WATER COURSE CONTENT (CLASSROOM ORIENTED)
-

Water quality testing

Alternative approaches for Safe Drinking Water
Trainers (District)
Course Content ( Class Room Oriented)
Other Points
DRINKING WATER PHYSICAL & CHEMICAL STANDARDS
- 59
LIST OF TABLES
Table No.
1 Approximate Alum Dose (mg/L) Required to obtain Acceptable limit of Fluoride in Water
at Various Alkalinity and Fluoride Levels
2 Domestic Defluoridation; Approximate Volume of alum Solution(ml) Required to be Added
In 40 L Test Water to Obtain Acceptable Limit of Fluoride in Water at Various Alkalinity and
Fluoride Levels
3 Plant Diameter for Populations upto 200 on the Basis of 40 Ipcd defluoridated Water
4 Details of Sump Wells for Various Plant Capacities
5 Dimensions of Elevated Service Reservoir for Various Capacities
6 Sizes of Sludge Drying Beds
7 Capacities of Raw Water Pumps in Electric Panel Room
8 Sizes of Chemical Store Houses br ‘~ariousPlant Capacities
9 . Configuration of Reactors of the Defluoridation Plant and Personnel for Operation and
Maintenance
10 Cost Estimates for RCC Defluoridation Plants of Various Capacities @ 40 Ipcd.
11 Cost Estimates for HPDE Defluoridation Plants of Various Capacities © 40 Ipcd
12 Capital Costs for Various Populations at Different Rates of Water Supply
13 Percent Capacity Realization at Various Basicities and at Different Cycles of Operation
14 Overall Performance of Columns in 40 Cycles of Operation
15 Average Capacity Values Corresponding to Various Basicities
16 Cost Analysis at 4, 8, 16 meq/1 Basicity for 5.2 ±0.2 mg F/L Test Water
17 Cost Analysis of Activated Alumina Defluoridation System at Various Plant Capaci-
ties (10 to 480 m3/ d and for raw water characteristics F 5.2 ±0.2 mg/L and 400
mg/L basicity
18 Summary Cost for Activated Alumina Pressure Type Defluoridation Plants of Various
Capacities

8
INTRODUCTION
An approach to problems in environmental science necessitates the application of analytical
methods and procedures that have been proved to yield reliable results. Methods are available for
the economical and satisfactory performance of the treatment facilities constructed.
Excess of fluoride in water causes dental and skeletal fluorosis and needs to be removed to
acceptable limit of 1 mg F per L for drinking purposes. The excess of fluoride is removed by: 1)
Nalgonda Technique developed by NEERI for batch operation from fill-and-draw units or
continuous operation system; 2) Activated Alumina process, when the alkalinity of water to be
treated is not high and where local skills for handling acids/alkalies for regeneration of the media
are available.
For design, operation and maintenance of the defluoridation plants, information of turbidity,
conductivity, dissolved solids, pH, alkalinity, hardness, chloride, sulphate and fluoride is desirable.
General information about the sampling procedures of water samples; methods of physico-
chemical analysis of the relevant parameters; and defluoridation of water by Nalgonda Technique
and Activated Alumina process are given iii the subsequent sections.

SAMPLING
The collection of water samples may seem a relatively simple task. However, to obtain
representative water samples and to preserve their Integrity until they are analysed in the laboratory
a series of steps, procedures and practices are required. A representative sample can easily be
obtained from rivers and lakes which are relatively homogenous, whereas many water-bodies have
significant spatial and temporal variations and the collection of a representative sample becomes
much more complex.
The oblective of sampling is to collect a portion of material small enough in volume to be
conveniently transported to and handled in the laboratory while still accurately representing the
material being sampled. This implies, first, that the relative portions of the concentrations of all
pertinent components must be the same in the samples as in the material being sampled and
second, that the sample must be handled in such a way that no significant changes in composition
occurs before the tests are performed. The analysis is generally intended to reveal the composition
of the waters at the time or over the period of sampling. Consequently, errors are introduced if
changes take place between taking of the sample and analysis being carried out. There is, infact,
a strong likelyhood that such changes will occur in most of the waters. The arrangement should be
such that these are prevented or at least minimised.

PLANNING OF SAMPLING
The monitoring of water quality to give reliable and usable data requires that analytical and
other resources are employed to the best advantage. The first step in the planning of water
monitoring is to decide what data is needed and how it is useful. The type of investigation, purpose
of study and anticipated variations are other points to be considered. The first stage of planning
of the sampling programme is the selection of the most suitable site for collection of samples.

9
SITE SELECTION
The objectives of Water quality monitoring system are
• To assess the impact of activities by man upon the quality of water and its suitability
for required uses
• To determine the quality of water in its natural state which might be available to meet
the future needs and
• To keep under observation the sources and path way of specified hazardous
substances
The selection of sampling site is decided by the various uses of the water and by their
location, relative magnitude and importance. The chances of accidental pollution is also an
important factor and should be considered The location of a river used down-stream of large urban
or industrial area imposes greater risk and requires more supervision than similar uses located
upstream.

TYPE OF SAMPLES

GRAB OR CATCH SAMPLES

A Sample collected at a particular time and place can represent only the composition of the
source at that time and place However, when a source is known to be fairlyconstantin composition
over a considerable period of time or over substantial distances in all directions, the sample may
be said to represent a larger time period or larger volume or both, than the specific point at which
itwas collected. In such circumstances, same source may be quite wefl represented by single grab
sample. When a source is known to vary with time, grab samples collected at suitable intervals can
be of great value in documenting the extent, frequency, and duration of these variations. In case
the composition of a source varies in space rather than in time, a set of samples collected form
appropriate locations with less emphasis on timing may provide the most useful information.

COMPOSITE SAMPLES
The term composite refers to a mixture of grab samples collected at the same sampling point
at different times. Sometimes the term time composite is used when it is necessary to distinguish
this type of sample from other Time composite samples are most useful for observing average
concentrations, as an alternative to the separate analysis of a large number of samples, followed
by computation of average and total results. A composite sample of 24 hr. period is considered
standard for most determinations Composite samples cannot be used for determinations of
components or characteristics sublect to significant and unavoidable changes on storage.

INTEGRATED SAMPLES
Mixture of grab samples collected from different points simultaneously or as nearly as
possible is called integrated sample Such samples are useful for river or stream that varies in
composition across its width and depth The need for integrated samples also may exist if
combined treatment is proposed for several separate waste water streams. The preparation of
inteqrated samples requires special equipment to collect samples from a known depth, with out

10
contamination by overlying water Prior knowledge about volume, movement and composition of
the various paramenters of the water being sampled is also required.

SAMPLING FREQUENCY
The quality of water in various water bodies is rarely constant. Therefore, water samples
should be collected at int2rvals so that no change in quality could pass unnoticed
The larger the number of samples from which the mean is derived, the narrower will be the
limits of the probable difference between observed and true values. However, the sampling
schedule is a compromise between accuracy, funds and personnel for the work.

NUMBER OF SAMPLES
Number of samples and how often should samples be collected, are calculated by statistical
considerations. The following frequencies of sampling may be adopted provisionally
• Weekly samples for one year
• Daily samples for 7 days consecutively (4 times/year)
• Round the hour sampling for 24 hours -

• 4-hourly samples for 7 days and 4 times/year

The parameters may be limited during these samplings but should be pertinentto the source!
sampling station
The analytical data collected as per the above procedure will help to lay proper emphasis
on parameters of relative Importance, their ranges, interferences, and frequencies of their
occurrence

SAMPLE CONTAINERS
It is advantageous to measure the quantity of water in situ by means of sensors which are
lowered into position rather than by withdrawing samples However, itis not always possible. Water
samples are, therefore, collected in suitable containers A sample container must satisfy the
following requirements.
• It should easily be freed from contamination.
• It should not change the relevant water characteristics
• It should have adequate capacity for storing the samples.
•

storage. - —
It should be resistant to impact and to internal pressure which is increased by
expansion of water or by release of dissolved gases at elevated temperature on

The quantity required for chemical examination will very according to the information
required. For most purposes, 2-litre are advisable, allowing a margin for contingencies. The
ordinary dust free stoppered winchester bottles of colourless orpale green glass holds this quantity

11
and serves well Dark coloured bottlesare to be avoided, except for samples for residual chlorine
estimations which should be collected separately in amber-coloured glass bottles so that direct
access to light is prevented from altering the chlorine content of the sample.
Strong colourless polythene bottles of two sizes, 1-litre and 2- litre capacity, are generally
useful. The bottles should not be used for any other purposes.
The specific situation will determine the use of the borosilicate glass bottle or polyethylene
container. The bottles should be rinsed with chromic acid solution (35 ml saturated N; Cr2 07 in
1-litre conc H2 SO4) followed by tap and distilled water and then be inverted to dry.
For carrying a bottle and sending by rail, strong wicker-work cases or wooden boxes lined
with felt, in which the bottles stand upright, are the safest and best. These can easily be made so
as to be secured easily with a padlock, if desired. Polythene bottles have obvious advantages for
carriage of samples by road, rail and air.
Where large quantities of water are required for experimental purposes, well cleaned acid
carboys to hold about 50 litres are very useful.
Wherever possible the container should be rinsed out two or three times with the water to be
examined before being finally filled. If this cannot be done, the container should be well drained.
The stopper or cap of the container should not be laid down, but kept contained in its covering in
the hand before being re-Inserted. Unless it is absolutely unavoIdable, no funnel or jug should be
used in filling the container, and the container should be so held that the water does not come in
contact with hand before entering.
In taking a sample from a tap or pump, thenozzle should be first examined to see that it
appears clean. If not, it should be cleaned and then preferably rinsed thoroughly with the same
water. Water should then be allowed to run to waste for a few minutes before filling the container,
unless itis desired to ascertain whetherthe water is affected by standing inthe mains orpump pipe.
If such is the case, it is best to take the sample first time in the morn in~before any water has been
drawn for other purposes.
In taking samples form rivulets and springs, it is often necessary to make an excavation
sufficiently large to hold the hand and the container and allow sufficient time for all matter disturbed
to be washed away before taking the sample. Where the sample is to be taken by immersing the
container, as in ponds, cisterns, reservoirs, rivers, wells, etc., it is generally quite satisfactory if the
container is weighted bya weight or casing and sunk rapidly to the required depth When sampling
from the sides of river and streams, the container may be clamped to a stout, rigid metal rod which
is extended into the main stream of the water.
The apparatus illustrated in Fig.lis very easily put together, and can be used with equal
facility for obtaining water from a considerable depth in a bore tube or deep well and from an open
tank or running stream.
A stoppered bottle of any size can be used, provided the weighted cylinder, partially closed
in at the top, will go over it. The stopper is removed, and a rubbercork with two perforations inserted
in its place. Through one perforation passes a piece of glass tubing about 5 cm long, and through
the other longer piece of tubing reaching to near the bottom of the container, and projecting about
3 cm above the rubber stopper The projecting tubes are connected by a piece of rubber
tublng3cm above the rubber stopper. The projecting tubes are connected by a piece of rubber

12
tube about 5-6 cm long. The container is suspended by means of a stout band of rubber about
30 cm long, the free ends being secured tightly to the neck of the container by cord. A metal loop
or swivel connects the rubber suspender with the nylon cord used for lowering the bottle into the
water. The loop or the swivel is connected with the short piece of rubber tubing uniting the two glass
tubes by a piece of string of such length that, when the container is suspended, there is no pull upon
the rubber tube, which, however, can easily be jerked off when a sharp pull is given to the
suspending nylon cord. The apparatus, having been arranged, is lowered to the required depth;
a sharp jerk
is then given to the suspending nylon cord,
when the rubber tube is detached. Water
enters through the longer tube and the air is Nylon cord
expelled through the shorter tube. Bubbles
of air can be seen or heard rising through the
water until the bottle is full, or until only a little
compressed air remains in the neck of the Thick rubber tubing
container. As the apparatus is raised, the air
thus imprisoned expands and prevents en-
tering water from nearer the surface. Nylon Rubber tube
cord for suspending the apparatus is marked
off in meters, so that the depth to which the
container has descended is known
Heavy case enclosing
The points requiring chief attention are sampling container
to see that the rubber stopper is tightly in-
serted, and that the small piece of rubber
tubing can be easily detached by a slight
jerk.
The apparatus is useful, when a sam-
ple has to be taken from a depth of not
exceeding 100 meters below the surface of
the water. This serves the purpose.
There are commercial depth samplers
available in market and these can also be
used wherever possible. Fig. 1 Apparatus for water sampling from wells

SAMPLING PROCEDURE
The first thing to consider is the selection of the sampling point, and great care and discretion
are necessary in this selection in order that the sample shall represent as fairly as possible the
source desired to be examined.
The suitability of the sampling point having been decided, the hand pump should be allowed
to run for several minutes and the water from the sampling point allowed to run to waste for five
minutes in order to free the sampling point from stagnant water before the sample is cOllected with
care and expediency The container should be completely filled with water and the stopper/cap
replaced. The container after labelling is replaced in the sampling box for immediate despatch to
the laboratory for analysis.

13
 A specimen of the label which is suggested for water samples is shown below:

SAMPLE OF WATER
Submitted for physlco-chem Ical examination
by
(Name of Authority or person requiring the examination)

of
(Address of the Authority or person)

Taken from
(State point and place where sample was taken, together with site specific particulars)

at on
(Time of sampling) (Date)
by
(Name of person taking sample)
in the presence of
signed
(Despatch sample as soon as possible after collection)

The period of time elapsing between the collection of the sample and its receipt at the
laboratory should be as short as possible.
For the collection of the samples at Defluoridation plants, it is desirable to install sampling
taps on appropriate points. Such taps could well be installed at various selected points as official
sampling points.
Sampling from reactors, sumpwell and service reservoirs can be made by experienced
persons with knowledge of sample collection by means of a jug attached to a metallic chain.
Greatest care is required in transferring the water to the sample container. The best material for the
jug is stainless steel

RECORDING OF INFORMATION
Care should be taken to record at the site of collection every detail which may have any
bearing upon the results of the analyses to be undertaken, or which may be of importance In
connection with the taking of the sample, or be of general scientific interest.

14
 In taking the sample from a river or stream, the following points should be recorded:
1. Date and time when sample is taken and dispatched
2. In whose presence
3. Exact point marked on map
4. Whether at or near middle or side, and which side
5. Depth below surface
6. Weather at the time and particulars of any recent rainfall or flood condition.
7. Whether the level of the water is above or below average
8. Observations with reference to any possible source of pollution in the vicinity and approxi-
mate distance of the same from the sampling point.
9. Temperature of water
10 Signature of the person taking sample
If a single sample only is being taken, it should be collected from beneath the surface near
the middle of the stream.
In taking samples from a well, record 1, 2, 3 as above, and, in addition
4. Approximate ground surface level
5. Depth from ground level to surface of water (rest Level)
6. Depth of water in well and depth at which sample is taken.
7. The mode of construction of the well, including its covering
8. Whether the appearance of water is affected by heavy rains
9. Any indication of pollution, discoloration of sides, or other visible indication of pollution
10. Characteristics of the surroundings, proximity to drains, sewers, cess pools, stables,
dustbins, or other possible sources of pollution, and distance from the well,
11. When available, a section or drawing of the well together with its general surrounding
12. Yield of water and effect of pumping
13. Nature and depth of subsoil, impervious layer and water bearing stratum
14. Temperature of water.
As the character of the water in open wells often varies at different depths, it is best to lower
the container rather rapidly under the surface of the water, so that it may, when filled, contain water
form all parts of the well.
In taking samples from a large ReservQir, it is best to use a boat and depth-sampling
apparatus. Samples also should be taken near the point of entry, and near the exit of the waters.
If only one sample is to be collected, it is best to take it form beneath the surface, just over or very

15
near the mouth of the trunk main or conduit. The installation of suitable sampling taps on the inlet
and outlet mains of CWR is advisable.
In taking the samples from the tube well, the following information is to be furnished by the
owner of the tube well, which in turn must have been obtained bythe owner from the Drilling agency.
Agency drilling the tubewell
Location of the tubewell
Method of drilling adopted
Date of starting
Date of completion
Pilot hole or test hole Bit size Bit type
Hours From To
Coring done Bit size Bit type Hours
Recovery From to
Reaming Bit size Bit type Hours
From to
Lithological data
From To Formations

Assembly of production well size Length Type

Perforation per meter
Housing pipe
Blind Pipe
Strainer
Bail plug
Top of tube well above/below ground level
Size of gravel Quantity used before development
Quantity used during development
Total hours of testing
Further details appended:
a) Samples of strata, neatly packed in sample bags
b) Chart of pipe assembly lowered
C) Results of mechanical analysis of samples of unconsolidated strata.

Remarks;
Owner Driller

16
 When taking a sample from a house tap connected with a public supply, it should always be
noted whether the tap iS directly connected with the main or with a cistern. If the latter, the cistern
should be examined and particulars thereof recorded. The position of the main should also be
noted, and the possibility of a dead end ascertained, if possible. -

When samples of water are received for analysis and there Is any doubt about the way in
whIch they have been collected or about the cleanliness of the containers used or when the
samples are sent in container with unclean stoppers, it is best to communicate with the sender and
offer to dispatch suitable containers for fresh samples together with instructions on how to collect
them.

FIELD MEASURED PARAMETERS

A number of paramenters including pH, conductivity, dissolved oxygen, ammonia, CO2,
temperature, turbidity and residual chlorine should be measured at the sampling site immediately
after collection of sample. However, in Situ, measurements of these parameters are recommended.

PHYSICO-CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
Physico-chemical analysis is the prime consideration to assess the quality of water for
drinking. Surface sources often necessitate examination of water samples from different points and
under varying conditions to find out the extent of pollution and purification that takes place in the
water. Well waters are examined to locate the suitable source of water and to determine the extent
of treatment necessary to make it potable.
Physico-chemical parameters such as turbidity, conductivity, pH, alkalinity, hardness,
chloride, sulphate and fluoride are monitored when the defluoridation plants are operated and
maintained for rural water supply.

CONDUCTIVITY
Conductivity is a capacity of water to carry an electrical current and varies both with the
number and types of ions the solution contains, which, in turn, is related to the concentration of
ionized substances in the water. Most dissolved inorganic substances in water are in the lonised
form and hence contribute to conductance. Rough estimation of dissolved ionic contents of the
sample can be done by multiplying specific conductance (in micro siemens/cm) by an emperlcai
factor which may vary form 0.55 to 0.9 depending on the soluble components of water and on the
temperature of measurement Conductivity measurement gives rapid and practical estimate of the
variations in the dissolved mineral contents of a water supply. The test facilitates weeding out of
water sources with dissolved solids> 1500 mg/I. the permissible limit in the absence of alternate
source prescribed by the Ministry of Rural Development. All other tests are performed on samples
conforming to dissolved solids content <1500 mg/I.

PROCEDURE
Conductivity measurement is affected by:
1. The nature of the various ions, their relative concentration and the ionic strength of water.

17
 2. Dissolved Co2.

3. Turbidity
4. Temperature (for precise work, the conductivity must be determined at 25°C).
Most of the Instruments commercially available for measurement of conductivity consists of
• A source of alternating current.
• A wheatstone bridge, a null indicator, and,
• A conductivity cell consisting of a pair of rigidly mounted electrodes. Each conductivity
cell has its own cell constant depending on its shape, size and the position of the
electrodes. Either the cell constant is mentioned by the supplier or can be determined
by using standard solution of KCI (0.01 M), alternatively by comparison with a cell of
known cell constant. Other instruments measure the ratio of alternating current through
the cell to voltage across it and have advantage of linear reading of conductance.
Portable battery operated instruments for both pH and conductivity are also available
for field studies.
Conductivity can be measured as per the instruction manual supplied with the instrument and the
results may be expressed as micro Siemends/cm at temperature say 25°Cat which measurement
was made. With reasonable care, a conductivity meter needs very little maintenance and gives
accurate results. However, few important points in this respect are:
• Adherent coating formation of the sample substances on the electrodes should be
avoided which requires thorough washing of cell with distilled water at the end of each
measurement.
• Keep the electrode immersed in distilled water
• Organic material coating can be removed with alcohol or acetone followed by washing
with distilled water.

TURBIDITY
Suspension of particles in water interfering with passage of light is called turbidity Turbidity
is caused by wide variety of suspended matter which ranges in size from colloidal to coarse
dispersions depending upon the degree of turbulence and also ranges from pure Inorganic
substances to those that are highly organic in nature. Turbid waters are undesirable from aesthetic
point of view in drinking water supplies and may also affect products in industries. Turbidity is
measured to evaluate the performance of defluoridation plant. Turbidity in the defluoridated water
is a measure of the aluminium remaining and hence an essential parameter. In well settled
defluoridated water the turbidity is < 1 NTU with the corresponding aluminium concentration <20
mIcrograms! I.

PRINCIPLE:
Turbidity can be measured either by its effect on the transmission of light which is termed as
Turbidimetry or by its effect on the scattering of light which is termed as Nephelometry.
Turbidimeter can be used for sample with moderate turbidity and nephelometer for samples with

18
low turbidity. Higher the intensity of scattered light, higher is the turbidity.

INTERFERENCE:
Colour is the main source of interference in the measurement of turbidity.
APPARATUS:
Turbidimeter or Nephelometer.

REAGENTS
1. Solution I; Dissolve 1.0gm hydrazlne sulphate and dilute to 100 ml.
2. Solution II: Dissolve 10 0 gm hexamethylene tetramine and dilute to 100 ml.
3 Mix 5 ml of I with 5 ml of II. Allowto stand for 24 hrs. at 25±300and dilute to 100 ml.
This solution (Ill) will have turbidity of 400 units (N T.U.)
4. Standard turbidity suspension: Dilute 10 ml of solution Ill as prepared above to 100 ml
to have solution (iv) of the turbidity of 40 units (N.T.U.)

PROCEDURE
1. Prepare calibration curve in the range of 0-400 units by carrying out appropriate
dilutions of solutions Ill and IV above taking readings on turbidimeter.
2. Take sample or a suitably diluted aliquot and determine its turbidity either by visual
comparison with the diluted standards or by reading on turbidimeter.
3. Read turbidity from the standard curves and apply correction due to dilution, if
necessary.
4. Report the readings in turbidity units.

TOTAL DISSOLVED (FILTRABLE) SOLIDS

The dissolved (filtrable) solids can also be determined by the residue on evaporation, it is
preferable to adopt the centrifugal method of separating suspended matter in order that a
sufficiently large volume of separated liquid is available for the determination.

PRINCIPLE:
A known volume of filtered sample is evaporated and dried in a weighed dish at 105 0 C to
constant weight. The increase in weight over the empty dish represents the dissolved solids.

APPARATUS -

• Evaporating Dishes, 50, 100 ml capacity (Preferably porcelain or silica).

• Pipettes 25, 50 ml capacity
• Water bath & oven
• Balance to weigh up to 4th decimal.

19
PROCEDURE
Take known volume(V) of filtered sample in a previously ignited and weighed basin (W1).
Evaporate to dryness on a steam bath and further dry at 105°C for one or two hours in an oven.
Cool in dessicator and weigh (W2). Repeat by further heating for 15 minutes and cooling until
successive results do not differ by more than about 0.4 mg.
CALCULATION
(W2-W1)X 1000
Dissolved solids mg/I =

V
pH
For most practical purposes the pH of aqueous solutions can be taken as negative logarithm
of hydrogen ion activity. pH values from 0 to 7 are diminishingly acidic, 7 to 14 increasIngly alkaline
and 7 is neutral. The pH of natural water usually lies in the range of 4.4 to 8.5. Its value is governed
largely by the carbon dioxide/bicarbonate! carbonate equilibrium
The pH is determined by measurement of the electromotive force of a cell comprising an
indicator electrode (an electrode responsive to hydrogen ion such as glass electrode) immersed
in the test solution and a reference electrode (usually a mercury calomel electrode). Contact
between the test solution and the reference electrode is usually achieved by means of a liquid
junction, which forms a part of the reference electrode. The emf of this cell is measured with pH
meter. This is a high impedance electrometer calibrated in terms of pH.

APPARATUS
Glass Electrode : This must be compatible with the pH meter used and must be suitable for the
particular application. Special electrodes are available for pH values greater than 10 and for use
at temperature greater than 60°C Combined glass/reference electrodes are also available and
are convenient to use.
Reference Electrode : The mercury! calomel electrode is widely used but the silver/silver
chloride electrode may be preferable on account of it being more reproducible and more reliable.
Less concentrated solution of KCI (e g. 3.5 M KCJ.) are more satisfactory as filling solutions than
the saturated solution often used because problems due to clogging of the electrode or the liquid
junction will be avoided. To prevent dissolution of the silver chloride film the potassium chloride
filling solution of Ag/AgCI electrodes should be saturated with AgCI.
pH Meter: Both mains and battery operated models are available, the latter type can be used
for field measurements. The most accurate pH meters can be read to better than ±0.005 pH unit.
REAGENTS
Buffer solution for pH 4.0: Dissolve 10.12gm potassium dihydrogen phthalate dried
at 110°C in freshly distilled water and dilute to one litre at 25°C.
Buffer solution for pH 6.8 : Dissolve 3 388 gm anhydrous KH2PO4 and 3.533 gm
Na2HPO4 both of which have been dried overnight at between 110°and 130°Cin water
and dilute to 1 litre at 25°C.The distilled water should be freshly boiled, cooled and free
form 002.

20
 Buffer solutIon for pH 9.2 : Dissolve 3.80 gm N;B4O7.10 H20 in water and dilute to

1 litre at 25°C.
Note: In general, analytical reagent grade chemicals are satisfactory for the
preparation of these solutions Commercial buffer tablets are available In the
market for the preparation of solution of above pH value (each tablet dissolved
in 100 ml gives the buffer solution of required pH).
PROCEDURE
• Standardize the pH meter according to the manufacturer’s instructions.
• Selecta standard buffer solution with a pH value close to that of the water to be treated.
• Set the temperature control to the temperature of the buffer.
• Set the meter to the pH of the buffer at that temperature.
• Check the electrode response by measuring a second standard buffer solution of
different pH.
• Wash the electrode thoroughly first with distilled water and then with the sample.
• Set the temperature control to the temperature of the sample.
• Immerse electrodes in the sample and record the pH after stabilising the system.
Note : Between measurements, the electrodes are kept in distilled water. New
or dried out glass electrodes should be prepared for the use by soaking in 0.1
In HCI for 8 hours or according to the maker’s instructions

ALKALINITY
The alkalinity of water is a meaure of its capacity to neutralise acids. The alkalinity of natural
water is due to the salts of carbonate, bicarbonate, borate, silicate and phosphate along with the
hydroxyl ions in free state, However, the major portion of the alkalinity in natural waters is caused
by hydroxide, carbonate and bicarbonates which may be ranked in order of their association with
high pH values. Alkalinity values provide guidance in applying proper doses of aluminium sulphate
or aluminium chloride or both to the water to be defluoridated. To achieve complete hydrolysis of
aluminium salts added, it is essential to ensure a residual alkalinity of 1-2 meq/L in the defluoridated
water.
Principle : Alkalinity of a sample can be estimated by titrating with standard sulphuric acid.
Titration to pH 8.3 or decolourisation of phenolphthalein indicator will indicate complete neutrali-
sation of OH and 1/2 of 003 while to pH 4.5 or sharp change from yellow to pink of methyl orange
indicator will indicate total alkalinity (complete neutralisation of OH, 003 ,HCO3)

REAGENTS
Standard H2 SO4 (0.02 N) : Prepare 0 1 N H2S04 by diluting 3.0 ml conc. H2S04 to 1000 ml.
Standardise it against standard 0 1 N Na2 003. Dilute appropriate volume of H2S04
(approx. 0.1 N) to 1000 ml to obtain standard 0.02 N H2S04

21
Phenolphthaleln indicator: Dissolve 5 gm in 500 ml 95 % ethyl alcohol, Add 500 ml distilled
water Add dropwise 0.02 N NaOH till faint pink colour appears.
.

Methyl orange indicator: Dissolve 0.5 gm and dilute to 1000 ml with CO2 free distilled water.

PROCEDURE
• Take 25 or 50 ml sample in a conical flask and add 2-3 drops of phenolphthalein
indicator.
• If pink colour develops, titrate with 0.02 N H2S04 till it disappears or pH is 8.3. Note the
volume of H2S04 required (A).
• Add 2-3 drops methyl orange to the same flask, and continue titration till pH down to
4.5 or colour changes to orange to pink. Note the vol. of H2S04 added (B).
• In case pink colour does not appear after addition of phenolphthalein, continue as in
step above.
• Calculate Total (T), phenolphthalein (P) and methyl orange (M) alkalinity as follows for
0.02N H2 SO4 and express in mg/I as CaCO3.
P Alkalinity, mg/I as CaCO3
- = A X 1000/mI sample.
M Alkalinity, mg/I as CaCO3
- = B X 1000/mi sample.
T Alkalinity, mg/I as CaCO3
- = (A÷B)X 1000/mi sample.
In case H2S04 is not 0 02 N, apply the following formula:
K X N X 50000
Alkalinity, mg/I as CaCO3 =

ml Sample
Where, N =Normality of H2S04 used and
K = ml standard acid used to reach P or M end point.
Once the phenolphthalein and total alkalinity is determined, then three types of alkalinities, i.e.
hydroxide, carbonate and bicarbonate (all expresed as calcium carbonate) are calculated from
the table given below.
‘IaiuesofP&T HCO3
P=rO 0 0 T
P<112T 0 2P T-2P ~
P=1/2T 0 2P 0
P> 1/2 T 2P-T 2(T-P) 0
P~T T 0 0

22
HARDNESS
Water hardness Is the traditional measure of the capacity of water to react with soap, hard
water requiring a considerable amount of soap to produce a lather. Hardness of water is not a
specific constituent but a variable and complex mixture of cations and anions. The principal
hardness causing ions are calcium and magnesium. The degree of hardness of drinking water has
been classified by BIS in terms of the equivalent CaCO3 concentration as follows:

Acceptable limit 200 mg/I

Cause for Rejection limit 600 mg/i
The Cause for Rejection limit is applied in the absence of alternate sources of water.
Internationally, waters with hardness> 180 mg/I are to be softened to prevent incrustation in the
pipes and to reduce soap consumption.
Fluoride removal by Nalgonda Technique is not affected by hardness. However, hardness
values > 300 mg/I affects the taste of treated water. Public acceptability of the degree of hardness
may vary considerably from community to community, depending on local conditions.

PRINCIPLE
Hardness is determined by EDTATitrimetric Method. In alkaline condition EDTA reacts with
Ca and Mg to form a soluble chelated complex. Ca and Mg ions develop wine red colour with
Eriochrome Black T under alkaline condition. When EDTA is added as a titrant the Ca and Mg
-

divalent ions get complexed resulting in sharp change from wine red to blue which indicates end
point of the titration The pH for this titration has to be maintained at 10.0 ±0.1. At a high pH, i.e.
about 12.0, Mg ion precipitates and only Ca÷~ ion remains in solution At this pH, Murexide indicator
forms a pInk colour with Ca~.When EDTA is added, Ca ++ gets complexed resulting in a change
of colour from pink to purple which indicates the end point of the reaction

INTERFERENCE
Metal ions do interfere but can be overcome by addition of inhibitors.

REAGENTS
Buffer Solutions: Dissolve 169gm NH4CI in 143 ml NH4OH. Add 1.25 gm. magnesium salt of
EDTA to obtain sharp change in indicator and dilute to 250 ml If magnesium salt of
EDTA is unavailable, dissolve 1.179 gm disodium salt of EDTA (AR Grade ) and 780
mg MgSO4. 7H20 or 644mg MgCI2 6H2O in 50 ml distilled water. Add to above solution
of NH4CI in NH4OH and dlute to 250 ml
InhIbitor : Dissolve 4.5 gm hydroxyl -amine hydrochloride in 100 ml 95 % ethyl alcohol or
isopropyl alcohol.
-

Erlochrome Black T indicator : Mix 0.5 gm. dye with 100 gm NaCI to prepare dry powder.
Murexlde Indicator : Prepare by grinding a mixture of 200 mg of murexide (ammonium
purpurate) with iOO gm of solid NaCl.
Sodium hydroxide 2N : Dissolve 80 gm NaOH and dilute to 1000 ml.

23
Standard EDTA Solution 0.01 M: Dissolve 3.723 gm EDTA sodium salt and dilute to 1000
ml. Standardize against standard calcium solution, 1 ml = 1 mg CaCO3.

Standard Calcium Solution: Weigh accurately 1.0 gm AR grade CaCO3 and transfer to 250
ml conical flask. Place a funnel in the neck of a flask and add 1+1 HCI till CaCO3
dissolves completely. Add 200 ml distilled water and boil for 20-30 mm. to expel CO2.
Cool and add methyl red indicator. Add 3 N NH4OH dropwise till intermediate orange
colour develops. Dilute to 1000 ml to obtain 1 ml = 1 mg CaCO3.

PROCEDURE-TOTAL HARDNESS
• Take 25 or 50 ml well mixed sample in porcelain dish or conical flask.
• Add 1-2 ml buffer solution followed by 1 ml inhibitor.
• Add a pinch of Eriochrome Black T and titrate with standard EDTA (0.01 M ) till wine
red colour changes to blue. Note down the volume of EDTA required (A)
• Run a reagent blank. Note the volume of EDTA(B)
• Calculate volume of EDTA required by sample, from volume of EDTA required in above
steps (C)
C =(A-B)
• Calculate as follows:
CXDX1000
Total hardness as CaCO3 mg/I =—- ——

ml sample

where C = Vol. of EDTA required by sample

D = mg CaCO3 per 1 0 ml. EDTA (0.01 M) used as titrant
PROCEDURE CALCIUM HARDNESS
-

• Take 25 or 50 ml sample in porcelain dish.

• Add 1 ml NaOH to raise pH to 12.0 and a pinch of murexide indicator.
• Titrate immediately with EDTA till pink colour changes to purple. Note the vol. of EDTA
used (A).
• Run a reagent blank. Note the volume of EDTA (B) required and keep it aside to
compare end points of sample titrations.
• Calculate as follows:
CXDX 1000
Calcium hardness as CaCO3 =
ml sample

Where C’= Volume of EDTA used by sample (A-B’)

D’ = mg CaCO3 per 1.0 ml EDTA (0 01 M ) used for titration

24
CALCULATION MAGNESIUM HARDNESS
Magnesium hardness as CaCO3 mg/i = total hardness as CaCo~mg/i Ca hardness
-

as CaCO3 mg/i

CHLORIDE
Chloride ion is generally present in natural waters. The salty taste produced by chloride
depends on the chemical composition of the water. A concentration of 250 mg/I may be detectable
in some waters containing sodium ions. The Water mission prescribed the acceptable
requirement of Chloride as 200mg/I from the point taste consideration.The limit in
the absence of alternate sources is 1000 mg/I, a cause for rejection of water source.
A combination of aluminium sulphate and/or aluminium chloride is necessary for waters with
fluorides> 12 mg/i to achieve a value < 1 mg F/I in the defluoridated water. Chloride determination
is, therefore, necessary as routine. The change in the chloride concentration is a measure of the
quantity of aluminium chloride added to the water for defluoridation.

PRINCIPLE:
Chloride is determined in a neutral or slightly alkaline solution by titration with standard silver
nitrate, using potassium chromate as an indicator. Silver chloride is quantitatively precipitated
before red silver chromate is formed.

INTERFERENCE:
If the sample is too coloured or turbid to allow the end point to be readily detected, this
interference may be reduced by alum flocculation followed by filtration prior to the estimation of
chloride.

REAGENTS
• Potassium chromate indicator : Dissolve 50 g K2CrO4 in distilled water. Add
AgNO3 till definite red precipitate is formed Allow to stand for 12 hrs. Filter and dilute
to 1000 ml.
• Silver nitrate (O.0141N ) : dissolve 2.395 gm AgNO3 and dilute to 1000 ml.
Standardize against 0.014 1 N NaCI. 1 ml of 0.0141 N AgNO3 = 0.5 mg CI.
• Sodium Chloride 0.0141 N : Dissolve 824.1 mg NaCI dried at 140°C and dilute
to 1000 ml. 1 ml = 0.5 mg Ci.
• Special reagent to remove colour and turbidity: Dissolve 125 g K2AI2 (SO4)4.
12 H20 or (NH4)2 AI2(S04)4. 24H20 and dilute to 1000 ml. Warm to 60°Cand add 55 ml
conc. NH4OH slowly. Allow to stand for 1 hr. Solution should be free form Cl.

PROCEDURE
• Take 100 ml sample and adjust the pH between 7.0 and 8.0
• Take 50 ml well mixed sample adjusted to pH 7.0 8.0 and add 1.0 ml K2 Cr04
-

25
 • Titrate with standard AgNO3 solution till AgCrO4 starts precipitating

• Standardize AgNO3 against standard NaCI.

• For better accuracy titrate distilled water (50 ml) in the same way to establish reagent
blank
• Calculate as follows:
(A-B)XNX35.45X 1000
Chloride, mg/I = _______—~____________________

ml sample

Where A = ml AgNO3 required for sample

B = ml AgNO3 required for blank
N = Normality of AgNO3 used.

SULPHATE
Sulphate ions usually occur in natural water. Many sulphate compounds are readily soluble
in water. Most of them originate froni the oxidation of sulphite ores, the solution of gypsum and
anhydrite, the presence of shales, particularly those rich in organic compounds. Ingestion of water
containing high concentration of sulphate can have a laxative effect, which is enhanced when
sulphate is consumed in combination with magnesium. The BIS prescribed 400 mg/I as permis-
sible limit in the absence of alternate source.
Aluminium sulphate added to the water for removal of fluorides contributes sulphate ions to
the defluoridated water. The change in the concentration of sulphate is a measure of the aluminium
sulphate dose applied.

PRINCIPLE:
Sulphate is determined by turbidimetric method through precipitation as BaSO4 in acidic
media (HCI) with barium chloride. The absorption of light by this precipitated suspension is
measured by spectrophotometer at 420 nm or scattered light by Nephelometer.

INTERFERENCE:
Colour, turbidity and silica in excess of 500 ppm interfere in this estimation. Filtration is
adopted to remove colour and turbidity.

APPARATUS
• magnetic stirrer
• colorimeter for use at 420 nm -

• stopwatch
• Nesslers tubes, cap 100 ml
• measuring spoon cap 0.2 to 0.3 ml
-

26
REAGENTS
• Conditioning reagent : Mix 50 ml glycerol with a solution containing 30 ml
concentrated HCI, 300 ml distilled water, 100 ml 95% ethyl or isopropyl alcohol and 75
g NaCI.
• Barium chloride Crystals. 20-30 mesh.
• Standard sulphate solution : Dissolve 147.9 mg anhydrous N; SO4 and dilute
to 1000 ml.
1 ml 100 p.g SO4.

PROCEDURE
• Take suitable vol. of sample in 250 ml conical flask and dilute to 100 ml.
• Add 5.0 ml conditioning reagent accurately. Mix well.
• Keep the flask constantly stirred with the help of stirrer. Add BaCl2 crystals while stirring.
Continue stirring for 1 mm. after addition of BaCI2.
• Measure the turbidity developed after every 30 sec. for 4 mm. on colorimeter at 420 nm. After
2 mm. stirring, reading will remain constant. Note this reading for calculation purpose.
• Prepare standard curve by carrying standard sulphate solution through entire proce-
dure. Space standards at 5 mg/I increment in the 0 to 40 mg/I range.
• Read mg SO4 present in the sample from the standard curve.
• Calculate as follows:
mg SO4 X 1000
mg/I SO4 =

ml Sample

FLUORIDES
Fluoride ions In excess in water supplies are known to damage teeth, skeleton and other
organs. High concentration of F causes dental fluorosis (discolored teeth). The BIS mentions the
pemlssible upper limit as 1 mg F/I. Further BIS mentions that fluoride may be kept as low as possible

Among the many methods suggested for the determination of fluoride ion in water, the
colorimeter method (SPADNS) and the ion selective electrode method are the most satisfactory
and applicable to variety of samples. Because all colorimetric methods are subject to errors due
to presence of interfering ions, it may be necessary to distil the sample before making the fluoride
estimation. Addition of the prescribed buffer frees the electrode method from the interference
caused by such relatively common ions as aluminium, hexametaphosphate, and orthophosphate
which adversely affect the colorimeter methods. However, unknown samples must be subject to
preliminary distillation step in either of the methods.

PRELIMINARY DISTILLATION STEP

Place 400 ml distilled water in the distilling flask and carefully add 200 ml conc. H2S04. Swirl

27
until the flask contents are homogenaus, add 25 to 30 glass beads and connect the apparaturs as
shown in Figure.. Begin heating slowly at first and then rapidly until the temperature of the flask
reaches exactly 180°C. Discard the distillate. This process removes fluoride contamination and
adjusts the acid-water ratio for subsequent distillations.
After cooling the acid mixture remaining after above step or previous distillation to 120°Cor
below, add 300 ml of sample, mix thoroughly, and distil as before until the temperature reaches
180°C.Do not heat above 180°C to prevent sulphate carryover.
Add Ag2 SO4 to distilling flask at the rate of 5 mg/mg Cl when high chloride samples are
distilled. Use the sulphuric acid solution In the flask repeatedly until the contaminants from the
samples accumulate to such an extent that recovery is affected or interferences appear in the
distillate. After the distillation of high fluoride samples, flush the still with 300 ml distilled water and
combine the two fluoride distillates. After periods of inactivity, similarly flush the still, discard the
distillate.

SPADNS METHOD

PrincIple:
Under acid condition fluorides (HF) react with zirconium SPADNS solution and the ‘Lake
(colour of SPADNS reagent ) gets bleached due to formation of ZrF~.Since bleaching is a function
of fluoride ions, it is directly proportional to the concentration of F-. It obeys Beers law in a reverse
manner.

Interference:
Alkalinity 5000 mg/I, aluminium 0 1 mg/I, chlorides 7000 mg/I, Fe 10/mg/I, PG4 16mg/I, SO4
200 mg/I, and hexametaphosphate 1.0 mg/I interfere in the bleaching action. In presence of
interfering radicals distillation of sample is recommended.

Apparatus
• Distillation apparatus
• Colorimeter for use at 570 nm.
• Nesslers tubes, cap. 100 ml

Reagents
• Sulphuric acid, H2 SO4, conc.
• Silver sulphate Ag2SO4 crystals.
• SPADNS solution: dissolve 958 mg SPANDS and dilute to 500 ml.
• Zirconyl acid reagent: Dissove 133 mgZrOCl2 8H20 in 25 ml water. Add 350 ml conc.
HCI and dilute to 500 ml.
• Mix equal volumes of SPAN DNS solution and Zirconyl acid reagent to produce a single
reagent. Protect from direct light
• Reference solution Add 10 ml SPADNS solution to 100 ml distilled water. Dilute 7 ml

28
 conc HCI to 10 ml and add to diluted SPADNS solution.
• Sodium arsenite solution: dissolve 5.0 g NaAsO2 and dilute to 1000 ml.

• Stock F~olution:Dissolve 221.0mg anhydrous NaF and dilute to 1000 ml. 1 ml = lOOj.tg F
• Standard FT Dilute stock solution 10 times to obtain 1 ml = 10 p.g FT -

Procedure
• Prepare standard curve in the range 0.0 to 1.40 mg/I by diluting appropriate volume
of standard F solution to 50 ml in Nesslers tubes.
• Add 10 0 ml mixed reagent prepared as above to all the samples, mix well and read
optical density of bleached colour at 570 nm using reference solution for setUng zero
absorbance.
• Plot concentration Vs % transmission or absorbance.
• If sample contains residual chlorine, remove it by adding 1 drop (0.05 ml) NaAsO2
solution per 0.1 mg Cl2 and mix. NaAsO2 concn. should not exceed 1300 mg/i to avoid
error due to NaAsO2. Take suitable aliquot and dilute it to 50 ml.
• Add 10 ml acid Zirconyl SPADNS reagent; Mix well and read % transmission or
-

absorbance.
• Take suitable aliquots of sample either direct or after distillation, in Nessler’s tubes.
Follow the step above.
• Calculate the rrg F- present in the sample using standard curve.

ION SELECTIVE ELECTRODE METHOD

Principle:
The fluoride sensitive electrode is of the solid state type, consisting of a lanthanum fluoride
crystal: in use it forms a cell in combination with a reference electrode, normally the calomel
electode. The crystal contacts the sample solution at one face and an internal reference solution
at the other. A potential is established by the presence of fluoride ions across the crystal which is
measured by device called ion meter or by any modern pH meter having an expanded millivolt
scale.
The fluoride ion selective electrode can be used to measure the activity or concentration of
fluoride in aqueous sample by use of an appropriate calibration curve. However, fluoride activity
depends on the total ionic strength of the sample. The electrode does not respond to bound or
complexed fluoride. Addition of a buffer solution of high total ionic strength containing a chelate
to complex aluminium preferentially overcomes these difficulties.

interference:
Ployvalent cations such as Al (Ill), Fe (Ill) and Si (IV) will complex fluoride ions. However, the
addition of CDTA (Cyclohexylene diamine tetra acetic acid) preferentially will complex concentra-
tions of aluminium up to 5 mg/I. Hydrogen ion forms complex with fluoride while hydroxide ion
interferes with electrode response. By adjusting the pH in between 5 to 8 no interference occurs.

29
Apparatus
• Ion meter (field/laboratory model) or pH/mV meter for precision laboratory measure-
ments.
• Reference electrode (calomel electrode)
• Fluoride sensitive electrode.
• Magnetic stirrer
• Plastic Iabwares (Samples and standards should always be stored in plastic contain-
ers as fluoride reacts with glass)
Reagents
• Standard fluoride solution prepared as directed in SPADNS method
• Total Ionic strength adjustment buffer (TISAB)
Place approximately 500 ml distilled water in 1 L beaker; add 57 ml glacial acetic acid, 58
gm NaCI and 4.0 gm 1,2 cyclohexylene diamine tetra acetic acid. Stir to dissolve. Place beaker in
a cool water bath and add slowly 6 N NaOH (About 125 ml) with stirring, until pH is between 5 and
5.5 Transfer to a 1 L volumetric flask and make up the volume to the mark.

Procedure
• For connecting the electrode to meter and for further operation of the instrument follow
the instruction manual supplied by the manufacturer.
• Check the electrode slope with the ion meter (59.16 myfor monovalent ions and 29.58
my for divalent ions at 25°C)
• Take 50 ml of each 1 ppm and 10 ppm fluoride standard. Add 50 ml TISAB (or 5 ml
if conc. TISAB is used ) and calibrate the instrument.
• Transfer 50 ml of sample to a 150 ml plastic beaker. Add TISAB as mentioned in step above.
• Rinse electrode, blot dry and place in the sample. Stir thoroughly and note down the
steady reading on the meter.
• Recalibrate every 2 hours.
• Direct measurement is a simple procedure for measuring a large number of samples.
The temperature of samples and standards should be the same and the ionic strength
of standards and samples should be made the same by addition of TISAB to all
solutions.
• Direct measurement results can be verified by a known addition procedure. The known
addition procedure involves adding a standard of known concentration to a sample
solution. From the change in electrode potential before and after addition, the original
sample concentration is determined.

30
DEFLUORIDATION OF WATER USING NALGONDA TECHNIQUE
Defluoridation is removal of excess fluorides from water. Removal is achievable either by
precipitation and complexation process ( Nalgonda Technique ) or by fixed bed regeneratable
Activated Alumina process. The recommended defluoridation method is Nalgonda Technique.
After extensively testing since 1961, many materials and processes including activated
alumina, NEERI has evolved an economical and simple method for removal of fluoride which is
referred to as Nalgonda Technique.
Nalgonda Technique involves addition of aluminium salts, lime and bleaching powder
followed by rapid mixing, flocculation, sedimentation, filtration and disinfection. Aluminium salt
may be added as aluminium sulphate or aluminium chloride or combination of these two.
Aluminium salt is only responsible for removal of fluoride from water The dose’ of aluminium salt
.

increases with increase in the fluoride and alkalinity levels of the raw water. The selection of either
aluminium sulphate or aluminum chloride also depends on sulphate and chloride contents of the
raw water to avoid exceeding their permissible limits. The dose of lime is empirically 1)20th that of
the dose of aluminium salt. Lime facilitates forming dense floc for rapid setting. Bleaching powder
is added to the raw water at the rate of 3 mg/I for disinfection. Approximate doses of alum required
to obtain Acceptable limit (1.0 mg F/i) in water at various fluoride and alkalinity levels are given In
the Table 1.

MECHANISM OF DEFLUORIDATION BY NALGONDA TECHNIQUE

Nalgonda Technique isa combination of several unit operations and process incorporating
rapid mixing, chemical interaction, flocculation, sedimentation, filtration, disinfection and sludge
concentration to recover water and aluminum salts (Fig. 2).

Rapid Mix
Provides thorough mixing of alkali, aluminium salts and bleaching powder with the water. The
chemicals are added just when the water enters the system.

OVERHEAD lANK

BLEACHING
LIME ALUM POWDER

SUPERMTE’4T
STAND POST

RAW WATER SOURCE

F—

Fig. 2 Layout Plan of Nalgonda Technique.

31
Table I : Approximate Alum Dose (mg/I) Required to Ob tam Acceptable Limit (1 mg F/I)
of Fluoride in Water at Various Alkalinity and Fluoride Levels.
Test Water Test Water Alkalinity, mg Caco3,1
Fluorides,
mg F/I 125 200 300 400 500 600 800 1000

2 145 220 275 310 350 405 470 520

3 220 300 350 405 510 520 585 765
4 * 400
415 470 560 600 690 935
5 * *
510 600 690 715 885 1010
6 * * 610 715 780 935 1065 1210
* * * * 990
8 1120 1300 1430
10 * * * * * * 1510 1690
*Thbe~eatedafter increasing the alkalinity with lime or sodium carbonate.

Flocculation:
Flocculators provide subsequent gentje agitation before entry to the sedimentation tank. The
flocculation period permits close contactbetween the fluoride in waterand polyalumenic species formed
in the system. The interaction bet~enfluoride and aluminium species attains equilibrium.
* The chemical reaction involving fluorides and aluminium species is complex. It is a
combination of polyhydroxy aluminium species complexation with fluorides and their
adsorption on polymeric aluminium hydroxides (floc). Besides fluorides, turbidity,
colour, odour, pesticides and organics are also removed. The bacterial load is also
reduced significantly. All these are by adsorption on the floc.
* Lime or sodium carbonate ensures adequate alkalinity for effective hydrolysis of
aluminium salts, so that residual aluminium does not remain In the treated water.
* Simultaneous disinfection is achieved with bleaching powder and also keeps the
system free from undesirable biological growths.
1. 2Al2(S04)3. 18H20÷NaF÷9Na2CO3
[5A1(OH)3 Al(OH)2F]
. + 9 N; SO4 + NaHCO3 + 8003 ÷45H20
2 3AI2 (304)3. 18 H20 + NaF + 17 NaHCO3
[5A1(OH) ~> Al(OH)2F} + 9 Na2 SO4 + 17 CO2 + 18 H2 0

SedimentatIon:
Permits settleable floc loaded with fluorides, turbidity, bacteria, and other impurities to be
deposited and thus reduces concentration of suspended solids that must be removed by filters.
Sedimentation theory is complex and of little avail, because floc Is not uniform and hence its basic
sedimentation properties cannot be given quantitative values and because the influence of eddy
currents cannot be predicted. Hence, various factors which influence sedimentation in relation to
design and operation rely largely on experience.

32
Filtration
Rapid gravity sand filters are suggested to receive coagulated and settled water. In these
filters unsettled gelatinous floc is retained. Residual fluorides and bacteria are absorbed on the
gelatinous floc retained on the filter bed.
DIsinfectIon and DIstrIbution:
The filtered water collected in the storage water tank is rechlorinated with bleaching powder
before distribution.
SALIENT FEATURES OF NALGONDA TECHNIQUE
- No regeneration of media
- No handling of caustic acids and alkalies.
- Readily available chemicals used in conven~onalmunicipal water treatment are only required
- Adaptable to domestic use
- Flexible upto several thousands m3/d
- Applicable in batch as well as in continuous operation to suit needs
- Simplicity of design, construction, operation and maintenance
- Local skills could be readily employed
- Highly efficient removal of fluorides form 1.5 to 20 mg F/I to desirable levels.
- Simultaneous removal of colour, odour, turbidity, bacteria and organic contaminants
- Normally, associated alkalinity ensures fluoride removal efficiency
- Sludge generated is convertible to alum for use elsewhere.
- Little wastage of water and least disposal problem
- Needs minimum of mechanical and electrical equipment
- No energy except muscle power for domestic equipment
- Economical-annual cost of defluoridation (1991 basis) of water at 40 Ipcd works out to
As. 20/- for domestic treatment and Rs. 85/- for community treatment using fill- and-
draw system based on 5000 population for water with 5 mg F/I and 400 mg/I alkalinity
which requires 600 mg/I alum dose.
- Provides defluoridated water of uniform acceptable quality.
WHEN TO ADOPT NALGONDA TECHNIQUE
• Absence of acceptable, alternate low fluoride source within transportable distance
• Total dissolved solids are below 1500 mg/I; desalination may be necessary when the
total dissolved solids exceed 1500 mg/I, the cause for rejection limit in the absence
of alternate source.
• Total hardness Is below 600 mg/I, the cause for rejection’ limit In the absence of
alternate source. Hardness does not interfere in the defluoridation.
• Hardness > 200 mg/I and <600 mg)I require precipitation softening, and> 600 mg/I
becomes a cause for rejection or adoption of desalination. Between 200 mg/i and 600
mg/I hardness precipitation softening techniques supplement Nalogonda Technique
and, such waters are to be dealt individually on merits.

33
 • Alkalinity of the water to be treated must be sufficient to ensure complete hydrolysis of
alum added to it and to retain a minimum residual alkalinity of 1 to 2 meq/L in the treated
water to achieve treated water pH between 6.5 and 8.5.
• Raw water fluorides ranging from 1.5 to 20 mg F/I.
Nalgonda Technique is a simple and economical process which can be adapted by a
common man. It can be adapted at domestic as well as community level Both fill-and -draw and
continuous operation systems can be installed for defluoridation of water for community water
supply. Nalgonda Technique is effective even when the dissolved solids are above 1500 mg/I and
hardness above 600 mg/I.
DOMESTIC DEFLUORIDATION
Defluoridation at domestic level can be carried out in a container (bucket) of 60 I capacity
with a tap 3-5 cm above the bottom of the container for the withdrawal of treated water after
precipitation and settling. The raw water taken in the container, is mixed with adequate amount of
aluminium sulphate solution (alum). lime or sodium carbonate and bleaching powder depending
upon its alkalinity and fluoride content Alum solution is added first and mixed well with water. Lime
or sodium carbonate solution then added and the water stirred slowly for 20 minutes and allowed
to settle for nearly one hour and is withdrawn (Fig 3). The supernatant which contains permissible
amount of fluoride is withdrawn through the tap for consumption. The settled sludge is discarded.
Approximate volumes of alum solutions for defluoridation of 40 L ofwater are given in Table 2.

STIRRING (10 Miniut.s)

SETTLING I Hour

WATER FOR USE

1 2 3 4
Fig 3 Defluoridation at Domestic Level

34
Table 2 : Domestic Defluoridation : Approximate volume of alum Solution ( millilitre)
Required to be Added in 40 litres Test Water to Obtain Acceptable Lim it(1 .0mg
F/I) of Fluoride in Water at Various Alkalinity and Fluoride Levels.
Test Water Test Water Alkalinity, as mg caco3 /1 -

Fluorides,
mg F/I 125 200 300 400 500 600 800 1000

2 60 90 110 125 140 160 190 210

3 90 120 140 160 205 210 235 310
4 160 165 190 225 240 275 375
5 205 240 275 290 355 405
6 245 285 315 375 - 425 485
8 395 450 520 570
10 605 675

A fill- and-draw type domestic defluoridation unit of 200 I capacity is developed by NEERI
(Fig. 4). It consists of a cylindrical vessel of 1 m depth equipped with a hand operated stirring
mechanism. The unit is filled with raw water and similar defluoridation operation is performed as
in bucket. The settled sludge is withdrawn through the valve at the bottom of the unit. All unit
operations of mixing, flocculation and sedimentation are performed in the same unit.

Preparation of Alum Solution:

(ARmS
r PLVCL 6(A*3

Weigh 1000 g Alumina ferric (com-

mercial alum IS: 299- 1962) and
-

fT
~1~
dissolve in water to make it 10 I
solution In a plastic carboy. One ml
of this solution contains approxi-
mately 100 mg alum. Keep the
solution stoppered to prevent
evaporation of water. 4OXG I~M
S. P1. AT Tics
Preparation of LIme Solution:
Weigh 100 g quick lime, slake in I~4 N

water and prepare slurry by dilut-

ing to 10 I in a plastic carboy. One
ml of the slurry contains about ID
mg lime. Keep the solution stop-
pered.
Bleaching Powder (fresh quality):
approx. 120 mg per 40 I water.

Fig. 4. Fill and -Draw Domestic Defluoridation Unit.

-

35
FILL AND-DRAW DEFLUORIDATION PLANT FOR SMALL COMMUNITY
-

This is also a batch method

for communities upto 200 popu-
lation. The plant comprises a
hopper-bottom cylindrical tank
with a depth of 2 m equipped
BOARD
with a hand operated or power
driven stirring mechanism (Fig.
5). Raw water is pumped or
poured into the tank and the re-
quired amounts of alum, lime or
sodium carbonate and bleach-
ing powder added with stirring.
The contents are stirred slowly
for ten minutes and allowed to
settle for two hours. The
defluoridated supernatant water TO STAND
POSTS
is withdrawn and supplied
through standposts The settled
sludge is discarded. Plant di-
mensions for various populations
are given In Table 3.

Fig. 5 Fill-and-Draw Defluoridation Plant for Small Community

Table 3 : Plant Diameter for Populations upto 200 on the Basis of 40 lpcd Defluoridated
Water

Papulatian Water Volume Plant Diameter Suggested H.P.

m3 m for Motor
50 2 130 1.0
100 4 1.85 2.0
200 8 2.60 1 ZO

Alum required to be added per batch of treatment (grams, alumina ferric, IS : 299 1962)
-

= (Water Volume, m
3) X (Alum dose of that particular water, mg/I).
Fresh Bleaching Powder (grams per batch) = 3 X (Water Volume, m3)
The notable features are:
• With a pump of adequate capacity the entire operation is completed in 2-3 hours and
a number of batches of defluoridated water can be obtained in a day.
• The accessories needed are a few and these are easily available (these include 16 L
buckets for dissolving alum, preparation of lime slurry or sodium carbonate solution,
bleaching powder and a weighing balance).

36
 • The plant can be located in the open with precautions to cover the motor.
• Semi-skilled labour can perform the function independently.

FILL-AND -DRAW DEFLUORIDAT1ON PLANT TECHNOLOGY FOR RURAL WATER SUPPLY

Fill-and-draw defluoridation plant technology based on Nalogonda Technique is designed
for removal of excess fluoride from water, which is most suitable for Rural Water Supply (Fig. 6).

PIPI p(*IL.IIIG

TO O,S1fi,SUTION

STA~POiTi
it~vIc(

POST.
P UNP

Fig. 6. Fill-and-Draw Defluoridation Plant for Rural Water.

Components of FIIi-and-Draw Defluorldation Plant
• reactor(s); it is reaction-cum-sedimentation tank equipped with power driven agitator
assembly.
• sump well
• sludge drying beds
• elevated service reservoir

37
 • electric panel room
• chemical store house
DesIgn ConsIderations
• The plant capacities are based on one to four operations in each Reactor per day,
subject to availability of electricity.
• Each Reactor will be of 10, 20, or 30 m3 capacity.
• The capacity of raw water pump will be sufficient to fill up the reactors within an hour.
• The defluoridated water from the sump well will be pumped to the elevated service
reservoir and distributed by gravity through stand posts and house connections.
• The capacity of the sump well will be equal to the total capacity of the reactor/s.
• The capacity of the elevated service reservoir will be half of the capacity of the sump
well.
Reactors
The raw water from
the source is pumped to
the reaction-cum-sedimen- MANHOLE FOR
tation tank which is referred C)iMCAL FEEDING
to as reactor (Fig.7). The
reactors are of HDPE,
Ferro-cement or RCC, cir-
cular in shape with dished
bottom and epoxy coating
(in case of RCC). The top
portion of the reactor is
covered with a sturdy lid. A
manhole with a lid is pro-
vided for inspection and to
pour chemicals into the
reactor. An operation plat-
form is raised on girders 10
cm above the top of the
reactor.The stirring mecha-
nism consisting of motor,
reduction gear, paddles,
and shaft is mounted on
the platform. A ladder with
a pipe railing across the
platform is provided. The Fig 7. Reactor for Defluoridation Operation
settled water outlet with
sluice valve is connected to inlet of sump well. To withdraw the settled sludge once daily and
dispose it on to the sludge drying beds, a sludge pipe with sluice valve is provided. The height of
the reactor is one meter above the ground level.

38
Design Aspects of Reactor
Material for fabrication - HDPE, Ferro-cement or RCC
Shape - Cylindrical with dished bottom, inlet pipe, outlet
pipe, sludge drain, 50 cm. dia. or 50 cm X 50 cm
manhole for inspection and adding chemicals; and

Capacity of Reactor
Setttling time
Other aspects
-

-
10,20,0r30m3
2to4hours -
agitator assembly (details given separately).

Each reactor needs 4-6 hrs for complete operation.

- Each reactor can be operated upto 4 times daily.
- The number of operations depends upon duration
of power supply in the village
Design Aspects of Agitator Assembly
The agitator assembly consists of mild steel agitator with anticorrosive epoxy coating,
reduction gear box with output speed of 20 RPM, vertical downward shaft with bail bearing housing,
flanged coupling and directly coupled to totally enclosed fan cooled induction motor of specified
rating, 3 phase, 50 Hz, AC, 1440 RPM with 415 ±6 % voltage fluctuation.
Material of paddles - Mild steel
Width of paddles - 1/3 dia. of the Reactor -

Shaft diameter - 50 mm for 1Orn~1Reactor

75 mm for 20 m3 Reactor
100 mm for 30 m3 Reactor
Type of mixer - Vane type
Material of vanes - Mild Steel
Type of mounting - Vertical flanged mounted type

Gear Box
* Worm reduction gear box

Input speed
Output Speed
-

-
1440 RPm
20 RPM
-
Reduction - 72: 1 with vertical downward shaft
Rating of motor - 3 HP for 10 m3 Reactor -

5 HP for 20 m~Reactor
7 5 HP for 30 m3 Reactor.
Make - Elecon/Radicon
* The gears are hobbed, hardened and lapped. The output shaft of the gear box can be
rotated in either direction.
* The gear box is equipped with

39
 Cl bush intermediate support for agitator shaft
Input and output cushioned drive type flexible couplings
Agitator shaft top end coupling with the output of the gear box.

Piatform-cum-Walkway
A suitable sturdy M S. platform with sturdy railings across the sides supported over horizontal
girders is provided at a height of 20 cm above the cover slab. The motor and gear box assembly
isto be supported over this platform. Itis extended to the full diameter of the tank and can withstand
weight of atleast 6 adults. Alum and lime solution tanks are kept on this platform for adding into the
raw water.
Each Reactor is provided with a sturdy ladder with railings at a slope of 45-60 degrees.

Other Plant Components

Lime and Alum Solution Tanks
The tanks kept on the reactor are of HDPE to hold 10% (WN) alum solution and 1% (WN) lime
slurry. The solution tanks are complete with lid, feeding pipe and delivery valve
Sump Well
The capacity of the sump well will be equal to one operation capacity of the reactors. The
sump well may be circular or rectangular in shape and 3 m deep and the diameter will vary
according to its capacity (Table 4).
Table 4 : Details of Sump Wells for Various Plant Capacities
capacity of the Diameter Height
Sump Weli
m3 m m
10 32 1.~3
20 ~.8
30 46 1.5
40 5.3 1.6
60 5-5 ; 1.8
80 75 -- - 1.8
100 8.4 1.8
120 92 1.8
iso 1t3 1.8
Elevated Service ReservoIr
Treated water from sump well is pumped to the elevated service reservoir (Table 5). It should
be a RCC circular tank with a dome at the top supported over RCC columns provided with inlet pipe
from sump well and outlet piping arrangement including overflow pipe and wash water outlet. The
capacity of the reservoir should be half of the capacity of reactor per operation limited to minimum
of 10m3.

40
Table 5 Dimensions of Elevated Service Reservoir forVarious Capacities
Capacity Diameter Height of tank Height of Dome
of ESR
m3 m m rn
10 2.1 3.0 -— 0.5
20 3.0 3.0 0.7
30 36 30 0.8
40 42 3.0 1.0
60 47 5.5 1.1
80 5.4 35 1.3
100 5.7 4.0 1.4
120 6.2 - 4.0 - 1.5
180 7.6 4.0 1.8

Sludge drying Beds

After decantation of delluoridated water, the settled sludge with about 1 % (WN) solids is
discharged once every day over sludge drying beds. The number and size of beds for various plant
capacities are given in Table 6.
Table 6 : Sizes of Sludge Drying Beds
Plant Capacity
m3/d
10
Size of Bed
m
2.5X2.5
No. ~f~eds~

2
SI - - -

20 2.5X2.5 2
30 3.2X32 2
40 4.5X4.5 2 -

60 45X45 2
80 5.5X5.5 2 -

100 55X.55 . 2
120 45X45 : ~4 - -

180 5.5X55 4

Electric Panel Room

The electric panel room 2.5 mx 3 Omx3.Om, is of brick masonry with RCC slab to house the
pumps and electrical controls of reactors (Table 7).
Table 7. : Capacities of Raw Water Pumps In Electric Panel Room
Capacity of Capacity of Pumps No. of Raw Water
Plant, m~/d (horse power) Pumps
10 15 2
20 30 2
30 3.0 2~
40 5.0 2
60 7.5 2
80 10.0 2
100 125 2
120 1511 2- -

41
Chemical Store House
This is adjacent to Electric Panel Room and of brick masonry with RCC slab to store lime, alum
and bleaching powder sufficient for 100 days operation of the plant at the capacity indicated in
Table 8. A ram with big door is provided to unload material from a truck.
Table 8 : Sizes of Chemical Store Houses for Various Plant Capacities
Quantity of Chemicals (kg) Area Required Size of chemical
Capacity of
Plant, m3/d ------ for Storage of House, ix b x h,m
Alum * Lime Bleaching Powder Chemicals, m2**
10 1000 100 5 1 3.0x30x3.0
20 2000 20(3 10 2 - 30x3.0x3.0
30 3000 300 15 3 3.0x3.0x3.0
40 4000 400 20 4 3.0 x 3.0 x 3 0
60 6000 600 30 6 3 0 x 3.0 x 3.0
80 8000 800 40 8 3.0 x 3.0 x 3.0
100 10000 1000 50 10 30x30x3.0
120 12000 1200 60 12 40x40x4.0
180 18000 180(3 90 18 40x40x4.O
* 50 kg alum per bag ; six bags kept one above the other In one heap;

** includes area for passage, weighing balance and minor stores

CONFIGURATION OF REACTORS
The configuration of reactors depends upon water demand, size of reactors, number of
reactors and number of operations per day. The optimal configurations for various water demands
are given in Table 9.
Table 9 Configuration of Reactors of the Defluoridation plant and Personnel for Operation
and Maintenance
Water Confiauration of Reactors Personnel
Demand
m3/day Capacity Number Number of Super- Chemist He!-
m3 of operations visor pers
Reactors per day -

10 10 1 1 Nil - I 2
20 10 1 2 Nil 1 2
40 20 1 2 Nil I 2
60 20 1 3 Nil 1 4
80 20 2 2 Nil 1 4
120 20 2 3 1 1 6
180 30(RCC) 2 3 1 1 6
180 20(HDPE) 3 3 1 1 6
240 20 4 3 1 1 6
360 30 4 3 1 1 8
480 30 4 4 1 1 8

42
COST ESTIMATION (1991 BASE)
Cost estimates are made for various plant capacities per day at the rate of 40 lpcd on the
basis of configuration of reactors, which includes capacity of the reactors, number of reactors and
number of operations in a day. Capacities of sump well and elevated service reservoir are fixed
on the basis of plant capacity for one operation. Skilled personnel are required for systematic
operation and maintenance of the plant.
Table 9 shows configuration of reactors and personnel depending upon the amount of water
to be treated daily upto 480 m3 /d for RCC and upto 180 m3/day for HDPE reactors. The total
estimates also include pump house -cum-chemical house, treated water pumps, chemical solution
tanks, interconnecting piping, valves and fixtures and electrical items.
Capital costs of defluoridation plants of various capacities were estimated after taking Into
account the above plant components. Based on these costs annual depreciation, interest and
maintenance costs were estimated. In addition to these, the total annual expenditure includes
salaries of the personnel and cost of power and chemicals for estimation of total operational cost.
Estimations for running costs include costs of power and chemicals.
The considerations for calculating the costs are as follows:
Depreciation 5% per anum on capital cost
Maintenance 5% per annum on capital cost
Interest 12% per annum on capital cost

Cost of power As. 0.50 per Unit

Cost of alum Rs. 2.00 per kg.
Cost of Lime Rs. 0.70 per kg.
Cost of Bleaching Rs. 1.50 per kg -

Powder
Salailes of personnel Rs. per month
Supervisor 2,000
Chemist 1,500 - - -

Helper 900
Tables 10 and 11 gIve capital costs, total operational costs/rn3 and running costs/rn3 for
various capacities per day for RCC and HOPE reactor systems respectively. The cost per m3
decreases as the per day plant capacity increased. There are exceptions to this and these
exceptions are due to plant configurations.
The total operational cost ranges between As. 33 70/rn3 and As. 4.27/m3 for plant capacity
ranging between 10 and 480 m3/day for RCC reactor system. The running cost varies between As.
1.93 and As. 1.57/m3.
The water demands in arid and semi-arid regions are more, because the cattle population
is also to be taken into account in addition to human population. The people need defluoridated
water only for drinking and they use fluoride water for other domestic uses such as bath, washing
etc. In such cases the water needed for drinking only is less. Considering these variable water

43
Table 10 : cost Estimates for RCC Defluoridatlon Plants of Various Cpacitles @ 40 lpcd
Raw water fluoride = 5mg Fl!
Raw Water alkalinity = 400 mg CaCO3I1

Plant CapItal Annual Expenditure Toral Total Running

Capacity
3/day Cost Depreciation Personnel Power Chemicals Annual
Cost of Cost of
Operation Cost of
Operation
m + Interest Operation
+ Maintenance
Rs. Rs. Rs As. As Rs. Rs./m3 Rs./m3

10 3,47,000 76,340 39,600 2,510 4,550 1,22,990 33.70 1 93

20 3,47,000 76,340 39,600 4,480 9,100 1,29,540 1775 1.86

40 4,21,000 92,620 39,600 1,56,80 18,200 1,56,120 1069 1.64

60 4,21,000 92,620 61,200 8,250 27,300 1,89,370 8.64 1.62

80 6,77,00q 1,4894q 61,200 11,000 36,400 2~57,E~4Q 8.82 1.62

120 6,77,000 1,48,940 1,06,~)0 16,130 54,600 3,26,440 7,45 1.61

180 8,85,000 1,94,700 1,06,800 17410 81,900 4,04,650 6.16 1.57

240 11,20~0d0 2,46,40d LC~,8tiO 31,8~O 1,09,20(1 4~94,30d 5.64 1.~1

380 12,31,000 2,70,820 1,08,800 44,725 1,63,800 5,86,145 446 1.~9

480 15,55,000 3,42,100 1,28,400 59,250 2,18,400 7~48,150 4.27 1.58

Table 11: cost Estimates for HDPE Defluoridation Plants of Various Cpacities @ 40 lpcd
Raw water fluonde = 5 mg Fl!
Raw Water alkalinity = 400 mg CaCOjl
Plant Capital Annual Expenditure Toral Total Runn!ng
Capacity Cost Annual Cost of Cost of
m3/day Depreciation Personnel Power Chemicals Cost of Operation Operation
.j- Interest Ope~atlon
+ MaIntenance
Rs. Rs As Rs. Rs. As. Rs.jm3 As/ma

10 3,81,000 83,820 39,600 2,510 4,550 1,30,480 3775 1.93

20 3,81,000 83,820 39,600 4,480 9,100 1,37,000 18.77 1 86

40 579,00~ 1,27,380 39,600 5680 18,200 1,90,860 13,07 1.64

6~J 5,79,000 1,27,380 61200 8,250 27,300 2,24,130 1023 1.62

80 9,48,000 2,08,560 61,200 11,000 36,400 3,17,160 1Q.86 1.62

~ I I . ~ ~ ~ I ~

i~O 9,48,Qob 2,06,560 1,06,800 16~130 54,600 3,86,090 8,81 1.81

I~b 13,77’~~ 3,b2,94~J ~ 17;410 81,900 509,050 7.75 1,57

demands, capital costs for 10, 2040, 70 and 100 Ipcd were estimated for various populations and
are shown in Table 12
Table 12: Capital Costs for Various Populations at Different Rates of Water Supply
Population Rates of Water Supply, m3/day
70 100
10 20 40
500 3.5 3.5 3.5 42 4.7
1000 3.5 3 5 4.2 5.5 7.3
2000 3.5 4.2 5.5 7.3 8.8
4000 42 5.5 8.8 12.3 15.5
The calculations
6000 4 7 are based7.3
on the assumption
11 2 that the plant capacities per day
15.5 -

are limited between 10m3 and 480 m3

DEFLUORIDATION OF WATER USING ACTIVATED ALUMINA PROCESS

MEDIA SPECIFICATIONS
Specifications of AA : ACC Grade G-80
Particle size : 2-3 mm sphere
Surface area : 250 m2 /g (mm)
Bulk density . 0.80 -0 85 Kg/I
Pore volume : 0.3 0.4 cc/g
-

LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS
NEERI has extensively studied the usefulness of activated alumina (AA) for the removal of excess
fluoride from potable waters. The fluoride removal capacity of activated alumina was reported to vary
considerably, apparently Caused by difference in the physico-chemical characteristics of activated
alumina and regenerative procedure. The effect of controlling factors such as pH, the contact time, the
ratio of adsorbate (fluoride ion) to absorbent (activated alumina) on tile rate of fluoride removal in batch
operations was studied. The kinetics of adsorption on 105 to 88 micron size activated alumina powder
showed that. (i) initial rates of adsorption of fluoride decrease progressivelyafter the initial 30 minutes and
give rather slow approach to equilibrium: (ii) nearly linear variation of the amount adsorbed with square
rootof tile time of reaction has been found to obtain for the initial fraction of the adsorption reaction studies
at pH 9 to 4; (iii) the adsorption of fluoride from water is relatively more rapid the more dilute the solution;
(iv) the adsorption isotherms poorly conform to Freundilich and Langmuir isotherms; (v) by employing
BET equation and intricate analysis, very good linearisation is observed for all reaction times at various
pH; vi) the rate of adsorption of fluoride increases with the decreasing pH of the solution; (vii) although
activated aluminais a good adsorbentfor fluoride in water with fairly good capacity the slowess withwhich
the potential capacity is attained in the batch experiments makes a consideration of techniques important
for effective utilisation of tile good capacity (viii)the rate of adsorption is controlled by rate of diffusion
of solute within the micropores of activated alumina; (ix) the batch studies showed that activated alumina
for defluoridation of water could be used effectively in continuous flow columns.

46
COLUMN STUDIES
The batch studies on the rates of adsorption by activated alumina from solution are strongly
dependent upon the particle size of the adsorbent and hence activated alumina of 0. .25-0.35 mm size
were employed in column studies. Column type continuous flow operations were made for removal of
fluoride usIng activated alumina. The regeneration was accomplished by four bed volumes of 0.1 M HCI
solutions. Forty cycles were carried out for each baslcity 4,8and 16 meq/1 in testwater. The defluorldatlon
capacity of activated alumina depends upon the basicity of water and decreases with increasing basicity
Wthin 40 cycles of operation, the capacity of activated alumina decreased rapidly.

Test Water CharacterIstics

PH : 7.6-85 -

Fluorides : 5.2 ±0.2 mg/I (a)

Basicity : 400 mg/I (b)
Capacity (corresponding : Max. 315 mg F/I
to values ‘a’ & ‘b’) Mm. 143 mg F/I
Ave. 164mg F/I
COMPONENTS OF AA DEFLUORIDATION PLANT COST ASPECTS (1991 BASE) (2.82 m3
- -

OF AA) 200 m3/d PLANT

-

Main Plant, comprising acid proof pressure vessel, piping, valves, regeneration
system with control valves, acid pump, backwash pump, regulators, piping net work
etc. Rs. 8,20,000
Civil Works, acid proof drains, regenerant/wash waterneutralisation system, electrical
panel room, chemical store house and elevated service reservoir (40 m3 capacity/b
m Head) Rs. 4,00,000.
2.82 m3 of Activated Alumina(AA) - Rs. 1,60,000
The ultimate capacity of the A
1A for fluoride removal studied at 4, 8, 16 meq/l basicity has been
calculated as 1503, 1168 and 662mg Ff1 activated alumina; the experiments showed the different
percents of the ultimate capacity realised for various basicities at initial, middle and last runs of
operation (Table 13).
Table 13 : Percent CapacIty RealIzation at Various Baslcities and at Different Cycles of OperatIon
Basicity, meq/L
4 8 16
Breakthrough levei, mg FM 1 2 1 2 - 1 — 2
Initial run 42 62 27 49 38 75
Twentieth run 14 19 15 25 - - 14 21
Lastrun 15 19 12 15 9.5 13
Table shows quantitatively the variation of capacity to 1 and 2 mgF/I break-through levels
Undoubtedly the capacity realisation actually tapers off as adsorption-near-capacity is reached.

47
However, relationships of this sort obtained with varying bed depth, flow rate, initial fluoride values
will be interesting but time limitation restricted prolonged work with these variables.

TOTAL QUANTITY OF WATER TREATED IN 40 CYCLES OF OPERATION

To evaluate the overall performance of the medium with natural waters in columnar
operations the total quantity of Water treated in all forty cycles of operation and acid consumed was
worked out (Table 14).
Table 14 Overall Performance of Columns in 40 cycles of Operation
Basicity, meqli
4 8 16

Breakthrough level, mg F/I 1 2 I 2 1 2

Duration of opera~on hr
. 727 1292 587 880 308 575
HCI/l of water treated, mg 268 151 332 222 ~632 339

The HCI requirements for treating 1 m3 of water containing around 5.4±0.2 mg F/I and upto
a fluoride break-through level of 1 mg F/L were 268, 332 and 632 g too 4,8 and 15 meq/I basicity,
respectively~the corresponding values for 2 mg F/I break-through level were 151, 222 and 339 g.

OPERATING AND TREATMENT COSTS (1991 BASE)

Characteristics of Test Water -

pH : 7.4-85 -

Fluorides, mg/I : 5.2 ±0.2 say, ‘a’

Basicity ,meq/l : 4 or 8 or 16, say, b
CapacityofAAatbN : cmgF/IofAA
Typical Basis for Calculation (200 m3 /d AA plant)
A pressure acid proof plant with 2.82 m3 of AA capable of treating 10 4 m3 / h water was
considered.
a. Capital Cost
Civil Works Rs. 4,00,000
Plant Rs. 8,20,000
2.82m3ofAA Rs. 1,60,000
Total Rs 13, 80,000
b. Depreciation
Plant, at 10% pa Rs. 82,000
Civil works, at 5% pa Rs 20,000
Medium, at 33.33% pa Rs. 53,000
Total Rs. 1,55,000

48
Capital Cost of Plant Based on Ten Year Life Expectancy
Cost + Plant + (Medium x 3.33)
Civil Works
= 4,00,000 ±
8,20,000 + 5,30,000 17,50,000
c. Sample Calculation for 5.2 ±0.2 mg F/I and b meqll Basicity
Total fluoride removal capacity of AA between two successive regeneration is 2820 c mg F
Quantity of Water treated per regeneration is 2.82 (cIa) m3
Length of run between 2.82 (c/a) m3
successive regeneration = —-----— 0.2712 (c/a) hrs -

10.4 m3
Time required per regeneration is 2 hours.
Number of regenerations per 24a
24hours working day, allowing
2 hrs. per regenerationis 0.27 120 = 2a

Quantity water treatable 24a 2.82 c

in 24 hrs working allowing = ________
—______

for regeneration time (0) 0.2712 c + 2a a

67.68 c
m3
0.2712c-i-2a - - -~

Acid requirement per regeneration is 4 bed volumes of 0.1 M HCI or 2.82 m3 AA3 x 4 x 0.1 m
= 1.128 m3 or 0.09803 m3 Con HCI orl 16Kg. HCI.
Conc HCI requirement per day is
24x116a 2784a
kg
0.2712c+2a (0.2712c+2a)
8352 a
Cost of HCI per day at Rs. 3/kg is -— in Rs. (1)
(0.2712c +2a)
Pumping costs of 0 m~ again statotal head of 20 m to ESR through the plant(including friction
loses and at Re .0.50/unit): -

1000xQX2OX5O 18.431 c
=0 27233 0 = —---—-—— in Rs. (2)
102 X60X60X100 0.2712c+2a -

Interest on capital at 12% per annum on Rs. 13,80,000 (mRs. 1,65,600

Rs. 453. 70/day (3)
Maintenance at 5% on civil works, and plant per annum on in Rs. 13,80,000 (ie As. 69000)
= Rs. 189.04/day (4)

49
d. Manpower Per Annum
1 Rs. 24,000
Superintendent -cum -Chemist
Junior Chemist 1 Rs. 18,000
Watchman/labour 3 As. 10,800
Total As. 52,800
=

Rs. 144, 60/d

=
(5)
Depreciation per day = Rs. 155000/365 Rs. 424.66
= (6)
Cost of treatment per day, K, is charges due to
(1) + (2)+ (3)÷(4) ÷(5)+ (6) =
8352a 18.431c
÷ ÷453.70+189.04÷ 144.60 +424.66
0.2712 c + 2a 0.2712 c + 2a

10776 a + 348 c
2a ÷0.2712 c
10776 a + 384 c in As.
Cost of treatment per m3 = K/Q
67.68 c
in this study ‘a’ has a fixed value of 5.2 ±0.2 mg F/I. Therefore, cost of treatment per m3
K/a will be: (56,035 + 348 c)/67.68 C; where cis a variable, i.e. capacity of AA at different basiclities.
The values are shown in the Table 15
Capital cost per m3 = As. 17, 50, 000/0
e. The cost analysis at different basicities of the test water is shown In Table 16
f. The estimated cost analysis of activated alumina defluoridation system at various plant
capacities from 10 to 480 m3/d and for raw water characteristics, F = 5.2 ±0.2 mg/i and 4C’~
mg/I basicity are given in Table 17
g. Summary cost for activated alumina pressure type defluorldation plants of various capacities
is given in Table 18
Table 15 : Average Capacity Values CorrespondIng to Various Basicitles
Basicity, Capacity (c), mg F/i Medium, corresponding to
*
2mgFIl *
-
lmgF,1
Maximum Minimum Mean Maximum Minimum Mean
4 633 229 225 930 284 377
8 315 143 164 575 173 265
16 253 63 108 495 87 166
* in the column effluent

OBSERVED LIMITATIONS OF ACTIVATED ALUMINA PROCESS

• Capacity of activated alumina depends upon the baskity of water aid decreases consid-
erably with increasing basicity.

50
Table 16: Cost Analysis at 4, 8, 16 meczJl Basicity for 5.2 ±0.2 mg F/i Test Water

Basicity fluoride, Level Quantity of Water Quantity of water Cost of Treatment HCI (11 5 M) Running cost of
Treated per 24 per m~lncIu~ing Required per operation
of Test in Effluent, Treated per Reg.
hour working allow- depreciation, acid, day. kg per m3, Rs.
Water, mg/Eu eneration at a
ing 2 h per regeri- power, staff~inte-
meqfl maximum rate of
eration, rest on capitaland
~ 10.4 rn~i1i
m3 riP maintenance, Re

4 1 138.3 216.9 8.38 182 2.79

2 2Q4.8 226.5 7.33 129 1.98

8 1 89.1 202.3 10.18 264 4 19

2 143.7 2~8.0 8.28 176 2.69

16 1 58.8 184.2 12.80 365 621

~ 2 9Q.D 202.7 10.12 261 4.14

TABLE 17 Cost Analysi. of Activated Alumina defluorldatlon System at Various Plant CapacitIes (10 to 480 m3JD and for raw wat.r
characteristic. F * 5,2 ±0.2 mg/i and 400 mg/I baslcity (Total columns are 24).
Columns 1 to 16 (See next page for columns 17 to 24)

Plant AA Capital cost towards (in Rs.) Depreciation/day (in Re.) Chemicals/day (Rs.)
capacity m3it) litres — -

m~u1J appx Plant AA Total CMI Plant Med~.im Total HCI NaOH Cost (in Rs.)
Civil works 10% 33.3% Kg Kg
Works 5% p.a pa. p.a. HCJ NaOH Total
Rs.311<g Rs,6/kg

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

10 05 165 185000 385000 9400 579400 25.34 105.48 8.53 139.41 6.8 3.4 20.4 20 4 40.8

20 1 322 200000 400000 18350 618350 27.40 109.59 16.76 15375 13.3 6.7 39.9 399 79.8

40 2 630 200000 415000 35910 650910 27.40 113.70 32.80 17390 26 13 78 78 156

80 4 1204 295000 605000 68630 968630 40 41 165.75 62.68 268.84 50 25 150 150 300

120 6 1764 345000 705000 100550 1150600 47,26 193.15 91.83 333.22 73 36.5 219 219 438

150 7.5 2153 375000 765000 122720 1262700 51.37 209.59 112.07 373.03 89 44.5 267 267 534

200 10 280.0 400000 820000 159600 13798d0 54.B~) 224.66 145.75 42521 115 57.5 345 345 690

240 12 3276 440000 895000 186800 1471800 60.27 24521 17059 476.07 135 67.5 405 405 810

480 24 5712 800000 655000 325580 2780600 109.59 453.42 297.33 883,34 ~35 117.5 705 705 1410

Capital cost = Plant cost + (AAx As. 57 per 1x3.33) or plant cost = cap cost -19OxAA
Power Cost= 0.272330, Where 0= 24X (AA, in rn3)x ‘c’/(O.2712 c +2a) + 71.7(M vol. in riP)
@ 0.5CVunlt =19.533x(M volume, in riP)
(c=l64mgF/i; a =5.2mg F/I)
Table 17 continued
Columns l7to 24 (See previous page for columns ito 16)
Power Personnel Interest Maintence Total cost Running cost of
consumpton [Supdt.Chem. on capital © 5% p.a of operation operation
per day (plants>80 m3/d) ©12% p.s per day (coil 1+16+ (col.16-i-17+18)
Rs.0.50 + Jr.Chemist and per day 17+18÷19+20)
per urit Electrician
(for all capacity Total/day Rs. Rs 1m3 Total/day Rs. Rs. /m3
Rs. plants Rs. Rs
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

3.23 78.90 190.49 7937 532.20 53.20 122.93 - 1229

6.29 78.90 203.39 84 75 606.88 30.34 164.99 8 25

12.31 78.90 214.00 89.17 724.28 18.11 247.21 6.18

23.52 144.66 318.45 132.69 118820 14.85 468.18 5.85

34.46 144.66 378.28 157.82 1486.20 12.38 617.12 5 14

42.06 14.4.66 415.13 172.97 1681.90 11.21 720.72 481

5489 144.66 453.57 188.99 1957.10 10.18 889.35 4.45

63.99 1446~ 48388 201.52 2180.20 9.08 1018.70 4.25

111.57 144.66 914~l7 380!90 3821,60 7.96 166620 3,47

TABLE 18 Summary Cost for Activated Alumina Pressure Type Defluoridation Plants of Various Capacities
Raw Water fluoride; 5.0 ±0.2 mgFfl; Raw water Alkalinity 400 mg/l corresponding c (mgFIl)to obtain on average 1 mgF/l in treated water
= 164 mgF/I

Plant Capital Daily Expenditure, Rs. Total Total Running

Capacity Cost Daily cost of cost of
m3/day including Depreciation Personnel Power Chemical cost of operation operation
cMl work + interest HCI for opera~on Rs /m3 Rs./m3
+ Maimen~ce regeneration
+ NaOH for
Rs. neutralislng

10 579400 40927 7890 3.23 40.8 53220 53.20 1229

20 618350 441.89 78.90 6.29 79.8 606.88 30.34 8.25

40 650910 477.07 78.90 12.31 156 724.28 18.11 6.18

80 968630 P720.02 144.66 23.52 300 1188.20 14.85 5.85

120 1150600 869.08 144.86 34.46 438 14.86.20 1238 5.14

150 1262700 961.18 144.88 42.06 534 1681.90 11.21 4.81

20C) 1379600 1067 80 144.66 55.69 890 1957.10 10.18 4.45

240 1471800 1161.50 144.66 63.99 810 2180.20 9.08 4.25

480 2780600 2155.40 144.85 111.57 1410 3821.60 798 3.47

Power = 365 x 18.431 Cl (0.2712 c ÷2a) 20105 Rs.

HCllday = 8352 aJ(0.2712 c + 2 a) Rs.; HCI @ As. 3/- per kg.
NaOH: 1/2 of HCI requirement (assumed ) (for washing and regeneration)
NaOH reqtlday = 0.5 x 2784 ax6/(0.2712 c + 2a) = 8352 a /(0.2712 c + 2a)
NaOH @ 6/-per kg.
 • The output decreases sign ificantly with progress of cycles. Within 40 cycles of operation, the
capacity of activated alumina decreased rapidly.
• The cost analysis on the basis of 40 cycles of operation reveals that the costs per m3
treated water are Rs. 8.38, Rs. 10. 18 and Rs. 12.80 for test water basicity values of 4,
8 and 16 meq/l respectively, when the runs are terminated with 1 mg f/I in the effluent.
The corresponding values for 2 mg F/I in the effluent are Rs. 7.38, Rs. 8.36 and Rs.
10.12. These does not include cost of NaOH for neutralisation.
ESSENTIAL INFORMATION REQUIRED ON ANY OTHER GRADE OF ACTIVATED ALUMINA
TO DETERMINE ITS APPLICATION IN RURAL AREAS OF INDIA
a. Operating Characteristics
• Capacity Curves
• Exhaustion curves
• Exchange Capacity and corresponding regenerant requirement with concentration
• Theoretical regenerant quantity vs practical requirement per unit volume of activated
alumina
• Backwash and rinse water quantity and rate of application
• Service loading rate
• Attrition losses and replacement requirement
• Anticipated cycles of operation before fluoride in treated water cannot be lower than
1 mgF/I
• Impact of variation of (Ca ++ + Mg +Na ~)bicarbonates to total electrolyte concentra-
tion, ion exchange capacity of the AA for Ca~and Mg~ions.
b) Waste DIsposal
• Activated alumina regenerant Waste water quantity and quality
• Method and Cost of effluent treatment andlor disposal
C) Cost Aspects
• Activated alumina, cost Rs. per litre
• Capital cost of Plants capable to treat 10, 20, 30, 40, 60, 80 and 120 m# per day of 5
mgF/1 and 400 mg/I basicity raw water complete with regenerant, electricity, man-
power and total raw water requirements
• Life expectancy of Plant and activated alumina

CURRICULUM FRAMES WATER QUALITY TESTING AND DEFLUORIDATION

-

OF DRINKING WATER COURSE CONTENT (CLASS ROOM ORIENTED)

-

WATER QUALITY TESTJNG:

• Selection of sampling sites, facilities and sampling frequency

55
• Sampling procedures, containers and samples preservation
• Mineral analysis:
a) pH
b) Condr~ictivity
c) Dissolved Solids
d) Total Alkalinity
e) Total Hardness
f) Calcium Hardness
g) Chloride
h) Sulphate
i) Fluoride
Estimation of Fluoride in water samples and demonstration of Ion Selective Electrode Method

ALTERNATIVE APPROACHES FOR SAFE DRINKING WATER

1) Bringing waterfrom a distance through laying pipe line costaspects cut-off distance
- -

vis-a-vis defluoridation
2) Deepening tube wells for providing water with a fluoride content within acceptable limit
along with other mineral content
3) Selection of Defluoridation Technologies
4) Adopt defluoridation
a) Domestic use
b) Fill & Draw systems for community
5) Field studies for defluoridation
a) Treatability study to validate technology for that water
b) Treatment flow sheet and design specifications
6) Demonstration of Technology /Field visits
7) Wastes generated by Defluoridation Technology and Disposal cost aspects
8) Performance Evaluation of Defluoridation Technology
a) Quality of defluoridated water (pH, fluoride and alkalinity)
b) Operation and Maintenance Aspects
c) Cost estimation based on O&M experience

56
TRAINERS (DISTRICT):
Participants’ category:
• Medical Officers
• Supervisory Staff of Health Services
• Paramedical Workers/and Grass root-level workers.
• Water Quality testing laboratry personnel.
• Engineers/Public Health Engineers
• NGO’s

WATER QUALITY TESTING AND DEFLUORIDATION OF DRINKING WATER

COURSE CONTENT (CLASS ROOM ORIENTED)

WATER QUALITY TESTING:

- Selection of sampling sites, facilities and sampling frequency
- Sampling procedures, containers and sample preservation
- Mineral analysis
(a) pH
(b) Conductivity
(c) Dissolved Solids
(d) Total Alkalinity
(e) Total Hardness
(f) Calcium Hardness
(g) Chloride
(h) Sulphate
(i) Fluoride
- Estimation of Fluoride in water samples and demonstration of Ion Selective Electrode
Method
ALTERNATIVE APPROACHES FOR SAFE POTABLE WATER
(I) Bringing water from a distance through laying pipe line-cost aspects-cut-off distance
vis-a-vis defluoridation.

57
 (ii) Deeping tube wells for providing water with a fluoride content within permissive limit
along with other mineral content.
(iii) Adopt defluoridation
(a) Domestic use
(b) Fill & draw systems for community
(iv) Related Approaches for defluoridation
(a) Treatability study to validate technology for that water
(b) Treatment flow sheet and design specifications
(v) Defluoridation Technologies
(vi) Wastes generated by Defluoridation Technology and disposal cost aspects.
-

(vii) Performance Evaluation of Detluoridation Technology

(a) Quality of defluoridated water (pH, fluoride and alkalinity)
(b) Operation and Maintenance Aspects
(c) Cost estimation based on 0 & M experience
(viii) Demonstration of Technology/field visits

OThER POINTS
(i) The water sources be initially screened for conductivity, ensure their conformity with
the guidelines of WM/BIS for drinking water requirements, and further analysis for
mineral content as per guidlines provided in this Volume.
Water quality testing be undertaken only on those water sources that otherwise qualify
WM/BIS guidelines
(ii) The guidelines of WM/BIS for drinking water are rather rigid for arid and semi-arid zones
in India. For small supplies which frequently are to be provided from individual wells
or other ground water sources, the water quality guidelines of WM/BIS for drinking
water may have to be relaxed in these areas particularly dissolved solids, fluoride,
nitrate, chloride and sulphate. Obviously, in all instances everything possible should
be done to safeguard health of consumers.
(iii) Nalgonda technique is to be applied at domestic and community levels. The system
is not recommended for Hand Pumps
(iv) Other defluoridation technologies, such as Activated Alumina and Ion Exchange
requires detailed field evaluation and validation and if found suitable and appropriate,
may be considered for rural conditions in India.

58
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL STANDARDS PRESCRIBED BY ThE MINISTRY. TEST CHARACTERISTICS FOR DRINKING WATB

Si. Substance or Requirement Undesirable Effect Cause for Rejection Methods of Test Remarks
No. Characteristic Acceptable Outside the in the Absense of (Ref to IS)
Limit) Acceptable Limit Alternate Source
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Essentiai Characteristics

colour 5 Above 5, consumer 25 3025 (Part4), Extended to 25 only

(Units on Pl~dnlum Acceptance decreases 1983 if to~csubstances
Cobalt scale) are not suspected,
in absence of
alternate sources
Ii) Odour Unobjec- Unoblectionable 3025 (Part 5). a) Test cold and when
tionable 1983 heated
b) Test at several
di}utions

iii) Taste Unobjectionable Unobjectionabfe 3025 (Parts 7 Test to be conducted

and ~). 1984 only after safety has
been established

lv Turbidity, a5 Above 2.5, Consumer 10 3025 (Part 10);

(Units on JTU Scale) Acceptance decreases 1984

v) pH v~~e 7.0 to 8,5 Beyond this ran~t~e 65 to 3025 (Part 11):

water will affect the 1984
mucous membrane and!
o~water supply sys~sm

vi) Toral hardness (mg/l;) 200 Encrustation n wat~r ebo 3025 (Part~1):
(PS supply struct~.irearid 1984
advecse effects on
dqrnestio use

vii) iron (as fe) 0.1 Beyond this limit 1.0 32 to 3025:
mg!l Taste/appearance are 1964
affected, has adverse
effect on domestic
uses and water supply
structures & promotes
Iron bactena
Si. Substance or Requirement Unde~rableEffect Cause for Ro1e~on Methods of Test Renwks
No. Characteristic Acceptable Outside the in the Abeense of (Ref to IS)
Limit) Acceptable Limit Alternate Source
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
v’~i) Chlorides 200 Beyond this iirnit, 1000 3025 (Part 32):
(as Cl) taste, corrosion& 1988
(mg/I, palatability are
affected
ix) Residual, free 0.2 3025(Part 26): To be applicable only
chloririe, 1988 when water is
mgil,Mln. chlorinated, to be tested
at consumer end
When protection against
viral infection is
required, It should be
Mn 0.5 mgil
x) Total Dissolved 500 Beyond this palatabi- 1500 3025(Part 16):
solids (mgil) lity decreases, may 198.4
cause gastro intesti-
nal lrritatiofl

xi) Ca~oium(~Ca) 75 En~ustant1onIn water 200 3025 (Part 40):

(mg/i) supply structure and 1991
advarse effects oq
domestic use
xii) Copper (as Cu) 005 Mtringent taete, 15 36 of 3025: 1964
(ffOM) discoJorat~onpnd
cprrosiprt pf pip~s~
fittings and utpnsils
wil3bec~pse~ H
beyond this
xii) Mdnganese 0.05 Beyond this lImit 0.5 35 of 3~Q25: 1964
(asm~) taste/appera~nce
(mg/I,) are effected, has
ad’~erseeffect on
domestic uses and
water supply struc~.jres
Si. Substance or Requirement Unde~rableEffect Cause for Rejetion Methods of Test Remarks
No. Characteristic Acceptable Outside the ~ithe Abeere of (Ref to IS)
Unit) Acce~ableLimit Alternate Source
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

xiv) Sulphate 200 Beyond this causes 400 3025 (Part 24): May be extended up
(as 504) gastro intest~nai (See col,7) 1986 to 400 provided
(mg/I) irritation wten magnesium (asMg)
magnesium or sodium does not exceed 30.
are present
xv) ~ltrate 45 Beyond this methnaem- 45 3025 (Part 34):
(as No3) ogIoblnenia takes 1988
(mg/i) place

xvi) F1uo~1de(as F) 1.0 fluoride may be kept 1.5 23of3025:1964

as low as possible.
High fluoride ma~’
cause fluorosis

xvii) Pfienoiic compounds 0.001 Beyond this, it may 0.002 54 of 3025:1964

(as CSH5OH), cause objectionable
(mg/I) taste and odour
xviii) Mercury (Total as Hg) 0.001 Beyond this, the 0.001 Mercury ion analyser To be tested when
(mg/L), Max waxer becomes toxic pollution is
suspected
x14 Cadimium as Cd), 0.01 Beyond this, the 0.01 (see Note) lobe tested when
(mg/I) Water becomes toxic pollution Is
su8p~cte~i

xx~, Selenium as Se) 0.01 Beyond this, the 0.01 28of 3025 1964 To be tested when
Water becpems toxic pohition l~
1~I (m~), I I
suspected

x)) Arsenic as As.) 0.05 Beyond this, the 0.05 3025 (Part 37), To be tested when
(mg/I) Water bethmes toxic 1988 pollution is
su~ected
xxii) Cyanide as CN), 0.05 Beyond this ih’nit, 0.05 3025 (Pt~rt27): To be tested ~hen
mg/i the water becomes toxic 1~86 polk~tionis suspected
Si Substance or RequIrement Undesirable Effect Cause for Rejetion Methods of Test Remarks
No. Charactenstic Acceptable Ojitside the in the Absense of (Ref to !S)
LIrr~t) Acceptable Limit Alternate Source
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
xxiii) Lead as Pb 0.1 Beyond this limit, 0.1 To be tested when
mg/I The water becomes pollution/plumbo-
toxic solvency is
suspected.
xxiv) Zinc as Zn 5 Beyond this limit, 15 39 of 3025:1964 To be tested when
mg/i it can cause pollution is
astringent taste and suspected
anopalescence In waters

xxv) Anionic detergents 0.2 Beyond this liml~ 1.0 Methylent-blue To be tested when
asMBAS it can cause a light extraction method polhition Is
mg/I froth In water suspected

xxvi) Chromium (as Cr6÷), 0 05 May be carcinogenic 0.05 38 of 3025: 1964 To be tested when
(mg/I) above this limit 0.05 pollution is suspected
xxvfl) Polynuclear 0.2 May be carcinogenic 0.2 mg/I.
aromatic
hydrocarbons
(as PAH),

xxv1~) MIner~oil 0.01 Beyond this limit, 0.3 Gas chromatographic To be tested when
(rgIL) Und~~ab~e t~s~e~ 0.3 niq~od poI~utiorii~ H
od~urafter suspected
chlorination takes
p~aoe
xxix) Redioact~ve
Substances:
a) Alpha emitters 3 pci/I 3Pcijl

b) Beta emiters - 30 pcIll - 3pci/1

xxx) Alkalinlty mg/i, 200 Beyopd th~sl~mit 600 13 of 3Q2~:1964

ta~tebecomes
unpleasant

I II
~Achievement
requires character.. discipilne.. united action and the

readiness to sacrifice the individual self for the larger causd’

Nehru
 .1~

L
I

rkIsfioI~iukaicrauts1by~ -

CRB\T1VE ,4IASS CQ4IMUNI~T~J1ON

PHA~
I ~&W
DO}~I I~ O4~I6~2&4~194I1