Tishk International University

Faculty of Engineering Safwan Mawlood

Computer Engineering Department

NETWORK MODELS
TRANSMISSION MEDIA

Dr. Safwan Mawlood Hussein

Safwan Mawlood
 Module Title: Protocols and Models

Module Objective: Explain how network protocols enable devices to access local and remote network resources.

Topic Title Topic Objective

Describe the types of rules that are necessary to
The Rules
successfully communicate.
Explain why protocols are necessary in network
Protocols
communication.
Protocol Suites Explain the purpose of adhering to a protocol suite.
Explain the role of standards organizations in establishing
Standards Organizations
protocols for network interoperability.
Explain how the TCP/IP model and the OSI model are used
Reference Models
to facilitate standardization in the communication process.
Explain how data encapsulation allows data to be
Data Encapsulation
transported across the network.
Explain how local hosts access local resources on a
Data Access
network.

Dr.Safwan Mawlood Hussein

Protocols and
Models

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 3
Reference Models
The Benefits of Using a Layered Model
Complex concepts such as how a
network operates can be difficult to
explain and understand. For this reason,
a layered model is used.
Two layered models describe network
operations:
• Open System Interconnection (OSI)
Reference Model
• TCP/IP Reference Model

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 Reference Models
The Benefits of Using a Layered Model (Cont.)

These are the benefits of using a layered model:

• Assist in protocol design because protocols that operate at a specific layer have
defined information that they act upon and a defined interface to the layers above and
below
• Foster competition because products from different vendors can work together
• Prevent technology or capability changes in one layer from affecting other layers
above and below
• Provide a common language to describe networking functions and capabilities

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2.2 The OSI Model

▪ ISO: International Standards Organization

▪ OSI: Open Systems Interconnection model
▪ An open system is a set of protocols that allows any two different systems to
communicate regardless of their underlying architecture and without requiring changes
to the logic underlying hardware and software
▪ The OSI model is a layered framework for the design of network systems that allows communication
between all types of computer systems. It consists of seven separate but related layers, each of which
defines a part of the process of moving information across a network

ISO is the organization. OSI is the model.

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Reference Models
OSI and TCP/IP Model Comparison

• The OSI model divides the network

access layer and the application layer of
the TCP/IP model into multiple layers.
• The TCP/IP protocol suite does not
specify which protocols to use when
transmitting over a physical medium.
• OSI Layers 1 and 2 discuss the
necessary procedures to access the
media and the physical means to send
data over a network.

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2.2 The OSI Model

▪ Layered Architecture:7 ordered layers ( P D N T S P A )

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2.2 The OSI Model

The interaction Dr.Safwan

between Mawlood Hussein
layers in the OSI model
2.2 The OSI Model

▪ Intermediate nodes involve only the first 3 layers

▪ Each layer groups networking functions with related uses
▪ Each layer defines a family of functions distinct from those of the other layers
▪ This design creates an architecture that is both comprehensive and flexible
▪ OSI model allows complete interoperability between otherwise incompatible systems

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2.2 The OSI Model

▪ Within a single machine, each layer calls upon the services of the layer just below it
▪ Between machines, layer x on one machine communicates with layer x on another
machine
▪ Communication is governed by an agreed-upon series of rules and conventions called
protocols

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2.2 The OSI Model

▪ Peer-to-Peer Processes
▪ At the physical layer, communication is direct
▪ Each layer in the sending device adds its own information to the message it receives from the layer just
above it and places the whole package to the layer below it
▪ At layer 1 the entire package is converted to a form that can be transmitted to the receiving device
▪ At the receiving device machine, the message is unwrapped layer by layer, with each process receiving
and removing the data meant for it

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2.2 The OSI Model

▪ Interfaces Between Layers

▪ Passing of data through layers is made possible by an interface between each pair of adjacent layers
▪ Each interface defines the information and services a layer must provide for the layer above it
▪ Well-defined interfaces and layer functions provide modularity to a network
▪ Implementation of the functions of a layer can be modified or replaced without requiring changes to the
surrounding layers

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2.2 The OSI Model

▪ Organization of the Layers

▪ Layers can be thought of as three subgroups
▪ Layers 1,2 and 3: Network support layers: they deal with the physical aspects of moving data from one device
to another (such as electrical specifications, physical connections, physical addressing, and transport timing and
reliability)
▪ Layers 5, 6 and 7: User support layers: they allow interoperability among unrelated software systems.
▪ Layer 4: links the two subgroups and ensures that what the lower layers have transmitted is in a form that the
upper layers can use
▪ At each layer a header (H) and or a trailer (T) is added to the data

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2.2 The OSI Model

▪ Organization of the Layers

▪ The upper OSI layers (4, 5, 6 and 7) are implemented in software
▪ Lower layers (1, 2, and 3) are implemented in hardware and software
except for the physical layer which is mostly hardware

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 An exchange using the OSI model

H H
D7 D7
7 7

H H
D6 D6
6 6

H H
D5 D5
5 5

H H
D4 D4
4 4

H H
D3 D3
3 3

H T H T
D2 D2
2 2 2 2
0 0
0101010101011010100000100000 0101010101011010100000100000
1 1
00 00
0 0

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2.2 The OSI Model
▪ Encapsulation
▪ A packet: data and header and maybe trailer)
▪ The data portion of a packet at level N-1 carries the whole packet from
level N
▪ Level N-1 is not aware of which part of the packet is data, header, or
trailer
▪ For level N-1, the whole packet coming from level N is treated as one
integral unit

▪ The data portion of a packet at level N - 1 carries the whole packet

(data and header and maybe trailer) from level N. The concept is
called encapsulation; level N-1 is not aware of which part of the
encapsulated packet is data and which part is the header or trailer. For
level N - 1, the whole packet coming from level N is treated as one
integral unit.

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Layers in The OSI Model

▪ Physical Layer
▪ The physical layer coordinates the functions required to carry a bit stream over a physical medium. It
deals with the mechanical and electrical specifications of the interface and transmission medium. It also
defines the procedures and functions that physical devices and interfaces have to perform for transmission
to Occur.

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2.3 Layers in The OSI Model

▪ Physical Layer

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2.3 Layers in The OSI Model

▪ Physical Layer
▪ Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium(The physical layer defines the characteristics of the
interface between the devices and the transmission medium. It also defines the type of transmission
medium. )
▪ Representation of bits (encoding: bits → signals) bits must be encoded into signals--electrical or optical
▪ Data rate (duration of a bit: how long it lasts) The physical layer defines the dura-tion of a bit, which is
how long it lasts
▪ Synchronization of bits (clocks) , the sender and the receiver clocks must be synchronized.
▪ Line configuration (connection of the devices to the media: point-to-point or multipoint)
▪ Physical topology: The physical topology defines how devices are connected to make a network.
▪ Transmission mode : The physical layer also defines the direction of transmission between two devices
(simplex / half-duplex / full-duplex)

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2.3 Layers in The OSI Model

▪ Data Link Layer

▪ Transform the physical layer, a raw transmission facility, to a reliable link
▪ It makes the physical layer to appear error free to the upper layer

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2.3 Layers in The OSI Model

▪ Data Link Layer

The data link layer is responsible for moving

frames from one hop (node) to the next.

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2.3 Layers in The OSI Model

▪ Data Link Layer

▪ Framing
▪ Frames: manageable data units
▪ Physical addressing
▪ Add header to define sender and receiver of the frame
▪ Flow control
▪ Impose it to avoid overwhelming the receiver
▪ data rate: receiver < sender

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2.3 Layers in The OSI Model

▪ Data Link Layer

▪ Error control
▪ Mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames and to recognize duplicate frames
▪ Achieved through trailer added to the end of the frame
▪ Access control
▪ When two or more devices connected to the same link decide which device has control over the link at any
given time

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2.3 Layers in The OSI Model
Hop-to-hop delivery

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2.3 Layers in The OSI Model

▪ Network Layer
▪ Responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a packet possibly across multiple networks (links)
▪ Ensures that each packet gets from its point of origin to its final destination
▪ No need for network layer if systems are on the same networks

The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual

packets from the source host to the destination host.

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2.3 Layers in The OSI Model

▪ Network Layer

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2.3 Layers in The OSI Model

▪ Network Layer
▪ Logical addressing
▪ Addresses of the sender and receiver when the packet passes the network boundary
▪ Routing
▪ Routing or switching the packets to their final destination using connecting devices (routers or switches)

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2.3 Layers in The OSI Model
Source-to-destination delivery

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2.3 Layers in The OSI Model

▪ Transport Layer
▪ Responsible for process-to-process delivery
▪ A process is an application program on a host
▪ Ensures that the whole message arrives intact and in order

The transport layer is responsible for the delivery

of a message from one process to another.

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2.3 Layers in The OSI Model

▪ Transport Layer

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2.3 Layers in The OSI Model

▪ Transport Layer
▪ Service-point addressing
▪ Delivery not only from one computer to the next but also from a specific process (running program) on one
computer to a specific process on the other
▪ Include service-point address (or port address)

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2.3 Layers in The OSI Model

▪ Transport Layer
▪ Segmentation and reassembly
▪ Divide message into segments each contains a sequence #
▪ Assemble the segments at the destination
▪ Connection control
▪ Connectionless: send packets to destinations
▪ Connection-oriented: makes a connection before delivering the packets
▪ Flow control
▪ End to end rather than across a single link
▪ Error control
▪ Process to process rather than a single link

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2.3 Layers in The OSI Model

▪ Session Layer
▪ It is the network dialog controller
▪ It establishes, maintains, and synchronizes the interaction among communicating systems

The session layer is responsible for dialog

control and synchronization.

Dr.Safwan Mawlood Hussein

2.3 Layers in The OSI Model

▪ Session Layer
▪ Dialog control
▪ Allows two systems to enter into a dialog
▪ Allows communication between two processes to take place in either
half-duplex or full-duplex
▪ Synchronization
▪ Allows a process to add checkpoints, or synchronization points to a stream of
data
▪ Example: Sending a file of 2000 pages, insert checkpoints after every 100
pages. If a crash happens during transmission of page 523, the only pages
that need to be resent after system recovery are pages 501 to 523

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2.3 Layers in The OSI Model

▪ Presentation Layer
▪ Concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information exchanged between two systems

The presentation layer is responsible for translation,

compression, and encryption.

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2.3 Layers in The OSI Model

▪ Presentation Layer
▪ Translation
▪ Interoperability between different coding systems
▪ Encryption
▪ Compression

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2.3 Layers in The OSI Model

▪ Application Layer
▪ Enables the user to access the network
▪ Provides user interfaces

The application layer is responsible for

providing services to the user.

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2.3 Layers in The OSI Model

▪ Summary of Layers

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2.3 Layers in The OSI Model

▪ Summary of Layers

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2.4 TCP/IP Protocol Suite

▪ TCP/IP protocol was defined as having 4 layers: host-to-network, internet, transport,

and application
▪ The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly match those in the OSI model
▪ When TCP/IP is compared to OSI, it can be said that the TCP/IP protocol is made of 5
layers: physical, data link, network, transport, and application

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2.4 TCP/IP Protocol Suite

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2.4 TCP/IP Protocol Suite

▪ Physical and Data Link Layers

▪ Network Layer
▪ Transport Layer
▪ Application Layer

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2.4 TCP/IP Protocol Suite

▪ Physical and Data Link Layers

▪ TCP/IP does not define any specific protocol
▪ It supports all the standard and proprietary protocols

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2.4 TCP/IP Protocol Suite

▪ Network Layer:
▪ TCP/IP supports the Internetworking protocol (IP)
▪ It uses 4 supporting protocol
▪ ARP
▪ RARP
▪ ICMP
▪ IGMP

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2.4 TCP/IP Protocol Suite

▪ Network Layer
▪ Internetworking Protocol (IP)
▪ The transmission mechanism used by the TCP/IP protocols
▪ Unreliable and connectionless protocol – best short delivery service (means
no error checking or tracking)
▪ Data packets are called datagrams which are transmitted separately.
Datagrams can travel along different routes and can arrive out of sequence or
be duplicated.
▪ IP does not keep track of the routes and has no facility for reordering
datagrams once they arrive at their destination
▪ IP provides bare-bones transmission functions that free the user to add only
those facilities necessary for a given application and thereby allow for
maximum efficiency

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2.5 Addressing
Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP

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Physical Layer Characteristics
Bandwidth
• Bandwidth is the capacity at which a medium can carry data.
• Digital bandwidth measures the amount of data that can flow from one place to
another in a given amount of time; how many bits can be transmitted in a second.
• Physical media properties, current technologies, and the laws of physics play a role
in determining available bandwidth.

Unit of Bandwidth Abbreviati Equivalence

on
Bits per second bps 1 bps = fundamental unit of bandwidth
Kilobits per second Kbps 1 Kbps = 1,000 bps = 103 bps

Megabits per second Mbps 1 Mbps = 1,000,000 bps = 106 bps

Gigabits per second Gbps 1 Gbps – 1,000,000,000 bps = 109 bps

Physical Layer Characteristics
Bandwidth Terminology

Latency
• Amount of time, including delays, for data to travel from one given point to another

Throughput
• The measure of the transfer of bits across the media over a given period of time

Goodput
• The measure of usable data transferred over a given period of time
• Goodput = Throughput - traffic overhead
Ex:
A network with bandwidth of 10 Mbps can pass only an average of 12,000
frames per minute with each frame carrying an average of 10,000 bits. What is
the throughput of this network?
Solution
We can calculate the throughput as:

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What is the propagation time if the distance between the two points is 12,000 Km? Assume the
propagation speed to be 2.4*100000000 m/s in cable.

Solution :
We can calculate the propagation time as

Propagation time = (12000*1000)/240000000 =50 ms

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Latency (Delay)

▪ The latency or delay defines how long it takes for an entire message to completely
arrive at the destination from the time the first bit is sent out from the source. We can
say that latency is made of four components: propagation time, transmission time,
queuing time, and processing delay.
▪ Latency=propagation time+transmission time+queuing time+processing delay

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Propagation Time

Propagation time measures the time required for a bit to travel from the source to the
destination. The propagation time is calculated by dividing the distance by the
propagation speed.

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Transmission Time

▪ In data communications, we don't send just 1 bit; we send a message. The first bit may
take a time equal to the propagation time to reach its destination; the last bit also may
take the same amount of time. However, there is a time between the first bit leaving
the sender and the last bit arriving at the receiver. The first bit leaves earlier and
arrives earlier; the last bit leaves later and arrives later. The time required for
transmission of a message depends on the size of the message and the bandwidth of
the channel

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Example

What are the propagation time and the transmission time for a 2.5-kbyte
message (an e-mail) if the bandwidth of the network is 1 Gbps? Assume
that the distance between the sender and the receiver is 12,000 km and that
light travels at 2.4× 108 m/s.

Solution
We can calculate the propagation and transmission time as:

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Example
What are the propagation time and the transmission time for a 5-Mbyte
message (an image) if the bandwidth of the network is 1 Mbps? Assume
that the distance between the sender and the receiver is 12,000 km and
that light travels at 2.4×108 m/s.

Solution
We can calculate the propagation and transmission times as:

Dr.Safwan Mawlood Hussein

Physical
Layer

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 57
Layers in The OSI Model

▪ Physical Layer
▪ The physical layer coordinates the functions required to carry a bit stream over a physical medium. It
deals with the mechanical and electrical specifications of the interface and transmission medium. It also
defines the procedures and functions that physical devices and interfaces have to perform for transmission
to Occur.

Dr.Safwan Mawlood Hussein

Purpose of
the Physical
Layer

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 59
Purpose of the Physical Layer
The Physical Connection

• Before any network communications can occur, a physical connection to a local

network must be established.
• This connection could be wired or wireless, depending on the setup of the network.
• This generally applies whether you are considering a corporate office or a home.
• A Network Interface Card (NIC) connects a device to the network.
• Some devices may have just one NIC, while others may have multiple NICs (Wired
and/or Wireless, for example).
• Not all physical connections offer the same level of performance.
Purpose of the Physical Layer
The Physical Layer
• Transports bits across the
network media
• Accepts a complete frame from
the Data Link Layer and
encodes it as a series of signals
that are transmitted to the local
media
• This is the last step in the
encapsulation process.
• The next device in the path to
the destination receives the bits
and re-encapsulates the frame,
then decides what to do with it.
Physical Layer
Characteristics

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 62
Physical Layer Characteristics
Physical Layer Standards
Physical Layer Characteristics
Physical Components

Physical Layer Standards address three functional areas:

• Physical Components
• Encoding
• Signaling

The Physical Components are the hardware devices, media, and other
connectors that transmit the signals that represent the bits.
• Hardware components like NICs, interfaces and connectors, cable materials, and cable designs are all specified in
standards associated with the physical layer.
Physical Layer Characteristics
Encoding
Encoding or line encoding is a method of converting a stream of
data bits into a predefined "code”. Codes are groupings of bits
used to provide a predictable pattern that can be recognized by
both the sender and the receiver. In other words, encoding is the
method or pattern used to represent digital information. This is
similar to how Morse code encodes a message using a series of
dots and dashes.
For example, Manchester encoding represents a 0 bit by a high
to low voltage transition, and a 1 bit is represented as a low to
high voltage transition. An example of Manchester encoding is
illustrated in the figure. The transition occurs at the middle of
each bit period. This type of encoding is used in 10 Mbps
Ethernet. Faster data rates require more complex encoding.
Manchester encoding is used in older Ethernet standards such as
10BASE-T. Ethernet 100BASE-TX uses 4B/5B encoding and
1000BASE-T uses 8B/10B encoding.
Physical Layer Characteristics
Signaling
The physical layer must generate the electrical, optical, or
wireless signals that represent the "1" and "0" on the media. The Light Pulses Over Fiber-Optic Cable
way that bits are represented is called the signaling method. The
physical layer standards must define what type of signal
represents a "1" and what type of signal represents a "0". This
can be as simple as a change in the level of an electrical signal
or optical pulse.

For example, a long pulse might represent a 1 whereas a short

pulse might represent a 0.
This is similar to the signaling method used in Morse code,
which may use a series of on-off tones, lights, or clicks to send
text over telephone wires or between ships at sea.

Microwave Signals Over Wireless

Electrical Signals Over Copper Cable

Physical Layer Characteristics
Bandwidth
• Bandwidth is the capacity at which a medium can carry data.
• Digital bandwidth measures the amount of data that can flow from one place to
another in a given amount of time; how many bits can be transmitted in a second.
• Physical media properties, current technologies, and the laws of physics play a role
in determining available bandwidth.

Unit of Bandwidth Abbreviati Equivalence

on
Bits per second bps 1 bps = fundamental unit of bandwidth
Kilobits per second Kbps 1 Kbps = 1,000 bps = 103 bps

Megabits per second Mbps 1 Mbps = 1,000,000 bps = 106 bps

Gigabits per second Gbps 1 Gbps – 1,000,000,000 bps = 109 bps

Physical Layer Characteristics
Bandwidth Terminology

Latency
• Amount of time, including delays, for data to travel from one given point to another

Throughput
• The measure of the transfer of bits across the media over a given period of time

Goodput
• The measure of usable data transferred over a given period of time
• Goodput = Throughput - traffic overhead
Transmission Media

▪ Guided Media

▪ Unguided Media

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Guided Media

▪ Guided media refers to physical transmission paths that guide the data signal from one device to another. The data travels through a specific, contained path, usually a solid
medium like a cable or optical fiber.

▪ Characteristics of Guided Media

1. Physical Path: Data travels through a dedicated, physical medium, such as cables or fibers.

2. High Security: Guided media are generally more secure because signals are contained within a physical path, reducing the chance of interception.

3. Reduced Interference: Guided media are less susceptible to external interference (e.g., radio signals) because they are shielded by the medium.

▪ Advantages of Guided Media

• Reliable and High-Speed Transmission: Guided media offer stable, high-speed data transmission.

• Long-Distance Capabilities: Fiber optic cables can carry signals over long distances without significant loss.

• Low Interference: Less vulnerable to electromagnetic interference (especially fiber optic).

▪ Disadvantages of Guided Media

• Installation Costs: Cables are often expensive to install and maintain, especially over long distances or in challenging environments.

• Physical Limitations: They require a physical connection, which can be impractical or costly in some environments.

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Guided media

1.Types of Guided Media:

1. Twisted Pair Cable: Commonly used for telephone lines and Ethernet networks
(e.g., CAT5e, CAT6).
2. Coaxial Cable: Used for cable TV and some network applications, providing better
shielding than twisted pair cables.
3. Fiber Optic Cable: Transmits data as light signals, offering very high speeds and
long-distance transmission with minimal signal loss.

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Advantages of Guided Media
• Reliable and High-Speed Transmission: Guided media offer stable, high-speed data
transmission.
• Long-Distance Capabilities: Fiber optic cables can carry signals over long distances
without significant loss.
• Low Interference: Less vulnerable to electromagnetic interference (especially fiber
optic).
Disadvantages of Guided Media
• Installation Costs: Cables are often expensive to install and maintain, especially over
long distances or in challenging environments.
• Physical Limitations: They require a physical connection, which can be impractical or
costly in some environments.

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Copper
Cabling

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 73
Effect of Noise on Parallel Lines
Twisted-Pair Cable
A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its
own plastic insulation, twisted together,

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Noise on Twisted-Pair Lines

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UTP Connectors

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Copper Cabling
Characteristics of Copper Cabling
Copper cabling is the most common type of cabling used in networks today. It is
inexpensive, easy to install, and has low resistance to electrical current flow.
Limitations:
• Attenuation – the longer the electrical signals have to travel, the weaker they get.
• The electrical signal is susceptible to interference from two sources, which can distort and corrupt the data signals
(Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) and Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) and Crosstalk).
Mitigation:
• Strict adherence to cable length limits will mitigate attenuation.
• Some kinds of copper cable mitigate EMI and RFI by using metallic shielding and grounding.
• Some kinds of copper cable mitigate crosstalk by twisting opposing circuit pair wires together.
Copper Cabling
Types of Copper Cabling
Copper Cabling
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
• UTP is the most common networking
media.
• Terminated with RJ-45 connectors
• Interconnects hosts with intermediary
network devices.

Key Characteristics of UTP

1. The outer jacket protects the copper
wires from physical damage.
2. Twisted pairs protect the signal from
interference.
3. Color-coded plastic insulation
electrically isolates the wires from
each other and identifies each pair.
Copper Media - Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
1. Very Common, Cheap, Easy to Install: UTP cables are indeed very common, cost-effective, and easy to install.
They are widely used in various networking applications due to these advantages.

2. Consists of 4 Pairs of Color-Coded Wires Twisted Together: UTP cables typically consist of four color-coded
pairs of twisted wires. Each pair consists of one solid-colored wire and one striped wire.

3. Twisting Cancels Unwanted Signals: The twisting of pairs in UTP cables is designed to cancel out electromagnetic
interference and unwanted signals. This twisting helps maintain signal integrity during transmission.

4. Cancellation Effect Avoids Crosstalk: The cancellation effect created by twisting the pairs helps minimize
crosstalk. Crosstalk is interference caused by the magnetic field around adjacent pairs of wires in the cable.

5. Crosstalk is Interference from Magnetic Fields: Crosstalk is indeed interference caused by the magnetic field
around adjacent pairs of wires. It can lead to signal degradation if not properly managed.

6. Categories of UTP: UTP cables come in different categories (e.g., Cat 5e, Cat 6, Cat 6a) that define their
performance characteristics, including maximum data rates and maximum transmission distances.

7. Applications: UTP cables are commonly used for Ethernet networking, telephone lines, and other data transmission
applications.

8. Limitations: While UTP is suitable for many applications, it may be more susceptible to external interference
compared to shielded cables in environments with high levels of electromagnetic interference (EMI).

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Copper Cabling
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
• Better noise protection than UTP
• More expensive than UTP
• Harder to install than UTP
• Terminated with RJ-45 connectors
• Interconnects hosts with intermediary
network devices

Key Characteristics of STP

1. The outer jacket protects the copper
wires from physical damage
2. Braided or foil shield provides EMI/RFI
protection
3. Foil shield for each pair of wires provides
EMI/RFI protection
4. Color-coded plastic insulation electrically
isolates the wires from each other and
identifies each pair
Conductor Cable

•4 Conductor Cable: A cable with four individual conductors or wires.

• Common Applications:
• Used in audio cables for stereo signals (left and right channels) and
other applications where four separate connections are needed.
• Often seen in telephone cables, where each pair of conductors can
carry a different line.
•6 Conductor Cable: A cable with six individual conductors or wires.
• Common Applications:
• Frequently used in applications that require more connections than a
4-conductor cable but fewer than an 8-conductor cable.
• Applications may include certain types of data transmission or control
systems.
•8 Conductor Cable: A cable with eight individual conductors or wires.
• Common Applications:
• Widely used in networking cables, particularly Ethernet cables. The
eight conductors are typically organized into four twisted pairs.
• Commonly known as RJ-45 cables, used for connecting computers,
routers, and other network devices.
• Also used in certain telephone and data applications where more
connections are required.

Dr.Safwan Mawlood Hussein

Twisted-Pair Cable Categories and Connectors

Category Cable Type Max Distance (UTP) Max Distance (STP) Frequency Connector Type

Cat 5e UTP Up to 100 meters Up to 100 meters Up to 100 MHz RJ-45

Cat 5e STP Up to 100 meters Up to 100 meters Up to 100 MHz RJ-45

Cat 6 UTP Up to 55 meters Up to 55 meters Up to 250 MHz RJ-45

Cat 6 STP Up to 55 meters Up to 55 meters Up to 250 MHz RJ-45

Cat 6a UTP Up to 100 meters Up to 100 meters Up to 500 MHz RJ-45

Cat 6a STP Up to 100 meters Up to 100 meters Up to 500 MHz RJ-45

Cat 7 STP Up to 100 meters Up to 100 meters Up to 600 MHz GG45, TERA

Cat 8 STP Up to 30 meters Up to 30 meters Up to 2000 MHz RJ-45, TERA

Dr.Safwan Mawlood Hussein

Dr.Safwan Mawlood Hussein
UTP Cabling
UTP Cabling Standards and Connectors (Cont.)

RJ-45 Connector Poorly terminated UTP cable

Properly terminated UTP cable

RJ-45 Socket
UTP Cabling
Straight-through and Crossover UTP Cables

Cable Type Standard Application

Ethernet Straight-through Both ends T568A or T568B Host to Network Device

Ethernet Crossover * One end T568A, other end T568B Host-to-Host, Switch-to-Switch,
Router-to-Router
* Considered Legacy due to most NICs using Auto-MDIX to sense cable type and complete connection
Rollover Cisco Proprietary Host serial port to Router or Switch
Console Port, using an adapter
Dr.Safwan Mawlood Hussein
Copper Cabling
Coaxial Cable
Consists of the following:
1. Outer cable jacket to prevent minor physical damage
2. A woven copper braid, or metallic foil, acts as the
second wire in the circuit and as a shield for the
inner conductor.
3. A layer of flexible plastic insulation
4. A copper conductor is used to transmit the electronic
signals.

There are different types of connectors used with coax

cable.

Commonly used in the following situations:

• Wireless installations - attach antennas to wireless
devices
• Cable internet installations - customer premises
wiring
Fiber-Optic
Cabling

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 89
Fiber-Optic Cabling
Properties of Fiber-Optic Cabling
• Not as common as UTP or STP because of the expense involved
• Ideal for some networking scenarios
• Transmits data over longer distances at higher bandwidth than any other
networking media
• Less susceptible to attenuation, and completely immune to EMI/RFI
• Made of flexible, extremely thin strands of very pure glass
• Uses a laser or LED to encode bits as pulses of light
• The fiber-optic cable acts as a wave guide to transmit light between the two ends
with minimal signal loss
Fiber-Optic Cabling
Types of Fiber Media
Single-Mode Fiber Multimode Fiber

• Larger core
• Very small core
• Uses less expensive LEDs
• Uses expensive lasers
• LEDs transmit at different angles
• Long-distance applications
• Up to 10 Gbps over 550 meters

Dispersion refers to the spreading out of a light pulse over time. Increased dispersion means
increased loss of signal strength. MMF has greater dispersion than SMF, with a the maximum cable
distance for MMF is 550 meters.
Fiber-Optic Cabling
Fiber-Optic Cabling Usage
Fiber-optic cabling is now being used in four types of industry:

1. Enterprise Networks - Used for backbone cabling applications and interconnecting

infrastructure devices
2. Fiber-to-the-Home (FTTH) - Used to provide always-on broadband services to homes
and small businesses
3. Long-Haul Networks - Used by service providers to connect countries and cities
4. Submarine Cable Networks - Used to provide reliable high-speed, high-capacity
solutions capable of surviving in harsh undersea environments at up to transoceanic
distances.

Our focus in this course is the use of fiber within the enterprise.
Fiber-Optic Cabling
Fiber-Optic Connectors

Lucent Connector (LC) Simplex Connectors

Straight-Tip (ST) Connectors

Subscriber Connector (SC) Connectors Duplex Multimode LC Connectors

Fiber-Optic Cabling
Fiber Patch Cords

SC-SC MM Patch Cord LC-LC SM Patch Cord ST-LC MM Patch Cord ST-SC SM Patch Cord

A yellow jacket is for single-mode fiber cables and orange (or aqua) for multimode fiber
cables.
Fiber-Optic Cabling
Fiber versus Copper
Optical fiber is primarily used as backbone cabling for high-traffic, point-to-point
connections between data distribution facilities and for the interconnection of buildings
in multi-building campuses.

Implementation Issues UTP Cabling Fiber-Optic Cabling

Bandwidth supported 10 Mb/s - 10 Gb/s 10 Mb/s - 100 Gb/s
Relatively short (1 - 100 Relatively long ( 1 - 100,000
Distance
meters) meters)

Immunity to EMI and RFI Low High (Completely immune)

Immunity to electrical
Low High (Completely immune)
hazards

Media and connector costs Lowest Highest

Introduction
to Wireless

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 96
Introduction to Wireless
Benefits of Wireless

• A Wireless LAN (WLAN) is a type of

wireless network that is commonly used
in homes, offices, and campus
environments.
• WLANs make mobility possible within
the home and business environments.
• Wireless infrastructures adapt to rapidly
changing needs and technologies.
Wireless Systems: Range Comparison

Mobile FM MW SW Satellite
WLAN Telephony, Radio Radio Radio Links
I Blueooth
R s WLL

1m 10 m 100 m 1 Km 10 Km 100 Km 1,000 Km

Introduction to Wireless
Types of Wireless Networks

• Wireless Personal-Area Network (WPAN) –

Uses low powered transmitters for a short-range
network, usually 20 to 30 ft. (6 to 9 meters).
Bluetooth and ZigBee based devices are
commonly used in WPANs. WPANs are based on
the 802.15 standard and a 2.4-GHz radio
frequency.
• Wireless LAN (WLAN) – Uses transmitters to
cover a medium-sized network, usually up to 300
feet. WLANs are suitable for use in a home,
office, and even a campus environment. WLANs
are based on the 802.11 standard and a 2.4-GHz
or 5-GHz radio frequency.
Introduction to Wireless
Types of Wireless Networks

• Wireless MAN (WMAN) Uses transmitters to provide

wireless service over a larger geographic area. WMANs
are suitable for providing wireless access to a metropolitan
city or specific district. WMANs use specific licensed
frequencies.
• Wireless WAN (WWAN) – Uses transmitters to provide
coverage over an extensive geographic area. WWANs are
suitable for national and global communications. WWANs
also use specific licensed frequencies.
Introduction to Wireless
Wireless Technologies

Bluetooth – IEEE WPAN standard used for

device pairing at up to 300ft (100m)
distance.
• Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) – Supports mesh
topology to large scale network devices.
• Bluetooth Basic Rate/Enhanced Rate
(BR/EDR) – Supports point-to-point topologies
and is optimized for audio streaming.

WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for

Microwave Access) – Alternative
broadband wired internet connections. IEEE
802.16 WLAN standard for up 30 miles (50
km).
Introduction to Wireless
Wireless Technologies (Cont.)
Cellular Broadband – Carry both voice and
data. Used by phones, automobiles, tablets,
and laptops.
• Global System of Mobile (GSM) – Internationally
recognized
• Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) –
Primarily used on the US.

Satellite Broadband – Uses directional

satellite dish aligned with satellite in
geostationary orbit. Needs clear line of site.
Typically used in rural locations where cable
and DSL are unavailable.
Introduction to Wireless
802.11 Standards

802.11 WLAN standards define how radio frequencies are used for wireless links.

IEEE Standard Radio Frequency Description

802.11 2.4 GHz Data rates up to 2 Mb/s

802.11a 5 GHz Data rates up to 54 Mb/s
Not interoperable with 802.11b or 802.11g
802.11b 2.4 GHz Data rates up to 11 Mb/s
Longer range than 802.11a and better able to penetrate building structures

802.11g 2.4 GHz Data rates up to 54 Mb/s

Backward compatible with 802.11b
802.11n 2.4 and 5 GHz Data rates 150 – 600 Mb/s
Require multiple antennas with MIMO technology
802.11ac 5 GHz Data rates 450 Mb/s – 1.3 Gb/s
Supports up to eight antennas
802.11ax 2.4 and 5 GHz High-Efficiency Wireless (HEW)
Capable of using 1 GHz and 7 GHz frequencies
Introduction to Wireless
Radio Frequencies
All wireless devices operate in the range of the electromagnetic spectrum. WLAN
networks operate in the 2.4 and 5 GHz frequency bands.
▪ 2.4 GHz (UHF) – 802.11b/g/n/ax
▪ 5 GHz (SHF) – 802.11a/n/ac/ax
Introduction to Wireless
Wireless Standards Organizations
Standards ensure interoperability between devices that are made by different
manufacturers. Internationally, the three organizations influencing WLAN standards:
▪ International Telecommunication Union (ITU) – Regulates the allocation of
radio spectrum and satellite orbits.
▪ Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) – Specifies how a
radio frequency is modulated to carry information. Maintains the standards for
local and metropolitan area networks (MAN) with the IEEE 802 LAN/MAN family
of standards.
▪ Wi-Fi Alliance – Promotes the growth and acceptance of WLANs. It is an
association of vendors whose objective is to improve the interoperability of
products that are based on the 802.11 standard
WLAN
Components

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 107
WLAN Components
Video – WLAN Components

This video will cover the following:

• Antennas
• Wireless Router
• Internet Port
• Wireless Access Point
• Autonomous and controller-based access points
WLAN Components
Wireless NICs

To communicate wirelessly, laptops, tablets,

smart phones, and even the latest
automobiles include integrated wireless
NICs that incorporate a radio
transmitter/receiver.
If a device does not have an integrated
wireless NIC, then a USB wireless adapter
can be used.
WLAN Components
Wireless Home Router

A home user typically interconnects wireless

devices using a small, wireless router.
Wireless routers serve as the following:
▪ Access point – To provide wires access

▪ Switch – To interconnect wired devices

▪ Router - To provide a default gateway to other networks

and the Internet
WLAN Components
Wireless Access Point

Wireless clients use their wireless NIC to

discover nearby access points (APs).
Clients then attempt to associate and
authenticate with an AP.
After being authenticated, wireless users
have access to network resources.

Cisco Meraki Go access points

WLAN Components
AP Categories

APs can be categorized as either

autonomous APs or controller-based APs.
• Autonomous APs – Standalone devices
configured through a command line
interface or GUI. Each autonomous AP
acts independently of the others and is
configured and managed manually by an
administrator.
• Controller-based APs – Also known as
lightweight APs (LAPs). Use Lightweight
Access Point Protocol (LWAPP) to
communicate with a LWAN controller
(WLC). Each LAP is automatically
configured and managed by the WLC.
WLAN Components
Wireless Antennas
Types of external antennas:
• Omnidirectional – Provide 360-degree
coverage. Ideal in houses and office areas.
• Directional – Focus the radio signal in a
specific direction. Examples are the Yagi
and parabolic dish.
• Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO) –
Uses multiple antennas (Up to eight) to
increase bandwidth.
WLAN
Operation

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 114
Wireless Media
Properties of Wireless Media

It carries electromagnetic signals representing binary digits using radio or microwave frequencies. This provides the greatest mobility
option. Wireless connection numbers continue to increase.

Some of the limitations of wireless:

• Coverage area - Wireless data communication technologies work well in open environments. However, certain construction
materials used in buildings and structures, and the local terrain, will limit the effective coverage.
• Interference - Wireless is susceptible to interference and can be disrupted by such common devices as household cordless
phones, some types of fluorescent lights, microwave ovens, and other wireless communications.
• Security - Wireless communication coverage requires no access to a physical strand of media. Therefore, devices and users, not
authorized for access to the network, can gain access to the transmission. Network security is a major component of wireless
network administration.
• Shared medium - WLANs operate in half-duplex, which means only one device can send or receive at a time. The wireless
medium is shared amongst all wireless users. Many users accessing the WLAN simultaneously results in reduced bandwidth for
each user.
Wireless Media
Types of Wireless Media

The IEEE and telecommunications industry standards for wireless data communications
cover both the data link and physical layers. In each of these standards, physical layer
specifications dictate:
• Data to radio signal encoding methods
• Frequency and power of transmission
• Signal reception and decoding requirements
• Antenna design and construction

Wireless Standards:
• Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11) - Wireless LAN (WLAN) technology
• Bluetooth (IEEE 802.15) - Wireless Personal Area network (WPAN) standard
• WiMAX (IEEE 802.16) - Uses a point-to-multipoint topology to provide broadband wireless
access
• Zigbee (IEEE 802.15.4) - Low data-rate, low power-consumption communications, primarily for
Internet of Things (IoT) applications
Wireless Media
Wireless LAN
In general, a Wireless LAN (WLAN) requires the following devices:
• Wireless Access Point (AP) - Concentrate wireless signals from users and
connect to the existing copper-based network infrastructure
• Wireless NIC Adapters - Provide wireless communications capability to
network hosts.
Wi-Fi Frequency Bands and Standards: Navigating the 2.4 GHz
and 5 GHz Spectrum
Wi-Fi operates on multiple frequency bands, and the specific frequency
band used depends on the Wi-Fi standard (IEEE 802.11) and the
generation (Wi-Fi 4, Wi-Fi 5, Wi-Fi 6, etc.). Here are the primary
frequency bands used by different Wi-Fi standards:
2.4 GHz Band:
1. Wi-Fi Standards: Wi-Fi 4 (802.11n) and earlier.
2. Channels: Divided into multiple channels (e.g., 1-11 in the U.S.).
3. Common Channels: 2.412 GHz, 2.417 GHz, 2.422 GHz, etc.
4. Note: The 2.4 GHz band is susceptible to interference from other devices like microwaves and cordless phones.

5 GHz Band:
5. Wi-Fi Standards: Wi-Fi 5 (802.11ac), Wi-Fi 6 (802.11ax), and newer.
6. Channels: Divided into multiple non-overlapping channels.
7. Common Channels: 5.18 GHz, 5.24 GHz, 5.32 GHz, etc.
8. Note: The 5 GHz band offers more channels and tends to have less interference compared to the 2.4 GHz
band.