Feedback Control Systems

(KON 313E)
Week 11

Prof.Dr. Volkan Sezer

Control and Automation Engineering Department

Frequency Domain
Analysis
Introduction to Nyquist Criterion
• Harry Theodor Nyquist
• 1924- Nyquist-Shannon Sampling Theorem
• 1932- Nyquist Stability Criterion

• The Nyquist criterion relates stability of a Closed Loop (CL) system to the Open Loop (OL) Frequency
Response (FR) and the OL poles and zeros
• The Nyquist criterion provides information on the transient and steady-state error.
Introduction to Nyquist Criterion

• OL system
𝑂𝐿 → 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠
• CL system
𝐶𝐿 → 𝑇 𝑠 = 𝐺 𝑠 / 1 + 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠

• Four Important Concepts

• Poles of 1 + 𝐺(𝑠) 𝐻(𝑠) = Poles of 𝐺(𝑠) 𝐻(𝑠) (OLTF)
𝐺 𝑠
• Zeros of 1 + 𝐺(𝑠) 𝐻(𝑠) = Poles of (𝐶𝐿𝑇𝐹)
1+𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠
• The Concept of Mapping Points
• The Concept of Mapping Contours
Introduction to Nyquist Criterion
Let us define
𝑁𝐺 𝑁𝐻
𝐺 𝑠 = 𝐻 𝑠 =
𝐷𝐺 𝐷𝐻

We obtain:
𝑁𝐺 𝑁𝐻
𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 =
𝐷𝐺 𝐷𝐻

and thus
𝐷𝐺 𝐷𝐻 + 𝑁𝐺 𝑁𝐻
𝐹 𝑠 =1+𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 =
𝐷𝐺 𝐷𝐻

𝐺 𝑠 𝑁𝐺 𝐷𝐻
𝐶𝐿𝑇𝐹 = =
1+𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 𝐷𝐺 𝐷𝐻 + 𝑁𝐺 𝑁𝐻

We can observe that

• The poles of 1 + 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 are the same as the poles of the OL system 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠
𝐺 𝑠
• The zeros of 1 + 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 are the same as the poles of the CL system
1+𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠
Introduction to Nyquist Criterion
• The concept of Mapping
• Map: function
• Contour: collection of points

If we take a complex number on the s-plane and substitute it into a function, F(s), another complex number results.

Let say the complex number to be mapped is s=4+3j and the mapping function 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 1

Substituting s=4+3j into the function 𝐹 𝑠 yields 16+30j

We say that 4+3j maps into 16+30j through the function

𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 1
Introduction to Nyquist Criterion
• The concept of Mapping
• Map: function
• Contour: collection of points
• In our case, assume the map is as follows:
𝑠 − 𝑧1 𝑠 − 𝑧2 …
𝐹 𝑠 =
𝑠 − 𝑝1 𝑠 − 𝑝2 …
• and a clockwise direction for mapping the points on the contour 𝐴
 Introduction to Nyquist Criterion
Some examples of contour mapping:

➢ If 𝐹 𝑠 has only zeros or only 𝛼 𝛼

poles that are not encircled by
the contour then contour B
maps in a clockwise direction
➢ The distance and angle of the
mapped point can be found in
terms of the distances and
agles from zeros or poles of
the mapping function. 𝛽
−𝛽
 Introduction to Nyquist Criterion
Some examples of contour mapping:

➢If 𝐹 𝑠 has only zeros that

are encircled by the contour
then contour B maps in a
clockwise direction
➢If 𝐹 𝑠 has only poles that
are encircled by the contour
then contour B maps in a
counter clockwise direction
• If the pole or zero of F(s) is
enclosed by contour A, the
mapping encircles the
origin.

Slide 9
 Introduction to Nyquist Criterion
Some examples of contour mapping:

• If the pole or zero of F(s) is

enclosed by contour A,
the mapping encircles the
origin.
➢If 𝐹 𝑠 has #poles = #zeros
that are encircled by the
contour then contour B
map does not encircle the
origin

Slide 10
Introduction to Nyquist Criterion
𝐷𝐺 𝐷𝐻 +𝑁𝐺 𝑁𝐻
• Now, assume that the mapping function is 𝐹 𝑠 = 1 + 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 =
𝐷𝐺 𝐷𝐻
Introduction to Nyquist Criterion
➢ Each pole or zero of 1 + 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 whose vector undergoes a complete rotation of contour A (which
means inside contour A) must yield a change of 360° in the resultant, R, or a complete rotation of
contour B
➢ A zero inside a Clockwise (CW) contour A yields a CW rotation of contour B
➢ A pole inside a CW contour A yields a CCW rotation of contour B
➢ 𝑁 = 𝑃 − 𝑍
𝐷𝐺 𝐷𝐻 + 𝑁𝐺 𝑁𝐻
➢ N, # CCW rotations of contour B about the origin 𝐹 𝑠 =1+𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 =
𝐷𝐺 𝐷𝐻
➢ P, # poles of 1 + G(s)H(s) inside contour A
➢ Z, # zeros of 1 + G(s)H(s) inside contour A

• P equals number of poles inside contour A , P=1

• Z equals number of zeros inside contour A, Z= 2
• N = P – Z = -1 equals number of counter-clockwise
rotations of contour B around the origin
 Introduction to Nyquist Criterion
Remember:
𝐷𝐺 𝐷𝐻 + 𝑁𝐺 𝑁𝐻 𝑁𝐺 𝑁𝐻 𝑁𝐺 𝐷𝐻
1+𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 = ;𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 = 𝐶𝐿𝑇𝐹 =
𝐷𝐺 𝐷𝐻 𝐷𝐺 𝐷𝐻 𝐷𝐺 𝐷𝐻 + 𝑁𝐺 𝑁𝐻

•Poles of 1 + 𝐺(𝑠) 𝐻(𝑠) = Poles of 𝐺(𝑠) 𝐻(𝑠)

•Zeros of 1 + 𝐺(𝑠) 𝐻(𝑠) = Poles of 𝐶𝐿𝑇𝐹 (We do not know them and can be hard to calculate)

𝐷𝐺 𝐷𝐻 +𝑁𝐺 𝑁𝐻
➢ Now, lets extend the contour A to include the entire RHP for 𝐹 𝑠 = 1 + 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 = 𝐷𝐺 𝐷𝐻
➢ Z, # RHP CL poles
➢ CL stability!
➢ P, # RHP OL poles
➢ Easy ∞
➢ N, # CCW rotations of contour B about origin

➢Adjustment
➢Lets map 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 instead of 1 + 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠
➢N, # CCW rotations of contour B about -1, instead of
origin.
Introduction to Nyquist Criterion
Nyquist stability criterion:

If a contour, A, that encircles the entire RHP is mapped through the OL

system, 𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) , then the # of RHP CL poles, Z, equals the # of RHP OL
poles, P, minus the # of CCW revolutions, N, around −1 of the mapping.

Z=P−N
# of CCW rev.
# of RHP # of RHP around −1
CL Pole OL Pole

The mapping is called the Nyquist diagram of 𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) .

The mapping of points on the positive jw-axis through 𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) is the

same as substituting 𝑠 = 𝑗𝑤 into 𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) to form the frequency
function 𝐺(𝑗𝑤)𝐻(𝑗𝑤).
Sketching the Nyquist Diagram

• The contour that encloses the right half-plane can be mapped through the
function G(s)H(s) by substituting points along the contour into G(s)H(s).

• The points along the positive extension of the imaginary axis yield the polar
frequency response of G(s)H(s).

• Then check for the following condition

Z=P−N
# of CCW rev.
# of RHP # of RHP around −1
CL Pole OL Pole
Sketching the Nyquist Diagram

• Let us handle the following control system to show how to sketch the Nyquist diagram
Sketching the Nyquist Diagram
• We need to first find the open loop transfer function (G(s)H(s))
𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝑮 𝒔 =
(𝒔 + 𝟏)(𝒔 + 𝟑)(𝒔 + 𝟏𝟎)
• The sketch of the Nyquist diagram is then performed by complex arithmetic with vector
evaluations.
Sketching the Nyquist Diagram
• We need to first find the open loop transfer function (G(s)H(s))
500
𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠) =
(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 3)(𝑠 + 10)
• Then the jw form is as follows
500
𝐺 𝑗𝑤 𝐻 𝑗𝑤 = 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 ቚ =
𝑠→𝑗𝑤 (𝑗𝑤 + 1)(𝑗𝑤 + 3)(𝑗𝑤 + 10)
• In polar coordinates:
500
𝐺 𝑗𝑤 𝐻 𝑗𝑤 =
𝑤 2 + 1 𝑤 2 + 9 𝑤 2 + 100

∠𝐺 𝑗𝑤 𝐻 𝑗𝑤 = −[tan−1 𝑤 + tan−1 𝑤/3 + tan−1 𝑤/10]

• In rectangular form
𝐺 𝑗𝑤 𝐻 𝑗𝑤 = 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑗

Note: For inverse tangent calculation, use always four-quadrant inverse tangent functions (For example
«atan2d» function in matlab)!
𝑤 𝑤
i.e. Define tan−1 as atan2d(w,3) or Define tan−1 as atan2d(w,-3) . This function results in four
3 −3
quadrant as expected!
Sketching the Nyquist Diagram
500
𝐺 𝑗𝑤 𝐻 𝑗𝑤 =
𝑤 2 + 1 𝑤 2 + 9 𝑤 2 + 100

∠𝐺 𝑗𝑤 𝐻 𝑗𝑤 = −[tan−1 𝑤 + tan−1 𝑤/3 + tan−1 𝑤/10]

• Now, lets plot the Nyquist Diagram for various w
values
500
𝑤 =0+ 𝐺 𝑗0 𝐻 𝑗0 = ∠𝐺 𝑗0 𝐻 𝑗0 = 0°
… 30 ..
……

𝑤→∞ 𝐺 𝑗∞ 𝐻 𝑗∞ = 0 ∠𝐺 𝑗∞ 𝐻 𝑗∞ = −270°

Note: Nyquist digaram for negative values of w, is symmetrical to the

one drawn for positive w values

Now, is the closed loop system stable or unstable?

• P=0
• N=0
• Z= P-N=0 (Yes, stable closed loop system)
Sketching the Nyquist Diagram

Let us handle the following open loop TF

1
•𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠) =
(𝑠+1)

1
•𝐺 𝑗𝑤 𝐻 𝑗𝑤 = 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 ȁ𝑠→𝑗𝑤 =
𝑗𝑤+1
• In polar coordinates:
1 𝑤
•𝐺 𝑗𝑤 𝐻 𝑗𝑤 = ∠ − tan−1
𝑤 2 +1 1

𝑤 = 0−

•Now, is the closed loop system stable or unstable? 𝑤 = 0+

• P=0
• N=0
• Z= P-N=0 (Yes, stable closed loop system)
Sketching the Nyquist Diagram

• Lets handle the following OL TF

1
𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠) =
1−𝑠
1
𝐺 𝑗𝑤 𝐻 𝑗𝑤 = 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 ቚ =
𝑠→𝑗𝑤 1 − 𝑗𝑤
• In polar coordinates:
1
𝐺 𝑗𝑤 𝐻 𝑗𝑤 =
𝑤2 + 1
−1
−𝑤
∠𝐺 𝑗𝑤 𝐻 𝑗𝑤 = − tan
1
𝑤 = 0+
Now, is the closed loop system stable or unstable? 𝑤 = 0−
Now, since P=1, we need to satisfy Z=P-N=0.
Thus N must be 1 for stability.
P=1
N=0
Z= P-N=1-0=1→Unstable system.
Sketching the Nyquist Diagram

• What about the following OL TF

1.5
𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠) =
𝑠−1
1.5
𝐺 𝑗𝑤 𝐻 𝑗𝑤 = 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 ቚ =
𝑠→𝑗𝑤 𝑗𝑤 − 1
• In polar coordinates:
1.5
𝐺 𝑗𝑤 𝐻 𝑗𝑤 =
𝑤2 + 1
−1
𝑤
∠𝐺 𝑗𝑤 𝐻 𝑗𝑤 = − tan
−1
𝑤 = 0−
Now, is the closed loop system stable or unstable?
𝑤 = 0+
• P=1
• N=1
• Z= P-N=1-1=0
Sketching the Nyquist Diagram
• What if there are poles(or zeros) on the contour
A?
• Assume
𝑁(𝑠)
𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 =
𝑠𝐷(𝑠)
where D(s) has imaginary roots.

• What to do now?
• We detour around the poles.
• Can detour to the right or left.
• If we detour to the left, then the poles count as
unstable open loop poles.
a. poles on contour; b. detour right; c. detour left
• P=3
• Assume we detour to the right.
• P=0
• Both can be done but We will detour right, in
our examples
Sketching the Nyquist Diagram
Nyquist diagram of the given unity feedback system , • At point A (w=0+), the two open-loop poles at the origin contribute
𝑆+2 2X90=180deg , and the zero contributes 0deg. The total angle at
where 𝐺 𝑠 = 𝑠2
point A is thus 0-180=-180deg

• Close to the origin, the function is infinite in magnitude because of

the close proximity to the two open-loop poles. Thus, point A maps
into point A’, located at infinity at an angle of -180deg.
• Moving from point A to point B along the contour yields a net
change in angle of +90deg from the zero alone. The angles of
the poles remain the same (2X90=180deg ). The total angle at
point A is thus 90-180=-90deg Thus, the mapping changes by
+90deg in the counterclockwise direction. The mapped vector
goes from -180deg at A’ to -90deg at B’.
Sketching the Nyquist Diagram
Nyquist diagram of the given unity feedback system ,
where 𝐺 𝑠 = 𝑠2
𝑆+2 • As we travel along the contour BCD, the function magnitude stays at zero
(one infinite zero length divided by two infinite pole lengths).
• As the vectors move through BCD, the zero’s vector and the two poles’
vectors undergo changes of -180deg each. Thus, the mapped vector
undergoes a net change of +180deg, which is the angular change of the zero
minus the sum of the angular changes of the poles [-180-2[(-180)]=+180.
The mapping is shown as B’C’D’, where the resultant vector changes by
+180deg with a magnitude of eps approaches zero.

• The mapping of the section of the contour from D to E is a mirror image of

the mapping of A to B. The result is D’ to E’
• Finally, over the section EFA, the resultant magnitude approaches infinity.
The angle of the zero does not change, but each pole changes by +180deg.
This change yields a change in the function of -2X180=-360deg. Thus, the
mapping from E’ to A’ is shown as infinite in length and rotating -360deg.
These results could be obtained from analytical point of view.
The Nyquist diagram is now complete, and a test radius drawn from -1 shows one counterclockwise revolution, and one
clockwise revolution, yielding zero encirclements.
N=0, P=0 Z=N-P=0 Closed loop system is stable!
Stability via the Nyquist Diagram

• We can use the Nyquist diagram to determine a system's stability, using the simple equation
𝑍 = 𝑃— 𝑁
• If the closed-loop system has a variable gain in the loop, one question we would like to ask is, "For
what range of gain is the system stable?“
• We have already two answers: (1) Root Locus and (2) Routh Hurwitz

• The system is marginally stable if the Nyquist diagram intersects the real axis at —1. Thus,
➢ If the open-loop system contains a variable gain, K, set K = 1 and sketch the Nyquist diagram.
➢ Adjust the value of K to yield stability, based upon the Nyquist criterion (scale the Nyquist plot by
1/𝐾 to touch the critical point -1.).
Stability via the Nyquist Diagram

Lets handle the following OL TF

𝐾
𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠) =
𝑠(𝑠 + 3)(𝑠 + 5)
Then the FR is as follows
𝐾
𝐺 𝑗𝑤 𝐻 𝑗𝑤 = 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 ቚ =
𝑠→𝑗𝑤 (𝑗𝑤)(𝑗𝑤 + 3)(𝑗𝑤 + 5)
In polar coordinates:
𝐾
𝐺 𝑗𝑤 𝐻 𝑗𝑤 =
𝑤 𝑤 2 + 9 𝑤 2 + 25

𝑤 𝑤 𝑤
∠𝐺 𝑗𝑤 𝐻 𝑗𝑤 = − tan−1+ tan −1
+ tan −1
0 3 5
𝑤 𝑤
∠𝐺 𝑗𝑤 𝐻 𝑗𝑤 = −[90 + tan−1 + tan−1 ]
3 5
Stability via the Nyquist Diagram
𝐾
𝐺 𝑗𝑤 𝐻 𝑗𝑤 =
𝑤 𝑤 2 + 9 𝑤 2 + 25
−1
𝑤 −1
𝑤
∠𝐺 𝑗𝑤 𝐻 𝑗𝑤 = −[90 + tan + tan ]
3 5
• Set 𝐾 = 1 and draw the Nyquist diagram using the contour A

??

Next, we need to find the point where the Nyquist diagram intersects the negative real axis.
 Stability via the Nyquist Diagram
1
𝐺 𝑗𝑤 𝐻 𝑗𝑤 ቚ =
𝐾=1 (𝑗𝑤)(𝑗𝑤 + 3)(𝑗𝑤 + 5)
−8𝑤 2 − 𝑗(15𝑤 − 𝑤 3 )
𝐺 𝑗𝑤 𝐻 𝑗𝑤 ቚ =
𝐾=1 64𝑤 4 + 𝑤 2 15 − 𝑤 2 2
𝐺 𝑗𝑤 𝐻 𝑗𝑤 ቚ
𝐾=1
−8𝑤 2 −𝑗(15𝑤 − 𝑤 3 )
= +
64𝑤 4 + 𝑤 2 15 − 𝑤 2 2 64𝑤 4 + 𝑤 2 15 − 𝑤 2 2

If we set the imaginary part to zero

15𝑤 − 𝑤 3 = 0

We obtain 𝑤 = √15. Now if substitute this value to real part of

𝐺 𝑗𝑤 𝐻 𝑗𝑤 ȁ𝐾=1 , we obtain:
−8𝑤 2
อ = −0.0083
64𝑤 4 + 𝑤 2 15 − 𝑤 2 2
𝑤=√15
Stability via the Nyquist Diagram
We know that P=0 thus for stability, N=0. Therefore, the system is stable if the critical point lies outside the contour
(N=0) so that Z=P-N would be 0.

Hence K can be increased by 1∕0.0083 (𝑲 = 𝟏Τ𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟖𝟑) before the Nyquist encircles -1. Thus,
• for stability 𝐾 < 120.5
• for marginal stability 𝐾 = 120.5
Stability via the Nyquist Diagram

• Lets handle the following OL TF

𝐾(𝑠 + 0.5)
𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠) =
𝑠(𝑠 − 2)
• Then the FR is as follows
𝐾(𝑗𝑤 + 0.5)
𝐺 𝑗𝑤 𝐻 𝑗𝑤 = 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 ቚ =
𝑠→𝑗𝑤 (𝑗𝑤) (𝑗𝑤 − 2)
• In polar coordinates:
𝐾 𝑤 2 + 0.25
𝐺 𝑗𝑤 𝐻 𝑗𝑤 =
𝑤 𝑤2 + 4

𝑤 𝑤 𝑤
∠𝐺 𝑗𝑤 𝐻 𝑗𝑤 = tan−1
− tan −1
+ (− tan −1
)
0.5 0 −2
−1
𝑤 −1
𝑤 Reminder: For inverse tangent calculation,
∠𝐺 𝑗𝑤 𝐻 𝑗𝑤 = tan − 90 − tan ) use always four-quadrant inverse tangent
0.5 −2 functions (For example «atan2d» function in
𝑤 𝑤 matlab)!
∠𝐺 𝑗𝑤 𝐻 𝑗𝑤 = tan−1 − 90 + tan−1
0.5 −2
𝑤 𝑤
∠𝐺 𝑗𝑤 𝐻 𝑗𝑤 = −90 + tan−1 + tan−1
0.5 −2
Stability via the Nyquist Diagram

𝐾 𝑤 2 + 0.25 𝑤 = 0+
𝐺 𝑗𝑤 𝐻 𝑗𝑤 =
𝑤 𝑤2 + 4
𝑤 𝑤
∠𝐺 𝑗𝑤 𝐻 𝑗𝑤 = −90 + tan−1 + tan−1
0.5 −2
• Set 𝐾 = 1 and draw the Nyquist diagram

𝑤 = 0+ → 𝐺 𝑗0+ 𝐻 𝑗0+ = +∞;

𝑤 = 0+ → ∠𝐺 𝑗0+ 𝐻 𝑗0+ = 90°

𝑤 = ⋯ → 𝐺 𝑗𝑤 𝐻 𝑗𝑤 = ⋯ ;
𝑤 = ⋯ → ∠𝐺 𝑗𝑤 𝐻 𝑗𝑤 = ⋯

𝑤 = ∞ → 𝐺 𝑗∞ 𝐻 𝑗∞ = 0
𝑤 = 0−
∠𝐺 𝑗∞ 𝐻 𝑗∞ = −90°
Stability via the Nyquist Diagram
• Next, we need to find the point where the Nyquist diagram intersects the negative real axis
−2.5𝑤 2 𝑤(1 − 𝑤 2 )
𝐺 𝑗𝑤 𝐻 𝑗𝑤 ቚ = 2 +𝑗 2
𝐾=1 (𝑤 ) (𝑤 2 + 4) (𝑤 ) (𝑤 2 + 4)
• If we set the imaginary part to zero
𝑤(1 − 𝑤 2 ) = 0
• We obtain 𝑤 = 1. Now if substitute this value to real part of 𝐺 𝑗𝑤 𝐻 𝑗𝑤 ȁ𝐾=1 , we obtain:
−2.5𝑤 2
อ = −0.5
(𝑤 2 ) (𝑤 2 + 4)
𝑤=1
Stability via the Nyquist Diagram
We know that P=1 thus for stability, N=1. Therefore, the system is stable if the critical point lies inside the
contour (N=1) so that Z=P-N=0

𝑤 = 0+
𝐾(𝑠 + 0.5)
𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠) =
𝑠(𝑠 − 2)

-0.5

𝑤 = 0−
Stability via the Nyquist Diagram

Now, is the closed loop system stable or unstable for K=1?

➢ N=-1, P=1, Z=P-N=2 (unstable)

𝑤 = 0+ 𝐾(𝑠 + 0.5)
𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠) =
𝑠(𝑠 − 2)

-0.5

𝑤 = 0−
Stability via the Nyquist Diagram

• Hence K must increased by 𝟏Τ𝟎 . 𝟓 before the Nyquist encircles -1. Thus,
• for stability 𝐾 > 2
• for marginal stability 𝐾 = 2

𝐾(𝑠 + 0.5)
𝑤 = 0+ 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠) =
𝑠(𝑠 − 2)

𝑤 = 0−
Stability via the Nyquist Diagram

• Nyquist Diagram for 𝐾 = 2.

𝑤 = 0+

𝐾(𝑠 + 0.5)
𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠) =
𝑠(𝑠 − 2)

𝑤 = 0−
Stability via the Nyquist Diagram

• Nyquist Diagram for 𝐾 = 3.

𝑤 = 0+

𝐾(𝑠 + 0.5)
𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠) =
𝑠(𝑠 − 2)

𝑤 = 0−