FINAL TERMS : course: learning and conditioning

Learning is the process by which individuals acquire, modify, or reinforce knowledge, behaviors, skills,
values, or preferences through experience, practice, study, or instruction. It involves the
transformation of new information and experiences into lasting changes in an individual's ability to
think, understand, and act. Learning can occur consciously or unconsciously, and it can happen
through various mechanisms such as observation, interaction, and trial-and-error. It is a central
concept in psychology and education, as it influences how individuals adapt and respond to their
environment.

Key characteristics of learning include:

• Change: Learning results in a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge.

• Experience: Learning often involves exposure to new experiences or information.

• Adaptation: It enables individuals to adjust to their environment and improve their

functioning.
Classical conditioning

Classical conditioning is a fundamental concept in behavioral psychology that explains how organisms
learn to form associations between stimuli in their environment. Initially discovered by Ivan Pavlov in
the early 20th century, this process involves learning through repeated pairings of a neutral stimulus with
a stimulus that naturally triggers a response. Over time, the neutral stimulus elicits the same response,
even in the absence of the original stimulus. resulting in an automatic conditioned
response to the neutral stimulus

Types of Classical Conditioning

There are several types or forms of classical conditioning based on the timing and pairing of
stimuli:

1. Forward Conditioning
o Definition: The conditioned stimulus (CS) is presented before the unconditioned
stimulus (US).
o Example: A bell (CS) rings, and then food (US) is presented to a dog.
2. Simultaneous Conditioning
o Definition: The CS and the US are presented at the same time.
o Example: The bell and the food are presented together.
o Effectiveness: Generally less effective because the organism doesn't have time to
anticipate the US.
3. Backward Conditioning
o Definition: The US is presented before the CS.
 oExample: The dog is given food, and then the bell is rung.
oEffectiveness: Typically ineffective because the CS doesn't predict the US.
4. Temporal Conditioning
o Definition: The US is presented at regular time intervals, and the organism learns
to respond at those intervals, even without a specific CS.
o Example: A dog is fed every 5 minutes, leading it to salivate as the interval
approaches.
5. Second-Order Conditioning (or Higher-Order Conditioning)
o Definition: A new CS is paired with an existing CS rather than with a US.
o Example: A light (new CS) is paired with the bell (original CS), and the dog
begins to salivate at the light.

Key Principles of Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning is governed by several key principles that help explain how learning
occurs through stimulus associations. These principles include:

1. Acquisition

• Definition: This is the initial stage of learning where the association between the
conditioned stimulus (CS) and the unconditioned stimulus (US) is formed.
• Example: A dog learns to associate the sound of a bell (CS) with food (US) and begins
to salivate at the sound of the bell.

2. Extinction

• Definition: When the conditioned stimulus (CS) is repeatedly presented without the
unconditioned stimulus (US), the conditioned response (CR) gradually diminishes and
may eventually disappear.
• Example: If the bell (CS) is rung many times without presenting food (US), the dog will
stop salivating.

Key Principles of Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning is governed by several key principles that help explain how learning
occurs through stimulus associations. These principles include:

1. Acquisition

• Definition: This is the initial stage of learning where the association between the
conditioned stimulus (CS) and the unconditioned stimulus (US) is formed.
• Example: A dog learns to associate the sound of a bell (CS) with food (US) and begins
to salivate at the sound of the bell.
• Key Point: The stronger and more consistent the pairing, the quicker the acquisition.

2. Extinction

• Definition: When the conditioned stimulus (CS) is repeatedly presented without the
unconditioned stimulus (US), the conditioned response (CR) gradually diminishes and
may eventually disappear.
• Example: If the bell (CS) is rung many times without presenting food (US), the dog will
stop salivating.

3. Spontaneous Recovery

• Definition: After a period of rest following extinction, the conditioned response (CR) can
reappear when the conditioned stimulus (CS) is presented again.
• Example: A dog that had stopped salivating to the bell (CS) may salivate again after a
break when the bell is rung.

4. Generalization

• Definition: The tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned
stimulus (CS).
• Example: A dog conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell may also salivate at similar
sounds, like a chime.

5. Discrimination

• Definition: The ability to distinguish between the conditioned stimulus (CS) and other
stimuli, responding only to the specific CS.
• Example: A dog salivates only to the bell it was trained with and not to other sounds.

Theories Behavioral Psychology

What Is Classical Conditioning in Psychology?

How It Works, Terms to Know, and Examples

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Updated on May 01, 2023

Reviewed by Steven Gans, MD

Table of Contents

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Table of Contents

Definitions

How It Works

Key Principles of Classical Conditioning in Psychology

Examples

What Is the Difference Between Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning?

Discovered by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, classical conditioning is a type of unconscious

or automatic learning. This learning process creates a conditioned response through associations
between an unconditioned stimulus and a neutral stimulus.1 In simple terms, classical
conditioning involves placing a neutral stimulus before a naturally occurring reflex.

One of the best-known examples of classical conditioning is Pavlov's classic experiments with
dogs. In these experiments, the neutral signal was the sound of a tone and the naturally occurring
reflex was salivating in response to food. By associating the neutral stimulus (sound) with the
unconditioned stimulus (food), the sound of the tone alone could produce a salivation response.2

Classical Conditioning

Verywell / Joshua Seong

Although classical conditioning was not discovered by a psychologist, it has had a tremendous
influence over the school of thought in psychology known as behaviorism.3 Behaviorism
assumes that all learning occurs through interactions with the environment and that environment
shapes behavior.
Classical Conditioning Definitions

Classical conditioning—also sometimes referred to as Pavlovian conditioning—uses a few

different terms to help explain the learning process. Knowing these basics will help you
understand classical conditioning.

Unconditioned Stimulus

An unconditioned stimulus is a stimulus or trigger that leads to an automatic response. If a cold

breeze makes you shiver, for instance, the cold breeze is an unconditioned stimulus; it produces
an involuntary response (the shivering).

Neutral Stimulus : A neutral stimulus is a stimulus that doesn't initially trigger a response on its
own. If you hear the sound of a fan but don't feel the breeze, for example, it wouldn't necessarily
trigger a response. That would make it a neutral stimulus.

Conditioned Stimulus

A conditioned stimulus is a stimulus that was once neutral (didn't trigger a response) but now
leads to a response. If you previously didn't pay attention to dogs, but then got bit by one, and
now you feel fear every time you see a dog, the dog has become a conditioned stimulus.

Unconditioned Response

An unconditioned response is an automatic response or a response that occurs without thought

when an unconditioned stimulus is present. If you smell your favorite food and your mouth starts
watering, the watering is an unconditioned response.

Conditioned Response

A conditioned response is a learned response or a response that is created where no response

existed before. Going back to the example of being bit by a dog, the fear you experience after the
bite is a conditioned response.
unconditioned response is natural and doesn't need to
be learned, while a conditioned response is learned

How Classical Conditioning Works

Classical conditioning involves forming an association between two stimuli, resulting in a

learned response.4
There are three basic phases of this process.

Phase 1: Before Conditioning

The first part of the classical conditioning process requires a naturally occurring stimulus that
will automatically elicit a response. Salivating in response to the smell of food is a good example
of a naturally occurring stimulus.

During this phase of the process, the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) results in an unconditioned
response (UCR).4 Presenting food (the UCS) naturally and automatically triggers a salivation
response (the UCR).

At this point, there is also a neutral stimulus that produces no effect—yet. It isn't until the
neutral stimulus is paired with the UCS that it will come to evoke a response.

Let's take a closer look at the two critical components of this phase of classical conditioning:

The unconditioned stimulus is one that unconditionally, naturally, and automatically triggers a
response.4 For example, when you smell one of your favorite foods, you may immediately feel
hungry. In this example, the smell of the food is the unconditioned stimulus.

The unconditioned response is the unlearned response that occurs naturally in response to the
unconditioned stimulus.4 In our example, the feeling of hunger in response to the smell of food
is the unconditioned response.

In the before conditioning phase, an unconditioned stimulus is paired with an unconditioned

response. A neutral stimulus is then introduced.

Phase 2: During Conditioning

During the second phase of the classical conditioning process, the previously neutral stimulus is
repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus. As a result of this pairing, an association
between the previously neutral stimulus and the UCS is formed.

At this point, the once neutral stimulus becomes known as the conditioned stimulus (CS). The
subject has now been conditioned to respond to this stimulus. The conditioned stimulus is a
previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming associated with the unconditioned stimulus,
eventually comes to trigger a conditioned response.4

In our earlier example, suppose that when you smelled your favorite food, you also heard the
sound of a whistle. While the whistle is unrelated to the smell of the food, if the sound of the
whistle was paired multiple times with the smell, the whistle sound would eventually trigger the
conditioned response. In this case, the sound of the whistle is the conditioned stimulus.

The during conditioning phase involves repeatedly pairing a neutral stimulus with an
unconditioned stimulus. Eventually, the neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus.

Phase 3: After Conditioning

Once the association has been made between the UCS and the CS, presenting the conditioned
stimulus alone will come to evoke a response—even without the unconditioned stimulus. The
resulting response is known as the conditioned response (CR).4

The conditioned response is the learned response to the previously neutral stimulus. In our
example, the conditioned response would be feeling hungry when you heard the sound of the
whistle.

NEXT TOPIC ;

Second order conditioning or secondary conditioning

In classical conditioning, higher-order conditioning, otherwise known as second-order conditioning, is a
procedure in which the conditioned stimulus of one experiment acts as the unconditioned stimulus of
another. a type of learning where a conditioned stimulus (CS) acquires the ability to elicit a conditioned
response (CR) without being directly paired with an unconditioned stimulus (US)
higher order conditioning, otherwise known as second-order conditioning

The conditioned stimulus (CS1) is first paired with the unconditioned stimulus in the usual way until the
conditioned stimulus elicits a conditioned response. Then, a new conditioned stimulus (CS2) is paired
with the CS1 until the CS2 elicits the original conditioned response.
For example, after pairing a bell with food and establishing the bell as a conditioned stimulus that elicits
salivation (first-order conditioning), a light could be paired with the tone.

If the light alone comes to elicit salivation, then higher-order conditioning has occurred.

Higher-order conditioning, also known as second-order conditioning, occurs when a conditioned

stimulus becomes associated with a new unconditioned stimulus.

The corresponding phenomenon in operant conditioning is called secondary reinforcement.

These higher-order conditioned stimuli are able to elicit responses even when the original
unconditioned stimulus is no longer present.

This process can result in complex behavioral patterns, such as taste aversion and fears.

\*Theories of Second-Order Conditioning

Pavlov's Original Theory*

Concept: Pavlov first identified second-order conditioning, where a neutral stimulus (CS2) becomes
conditioned to elicit a response (CR) after being paired with an already conditioned stimulus (CS1),
which has been paired with the unconditioned stimulus (US). CS2 elicits the CR without ever being
paired with the US.

Core Idea: The process of second-order conditioning is an extension of first-order conditioning, in which
a previously neutral stimulus becomes capable of eliciting a CR because of its association with a CS1.

*Wagner's Attention and Learning Theory (SOP)*

Concept: Wagner's Stimulus-Element Theory (SOP) focuses on the interaction between attentional
mechanisms and associative learning. In second-order conditioning, CS2 acquires its ability to evoke a CR
by being associated with CS1, which has become an effective predictor of the US.

Core Idea: Attention and salience are crucial; CS2 becomes conditioned through its ability to predict the
CS1, but the process is less potent than first-order conditioning due to weaker salience or attention
directed to the second stimulus.

*Cognitive Expectancy Theory*

Concept: This theory suggests that second-order conditioning occurs through cognitive mechanisms of
expectancy, where organisms learn to expect the US based on the predictive relationships between
stimuli.

Core Idea: CS2 indirectly predicts the US through its association with CS1. Expectancy plays a central
role, and organisms form mental representations or cognitive maps of the relationships between stimuli
and outcomes.
*Models of Second-Order Conditioning

Rescorla-Wagner Model (Associative Learning Model)*

Description: This is a quantitative model that predicts how associative strength changes over time. The
Rescorla-Wagner model is applied to both first-order and second-order conditioning. In second-order
conditioning, CS2's association with the US is mediated by its connection with CS1.

Key Feature: The model uses the concept of prediction error to adjust the strength of the association
between stimuli. The formula ΔV = αβ(λ - V) describes how associative strength changes, with λ
representing the maximum possible associative strength.

*Kamin’s Blocking and Overshadowing Model*

Description: Kamin's blocking and overshadowing models explain why certain stimuli may condition
more effectively than others. In second-order conditioning, a strong association between CS1 and the US
may prevent CS2 from acquiring associative strength (blocking), or if CS1 is particularly salient, it may
prevent CS2 from conditioning (overshadowing).

Key Feature: The blocking effect suggests that no new learning occurs for CS2 if CS1 is already a good
predictor of the US, and overshadowing suggests that less salient stimuli will not condition well when
presented alongside more salient stimuli.

*S-S (Stimulus-Stimulus) Model*

Description: This model emphasizes that associations form between stimuli (CSs) and the US, rather
than between a stimulus and the response. In second-order conditioning, CS2 becomes associated with
CS1, and CS1 becomes associated with the US. CS2 indirectly predicts the US via its relationship with
CS1.

Key Feature: Learning occurs between stimuli and mental representations of the US rather than direct S-
R associations. CS2 is indirectly linked to the US through CS1.

*S-R (Stimulus-Response) Model*

Description: In contrast to the S-S model, the S-R model posits that conditioning involves a direct link
between a stimulus and the response. In second-order conditioning, CS2 is conditioned to elicit the CR
through its association with CS1, which elicits the CR as an automatic response.

Key Feature: The focus is on the direct connection between stimuli and the conditioned response, rather
than the mental representation of the US.

.
Genelization:
Generalization is the cognitive process of extending a conclusion or principle derived from specific
examples to broader contexts. It allows us to make sense of the world by applying what we've learned
from particular instances to unknown or new situations.

Types of Generalization:
Simple Generalization:

Definition: Drawing a conclusion about a broader group based on a few specific examples.

Example: If you've seen several cats in your neighborhood that are friendly, you might generalize that
"all cats are friendly."

Characteristics: This can lead to inaccurate conclusions if the sample is too small or not representative.

Analogical Generalization:

Definition: This involves drawing a conclusion based on the similarities between two situations.

Example: If you know that a particular plant species grows well in the shade, you might generalize that a
similar species will also thrive in similar conditions.

Characteristics: Analogies are useful but can be flawed if the similarities between the situations are
superficial.

Conceptual (or Theoretical) Generalization:

Definition: This type of generalization derives from abstract theories or conceptual understanding,
rather than empirical data.

Example: "All living organisms need water" is a broad statement based on the theory of biological life.

Characteristics: These generalizations may not always apply to every specific instance but are typically
rooted in well-established scientific theories.

Statistical Generalization:

Definition: Making a conclusion about an entire population based on a sample that is statistically
representative of that population.

Example: If a survey of 1,000 people shows that 70% of them prefer online shopping, you might
generalize that 70% of the broader population shares this preference.

Characteristics: The validity of this generalization depends on the size, randomness, and
representativeness of the sample.
Scientific Generalization:

Definition: Drawing broad conclusions based on rigorous, controlled experiments or large-scale studies
in scientific research.

Example: After conducting experiments, a scientist might generalize that increasing the temperature of
a liquid increases its rate of evaporation.

Characteristics: These generalizations are highly reliable when based on repeated, consistent findings
across various conditions.

Causal Generalization:

Definition: Inferring a cause-and-effect relationship from observed patterns or experiences.

Example: If you notice that eating junk food regularly leads to weight gain, you might generalize that
poor diet causes weight gain.

Characteristics: Causal generalizations require careful verification since correlation does not always
imply causation.

Application of Classical Conditioning:

Classical conditioning and its concept of generalization can be applied in a variety of real-life situations,
from everyday learning to therapeutic contexts:

Advertising: Advertisers often use classical conditioning to associate their product with positive
emotions or attractive stimuli. For instance, a soft drink ad may pair the product with images of happy
people, summer, and excitement. Over time, viewers may generalize the positive feelings they associate
with these images to the product itself, even though the product was not directly associated with
happiness initially.

Phobias and Fears: Classical conditioning can help explain how phobias develop. For example, a
person might develop a fear of dogs (CR) after a bad experience with a dog bite (US). If that person then
generalizes the fear to all dogs, the response will extend beyond the initial conditioned stimulus to
similar stimuli, like any large dog or even certain breeds.

Therapeutic Applications (Counterconditioning): In therapy, classical conditioning is used to change

maladaptive responses. In systematic desensitization, a form of treatment for phobias, a person is
gradually exposed to the feared stimulus (e.g., a dog) in a controlled environment while simultaneously
practicing relaxation techniques. The goal is to replace the fear response (CR) with a relaxation
response, gradually diminishing the generalization of the fear.

Behavioral Training (Animals): In animal training, classical conditioning principles, including

generalization, are used to teach behaviors. For example, a dog trained to sit upon hearing a specific
command (CS) might generalize this behavior to similar verbal cues, like "sit down" or "sit there."
 Emotional Conditioning: Human emotions, such as love, attraction, or disgust, can also be
conditioned. A neutral object, like a particular song, may evoke a positive emotional response when it is
repeatedly paired with someone the person loves. Over time, the song alone (a conditioned stimulus)
can trigger similar emotional reactions.

Operant Conditioning; a learning process that uses rewards and punishments to modify voluntary behaviors

is a type of learning in which behaviors are influenced by the consequences that follow them. The term
was coined by B.F. Skinner, but its foundation is based on the work of Edward Thorndike and his Law of
Effect. Let's break down the key aspects of operant conditioning and its various components:

1. Thorndike’s Law of Effect

Edward Thorndike's Law of Effect (1898) states that responses that produce satisfying effects in a given
situation are more likely to be repeated in the future, while responses that produce discomforting
effects are less likely to be repeated.

• Key Points:

o If an action leads to a positive consequence, it is more likely to be repeated

(reinforcement).

o If an action leads to a negative consequence, it is less likely to be repeated

(punishment).

Thorndike’s work laid the foundation for B.F. Skinner's later work on operant conditioning.

2. Basis of Operant Conditioning Acquisition

Operant conditioning involves the process of learning through the consequences of behavior, and
acquisition refers to the process by which a behavior is learned and reinforced. The acquisition of
operant behaviors is shaped by:

• Reinforcement: Strengthens the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.

a psychological
technique that o Positive Reinforcement: Adding something pleasant (e.g., giving a reward).
increases the likelihood
of a desired behavior o Negative Reinforcement: Removing something unpleasant (e.g., ending an aversive
by introducing or sound).
removing a stimulus
• Punishment: Decreases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.
 o Positive Punishment: Adding something unpleasant (e.g., adding chores).

o Negative Punishment: Removing something pleasant (e.g., taking away a privilege).

3. Nature and Schedule of Reinforcement

Reinforcement schedules refer to how and when reinforcement is provided for a behavior. They play a
crucial role in shaping how quickly and how strongly a behavior is learned.

• Continuous Reinforcement: Every time the behavior occurs, reinforcement is provided. This
leads to quick acquisition but also quick extinction when reinforcement stops.

• Partial Reinforcement (Intermittent Reinforcement): Reinforcement is given only part of the

time. This leads to slower acquisition but stronger resistance to extinction. There are different
types of partial reinforcement schedules:

o Fixed Ratio (FR): Reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of responses (e.g., reward
after every 5th correct answer).

o Variable Ratio (VR): Reinforcement occurs after a random number of responses (e.g.,
slot machines).

o Fixed Interval (FI): Reinforcement is provided after a fixed period of time (e.g., a weekly
paycheck).

o Variable Interval (VI): Reinforcement is given after varying amounts of time (e.g.,
checking your email and receiving a message at random times).

4. Generalization and Discrimination

• Generalization: The tendency to respond in a similar way to stimuli that are similar to the
original conditioned stimulus. In operant conditioning, this means that behaviors reinforced in
one situation might be performed in other similar situations. For example, if a dog is trained to
sit on command in the presence of a red light, it might also sit when it sees a similar color like
pink.

• Discrimination: The opposite of generalization, discrimination refers to the ability to distinguish

between different stimuli and respond only to the one that was reinforced. For example, a dog
trained to sit only when the red light is on will not sit when a green light is shown.

5. Extinction and Partial Reinforcement

 • Extinction: Extinction occurs when the reinforcement for a behavior stops, leading to a gradual
decrease in the frequency of the behavior. If the behavior is not reinforced over time, it is
eventually extinguished.

• Partial Reinforcement Effect: Behaviors reinforced on a partial schedule are more resistant to
extinction than those reinforced on a continuous schedule. For example, a behavior learned
through a variable ratio schedule (like gambling) tends to persist even when reinforcement
stops, as the individual is unsure when the next reinforcement will come.

6. Factors Affecting Operant Conditioning

Several factors influence how operant conditioning works and how effectively it shapes behavior:

• Timing: Reinforcement or punishment is more effective when it occurs immediately after the
behavior.

• Intensity of Reinforcement/Punishment: The intensity of the reinforcement or punishment

affects how quickly the behavior is learned. A stronger reinforcement (e.g., a bigger reward)
tends to produce quicker learning.

• Consistency: The consistency with which reinforcement or punishment is applied also plays a
role. Partial reinforcement is often more effective in promoting behavior over the long term.

• Behavioral Shaping: This involves reinforcing successive approximations of a behavior, which is

used to gradually guide behavior toward the desired outcome.

7. Applications of Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning has broad applications across different areas:

• Education: Teachers use reinforcement to encourage desired behaviors in students, such as

rewarding students for completing assignments on time or exhibiting good behavior.

• Therapy: Techniques like Behavior Modification use operant conditioning principles to change
problematic behaviors. For example, rewarding a child for good behavior or using token
economies.

• Parenting: Parents use reinforcement to encourage positive behavior in children, such as

praising a child for completing chores or withholding privileges for misbehavior.

• Workplaces: Employers may use reinforcement schedules to increase employee productivity or

to encourage desirable work habits. This could include bonuses or promotions as rewards for
meeting goals.
 • Animal Training: Operant conditioning is widely used in animal training, where positive
reinforcement (like treats) is used to encourage specific behaviors, such as teaching a dog to sit,
stay, or fetch.

8. Theories of Operant Conditioning

There are several theories and perspectives based on operant conditioning:

1. B.F. Skinner’s Theory: Skinner extended Thorndike's work and is most famous for his
development of the Skinner Box (operant chamber). Skinner focused on reinforcement and
punishment and emphasized that behavior is shaped by its consequences.

2. Shaping Theory: This theory involves reinforcing successive approximations of the desired
behavior. This is used when the behavior is complex and cannot be performed correctly from
the outset. Gradually, the reinforcement moves closer to the final desired behavior.

3. Operant Conditioning and Cognitive Learning: Some cognitive psychologists have pointed out
that operant conditioning does not only involve observable behavior but also mental processes,
such as thinking and decision-making. For instance, latent learning shows that learning can
occur even without immediate reinforcement, suggesting a more complex understanding of
how behavior is shaped.

Summary

Operant conditioning is a type of learning where behaviors are influenced by their consequences. It is
based on Thorndike's Law of Effect, which suggests that behaviors followed by satisfying outcomes are
more likely to be repeated. The theory was developed further by B.F. Skinner, who introduced concepts
like reinforcement schedules and shaping. Key components include reinforcement (positive and
negative), punishment (positive and negative), extinction, generalization, and discrimination. These
principles have broad applications in education, therapy, animal training, and workplace management,
among others.

MEMORY;

Memory is the process by which we encode, store, and retrieve information. It allows us to retain
experiences, knowledge, and skills over time. Memory can be divided into different types based
on the duration and complexity of the information stored:

1. Sensory Memory
Sensory memory is the very short-term retention of sensory information. It acts as a buffer for
stimuli received through the senses (e.g., sight, hearing, touch) before the information is either
discarded or passed on to short-term memory for further processing.

• Duration: A few milliseconds to 1-2 seconds.

• Types: Includes iconic memory (visual), echoic memory (auditory), and haptic memory
(touch).
• Function: To briefly store sensory input so that it can be processed further if necessary.
For example, retaining the image of a quickly disappearing visual scene.

2. Short-Term Memory (STM)

Short-term memory (also known as working memory) refers to the temporary storage of
information that we are currently processing or aware of. It is limited in both capacity and
duration.

• Duration: Generally lasts 15-30 seconds without rehearsal.

• Capacity: The typical capacity is 7 ± 2 items (also known as Miller's law).
• Function: STM allows us to hold and manipulate information in the short term, such as
remembering a phone number long enough to dial it or keeping track of a conversation's
flow.

Working Memory is often considered a part of short-term memory, focusing on the active
processing and manipulation of information.

3. Long-Term Memory (LTM)

Long-term memory is the system responsible for storing information for extended periods,
ranging from hours to a lifetime. It has a much larger capacity compared to short-term memory
and stores information that is meaningful and rehearsed.

• Duration: Potentially permanent.

• Capacity: Virtually unlimited.
• Function: Long-term memory is where we store knowledge, experiences, skills, and
information that can be retrieved later when needed. This includes facts, personal
memories, and procedural knowledge (e.g., how to ride a bike).

Long-term memory is further categorized into:

• Explicit Memory (conscious, deliberate recall): Includes episodic memory (personal

experiences) and semantic memory (facts and concepts).
• Implicit Memory (unconscious, automatic): Includes procedural memory (skills and
tasks) and classical conditioning

MEASYUREMENT OF MEMORY AND FORGETTINGS;

Measurement of Memory

Memory can be assessed in various ways, depending on the type of memory and how it is being
tested. There are several key methods for measuring how well information is encoded, stored,
and retrieved:

1. Recall

Recall refers to the ability to retrieve information from memory without being prompted by
external cues. There are different forms of recall:

• Free Recall: In a free recall test, participants are asked to remember as many items as
possible from a previously presented list or experience without any cues. For example, if
someone is shown a list of words for a minute, they may be asked to recall as many of the
words as possible after a delay. This type of recall doesn’t involve any specific
instructions to help with retrieval.
• Cued Recall: Cued recall is when participants are given hints or cues to assist in
retrieving information. For instance, if someone was given the first letter of each word in
a list (e.g., “B” for "banana"), they might be able to recall the full word more easily. This
is a more effective retrieval method than free recall because the cues aid the memory
process.
• Serial Recall: This type of recall requires participants to retrieve items in the exact order
in which they were originally presented. For example, after hearing a list of words, you
may be asked to recall them in the same order they were spoken. This type of memory
test is useful for understanding how people organize information in their minds.

2. Recognition

Recognition involves identifying information that was previously encountered when it is

presented again. It’s typically easier than recall, as it provides retrieval cues. Recognition is often
measured through tasks like:

• Multiple Choice Tests: These are a common example of recognition, where participants
must choose the correct answer from a set of options. They are able to recognize the
correct response when they see it, even though they may not be able to recall it
independently.
• Recognition of Words or Images: A person might be shown a list of words they were
exposed to earlier, along with a set of new words, and asked to identify which ones they
have seen before. This type of test is widely used to assess recognition memory.
3. Relearning (Savings Method)

Relearning measures how quickly and efficiently information can be learned again after being
forgotten. In this method, individuals are asked to study material they previously learned but
have since forgotten, and the time or effort required to relearn the information is measured.

• The Savings Method (developed by Hermann Ebbinghaus) is based on the idea that it takes less
time to relearn something the second time, indicating that some of the memory of the
information is still retained. If a person can relearn information quickly, this indicates that there
was some residual memory from the first learning session.

4) Reconstruction memory:

Reconstruction memory" generally refers to the process of recalling past events, but it’s not always an
accurate process. When we retrieve memories, our brains don’t just play back information like a video;
instead, we reconstruct the memory based on various pieces of information, often influenced by current
knowledge, emotions, or external cues.

This means memories can change over time, with details added, omitted, or altered, sometimes making
them less reliable than we might think.

Measurement of Forgetting

Forgetting refers to the loss or inability to retrieve previously stored information over time.
Several methods have been developed to measure forgetting, which help understand how and
why we forget information. The following are key ways to measure forgetting:

1. Ebbinghaus's Forgetting Curve

Hermann Ebbinghaus is often credited with discovering the forgetting curve, which illustrates
how memory retention declines over time. Ebbinghaus studied his own memory by memorizing
nonsense syllables and then measuring how much he could recall at various intervals after the
learning session. He found that:
 • Rapid Forgetting: A large portion of what is learned is forgotten within the first few hours or
days after learning.
• Slower Forgetting: After the initial sharp decline, the rate of forgetting decreases, and what is
retained tends to remain for longer periods.

The forgetting curve suggests that memory loss is most dramatic shortly after learning, and
retention improves if the information is revisited or rehearsed.

2. Retention Interval

The retention interval refers to the time between learning and recall. The longer the retention
interval, the more likely it is that some forgetting will occur. The passage of time generally leads
to forgetting, particularly if no efforts (such as rehearsal) are made to keep the information active
in memory.

• Short Retention Intervals: When the time between learning and recall is short (for instance, a
few minutes or hours), people are more likely to remember information accurately.
• Long Retention Intervals: As the retention interval lengthens (from days to years), people tend
to forget a significant amount of information, especially if it hasn't been rehearsed or used.

3. Decay Theory

Decay theory proposes that forgetting occurs because memory traces naturally fade or degrade
over time if they are not accessed or rehearsed. Essentially, memories weaken as time passes,
leading to forgetting.

• This theory assumes that memories are like physical traces in the brain that slowly degrade,
making it harder to retrieve them. However, decay theory alone cannot explain all forms of
forgetting, as some memories seem to persist even after long periods without being rehearsed.

4. Interference Theory

Interference theory suggests that forgetting occurs due to the interference of other information.
This interference can either block or distort memories, making it harder to recall original
information. There are two types of interference:

• Proactive Interference: This occurs when older memories interfere with the recall of
newer information. For instance, if you move to a new address and forget your new
phone number because your old number keeps interfering with your memory.
• Retroactive Interference: This happens when new information interferes with the recall
of older information. For example, if you learn a new language and have trouble recalling
words from a language you previously learned because the new language is interfering.
Interference is particularly strong when the new and old information are similar, such as when
you learn new faces or facts that overlap with the ones you already know.

RECONSTRUCTION OF MEMORY;

Reconstruction of Memory

The reconstruction of memory refers to the idea that memory is not a perfect, unaltered
record of past events. Instead, memory is influenced by various cognitive processes,
including interpretation, perception, and prior knowledge. When people recall
information, they tend to reconstruct it by filling in gaps or making adjustments based on
existing schemas, beliefs, or expectations. This idea challenges the earlier view that memory
works like a tape recorder, with an exact reproduction of events.

Bartlett's Experiment (War of the Ghosts)

Sir Frederic Bartlett was a pioneering psychologist in the study of memory. One of his key
experiments was the "War of the Ghosts" study in 1932, which demonstrated the reconstructive
nature of memory. Participants were asked to read a folk tale from a culture unfamiliar to them
(called "War of the Ghosts") and then recall it several times over a period.

Bartlett found that the participants' recall became progressively shorter and more distorted with
each repetition. The story was altered to fit the participants' own cultural context, personal
experiences, and expectations.

Key findings included:

• Omissions: Details that did not fit the participants' own culture or experiences were
dropped.
• Rationalization: Participants added their own interpretations to make the story more
logical or familiar to them.
• Transformation: The story became simpler, more coherent, or more consistent with
their own worldview.

This study supported the idea that memory is not a perfect reproduction of past events, but
instead is reconstructed based on a variety of factors, including prior knowledge and
cultural influences.

Serial Reproduction and Repeated Reproduction

Serial reproduction and repeated reproduction are two methods Bartlett used in his
experiments to study the reconstruction of memory:

1. Serial Reproduction: In this method, one person reads a story or hears a piece of
information and then recalls it to another person. That second person then recalls the
story to a third person, and so on, creating a chain of reproduction. This method
demonstrates how memory is passed from one individual to another, and how errors,
distortions, and changes accumulate over time.
2. Repeated Reproduction: In repeated reproduction, the same individual recalls the
information multiple times, with each recall occurring after a period of time. This method
shows how memory can change over time for the same person. Over repeated recalls,
participants' recollections of the original story became more distorted and simplified,
demonstrating how memory is reconstructed as time passes.

Both methods reveal that memory is not static but evolves and changes depending on various
factors, including the individual’s experiences, expectations, and the time lapse between
encoding and recall.

Hestie and Dewis' Experiment

The Hestie and Dewis experiment is less widely known in the context of memory research, but it
is likely referring to a psychological study that also explored memory reconstruction or cognitive
processes in recalling information. If you're referring to a specific experiment by these
researchers, I would need more details to provide precise information. However, many studies,
like Bartlett's, have explored similar concepts related to memory distortions, social influences,
and how memories are altered through the process of recalling. If you meant a specific aspect of
Hestie and Dewis' work, please provide more context or clarify, and I can look into it further.

Would you like to dive deeper into any specific aspect of these studies or theories?

NEXT CHAPTER ;

MOTIVATION:

Motivation

Motivation is the psychological process that initiates, guides, and sustains goal-directed
behavior. It is the internal drive that pushes individuals to take action, pursue goals, and fulfill
their needs. Motivation influences the intensity, direction, and persistence of human behavior,
whether in personal, academic, professional, or social contexts.

Motivation can be broadly categorized into two types:

1. Intrinsic Motivation: This type of motivation comes from within. It occurs when
individuals engage in behavior because they find it inherently enjoyable, satisfying, or
 interesting, without external rewards. For example, someone might play a musical
instrument simply because they enjoy playing.
2. Extrinsic Motivation: This type involves performing a task or behavior to earn external
rewards or avoid punishment. Examples include studying to get good grades, working to
earn money, or exercising to improve physical appearance.

Theories of motivation;

Hilgard’s Theory of Motivation is often less widely recognized in isolation compared to some
other motivation theories, but Ernest Hilgard made significant contributions to the understanding
of motivation within the broader context of learning, consciousness, and behavior. His work
integrates psychological theories related to how motivation impacts learning and behavior.

While Hilgard is more commonly associated with his contributions to hypnosis and learning
theories (especially in his work on conditioned responses and the role of consciousness), his
views on motivation are relevant in understanding how it influences human behavior and
cognition.

Here are some key ideas related to Hilgard's contributions:

1. Motivation and Learning

Hilgard's work emphasizes that motivation plays a crucial role in learning. He suggested
that motivation is necessary for individuals to actively engage in and persist with learning tasks.
Motivation can determine:

• How much effort is invested in a learning process.

• The persistence of learning behaviors.
• The type of behaviors or goals an individual will choose in learning situations.

2. Motivation and Consciousness

In his research on consciousness, Hilgard highlighted the relationship between motivation and
conscious awareness. Motivation can influence what individuals are consciously aware of, how
they focus their attention, and what they prioritize in their learning or behavior.
For example, if you're motivated to excel in a subject, you'll pay closer attention in class,
For example: focus on relevant details, and prioritize studying over other activities. Essentially, motivation
acts as a filter, directing your energy and awareness toward achieving specific goals.
• Hypnosis and Motivation: Hilgard's work on hypnosis demonstrated that individuals'
motivation to participate in hypnotic processes could shape their experience of altered
states of consciousness. When motivated, individuals were more likely to experience
deep hypnotic states, demonstrating how motivation can influence psychological
experiences.
• Dissociation: Hilgard suggested that people could experience dissociative states where
motivation to suppress or "dissociate" parts of experience leads to altered perceptions and
 behavior. This occurs because unconscious motivation plays a role in controlling or
influencing one's awareness of certain thoughts, memories, or feelings.

3. Motivation and Behavior (Drive Theory)

Hilgard also explored motivation in relation to drive theory, which posits that biological drives
(such as hunger, thirst, and the need for sleep) can motivate behavior. Drive theory suggests that
people are motivated to reduce internal tensions caused by unmet biological needs.
For example, if you’re hungry (an unmet need), you feel internal tension (hunger).
This motivates you to eat food to satisfy the need and reduce the tension.
• Drive and Incentive: In his studies, Hilgard acknowledged that motivation could also be
influenced by both internal drives (like hunger or thirst) and external incentives (like
food or money). Therefore, motivation is not only driven by internal needs but also
by external factors that encourage goal-directed behavior.

4. Motivation in the Context of Learning

In his work on learning, Hilgard observed that motivation is essential for:

• Active participation in learning tasks (such as when people engage in activities with high
intrinsic motivation, such as learning something they are passionate about).
• The persistence to continue with tasks, especially when they become difficult.
• The impact of extrinsic rewards or external reinforcement in shaping motivation and
learning outcomes.

For instance;people may be more motivated to learn something when they expect tangible
rewards (like good grades, money, or recognition), but intrinsic motivation is often more
powerful for long-term engagement and success.

5. Interaction Between Motivation and Cognitive Processes

Hilgard also looked at how motivation and cognitive processes (such as attention, memory, and
perception) interact. When people are highly motivated, they are often more focused, which can
enhance their learning and retention of information. Motivation, therefore, influences not just
behavior but also cognitive functions.

2 theory;

Atkinson's Theory of Motivation (Achievement Motivation Theory)

John W. Atkinson's Theory of Achievement Motivation is one of the most influential

frameworks in the field of psychology, particularly in understanding how individuals are
motivated to achieve success and avoid failure. Atkinson's theory is built around the idea that
motivation is a function of two competing forces:

1. The need for achievement (nAch): This is the drive to succeed, to master tasks, and to
achieve challenging goals.
 2. The fear of failure (nAf): This is the anxiety or apprehension about failing, which can
lead individuals to avoid challenging situations or tasks where failure is a possibility.

Atkinson's Model of Achievement Motivation (1964)

Atkinson developed a formal model that outlines the mathematical relationship between
motivation, success, and failure. The model suggests that people’s behavior is influenced by their
expectations of success and their desire to avoid failure. The main components of this model
are:

• Motivation = (Probability of Success × Value of Success) – (Probability of Failure ×

Value of Failure)

This formula reflects the idea that people are most motivated when they believe there is a
moderate chance of success (not too easy and not too difficult) and when the value of success
outweighs the potential cost of failure.

Key Concepts of Atkinson’s Achievement Motivation Theory

1. Need for Achievement (nAch):

o Individuals high in nAch are driven by the desire to meet challenges and achieve
success. They are motivated to engage in tasks where they can demonstrate their
abilities, particularly tasks that offer a balance of difficulty (neither too easy nor
too difficult).
o People high in achievement motivation seek out opportunities to perform well and
will persist in the face of obstacles.
2. Fear of Failure (nAf): need to Avoid failure
o Individuals who have a high nAf are motivated by the avoidance of failure. The
fear of failure can lead them to avoid situations that involve challenges or risks.
They may prefer tasks that are either very easy (to ensure success) or very
difficult (to justify failure), avoiding tasks with moderate difficulty where the
outcome is uncertain.
o These individuals are more likely to be anxious or avoidant when faced with a
task that involves potential failure.
3. Probability of Success (Ps):
o The probability of success refers to how likely an individual perceives it is that
they will succeed in a given task. If the individual believes the task is within their
abilities and that success is possible, they are more likely to engage in it.
o People are more motivated when they perceive that the probability of success is
moderate—not too easy and not too hard.
4. Value of Success (Vs):
o The value of success is the perceived importance or value of succeeding in the
task. The more a person values the outcome (whether it's the intrinsic satisfaction
of success, external rewards, or recognition), the more motivated they will be to
achieve it.
5. Fear of Failure (Pf):
 oFear of failure is the emotional response to the possibility of not succeeding,
which can inhibit motivation. People who fear failure often avoid situations where
they could fail, leading to procrastination or lack of engagement.
6. Task Difficulty (Td):
o The difficulty of the task plays a crucial role in motivation. If a task is too easy,
individuals may feel little challenge, leading to boredom. If it is too difficult, fear
of failure may prevent individuals from attempting the task. The most motivating
tasks are those of moderate difficulty, where the individual feels they can
succeed but still faces a challenge.

Atkinson’s Expectancy-Value Model a psychological model that explains how a person's motivation to
complete a task is influenced by their expectations and values
In addition to the achievement motivation theory, Atkinson also proposed the Expectancy-Value
Model of motivation. This model suggests that motivation is influenced by two primary factors:

1. Expectancy (E): This is the individual’s belief about how likely they are to succeed in a
task. The more confident a person is in their ability to succeed, the greater their
motivation to attempt the task.
2. Value (V): This refers to how much the individual values the outcome or success of the
task. If the reward (success) is important or valuable to the individual, they will be more
motivated to pursue it.

According to this model, motivation is highest when both expectancy and value are high. For
example, if someone believes they are likely to succeed (expectancy) and highly values the
outcome (value), they are highly motivated to engage in the task.

The Role of Task Difficulty

Atkinson’s model also emphasizes task difficulty as an important factor in motivation. He

suggests that:

• People are most motivated when the task has moderate difficulty. Tasks that are too
easy lead to boredom, while tasks that are too difficult lead to a fear of failure.
• The best motivational outcomes occur when individuals are faced with tasks that
challenge them but are also achievable, leading to a balance between success probability
and task difficulty.

Applications of Atkinson's Theory

Atkinson’s theory has broad implications for areas such as:

1. Education:
o Teachers can use Atkinson’s model to design tasks that are appropriately
challenging to maximize student motivation. By providing tasks of moderate
difficulty and ensuring that students see the value in the task, teachers can
encourage higher achievement.
2. Workplace:
o In the workplace, employers can structure challenges and goals in a way that
employees feel they are achievable but still stimulating. Clear, valued rewards
tied to success also enhance motivation.
3. Sports:
o Coaches can apply Atkinson's principles by ensuring that athletes face tasks that
are challenging yet achievable, thus maximizing motivation and performance.
4. Personal Goal-Setting:
o Individuals can apply this theory to set personal goals that are realistic and
valuable, boosting motivation and persistence toward achieving them.

NEXT TOPIC ;

Designing and experiment;

Designing an experiment refers to the process of planning and structuring a

scientific study to investigate a specific hypothesis or research question. The goal
is to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables while controlling
for other influencing factors. An experiment typically involves manipulating one
or more variables and measuring their effect on other variables under controlled
conditions.

Here are the basic steps involved in designing an experiment:

1. Define the Research Question

• Clearly state the problem or hypothesis you aim to investigate.

• Example: Does the amount of sunlight affect plant growth?

2. Identify Variables

• Independent Variable: The variable you manipulate (e.g., the amount of sunlight).
• Dependent Variable: The variable you measure or observe (e.g., plant growth).
• Control Variables: Other factors that could influence the dependent variable and
need to be kept constant (e.g., soil type, water).

3. Formulate a Hypothesis

• Make a testable prediction about the relationship between the independent and
dependent variables.
• Example: If plants are exposed to more sunlight, they will grow taller.

4. Choose a Research Design

• Control Group: A group that does not receive the experimental treatment, used for
comparison.
• Experimental Group(s): Groups that receive the treatment or manipulation.
• Randomization: Randomly assigning participants or subjects to different groups to
reduce bias.

5. Data Collection

• Use appropriate tools and methods for data collection (e.g., measurements, surveys,
observations).
• Ensure data is consistently and accurately recorded.

6. Analyze the Data

• Use statistical methods to determine if the manipulation of the independent variable

had a significant effect on the dependent variable.
• Example: T-tests, ANOVA, regression analysis.

7. Interpret the Results

• Determine whether the hypothesis was supported or refuted based on the data
analysis.
• Discuss potential explanations, implications, and limitations.

8. Report Findings

• Share results in a report or presentation, often including tables, graphs, and

conclusions.
• Discuss the experiment's significance and suggest areas for future research.

Example of an Experiment Design:

Research Question: Does the amount of sleep affect cognitive performance?

1. Independent Variable: Amount of sleep (e.g., 4 hours, 6 hours, 8 hours).

2. Dependent Variable: Cognitive performance (e.g., performance on a memory test).
3. Control Variables: Time of day for the test, environment (quiet room), same test for
all participants.
4. Hypothesis: People who sleep 8 hours will perform better on a cognitive test than
those who sleep less.
5. Design: Randomly assign participants to one of the three sleep duration groups.
After the assigned sleep period, participants take the same memory test.
6. Data Collection: Measure scores on the memory test.
7. Analysis: Use ANOVA to analyze differences between groups.
 Types of Experimental Designs:

1. Between-Subjects Design: Different groups are exposed to different conditions.

2. Within-Subjects Design: The same group is exposed to all conditions (e.g.,
participants are tested after 4, 6, and 8 hours of sleep).
3. Factorial Design: Studies the effect of two or more independent variables
simultaneously.
4. Longitudinal Design: Observes subjects over a long period to track changes over
time.

In conclusion, designing an experiment requires careful planning, consideration

of variables, and appropriate methods for data collection and analysis to ensure
valid, reliable results.