SELECT Company, OrderNumber FROM Orders

ORDER BY Company DESC, OrderNumber ASC

Result:
Company OrderNumber
W3Schools 2312
W3Schools 6798
Sega 3412
ABC Shop 5678

SQL AND & OR

AND & OR
AND and OR join two or more conditions in a WHERE clause.
The AND operator displays a row if ALL conditions listed are true. The OR operator displays a row if ANY of the conditions
listed are true.
Original Table (used in the examples)
LastName FirstName Address City
Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
Svendson Stephen Kaivn 18 Sandnes
Example
Use AND to display each person with the first name equal to "Tove", and the last name equal to "Svendson":

SELECT * FROM Persons

WHERE FirstName='Tove'
AND LastName='Svendson'
Result:
LastName FirstName Address City
Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes

Example
Use OR to display each person with the first name equal to "Tove", or the last name equal to "Svendson":

SELECT * FROM Persons

WHERE firstname='Tove'
OR lastname='Svendson'
Result:
LastName FirstName Address City
Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
Svendson Stephen Kaivn 18 Sandnes
Example
You can also combine AND and OR (use parentheses to form complex expressions):

SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE (FirstName='Tove' OR

FirstName='Stephen') AND LastName='Svendson'

Result:

LastName FirstName Address City

Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
Svendson Stephen Kaivn 18 Sandnes

SQL IN
IN
The IN operator may be used if you know the exact value you want to return for at least one of the columns.

SELECT column_name FROM table_name

WHERE column_name IN (value1,value2,..)

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Original Table (used in the examples)
LastName FirstName Address City
Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
Nordmann Anna Neset 18 Sandnes
Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger
Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
Example 1
To display the persons with LastName equal to "Hansen" or "Pettersen", use the following SQL:

SELECT * FROM Persons

WHERE LastName IN ('Hansen','Pettersen')
Result:
LastName FirstName Address City
Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

SQL BETWEEN
BETWEEN ... AND
The BETWEEN ... AND operator selects a range of data between two values. These values can be numbers, text, or
dates.

SELECT column_name FROM table_name

WHERE column_name
BETWEEN value1 AND value2
Original Table (used in the examples)
LastName FirstName Address City
Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
Nordmann Anna Neset 18 Sandnes
Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger
Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
Example 1
To display the persons alphabetically between (and including) "Hansen" and exclusive "Pettersen", use the following SQL:

SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE LastName

BETWEEN 'Hansen' AND 'Pettersen'
Result:
LastName FirstName Address City
Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
Nordmann Anna Neset 18 Sandnes
IMPORTANT! The BETWEEN...AND operator is treated differently in different databases. With some databases a person with
the LastName of "Hansen" or "Pettersen" will not be listed (BETWEEN..AND only selects fields that are between and
excluding the test values). With some databases a person with the last name of "Hansen" or "Pettersen" will be listed
(BETWEEN..AND selects fields that are between and including the test values). With other databases a person with the last
name of "Hansen" will be listed, but "Pettersen" will not be listed (BETWEEN..AND selects fields between the test values,
including the first test value and excluding the last test value). Therefore: Check how your database treats the
BETWEEN....AND operator!
Example 2
To display the persons outside the range used in the previous example, use the NOT operator:

SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE LastName

NOT BETWEEN 'Hansen' AND 'Pettersen'

Result:

LastName FirstName Address City

Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger
Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes

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SQL Aliases
With SQL, aliases can be used for column names and table names.
Column Name Alias
The syntax is:
SELECT column AS column_alias FROM table
Table Name Alias
The syntax is:
SELECT column FROM table AS table_alias
Example: Using a Column Alias
This table (Persons):
LastName FirstName Address City
Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger
And this SQL:
SELECT LastName AS Family, FirstName AS Name FROM
Persons
Returns this result:
Family Name
Hansen Ola
Svendson Tove
Pettersen Kari
Example: Using a Table Alias
This table (Persons):
LastName FirstName Address City
Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

And this SQL:

SELECT LastName, FirstName

FROM Persons AS Employees
Returns this result:
Table Employees:

LastName FirstName
Hansen Ola
Svendson Tove
Pettersen Kari

SQL Join
Joins and Keys
Sometimes we have to select data from two or more tables to make our result complete. We have to perform a join.
Tables in a database can be related to each other with keys. A primary key is a column with a unique value for each row. The
purpose is to bind data together, across tables, without repeating all of the data in every table.
In the "Employees" table below, the "Employee_ID" column is the primary key, meaning that no two rows can have the same
Employee_ID. The Employee_ID distinguishes two persons even if they have the same name.
When you look at the example tables below, notice that:
· The "Employee_ID" column is the primary key of the "Employees" table
· The "Prod_ID" column is the primary key of the "Orders" table
· The "Employee_ID" column in the "Orders" table is used to refer to the persons in the "Employees"
table without using their names
Employees:
Employee_ID Name
01 Hansen, Ola
02 Svendson, Tove
03 Svendson, Stephen
04 Pettersen, Kari

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Orders:

Prod_ID Product Employee_ID

234 Printer 01
657 Table 03
865 Chair 03

Referring to Two Tables

We can select data from two tables by referring to two tables, like this:
Example
Who has ordered a product, and what did they order?

SELECT Employees.Name, Orders.Product

FROM Employees, Orders
WHERE Employees.Employee_ID=Orders.Employee_ID

Result
Name Product
Hansen, Ola Printer
Svendson, Stephen Table
Svendson, Stephen Chair
Example
Who ordered a printer?

SELECT Employees.Name
FROM Employees, Orders
WHERE Employees.Employee_ID=Orders.Employee_ID
AND Orders.Product='Printer'
Result

Name
Hansen, Ola

Using Joins
OR we can select data from two tables with the JOIN keyword, like this:
Example INNER JOIN
Syntax

SELECT field1, field2, field3

FROM first_table
INNER JOIN second_table
ON first_table.keyfield = second_table.foreign_keyfield

Who has ordered a product, and what did they order?

SELECT Employees.Name, Orders.Product

FROM Employees
INNER JOIN Orders
ON Employees.Employee_ID=Orders.Employee_ID

The INNER JOIN returns all rows from both tables where there is a match. If there are rows in Employees that do not have
matches in Orders, those rows will not be listed.
Result
Name Product
Hansen, Ola Printer
Svendson, Stephen Table
Svendson, Stephen Chair

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Example LEFT JOIN
Syntax

SELECT field1, field2, field3

FROM first_table
LEFT JOIN second_table
ON first_table.keyfield = second_table.foreign_keyfield
List all employees, and their orders - if any.

SELECT Employees.Name, Orders.Product

FROM Employees
LEFT JOIN Orders
ON Employees.Employee_ID=Orders.Employee_ID

The LEFT JOIN returns all the rows from the first table (Employees), even if there are no matches in the second table
(Orders). If there are rows in Employees that do not have matches in Orders, those rows also will be listed.
Result
Name Product
Hansen, Ola Printer
Svendson, Tove
Svendson, Stephen Table
Svendson, Stephen Chair
Pettersen, Kari
Example RIGHT JOIN
Syntax

SELECT field1, field2, field3

FROM first_table
RIGHT JOIN second_table
ON first_table.keyfield = second_table.foreign_keyfield
List all orders, and who has ordered - if any.

SELECT Employees.Name, Orders.Product

FROM Employees
RIGHT JOIN Orders
ON Employees.Employee_ID=Orders.Employee_ID

The RIGHT JOIN returns all the rows from the second table (Orders), even if there are no matches in the first table
(Employees). If there had been any rows in Orders that did not have matches in Employees, those rows also would have
been listed.
Result
Name Product
Hansen, Ola Printer
Svendson, Stephen Table
Svendson, Stephen Chair

Who ordered a printer?

SELECT Employees.Name
FROM Employees
INNER JOIN Orders
ON Employees.Employee_ID=Orders.Employee_ID
WHERE Orders.Product = 'Printer'

Result

Name
Hansen, Ola

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SQL UNION and UNION ALL
UNION
The UNION command is used to select related information from two tables, much like the JOIN command. However, when
using the UNION command all selected columns need to be of the same data type.
Note: With UNION, only distinct values are selected.

SQL Statement 1
UNION
SQL Statement 2

Employees_Norway:
Employee_ID E_Name
01 Hansen, Ola
02 Svendson, Tove
03 Svendson, Stephen
04 Pettersen, Kari

Employes_USA:
Employee_ID E_Name
01 Turner, Sally
02 Kent, Clark
03 Svendson, Stephen
04 Scott, Stephen

Using the UNION Command

Example
List all different employee names in Norway and USA:

SELECT E_Name FROM Employees_Norway

UNION
SELECT E_Name FROM Employees_USA

Result

Name
Hansen, Ola
Svendson, Tove
Svendson, Stephen
Pettersen, Kari
Turner, Sally
Kent, Clark
Scott, Stephen

Note: This command cannot be used to list all employees in Norway and USA. In the example above we have two employees
with equal names, and only one of them is listed. The UNION command only selects distinct values.
UNION ALL
The UNION ALL command is equal to the UNION command, except that UNION ALL selects all values.

SQL Statement 1
UNION ALL
SQL Statement 2
Using the UNION ALL Command
Example
List all employees in Norway and USA:

SELECT E_Name FROM Employees_Norway

UNION ALL
SELECT E_Name FROM Employees_USA

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Result
Name
Hansen, Ola
Svendson, Tove
Svendson, Stephen
Pettersen, Kari
Turner, Sally
Kent, Clark
Svendson, Stephen
Scott, Stephen

SQL Create Database, Table, and Index

Create a Database
To create a database:
CREATE DATABASE database_name
Create a Table
To create a table in a database:

CREATE TABLE table_name

(
column_name1 data_type,
column_name2 data_type,
.......
)

Example
This example demonstrates how you can create a table named "Person", with four columns. The column names will be
"LastName", "FirstName", "Address", and "Age":

CREATE TABLE Person

(
LastName varchar,
FirstName varchar,
Address varchar,
Age int
)

This example demonstrates how you can specify a maximum length for some columns:

CREATE TABLE Person

(
LastName varchar(30),
FirstName varchar,
Address varchar,
Age int(3)
)

The data type specifies what type of data the column can hold. The table below contains the most common data types in SQL:

Data Type Description

integer(size) Hold integers only. The maximum number of digits are specified in
int(size) parenthesis.
smallint(size)
tinyint(size)
decimal(size,d) Hold numbers with fractions. The maximum number of digits are
numeric(size,d) specified in "size". The maximum number of digits to the right of the
decimal is specified in "d".
char(size) Holds a fixed length string (can contain letters, numbers, and special
characters). The fixed size is specified in parenthesis.
varchar(size) Holds a variable length string (can contain letters, numbers, and special
characters). The maximum size is specified in parenthesis.

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Create Index
Indices are created in an existing table to locate rows more quickly and efficiently. It is possible to create an index on one or
more columns of a table, and each index is given a name. The users cannot see the indexes, they are just used to speed up
queries.
Note: Updating a table containing indexes takes more time than updating a table without, this is because the indexes also
need an update. So, it is a good idea to create indexes only on columns that are often used for a search.
A Unique Index
Creates a unique index on a table. A unique index means that two rows cannot have the same index value.

CREATE UNIQUE INDEX index_name

ON table_name (column_name)

The "column_name" specifies the column you want indexed.

A Simple Index
Creates a simple index on a table. When the UNIQUE keyword is omitted, duplicate values are allowed.

CREATE INDEX index_name

ON table_name (column_name)

The "column_name" specifies the column you want indexed.

Example
This example creates a simple index, named "PersonIndex", on the LastName field of the Person table:

CREATE INDEX PersonIndex

ON Person (LastName)

If you want to index the values in a column in descending order, you can add the reserved word DESC after the column
name:

CREATE INDEX PersonIndex

ON Person (LastName DESC)

If you want to index more than one column you can list the column names within the parentheses, separated by
commas:

CREATE INDEX PersonIndex

ON Person (LastName, FirstName)

SQL Drop Index, Table and Database

Drop Index
You can delete an existing index in a table with the DROP statement.
ROP INDEX table_name.index_name
Delete a Table or Database
To delete a table (the table structure, attributes, and indexes will also be deleted):
DROP TABLE table_name
To delete a database:
DROP DATABASE database_name
Truncate a Table
What if we only want to get rid of the data inside a table, and not the table itself? Use the TRUNCATE TABLE command
(deletes only the data inside the table):
TRUNCATE TABLE table_name

SQL ALTER TABLE

ALTER TABLE
The ALTER TABLE statement is used to add or drop columns in an existing table.

ALTER TABLE table_name

ADD column_name datatype
ALTER TABLE table_name
DROP COLUMN column_name

Note: Some database systems don't allow the dropping of a column in a database table (DROP COLUMN column_name).
Person:
LastName FirstName Address
Pettersen Kari Storgt 20

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Example
To add a column named "City" in the "Person" table:
ALTER TABLE Person ADD City varchar(30)
Result:
LastName FirstName Address City
Pettersen Kari Storgt 20

Example
To drop the "Address" column in the "Person" table:
ALTER TABLE Person DROP COLUMN Address
Result:
LastName FirstName City
Pettersen Kari

SQL Functions
SQL has a lot of built-in functions for counting and calculations.

Function Syntax
The syntax for built-in SQL functions is:
SELECT function(column) FROM table
Types of Functions
There are several basic types and categories of functions in SQL. The basic types of functions are:
· Aggregate Functions
· Scalar functions
Aggregate functions
Aggregate functions operate against a collection of values, but return a single value.
Note: If used among many other expressions in the item list of a SELECT statement, the SELECT must have a GROUP BY
clause!!
"Persons" table (used in most examples)
Name Age
Hansen, Ola 34
Svendson, Tove 45
Pettersen, Kari 19

Aggregate functions in MS Access

Function Description
AVG(column) Returns the average value of a column
COUNT(column) Returns the number of rows (without a NULL value) of a column
COUNT(*) Returns the number of selected rows
FIRST(column) Returns the value of the first record in a specified field
LAST(column) Returns the value of the last record in a specified field
MAX(column) Returns the highest value of a column
MIN(column) Returns the lowest value of a column
STDEV(column)
STDEVP(column)
SUM(column) Returns the total sum of a column
VAR(column)
VARP(column)

Aggregate functions in SQL Server

Function Description
AVG(column) Returns the average value of a column
BINARY_CHECKSUM
CHECKSUM
CHECKSUM_AGG

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COUNT(column) Returns the number of rows (without a NULL value) of a column
COUNT(*) Returns the number of selected rows
COUNT(DISTINCT column) Returns the number of distinct results
FIRST(column) Returns the value of the first record in a specified field (not
supported in SQLServer2K)
LAST(column) Returns the value of the last record in a specified field (not
supported in SQLServer2K)
MAX(column) Returns the highest value of a column
MIN(column) Returns the lowest value of a column
STDEV(column)
STDEVP(column)
SUM(column) Returns the total sum of a column
VAR(column)
VARP(column)
Scalar functions
Scalar functions operate against a single value, and return a single value based on the input value.
Useful Scalar Functions in MS Access
Function Description
UCASE(c) Converts a field to upper case
LCASE(c) Converts a field to lower case
MID(c,start[,end]) Extract characters from a text field
LEN(c) Returns the length of a text field
INSTR(c) Returns the numeric position of a named character within a text
field
LEFT(c,number_of_char) Return the left part of a text field requested
RIGHT(c,number_of_char) Return the right part of a text field requested
ROUND(c,decimals) Rounds a numeric field to the number of decimals specified
MOD(x,y) Returns the remainder of a division operation
NOW() Returns the current system date
FORMAT(c,format) Changes the way a field is displayed
DATEDIFF(d,date1,date2) Used to perform date calculations

SQL GROUP BY and HAVING

Aggregate functions (like SUM) often need an added GROUP BY functionality.
GROUP BY...
GROUP BY... was added to SQL because aggregate functions (like SUM) return the aggregate of all column values every time
they are called, and without the GROUP BY function it was impossible to find the sum for each individual group of column
values.
The syntax for the GROUP BY function is:
SELECT column,SUM(column) FROM table GROUP BY column

GROUP BY Example
This "Sales" Table:

Company Amount
W3Schools 5500
IBM 4500
W3Schools 7100

And This SQL:

SELECT Company, SUM(Amount) FROM Sales
Returns this result:

Company SUM(Amount)
W3Schools 17100
IBM 17100
W3Schools 17100

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The above code is invalid because the column returned is not part of an aggregate. A GROUP BY clause will solve this
problem:

SELECT Company,SUM(Amount) FROM Sales

GROUP BY Company
Returns this result:

Company SUM(Amount)
W3Schools 12600
IBM 4500

HAVING...
HAVING... was added to SQL because the WHERE keyword could not be used against aggregate functions (like SUM), and
without HAVING... it would be impossible to test for result conditions.

The syntax for the HAVING function is:

SELECT column,SUM(column) FROM table

GROUP BY column
HAVING SUM(column) condition value

This "Sales" Table:

Company Amount
W3Schools 5500
IBM 4500
W3Schools 7100

This SQL:

SELECT Company,SUM(Amount) FROM Sales

GROUP BY Company
HAVING SUM(Amount)>10000

Returns this result

Company SUM(Amount)
W3Schools 12600

SQL The SELECT INTO Statement

The SELECT INTO Statement
The SELECT INTO statement is most often used to create backup copies of tables or for archiving records.
Syntax
SELECT column_name(s) INTO newtable [IN externaldatabase]
FROM source

Make a Backup Copy

The following example makes a backup copy of the "Persons" table:

SELECT * INTO Persons_backup

FROM Persons

The IN clause can be used to copy tables into another database:

SELECT Persons.* INTO Persons IN 'Backup.mdb' FROM
Persons
If you only want to copy a few fields, you can do so by listing them after the SELECT statement:
SELECT LastName,FirstName INTO Persons_backup FROM
Persons
You can also add a WHERE clause. The following example creates a "Persons_backup" table with two columns (FirstName and
LastName) by extracting the persons who lives in "Sandnes" from the "Persons" table:

SELECT LastName,Firstname INTO Persons_backup

FROM Persons
WHERE City='Sandnes'

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