MODULE-1

Advantages of Fiber Optic Transmission (Simplified)

1. Extremely High Bandwidth:

❖ Fiber optic cables can carry more data at much higher speeds than copper cables.
This makes them ideal for modern data transmission needs like streaming, gaming,
and communication.

2. Longer Transmission Distance:

❖ Optical signals experience low power loss, allowing data to travel over long
distances without requiring repeaters or signal boosters, unlike copper cables.

3. High Security:

❖ Data in Fiber optics is transmitted as light, not as electrical signals.

❖ This makes it impossible to "listen in" or tap into the cable, ensuring absolute
security for sensitive information.

4. Small Size:

❖ Fiber optic cables have a thin diameter (e.g., 2mm for some types), which saves
space in installations compared to bulky copper cables.

5. Lightweight:

❖ Made of glass or plastic, fiber optic cables are much lighter and easier to install
than copper cables.

Disadvantages of Fiber Optic Transmission (Simplified)

1. Fragility:

❖ Fiber optic cables are typically made of glass, making them more fragile than copper
cables.

❖ They can also be affected by certain chemicals, such as hydrogen gas in underwater
applications, which requires careful handling and protection during installation.

2. Difficult to Install:

❖ Fiber optic cables are:

▪ Challenging to splice (connect or repair).

▪ Prone to breaking if bent too much.

▪ Vulnerable to cuts or damage during installation or construction.

 ❖ These factors make the installation process more complex compared to copper
cables.

3. Attenuation and Dispersion:

❖ Over long distances, the light signal weakens (attenuation) and spreads out
(dispersion), leading to a loss in signal quality.

❖ This requires the use of additional optical components like EDFAs (Erbium-Doped
Fiber Amplifiers) to boost the signal, adding to the overall cost and complexity.

4. Higher Cost:

❖ Even though fiber optic installation costs are dropping significantly, they are still
higher than copper cable installations.

❖ Fiber requires specialized equipment, careful handling, and skilled labor, which
increases the initial investment.

5. Special Care Needed:

❖ Fiber optic cables are susceptible to damage and need more attention during
deployment, especially in environments like underground or underwater
installations.

Core:

• The central part of the optical fibre, where light is

transmitted.

• A cylindrical structure with a radius “a” and a

refractive index n1

• Made of highly pure silica glass compound (SiO₂)

Cladding:

• Surrounds the core and has a refractive index n2,

which is slightly lower than n1

• This refractive index difference allows light to be trapped within the core by total internal

reflection, enabling the effective transmission of signals over long distances.

• Made of glass, the cladding reduces scattering loss due to dielectric discontinuities at the

core surface.

• Provides mechanical strength and prevents the core from absorbing surface contaminants,

which could degrade performance.

Buffer Coating or Jacket:

 • Encapsulates the core and cladding assembly with an elastic, abrasion-resistant plastic

material.

• Adds further strength, mechanical isolation, and durability to the fibre.

• Protects the fibre from small geometrical irregularities, distortions, and roughness of

adjacent surfaces, helping to maintain signal integrity and extend the fibre's lifespan

Extrinsic Losses in Fiber Optic Transmission (Simplified)

Extrinsic losses are caused by external impurities or defects in the fiber material, leading to
signal attenuation. Here's a breakdown:

Causes of Extrinsic Losses

1. Metal Impurity Absorption:

❖ Occurs due to electron transitions between energy levels or charge transitions

between ions in the fiber material.

❖ Metal impurities like iron, chromium, cobalt, and copper absorb light and cause
significant signal loss.

❖ Losses due to metal impurities can range from 1 to 10 dB/km.

❖ Modern techniques, such as vapor-phase fiber fabrication, have significantly

reduced these impurities, enabling the production of low-loss fibers.

2. OH (Hydroxyl Ion) Absorption:

❖ OH ions, dissolved in the silica glass during manufacturing, cause absorption due to
their vibrations.

❖ The major absorption peaks occur at wavelengths:

▪ 1400 nm (first overtone)

▪ 950 nm (second overtone)

▪ 750 nm (third overtone)

❖ These peaks are related to the vibration frequencies of OH ions and result in
attenuation of the signal.

3. Attenuation Regions:
 ❖ Between the absorption peaks, there are regions of low attenuation, making these
wavelength ranges optimal for signal transmission in optical communication.

MODULE-2
EDGE EMITING LED

Here's a simplified explanation of the concepts from the image you shared:

Edge-Emitting LEDs (ELEDs)

- Purpose: Designed to emit light more directionally to reduce losses from absorption and improve
efficiency.

- How it works:

- Light comes from the edge of the LED instead of the surface.

- Has an active junction (light source) and guiding layers that direct the light more effectively.

- Uses a waveguide channel to guide the light into optical fibers.

The refractive index of guiding layers is lower than active region but higher than outer surrounding
material.

- Structure:

- Contains layers like strip contacts, metal contacts, guiding layers, and substrates.

- Designed to direct light effectively and minimize energy losses.

- Radiation Pattern:

- Light emission is concentrated in one direction, improving coupling with other devices.

- Lambartian in one plane: Light spreads evenly in a plane parallel to the junction.

- Diverges in another plane: Light spreads less evenly perpendicular to the junction.

- To make the output even better, a reflector can be added opposite the emitting edge.

Features of ELEDs:

- Linear relationship between the optical output (light) and the current.

- Helps in applications like optical communication where directionality and efficiency are crucial.
This document explains the principles of light absorption and emission in atoms, focusing on three
processes: Absorption, Spontaneous Emission, and Stimulated Emission. Here's a simpler
explanation:

1. Absorption:

Atoms have energy levels: a lower level (E1) and a higher level (E2). When light (a photon) with
energy matching the difference between E2 and E1 hits an atom, the atom absorbs the photon's
energy and moves to the higher energy state (E2).

2. Spontaneous Emission:

If an atom is in the higher energy state (E2), it can naturally lose energy and return to the lower
state (E1). During this process, the atom emits light (a photon). This happens randomly, and the
emitted light is not synchronized (incoherent).

3. Stimulated Emission:

When an atom in the higher energy state (E2) is hit by a photon with energy equal to the difference
between E2 and E1, it is triggered to emit a second photon. This emitted photon has the same
energy, phase, and direction as the incoming one, making the light synchronized (coherent). This is
the key process behind lasers.

4. Coherent vs. Incoherent Light:

- Spontaneous emission gives light that is scattered and unsynchronized.

- Stimulated emission produces light that is aligned, synchronized, and stronger (used in lasers).

5. Light Bouncing:

In lasers, the emitted light is reflected back and forth between mirrors to strengthen the beam,
making it intense and focused.

This process explains how lasers work by using energy levels of atoms to produce powerful, focused
light.

This section explains the Fabry–Perot Resonator, which is an important part of lasers. Here’s a simple
explanation:
1. What is a Fabry–Perot Resonator?

It’s a setup used in lasers, made of two parallel mirrors placed at a fixed distance (L) from each
other. Light bounces back and forth between these mirrors.

2. How it works in a laser:

- Light inside the resonator reflects between the mirrors.

- As it bounces, it interacts with the material (called the active layer) inside the resonator, which
amplifies the light.

- Only specific light waves (those with the right frequency and wavelength) are strengthened and
continue bouncing.

3. Purpose of the resonator:

The mirrors help focus and amplify the light to produce a strong, steady laser beam. One mirror is
slightly transparent, allowing some light to escape as the laser beam.

4. Key Details:

- The cavity dimensions (size) are very small, usually in micrometers.

- This setup ensures the laser produces a highly focused and controlled beam of light.

Here’s a simple explanation of an Avalanche Photodiode (APD) and how it works:

What is an APD?

An Avalanche Photodiode is a special type of photodiode (a device that converts light into an
electrical signal). It is more sensitive than regular photodiodes because it amplifies the electrical
signal created by the incoming light.

How does an APD work?

1. Light hits the APD:

When photons (light particles) hit the APD, they create pairs of electrons and holes (called electron-
hole pairs). These are the building blocks of an electrical current.

2. High electric field:

Inside the APD, there is a very strong electric field. This field gives the electrons a lot of energy.
3. Avalanche effect:

- The energized electrons move fast and hit other atoms inside the APD.

- These collisions create more electron-hole pairs (new carriers), just like an avalanche where one
falling rock causes many others to fall.

- This multiplication increases the number of carriers, amplifying the signal.

4. Amplification:

This entire process boosts the current produced by the APD, making it easier to detect even very
weak light signals.

Key Points:

- APDs are used when we need to detect low levels of light.

- The "multiplication factor" (M) tells us how much the signal is amplified.

- They require a high reverse voltage to create the strong electric field.

In short, an APD is like a super-sensitive light detector that makes weak light signals much stronger
using the avalanche effect.

MODULE-3
Here’s a simplified explanation of the key points:

1. Multipath Scattering and Doppler Shifts:

When signals travel between the transmitter and

receiver, they bounce off multiple objects, causing multipath scattering. If the transmitter or receiver
is moving, the signal frequency shifts slightly, known as a Doppler shift.

2. Delayed Signals:
These bounces cause delayed versions of the same signal to reach the receiver at different
times.

3. Local Scattering:
Each major path of the signal gets scattered locally due to nearby objects, adding more
complexity to the signal at the receiver.

4. Multipath Fading:
The scattered signals mix together at the receiver, creating multipath fading, where the
signal strength changes due to interference.
 5. Rayleigh Fading:
If there is no direct line-of-sight (LOS), the signal's strength varies randomly, following a
Rayleigh distribution.

6. Rician Fading:
If there is a direct LOS path, the signal strength follows a Rician distribution, which accounts
for the stronger LOS signal alongside the scattered signals.

7. Rayleigh in Flat Fading:

The Rayleigh distribution is often used to describe how the signal strength changes over
time in flat-fading scenarios, where all multipath signals affect the receiver equally.

Here’s a simplified explanation of the text:

Signal Fading in Mobile Communication:

1. Fading as a Problem:
Signal fading is a common challenge in mobile communication because mobile devices move,
causing constant changes in the signal's strength.

2. Causes of Fading:

o Multipath Effects: Signals take multiple paths to reach the receiver, bouncing off
buildings and other objects.

o Movement of Devices: As the mobile unit moves, signal strength fluctuates rapidly
over short distances or time.

o Doppler Shifts: Movement changes the frequency of the signal due to relative
motion between the transmitter and receiver.

3. Types of Small-Scale Fading:

o Rapid signal strength changes over small areas or times.

o Frequency shifts caused by Doppler effects.

o Time dispersion due to delays in signal arrival from different paths.

4. Constructive and Destructive Interference:

Multiple signal waves combine:

o Constructively: When waves align, signal strength increases.

o Destructively: When waves cancel out, signal strength decreases.

5. Urban Areas and Multipath:

In urban environments, mobile antennas are lower than surrounding structures, creating
many multipath signals. These paths differ in length, leading to phase differences and
fluctuating signal strengths.

6. Modeling Fading:

o Signal strength fluctuations due to multipath are often modeled using a Rayleigh
distribution when there's no direct line of sight.
 o Faster vehicle movement results in faster fading as the mobile unit crosses more
signal wave patterns quickly.

7. Mitigating Fading:
Receivers are designed to handle fading by understanding both the average signal level and
the rapid fluctuations.

This explanation covers the main ideas in a straightforward way. Let me know if you want more
details or diagrams!

MODULE-4
Multiple access refers to the techniques used in communication systems to allow multiple users to
share the same communication resources (e.g., frequency, time, or space) simultaneously without
interference.

Multi-Carrier Multiple Access Schemes (Simplified Explanation)

Multi-carrier multiple access schemes involve the use of multiple carrier frequencies to transmit
data, dividing the data into smaller substreams. These schemes are essential in modern wireless
communication systems for efficiently utilizing bandwidth and supporting multiple users. Below are
the main types of multi-carrier access schemes:

1. OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiple Access)

• Definition: A multi-user extension of OFDM, allowing multiple users to share the same
bandwidth.

• Key Features:

o Divides the data into substreams, each transmitted on a different subcarrier.

o Uses orthogonality to minimize interference between subcarriers, allowing them to

be tightly packed.

o Substreams operate at lower data rates, making them robust against frequency-
selective fading.
 • Advantages:

o Reduces interference among subcarriers.

o Efficient use of bandwidth.

o Handles frequency-selective fading effectively.

• Application: Widely used in modern wireless systems like LTE and Wi-Fi.

2. SC-FDMA (Single-Carrier Frequency Division Multiple Access)

• Definition: A variation of OFDMA but uses single-carrier modulation.

• Key Features:

o Reduces Peak-to-Average Power Ratio (PAPR) compared to OFDMA.

o Linearly precoded OFDMA, also referred to as DFT-spread OFDMA.

o Allows multiple users to access different subcarriers by inserting silent Fourier

coefficients for each user.

• Advantages:

o Lower power consumption due to reduced PAPR.

o Suitable for uplink communication in LTE systems.

• Application: Adopted in LTE uplink and IEEE 802.16.

3. MC-CDMA (Multi-Carrier Code Division Multiple Access)

• Definition: A combination of OFDM and DS-CDMA, where data is spread over multiple
carriers using a code sequence.

• Key Features:

o Spreads the signal over a wide bandwidth, enhancing resistance to noise and
interference.

o Handles multipath signals effectively using a cyclic prefix insertion technique.

o Sensitive to frequency offset and requires small Doppler spread.

• Advantages:

o Achieves frequency diversity.

o Effective in environments with scattered signal power.

• Application: Used in broadband communication systems requiring high-speed data

transmission.
4. MC-DS-CDMA (Multi-Carrier Direct Sequence Code Division Multiple Access)

• Definition: Combines time-domain spreading with OFDM, unlike MC-CDMA, which uses
frequency-domain spreading.

• Key Features:

o Provides a good Bit Error Rate (BER) by using frequency-domain equalization.

o Spreads signals in the time domain across multiple carriers.

• Advantages:

o Offers frequency diversity gain.

o Improved performance in high-multipath environments.

• Application: Suitable for high-speed communication in dense multipath environments.

Comparison of Key Multi-Carrier Access Schemes:

Scheme Spreading Method Advantages Applications

High bandwidth efficiency, low

OFDMA Orthogonal subcarriers LTE, Wi-Fi
interference

Single-carrier
SC-FDMA Low PAPR, energy-efficient uplink LTE uplink
modulation

Frequency-domain High frequency diversity, robust

MC-CDMA Broadband systems
spreading multipath handling

MC-DS- Time-domain Good BER, robust in multipath Dense urban

CDMA spreading environments communication

Let me know if you'd like more detailed explanations of any specific scheme or its implementation!

Measures to Handle the Near–Far Problem in FDMA Cellular Systems

The near–far problem in FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access) systems arises when strong
signals from nearby transmitters overshadow weaker signals from distant users, causing interference
and degradation in communication quality. Here are the measures to address this issue:
Key Points Explained Simply:

1. Shared Antenna:
At the base station, multiple users (channels) share the same transmitting antenna to send
and receive signals.

2. Nonlinear Devices:

o The power amplifiers (used to strengthen signals) and power combiners (used to
combine signals) in the transmitter are sometimes nonlinear.

o When they are pushed too hard to get maximum power, these nonlinearities distort
the signals.

3. Signal Distortion:

o These distortions spread the signal into unwanted frequency ranges, creating
"harmonics" (unwanted signals) or intermodulation frequencies.

o These can interfere with other channels and reduce the system's efficiency.

4. Analog FDMA Systems:

o In older, first-generation cellular systems, FDMA with FDD (Frequency Division

Duplexing) was used.

o Speech Signals: Sent over forward (downlink) or reverse (uplink) channels using
frequency modulation (FM).

o Data Control: Digital data (like call management) was sent using frequency-shift
keying (FSK) modulation.

5. Narrowband Transmission:

o FDMA allocates a small portion of bandwidth (B/N) to each user, where:

▪ B = Total Bandwidth available

▪ N = Number of users sharing the bandwidth

o This narrow bandwidth helps reduce interference between users but makes the
signal prone to flat fading (signal weakening uniformly due to obstacles or
environmental factors).

Hand-Off in Mobile Communication (Elaborated Explanation)

1. What is a Hand-Off?
A hand-off is the process of transferring an ongoing call or data session from one cell tower (base
station) to another without disconnecting the call. This ensures that mobile subscribers can move
freely without losing their connection.
2. Why is Hand-Off Needed?

• When you move out of the coverage area of a cell tower, the signal weakens. To maintain call
quality and avoid disconnection, the call is transferred to another nearby tower that has a
stronger signal.

• Hand-offs are critical in cellular systems to support mobility and seamless communication.

3. How Does Hand-Off Work?

• When the mobile signal weakens, the current cell tower informs the MTSO (Mobile
Telephone Switching Office) that a hand-off is needed.

• The MTSO identifies a new cell tower with a stronger signal and switches the call to a new
frequency/channel on the new tower.

• The process is fast and seamless, so the user does not notice any interruption in the call.

4. Factors Influencing Hand-Off:

• Cell Size: Smaller cells lead to more frequent hand-offs, especially in areas with high mobility.

• Signal Strength: Hand-offs occur when the current tower's signal drops below a certain
threshold.

• Fading and Interference: Obstacles like buildings, mountains, or noise can weaken signals,
triggering a hand-off.

• User Speed: High-speed movement (e.g., in a car or train) can increase the frequency of
hand-offs.

5. Types of Hand-Offs:

1. Hard Hand-Off (Break-Before-Make):

o The connection to the current tower is broken before connecting to the new tower.

o Used in older systems like GSM.

2. Soft Hand-Off (Make-Before-Break):

o The connection to the new tower is established before disconnecting from the
current tower.

o Used in CDMA and modern systems for better reliability.

6. Challenges in Hand-Off:

• Frequent Hand-Offs: Small cell sizes in urban areas can cause too many hand-offs, especially
for fast-moving users.
 • Dropped Calls: If a new tower is unavailable or overcrowded, the call may drop.

• Interference: Signal interference from obstacles can complicate hand-off decisions.

7. Roaming and Hand-Off:

• Roaming is a special type of hand-off when you move out of your home service area and
connect to a new network.

• The new network registers your phone and informs the home network to handle billing and
authentication.

• Roaming hand-offs occur without user intervention, ensuring continuous connectivity.

8. Benefits of Hand-Off:

• Seamless Connectivity: Ensures uninterrupted calls and data sessions while moving.

• Better Signal Quality: Transfers to the tower with the best signal strength.

• Supports Mobility: Enables users to move freely without worrying about losing connectivity.

Simple Analogy to Remember Hand-Off:

Imagine you’re passing a baton in a relay race. The baton (call or data session) is handed from one
runner (cell tower) to another seamlessly so that the race (connection) can continue without
stopping!

➢ Voice calls in cellular networks require two full-duplex radio-frequency channels to function
simultaneously—one for transmitting and one for receiving signals.
➢ Two types of channels are involved in this process:
• control channels and traffic channels.
• Control channels are used to exchange information related to initiating and
maintaining calls, as well as establishing a connection between the mobile subscriber
and the nearest base station. They also handle the transfer of control and diagnostic
information.
• On the other hand, traffic channels carry the actual voice or data between mobile
subscribers or between a mobile and a landline. The base station transmits on forward
channels and receives on reverse channels, while the mobile subscriber does the
opposite, ensuring seamless communication.
➢ Base stations transmit on the forward control channel and forward voice channel and receive
on the reverse control channel and reverse voice channel.
➢ Similarly, mobile subscribers transmit on the reverse control channel and reverse voice
channel and receive on the forward control channel and forward voice channel.
➢ When a mobile phone is turned on, it performs startup procedures and scans all control
channels to identify the one with the strongest signal. It then synchronizes with this channel
 to receive system data and continuously monitors or rescans control channels to maintain
the best connection.
➢ The process of establishing a voice call is fully automated, requiring no action from the user
other than placing or answering the call. This automated system ensures efficient
communication by connecting the mobile subscriber to the nearest base station and the
central cellular switch, facilitating uninterrupted voice calls.

TDMA

Salient Features of TDMA Technique (Detailed)

1. Time-Based Sharing: Multiple users can share the same frequency channel by being assigned
unique, non-overlapping time slots for their communication.

2. Slot Allocation Factors: The number of time slots per frame depends on factors like the available
bandwidth and the digital modulation scheme used.

3. High Data Rate: TDMA provides a much higher data transmission rate compared to FDMA, making
it suitable for faster communication needs.

4. Flexible Bandwidth Utilization: Subscribers can use more than one time slot per frame, allowing
bandwidth allocation to be adjusted based on demand.

5. Dynamic Bandwidth Allocation: Bandwidth can be reassigned or concatenated among users as per
priority, offering greater flexibility.

6. Bursty Transmission: Data is transmitted in bursts rather than continuously, enabling the system to
switch off the transmitter during idle periods, conserving battery power.

7. Efficient Quiet Time Usage: Silent periods in voice calls can be utilized for transmitting other data
or voice calls, increasing system efficiency.

8. Improved Channel Efficiency: These techniques result in better utilization of available channels,
improving overall communication performance.

9. Simplified Equipment: Duplexers are not required in subscriber devices, as transmission and
reception occur in separate time slots.
10. Minimal Synchronization Needs: A fast RF switch and minimal guard time or synchronization time
ensure efficient and reliable operation.

MODULE-5
Answer Based on the Given Context:

Mobile Station (MS):

The Mobile Station consists of two entities:

1. Mobile Equipment (ME):

o Portable, vehicle-mounted, or handheld device.

o Identified uniquely by the IMEI (International Mobile Equipment Identity).

o Capabilities:

▪ Voice and data transmission.

▪ Monitors power and signal quality for optimal handover.

▪ Supports SMS up to 160 characters.

o Power level ranges from 0.8W to 20W.

2. Subscriber Identity Module (SIM):

o A smart card containing the IMSI (International Mobile Subscriber Identity).

o Enables sending/receiving calls and accessing subscribed services.

o Protected by a password or PIN and can be moved between devices.

o Contains key information to activate the phone.

Base Station Subsystem (BSS):

The BSS comprises two components communicating over the standardized Abis interface, allowing
interoperability.

1. Base Transceiver Station (BTS):

o Functions:

▪ Encodes, encrypts, multiplexes, modulates, and transmits RF signals.

▪ Facilitates communication between the Mobile Station (MS) and the Base
Station Controller (BSC).

▪ Consists of Transceiver (TRX) units.

2. Base Station Controller (BSC):

 o Functions:

▪ Manages radio resources for the BTS.

▪ Assigns frequencies and time slots to MSs.

▪ Handles call setup and handovers.

▪ Communicates with the MSC and BTS.

Network Switching Subsystem (NSS):

1. Mobile Switching Center (MSC):

o Core of the network.

o Handles:

▪ Communication between GSM and other networks.

▪ Billing information and mobility management.

▪ Registration, location updates, and inter-BSS/MSC call handoff.

2. Home Location Register (HLR):

o Stores subscriber information (e.g., IMSI, MSISDN, roaming restrictions).

o Updates subscriber location as they move.

3. Visitor Location Register (VLR):

o Temporary database updated when a new MS enters the area.

o Assigns Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI).

o Controls roaming mobiles and stores subscriber-related data.

4. Authentication Centre (AUC):

o Houses algorithms for authentication and encryption keys.

o Protects operators from fraud.

o Located within the HLR.

5. Equipment Identity Register (EIR):

o Tracks devices using the IMEI.

o Prevents stolen devices from making calls.

Physical and Logical Channels in GSM

1. Physical Channels:
- Definition: Physical channels refer to the actual radio frequency (RF) resources used for transmitting
data in GSM. They are defined by specific time slots on designated frequency bands.

- Characteristics: Each physical channel consists of a combination of frequency and time resources
allocated for communication between the mobile station (MS) and the base transceiver station (BTS).

2. Logical Channels:

- Definition: Logical channels categorize the type of information being transmitted over the physical
channels. They determine whether the data is related to user traffic (voice/data) or signaling/control
information.

- Types: Logical channels are mapped onto physical channels to facilitate various functions such as
call setup, maintenance, and user communication.

---

Different Channels Used in GSM

GSM utilizes a variety of logical channels, which are further classified into Traffic Channels (TCH) and
Signaling & Control Channels (CCH). The Signaling & Control Channels are subdivided into Broadcast
Channels, Common Control Channels, and Dedicated Control Channels.

1. Traffic Channels (TCH)

Used for carrying user-specific information like voice and data.

- Full-Rate Traffic Channel (TCH/F or Bm):

- Function: Carries one voice conversation per time slot.

- Data Rate: Encodes voice at 13 kbps with additional overhead bits, resulting in a total channel data
rate of 22.8 kbps.

- Versatility: Can also transmit data at rates of 14.4, 9.6, 4.8, and 2.4 kbps.

- Half-Rate Traffic Channel (TCH/H or Lm):

- Function: Utilizes half a time slot for voice or data, effectively doubling system capacity.

- Data Rate: Encodes voice at 6.5 kbps or data at 4.8/2.4 kbps, with a total channel data rate of 11.4
kbps.
 - Usage: Allows two conversations or a combination of voice and data transfers on a single channel
simultaneously.

- Enhanced Full-Rate (EFR) Traffic Channel:

- Function: Provides improved voice quality by encoding voice at 12.2 kbps.

- Data Rate: Similar to TCH/F with a total channel data rate of 22.8 kbps.

- Capability: Supports data transmission at full-rate traffic channel rates.

2. Signaling and Control Channels (CCH)

Manage network signaling and control functions essential for system operation and subscriber
mobility.

a. Broadcast Channels (BCH)

Provide essential system information to all mobile stations within a cell.

- Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH):

- Function: Transmits information necessary for MS to identify and connect to the network,
including cell identity and system parameters.

- Frequency Correction Channel (FCCH):

- Function: Sends unmodulated carrier bursts to help MS synchronize its frequency and verify the
BCCH carrier.

- Synchronization Channel (SCH):

- Function: Provides timing information for MS synchronization with the BTS frame structure and
conveys the Base Station Identity Code (BSIC).

b. Common Control Channels (CCCH)

Facilitate paging and access requests between the network and mobile stations.

- Paging Channel (PCH):

- Function: Alerts MS of incoming calls or messages by transmitting paging messages containing the
MS’s identity.
- Random Access Channel (RACH):

- Function: Allows MS to initiate communication with the network, such as requesting a signaling
channel upon receiving a page.

- Access Grant Channel (AGCH):

- Function: Assigns a signaling channel to MS after a successful request via RACH, enabling further
communication setup.

c. Dedicated Control Channels (DCCH)

Handle specific call setup, maintenance, and mobility management tasks for individual MS.

- Standalone Dedicated Control Channel (SDCCH):

- Function: Manages signaling during call setup, registration, and SMS delivery by providing a
dedicated channel independent of traffic channels.

- Slow Associated Control Channel (SACCH):

- Function: Maintains the communication link by transmitting power control and timing advance
information between MS and BTS.

- Fast Associated Control Channel (FACCH):

- Function: Facilitates rapid signaling for handover operations by temporarily replacing traffic
channel data (stealing mode) to ensure seamless call continuity.

- Cell Broadcast Channel (CBCH):

- Function: Delivers broadcast messages, such as emergency alerts or SMS, using the same physical
channel as SDCCH.