v··

N OF ULTRAS
ON1c W 103
on frequency range and power outp AVEs
ut, the ult .
rason1cw
ave gen
.,~haJlical generator erators are divided.
in- intotwo
sectrical generator
the following section, the electrical
I~ generator tncth Od
:4'1ained s of Producing ultr .
fhe electrical generators are subdivided . asonic waves are
. . into two categories
(t) Magnetostnctton generator or oscillator ·
(n) Piezoelectric generator or oscillator

The above two methods are widely us d

e nowadays f d
-a,·es. or pro ucing ultrasonic

.2.1 Magnetostriction Method

rinciple Magnetostriction Effect

When aferromagnetic material in the form ofa rod is subjected to an alternating magnetic
eld parallel to its length as shown in Figure 4.1, the rod undergoes alternate contractions
nd expansions at a frequency equal to the frequency of the applied magnetic field. This
henomenon is known as magnetostriction effect.

Ferromagnetic rod

N
11T __ \
I __.:!..--------,-1GJ s
U.!..L.- - - - - -- - - -

· r on effect ·
4 1 · Magnetostnc I b roducing ultraSoruc
Figure .· . . dinal vibrations, there yp the ,oduction
Due to resonance the rod is thrown into longitu ti· materials which are usedfor P
. ' . hfen•omagne c . '
aves mthe surrowiding mednnn. Sue . tion ,naterials ·
0! ult . waves
·
rasomc are called , ,nagnetostric .
Construct/on
ihe Circuit diagram is shown in Figure 4·2·
 104
c, iy1neering

L x L, B :=::::i

t=; ;A·,=-im~==i==:;:w1jf=:=
:1-
Ultrasonic
J:: :~ Ultrasonic

mA waves
waves

C-Colleq
8-Base
Bt E-Ernitter
Bt-Batt~r

.
F1gure 4..
2· Circuit diagram for magnetostriction oscillator method

The ferromagnetic rod AB is clamped at the middle X. The ~oils L 1 and L2 ar~ wo
ends ofthe rod. To the coil L1 a variable capacitor C1 is conne_ct~ ~ parallel and this co ·
fonns the tank or resonant circuit. One side of the resonant crrcu1t 1s connected to the coll
uie transistor through a milliammeter. The other side of the resonant circuit is connecte
emitter through a battery. The coil L2 is connected between the base and the emitter and is
a feed back loop.

Working

When the battery is switched on, the resonant circuit L1C1 in the collector circuit of the
sets up an alternating current of frequency,
1
f = - ~==
2rr.JL 1C 1 •

As a result, the rod gets magnetised by the collector current. Any change in the collector
brin~ about a change in the magnetisation, and consequently a change in the length of
This gives rise to a change in flux in coil L2 in the base circuit, thereby inducing an e
coil Lr This varying emf is applied to the base of the transistor and is fed back to the
thereby maintaining the oscillations.
By varying the capacitor C1, the frequency of oscillation of the tank circuit gets v
the frequency of the tank circuit matches with the natural frequency of the material, then
resonance the rod vibrates vigorously producing ultrasonic waves at the ends of the ro
milliammeter reading gives maximum value at the resonance condition. The frequency of ul
waves produced by this method depend upon the length/, density p and elastic con~1•1
the rod.
 •

..............
---llfC 1ta ◄••1t111&ate e
klll•lll,_..al

-•abcMl.GOOkHz.
IUIIIIIIYcmta,psme.
~andedd)aiie&

...
o)fllllb ...........
.... u ........,......,...
....._.,afcl, p F
 Engina.-
'-t:r1
.
106

The clcdricil} produocd bv mcruts of piezoelectric effect i~ called ~iezoelectncity,·11,

"'. d ·czoelcctnc matenals or crystal ·.,
\\ hich con undergo piczoclcctnc effect a.re ca11c P1 s.
J\'nte: · II th X
• lbc type of cn~tnl used for ultrac.onic production _is g~ncra Y e . -cut cry~tal
• An X-cut crystnl is n p1czoclectnc crystal cut inn direction perpeociicular to its x.
• Electric (X-a1<'s) 11cs.
. f ml uartz c~tal is hexagonal. The lines joining the onr,,_
1necross-6CCtJOnO analu q 'J~ d th r ... r~
of the hexagon are called the electric axes or X-ax~s an e mes Jotru~g the rnict
oppo,ite races ofthe hexagon nrc called the mecbamcal axes or Y-axes ff igure 4.4J
x,, Xz, x 1 --. Electric axis
Y,
Xs Y1 , Y2 , Y,-,.. Mechanical a:.<is

Y2
Figure 4.4: Piezoelectric crystal axes

The piezoelectric method ofproducing ultrasonic waves is based on the principle

piezoelectric effect
Principle: Inverse Piezo-electric Effect
Ifan alternating voltage is applied to one pair ofopposite faces ofthe crystal,aim
mechanical contractions and expansions are produced in the crystal and rhe crysi
vibrating. 11zis phenomenon is known as inverse piezoelectric e;ffect or e/ecrrostricn
(Figure 4.5).

◄ ►

• •
◄ ►
 . 107
. uencY of the applied alternating volta ,. 1.5
ft'Cq ·11 b I · gc .cqu·1l
w1 ct 1rown mto resonant v1'bration
·
( to th.c vibrating freq ucncy of the
•1 ~
1ft'1Ct11ct1 the c~tal prod
. . , ucmg ultrasonic waves.

struct1on
. diagram is shown in r1gun.: 4.6.
circuit

m ½
a

1··at0nl(.S ++••· A
,. .,__. . . <----$::::::
---.
B

c,
L,

Figure 4.6: Piezoelectric oscillator method

quartz crystal Q is placed between two metal plates A and B. The plates A and B are connected
coo Lr The coils L , L and L are inductively coupled to the oscillatory circmt of a tran.5istor.
1 2 3
coil L is connected to the collector circuit, while the coil L1 with a variable capacitor C1
2
· g1he tank circuit is connected between the base and the emitter. The battm 1s connected
een free end of L and the emitter of transistor.
2

ing
~ battery is switched on, the oscillator produces highfrequency alternating \"oltage given

1
f = 21tF,°C 1-.
frequen . . ·t c Due to the tranSformer
· cy of oscillation can be controlled by the vanab1e capaci or 1· 8 d
on an emf' . Th. mf. . essed on plates A and an
ex . ts induced in the secondary coil L3. is e is im~r . C the crystal
. cne the quartz crystal into vibrations. By adjusting the vanable capacitor ''1 ·tuciinal
into one f th 'b ting crystal produces ongi
tr~ . 0 the rmdes of resonant conditions. Thus, e Vl ra 1·
Ille Waves in the surrounding air. The frequency of vibration of the crysta ,s
 108

where Eis lhc 'totmg·s modulus, pis the density of the material ,m<l p - I, 2, 3.. fr,r fi
. u
f-In;t ovc11ont>, ~cnmd ovc11nnc ..... 1csJ1t'<'f1vcly.
At rcsonann: condition,
Frequency of the (,scillntl1ry circuit l•rcqucncy of the vihrating crystal

J.C ..

Merits
1. It i., nK1 rr cflicil.'llf th:u 1magnctostnction osc1llator. Almost all the 111(.Xlern uhrasori1
an? l)ftlm, type onl).
2. Ultrasonic frequencies as high as 5 x 108 Hz can be obtained with this arrangern
3. The output ofthis oscillator is very high.
4. le 1s not affected b) temperature and humidity.

Demerit
I. The cost ofpiezoelectric quartz is very high and its cutting and shaping are very

! ~ TERMINATION OF VELOCITY OF ULTRASONIC W

~ _JACOUSTIC GRATING METHOD)

Principle
When ultrasonic waves are passed through transparent liquid medium in a co
waves get reflected. These reflected waves are called echos.
The direct and reflected waves superimpose to form the stationary wave pattern.
give rise to a periodic variation in the density ofthe liquid. The change in density of the
leads to a variation in the refractive index ofthe liquid. The density ofthe liquid would be
nodal planes, while at the antinodal planes it would be minimum. Such a liquid-coh
ultrasonic waves behaves like a grating. Under this condition, if a parallel beam ofli:
through the liquid at right angles to the wave, the liquid acts as a diffraction grating. Sue
known as acoustic grating.

Experiment
The experimental arrangement is shown in Figure 4.1 O. There is a glass vessel conta· ·
with a reflector R fixed within the vessel at its top.
A quartz crystal Q placed between two metal plates A and B is mounted at the b
vessel.
su••·-

Liquid
column
Telesopn
...,.;;;;i---- 1st-order maximum

~ ~~----- •--- - Central maxima

Collimator 1st order maximum
sodium Scroen
LamP

Oscillator
Figure 4.7: Experimental arrangement to determine the velocity of ultrasonic waves

icnlCtallic plates ~e connected to an oscillat?r whose frequency is so adjusted that the crystal
,in t\.,--sonancc \\1th the frequency ofthe oscillator and thus produces ultrasonic waves within
i;,d. Hence the liquid behaves like a grat~g. This acoustic grating is mounted on the prism
of 3 spectrometer and a parallel beam of hght from the monochromatic sources is passed
e cli the liquid at right angles to the wave. Since the liquid is behaving like a grating, the light
~n ~ing through it gets diffracted and produces a diffraction pattern. The diffraction pattern
red through the telescope.
Toediffiaction pattern consists ofa central maxima with principle maxima of different orders on
th
side. If8 is the angle of diffraction for the n -order principle maxima then,
d sin 0 = m ... (I )
J.is the wavelength ofthe monochromatic light used and dis the grating element (The distance
ffll adjacent nodal planes is defined as the grating element).

The grating element d = '-; , where A)s the wavelength ofultrasonic waves.

'A .
_usm0 =M
2
2n'A ... (2)
or 'A - -
u sin0
Thus,knowing'Aandnandbymeasuring0,thewavelengthofultrasonicwavescanbed_et~
. f h th elocity of ultrasoruc waves is
Ifthe resonant frequency ofthe ultrasonic generatorts , t en e v
enby
... (3)
V = f')..
u l ityofultrasonicwaves
Using this acoustic diffraction method, the wavelegth and hen~e tbe ve oc
. temperatures can be deternuned.
trough 1·1qu1·c1s and gases at vanous
xample 4.1
~akulatc the fn.-.1t1ency to which picz,r~!l1..-ctric oscillator circuit should be tunned so tl1at an· 11
· '1 • • • , t xJ tO cneratc ultr · "
rystn\ of thi~knrss 0.\cm v,hmtcs mits fundamcnta me c g 3 asomc wave,
2654
m<lu\usnnddcmnty ofmatciial ofcrystctl nrc 80GPa ao<l kgm ).

Solutlon: 3 2
(J\\'Cll, E 80 G\>ll ROX 109 Pn; r 2654 kgm ; t- 0. I cm 0.1 X l O m,
11,cfrcqucncyof,ibmtil,n is given by
p {If 1 ~o x 1o'1
_ 54~
f 2t Vp = 2)( 0.1; IO l 2654 - ~

f c 2.7451 x 10" Hz

Example 4.2
Find the frcqucnc~ of the first and second modes of vibration for a quartz crystal1
of pi
oscillator. The ,'Clocit)' oflongitudinal waves in quartz crystal is 5.5 x 1a3 ms •Thickne
Cl) stal is O.05 m.

Solution:
Gi,en. v= 5.5 x 103 ms-1; t= 0.05 m; v 1 = ?; v2 =?
1n the lowest mode of vibration, the distance between the two f~ces of the crystal of
willbe/J2.
'"A
Therefore, t =-
2
or A = 2t = 2 x 0.05
'"A = 0.1 m
Therefore, the frequency in the first mode ofvibration
5.5 X 10 3
V
V = - =
I A 0.1
V 1 = 5.5 X } 04 Hz

The frequency in the second mode of vibration is

V 2 = 2V = 2 X 5, 5 X } Q4
1
v2 = 110 x 103 Hz
Example 4.3
An ultrasonic ~ource of 0.0~ MHz s~nds down a pulse towards the seabed which retufJ1S
sec. The velocity of sound tn water ts 1800 mis. Calculate the depth of the sea and wav
pulse.
Solution:
c · en f - 0.09 MHz= 0.09 x 106 Hz; t = 0.55 sec; v = 1800 ms- 1
 IJ I

ocpth of the sea = ?; )..u ?

d = vt = 1800 x 0.55
l)cpth of the sea
2 2
... d e 495m .
wavelength ofthe ultrasonic pulse 15

k = v _ 1800
u f 0.09 X 10 6

... ).,• = 0.02 m .

crystal of thickness zx IO 3 mis vibrating at resonance C3 I I

)ouQ£1S modulu~ of the quartz as 8.69x 10 10 Nm 2 an·d .itscu at~ fundamental
density as 2.65 JI. 1frequency
c>3 kg m J •

. n:
t == 2xt0 3 m
E = 8.69 x 10 10 Nm·2
p = 2.65 X 103 kgm-3
f = ?
f= l {IHz
Fmmula: 2t~p
10
1 8.69xl0
= 2 X 2 X 10- 3 2.65 X 10
3

f = 1.4316 X J06 Hz.

1_0:__F~ U_LTRASONIC WAVES

,~--~-
~
. • ..

I • • is a device which stands for Sound Navigation and Ranging.

is ?ased on the princip/e ofecho .w1mdi11g. In th is 11coustical technique high-frequency
~ waves are used. When ultrasonic waves arc tmnsmitte<l through" ater, they get re tlected
obJects underwater. The change in frequency ofthe echo signnls <luc to the Doppler eftect
us to determine the velocity, distance and the direction of objects.
the absence ofan obstacle the ultrascmic waves do not get retlectc<l tu the recehing tranSducer.
_the presence of an obstacle the ultrasonic waves get reflected and are picked up by the
ng transducer. Knowing the velocilY of ultrasound and the elapsed titne, the distance ofthe
can be determined
Ising SONAR, the distance and direction ofsubmarines, depth ofsea, depth ofrocks in
ea, the shoal offis h in the sea, etc., can be determined.
112

Determination of the Depth of a Sea

. ~ i ·h l"pth of the ~ca. lt is based on ti
The ultrnsomc w.1, cs can be u~cd to t !Ill t c <l: le Pnnc,
S()\DXling.
Figure 4.11 illustrutc.5 lhc use of ultn1sonic to iind the depth of the sen.

Ship

Transmitting......,._ _. Receiving
- - - - - - - - - Transduce,
Transducer- - - - - - - -
----------
---------
----------
C
Figure 4.8: Determination of depth of sea

The ultrasonic waYes sent from point A travel through sea water and get reflecte
bottom of the sea. The reflected waves are received at point B.
The timer taken for the ultrasonic wave to travel to the bottom of the sea and to,,
back to the top surface is noted using a CRO. If the velocity v of the ultrasonic wa:
!known. then
Distance travelled
Velocityv =
Time taken
AC+CB 2CO
V = ---~
t t
vt
CO= Depthofthesea=-
2
Thus, the depth of the sea can be calculated using this formula.
Fathometer or Echometer is a device which is directlr caliberated to deft:
depth ofthe sea. ·
Example 4.5
An uItrasomc
· ~ource of0.09 MHz sends down a pulse towards the seabed\\ hich rerun~
seulsec.The velocity of sound in water is 1800 mis. Calculate the depth of the sen and w:J\
p .
Solution:
Given, f = 0.09 MHz= 0.09 x 106 Hz; t == 0.55 sec; v = 1800 ms-1
depth of the sea == ?·' Au ==?••
--••oandlllcnnlmll l<XMnlilble(pdd)Tlad ti. r I 1a,
.-nen.tma(NDT).
._,"',...,11nplia,doano1""1,,apor1Wllff ••._..
to lootlle tht dt/ecll or flaw, 111 ,,,. ffllllfJl19ftl _...,
B'fildll:ethe life ofthe component resulting mtbepa111111G11 fiilllll
selection ofthe material.
~thedefeclssbooklbeabaml«shouldbc••n -.n

ess oftesting the material witMJIII alKfllll' 1111W

e of the component.
• CID be used again for the same p.wpllC '1r wbidl 11
or flaws in the component
olMAri!edas foJJows:

. ..,....tbo~olbrf--'CO!IIIIL---
. . .~"1beuf1Qo«bolowlbesurfaceClll
aa.ty-.•Ml'\'ICO"~~b~~
 114

(r) To Jncr('B'\e Safof)

dan ,
s! also be con sid1.>rcu in this connection . To avoid any
The prohlcm of ,at cty mu
the mn tc, ial ha s•~ b~ .tested before being U Sc<J~:;-
n srn ,cturc s,
pat1~cul:"·ly in nircru sho uld he pcn.od1ca lfy tcstc<l for dcfcct1 du
· rn,g
add ition the ctm mn ncn 1 • .
apphc,mon. In ' •.,.., n, the cornJ)(,r,c.'nt
~ the de fec t size cxc ccr ls 1hc _allowed s, 7,e '". the desig
As !-Oona t.
lurc 10 avoid dangerous rc... ult<
replaced bcfo~ il\, premature foi
tests
structive and non-destructive
Table 4.1: Comparison of de
Non-destructive Tei ta
De str uc tiv e Tests
S. No.
Measurements are indirect
a l)(1

rem en ts ere dir ect an d reliable. ified. '~: i

1. Measu has to be ver
Tests are made drrecUy on
th"
de on the ob jec ts co mr : r,t;,,.
2. Tests are not ma 100% testing on actual ,.,. ,r.c.q
directly. ·
possible.
Most test methods are rap id
lly high.
3. Time consumption is.genera Us ually qualitative measuremen
-•
me asu rem en ts. cana, •
4. Usually quantitative quantitative measurements I ,51:
-
done.
is no t possible. In-service testing is possible.
ser vic e testing ficier,1
5. In-
the tes t spe cim en is Very little preparation is Suf
6. Prepa ration of
costly.

tifying Defects
4.4.3 Ultrasonics in Iden
ve s that they get reflected whenever
there ·
perty of ultras on ic sou nd wa
It is due_to the pro ce of flaws or defects in the form of
used to de tec t the pre sen
in the medium, they are struc ture of a metal. It is also called
, etc ., in the intern al
boles, porosity, air bubbles
hispectioorretood. t specim
sed on the pr inc ipl e of sen din g out ultrasonic beam into a tes
/1 is ba ~a
lec ted be am fro m the flaws , the presence and location ofjlaw
analysing the ref
nt (occur by nature) in the originaJ
cas ·
lurgic al ma ter ial s ma y be inh ere
Defects in metal
during subsequent processing.
may arise due to faulty technique
two groups.
The defects may be classified into
ace
(a) Those Occurring at the Surf
the c
e cracks res ulting from un satisfactory conditions during cooling of
These includ scale and defects due to the rolling Ill
at treatm ent proce sses, surface
produced during he
scabs and seams.
Surface
(b) Those Occurring Below the
ity, lamination, inclusion s of various types, segregation blow bol
These include poros
such as coarse grain.
cracks and other less obvious faults
.050nics
J15

crack: This b a dis~ontinuity which • d

sohdi. 'fi ca b'on. is ue to fracture 0 f metn I during
•
or after
casting: This is a process which invoh , 5 • • .
. I c pouring or m1c •f th
cavit) of a part,cu ar ~hapc, \\ here it is ull d . •. _c mg e molten metal into a
. . • owe lo solidify
Porosit): This ts ~nu.<-Cti by the entrapped . ·
Ill the solid costing. gns tn the molten metal which gets trapPcd
Biol\ holes: ~low hol~s or gas holes me cuusccl b tra i •
water vapour m the c.astmg during solidification. Y PP ng of air, core gases nnd
son-mctallk inclusions: 1 h1s 1s a gcncr·il t .
•
trapped in the ca~tmg. · ' crm app 11cd to "'
s·ind , s1ag, ox1 de, etc.,

Seams:
~
Surface irregularities such as cracks on the st b b'tl
. h.
• a or I ets w 1ch get st t h d
out and cll,ngatl'd dunng rolhng are called seams. · re c e
Forgin~:. This is the process of working ofa ma ten al into a useful
. shape by hammenng
•
orpres.--mg.
Lamination: The flattened discontinuities like large porosity · d _
· · l · · pipe an non
me~h~ me us1on m s1abs formed during rolling and forging process are known as
laminabOn.

ic equipments used in ultrasonic methods

ultraSOOic inspection systems include the following basic equipments:
An electronic signal generator to generate alternating voltage when electronically triggered.
A sending transducer (probe or search unit) that emits a beam of ultrasonic waves when
alternating voltages are applied to it
Areceiving transducer to accept the output ofultrasonic waves from the test specimen and
oonvert it to an electric signal.
. An electronic devic.e to amplify and modify the signal from the receiving transducer and i:roject
it on a display device (CRO).
. An electronic clock or timer to measure the minute time interval between the sending and
receiving ofthe signal.
In most of the equipments, a single transducer acts alternatively as a sen~g and_ rece !\ :ng
ucer. The block diagram of a ultrasonic pulse echo method with their basic eqwpments ts
inFigure4.4.
Frequency
Pulse Synchroniser
Receiver generator
generator

Amplifier

method with their basic equipments

Figure 4.9: Block diaoram of ultrasonic pulse echo
 jCS
· 1 · 119
thatarerough, trrcgu arm shape, vcrysm II
p# a orthm or not h
. ~t omogcncous are di flicult to
1
~ J11tiJ1uiries that arc present in sha Ilow layers • .
[JISCl . tmmcd1atcly bcnca h h
. detcetable. -------~- ---- - t t e surface m;iy not be

I OF ULTRASONICS IN INDUSTRY
Ultrasonic Drilling and Cutting
,1

-ing
~
.. are used
~
high impact bnttlencss.
·• s sue has gl·iss r. nd
. making. holes 111 very hard matc"·ial
for
· '· •c ramo , gems, ceramics
p.th s drilling technique, a tool bit (drilling device) driven byasuita, blcultra'iOntcgenerat
.
In 1~ . b.d .. ·
Abrasi,es hkc boron car t e or s1ltcon carbide are used A I or is
n b. · nu trasound produced by the
ratormakes. the tool 1t to move up and . down very quickly and c-1orces t hea bras1ve .
. pamcles
them&tenal
. to be cut thereby .
. removmg some material from the plate •Th.1s process continuous
A.J>(ies1reddepth
Ill'.
ofa hole 1s formed over the plate • The same acti'on takesp Iace ·mu1trasomc •

.2 Ultrasonic Welding (Cold Welding)

~lding is a solid state phenomena ofproducing a metallurgical bond between the materials
~lting.The ultrasonic welding is also known as a cold welding technique. This is because,
gaoonventional welding process properties of some metals may get changed on heating .
. they cannot be welded by electric or gas welding. In such cases. the metal sheets can be
&d together at room temperature using ultrasonic waves.
Process- The surfaces of the work pieces are cleaned and held together. In ultrasonic \\elding,
:ni::::m·.£between the welding pieces is produced due to the local application of high frequenc)
evenly by keeping the work pieces together under pressure.
lisingm ultra.sonic generator the ultrasonic vibrations are transmitted into the work pi~e through
upling system or sonotrode which is resting over one of the work piece. The anvtl is used to
the welding pieces and opposes the clamping forces as shown in Figure -4 1:.

Clamping force
Reed
cer
___.-yoc::::-::;;,i

Sonotrode tip

Force

. s stem-wedge reed type

Figure 4.12: Ultrasonic spot welding y
 120

r lnr to rhc intcrfocc between the

\ ~tntic clamping force ts npphcd pcrpcm ,lclul tt1c intcrfocc of the Work "''Ork
i t ,osc1llatcsp,1m c to Pieces
the 1-amc t11nc. till: sonotrm c 1J
1...
· t"mal "tress is created 1n th
I I1car for'CCS nn Ill C C\V
combmatton of qattc nnd osc, I atmg !;
a
. • ••• , mctnl <.Jeforms elastically Ii t, or
. 1 b 1O"thccla,;;11c hm1t. ,c . u Whe
longru;thcmtcmn ~tress ts >e t"rf•icml slipoc<.:urs.As a result th 1..__
I Id I 8 111 h locnhscl'I m c<l ,ces'
metal to metal contact at an• c '"
c.xccoo,;; the thrcs 10 'n uc g .
dis rs of the sunfooc fihn tnkl:i. pl 1cc wluc 11 pro t YPf
pc
Due to fi,ctmn on,;;mg bct,H"Cll t
ti '-tllfnccs 11 , isc in temperature of surface
reclvsuilh~1t1C1n pomt. tJ,c laycn; me 1 rutl
j bond ;ogcthcr to torm a strongy>1nt.
layer

'\(Jlr: · Id ' f
• ~onotrodc is on oc,m.-..t1t· tc, m f,,1 the clcctroJ c used m we mg. t cons, t of
and a reed.

Applications of ultrasonic we~di~g . . .

1 It 1., used m • h o f 113
. \anc.J • cbging
• application such as soft foil packet, pressurised c
2 U ms ustd to \\'eld electronic components such as
(a) \\,re~ and ribbons to the thin films
(b) diodes and transistors to substrates
(c)Aluminium wires to semiconductor devices etc.
~ In a solar cell. as the connections between photo~olt_ aic modules are made usins::
l\\=elding, they are much useful in reducing the fabncat1on cost of solar energy syste
4 Jt is used for encapsulating the materials which are sensitive to heat or elect:: .. al a;

Advantages of ultrasonic welding

J. ~ltrasonic welding are made without melting the material.
2. It 15 used to join a wide variety of dissimilar metals.
3. The ~elding time is very short and is also a safe method.

4.5.3 Ultrasonic Soldering

mthe conventional method of soldering; prior to soldering, the surfaces .rre to b~ ck

active fluxes to remove the contaminants, grease, oxide films etc., because. such tilnb m.1
the formation ofa good joint. The fluxes when heated dissolves unwanted contaminant
films.As a result of this, the surface readily allows the molten solder to fonn c1 firm jl)int.
Using this type ofconventional soldering, aluminium foil condensers, ahunmium '' 1res
cannot be soldered. Hence, to solder these type of materials ultrasonic soldenng 1
(a process of soldering metals without fluxes) can be used.
An ultrasonic soldering iron consists of an ultrasonic generator having a tip fi\e~
which can be heated by an electrical heating element. The tip of the soldering iron melb
on the aluminium (soldering piece) and the ultrasound removes the oxides and other con
over the surface and aJlows the solder to fasten.
 oonic, 12 l

_.cAI- APPLICATIONS OF ULTRASONICS

nit ()t1nd Wfl\<c 1111d nttJor n11pll rnt1011 lf1 th rncd,
ollr ftfteU11 ,,ound thcnpp1tl 1t1on o1ultrli tt I lJ If, Id B d n tl P<M nd
tt,'11 v<' nx In rn: J I fi Id la ,tied mto~o
I ~Jfi
"l.n, ~ tit Oj'JlIIL tmn
I fht~"\ttK npplu:rillons

ostlc Appl/ca tlons

gn
I pUtJll1 lngh lrcquctlly ultrttsoruc wave with low power r u d fh
p:Met IC\~1 sclcc11on depend, un the typc ufdmwio:;tJ<.; apphc.at100 f l1her -·~··~
\) mo<'k t)1lC of ultm1iouml waves mc used for dtagno he; purpose
nuou "a\ c method 1s bascu on the pnnc,plc ol Doppler effect It I LLsed to d t
pulses and lo mca,urc blood flow rntc.
p ,~method•~ nonna11y used m medical field to detect, the defect and location of e
orab!llJffl\'lhtics m the organs at various depths in the body without causmgany harm the

scoftlm; reason. the ultrasound diagnostic method is called non-invashe method Tb

method 1<. ,cry easy when compared to continuous wave method. Thus. using the pu d
,,,.....,...- nd1agnosticapplications it is possible to explore the non-invasi\e image of the mtema
r truetw-es ofthe body. From the scanned image one can get information abrnJt the -ue
and naurre of defcct in the organ without going for actual surgery.
apeutic Applications
therapeutic applications, ultrasounds of several watts and frequency in the order ofkHz are
'hen ultrasound oflow frequency and high power are passed into the t L'-.)7.le. ~ ag;rtali! the
the requrred level. The level of agitation of the tissue will be almo:-.t equal to the k..,d
I eatmgoccuring in the tissue. This type of application has been found to~ useful 1
ofrnusoularaligmnent treatments and also as a pain relie\ er.

.1 Ultrasound Transmission
und \\'ave are generally transmitted into a medium either us n commuous \\J\.:' or~,
lsedwave. lnd1agnostic apphcations, the different modcsoftranSnu'5ion ofuJnn:-,Ol.lild ire
;I Pulsed ultrd.SOUnd
• Conunuous Doppler
3
: Pul5ed Doppler and
4
Range-gated pulsed Doppler. d th"' re oluaon
Thus b • h d th of penctmnon nn '" ::.
, Yconsidering the nature of applications, t e ep
urrC<l, the mode of transmission can be selected.