The Two-nation theory (1940)

The two-nation theory was the basis for the partition of India in 1947. This
theory supported the proposal that Muslims and non-Muslims should be two
separate nations. It is the ideology that the main identity and unifying aspect of
Muslims in the Indian subcontinent is their religion, rather than their language or
ethnicity.

The two-nation theory was a founding principle of the Pakistan Movement and
the partition of India in 1947. The ideology that religion is the main factor in defining
the nationality of Indian Muslims was used by Muhammad Ali Jinnah. He called it 'the
awakening of Muslims for the creation of Pakistan'. It is also a source of inspiration to
several Hindu nationalist organizations.

August Offer (1940)

The August Offer was a proposal made by the British government in 1940
promising the expansion of the Executive Council of the Viceroy of India to include
more Indians, the establishment of an advisory war council, giving full weight to
minority opinion, and the recognition of Indians' right to frame their own constitution
(after the end of the war). In return, it was hoped that all parties and communities in
India would cooperate in Britain's efforts in World War II.

However, this proposal was rejected by the Congress as the minorities,

especially the Muslim League, were assured that no constitutional scheme was
acceptable to the government without their agreement, i.e. providing a veto power to
the Muslim League. The Muslim League did not accept the offer as it did not give a
clear assurance that a separate Pakistan would be established.

The following proposals were put in:

1. After the war, a representative Indian body would be set up to frame a

constitution for India.
2. Viceroy's Executive Council would be expanded without delay.
3. The minorities were assured that the government would not transfer power "to
any system of government whose authority is directly denied by large and
powerful elements in Indian national life."
Individual Satyagraha 1940-41

The Congress was in a confused state again after the August Offer. The
radicals and leftists wanted to launch a mass Civil Disobedience Movement, but here
Gandhi insisted on Individual Satyagraha. The Individual Satyagraha was not to seek
independence but to affirm the right of speech. The other reason for this Satyagraha
was that a mass movement might turn violent and he would not like to see Great
Britain embarrassed by such a situation. This view was conveyed to Lord Linlithgow
by Gandhi when he met him on 27 September 1940.
The non-violence was set as the centrepiece of Individual Satyagraha. This was
done by carefully selecting the Satyagrahis.
The first Satyagrahi selected was Acharya Vinoba Bhave, who was sent to Jail when
he spoke against the war. He was followed nearly by 25,000 individual satygrahis.
The second Satyagrahi was Jawahar Lal Nehru. The third was Brahma Datt, one of
the inmates of Gandhi's Ashram.

They all were sent to jail for violating the Defence of India Act, and many others were
also later imprisoned. But since it was not a mass movement, it attracted little
enthusiasm and in December 1940, Gandhi suspended it. The campaign started
again in January 1941; this time thousands of people joined and around 20,000
people were arrested.
Significant modifications were subsequently made to the August Offer in 1942 in the
form of the Cripps Proposals.

Cripps Mission (1942)

The key proposal of the Cripps mission was that: “India would be a dominion
associated with the United kingdom”.

Important Facts on Cripps Mission

● Through the Cripps mission for the first time, the British government
recognized the “Right of Dominion’ for India.
● Indians were given promise of liberty to frame their own constitution.
● The Cripps mission which was a move to appease the Congress, Muslim
League and Indian states at the same time was rejected by all of them.
● Gandhi wanted an undivided India, Muslim league wanted a separate
Pakistan , Congress demanded full control over defence “stating that a slave
country cannot have any inspiration” .
 ● Muslim league said there was an inadequate representation of Muslims.
● Sikhs rejected because of non-accession provinces.
● Hindu Mahasabha rejected because the “Pakistan Virus” was alive.
● The Dalits and depressed classed also rejected because there was nothing
new for them.

Why did the Cripps​ ​Mission fail?

(1) its rejection by almost all political dispensations in the country
(2) its proposals included no real transfer of power
(3) the Viceroy and Secretary of State worked behind the door to sabotage the
mission etc.

The Quit India Movement (8th August 1942)

The Quit India Movement, or the August Movement, was a movement

launched at the Bombay session of the All-India Congress Committee by Mahatma
Gandhi on 8 August 1942, during World War II, demanding an end to British Rule of
India.

The Cripps Mission had failed, and on 8 August 1942, Gandhi made a call to
Do or Die in his Quit India speech delivered in Bombay at the Gowalia Tank Maidan.
The All-India Congress Committee launched a mass protest demanding what Gandhi
called "An Orderly British Withdrawal" from India. Even though it was wartime, the
British were prepared to act. Almost the entire leadership of the Indian National
Congress was imprisoned without trial within hours of Gandhi's speech.
Quit India Resolution drafted by Jawaharlal Nehru and was moved by him on 8th
August 1942 in AICCC session and Sardar Patel seconded it. Under the leadership
of Mahatma Gandhi, people across India came together to uproot imperialism.
The 75th anniversary of the Quit India Movement was observed across the country.
The year 2017 theme was “Sankalp Se Siddhi- the attainment through resolve”.
Prime Minister Narendra Modi in his Mann Ki Baat programme had called for
launching the mega campaign Sankalp Se Siddhi. The campaign pledges to build
new India by 2022. It calls on everyone to pledge together towards Clean India,
Poverty–free India, Corruption-free India, Terrorismfree India, Communalism-free
India, Casteism-free India.
The CR Formula (1944)

The CR formula entailed

1. The League was to endorse the Indian demand for independence and to
co-operate with the Congress in the formation of Provisional Interim
Government for a transitional period.
2. At the end of the World war, a commission would be appointed to demarcate
the districts having a Muslim population in the absolute majority and in those
areas plebiscite to be conducted on all inhabitants (including the
non-Muslims) on basis of adult suffrage.
3. All parties would be allowed to express their stance on the partition and their
views before the plebiscite.
4. In the event of separation, a mutual agreement would be entered into for
safeguarding essential matters such as defence, communication and
commerce and for other essential services.
5. The transfer of population, if any would be absolutely on a voluntary basis.
6. The terms of the binding will be applicable only in case of full transfer of
power by Britain to the Government of India.

The basic concepts of Rajagopalachari Formula were to engulf the gap between the
Muslims League and Indian National Congress arises due to the difference of
opinion on two-nation theory and independence of India from the British.

Desai - Liaquat Proposals (1945)

Bhulabhai Desai being the leader of the Congress in the Central Assembly
and a friend of Liaquat Ali (Leader of Muslim League), met him in January 1945 gave
him proposals for the formation of Interim Government at the centre.
After Desai’s declaration, Liaquat Ali published the list of an agreement which given
below:
● Nomination of an equal number of persons by both in the Central Executive.
● Representation of the minorities in particular of the Scheduled Caste and the
Sikhs.
● The government was to be formed and was to function with the framework of
the existing Government of India Act, 1935.
Wavell Plan and Shimla Conference (1945)

Provision of Wavell Plan

1. The Viceroy’s Executive Council would be immediately reconstituted and the

number of its members would be increased.
2. In the Council, there would be equal representation of high-caste Hindus and
Muslims.
3. All the members of the Council, except the Viceroy and the
Commander-in-Chief, would be Indians.
4. An Indian would be appointed as the member for Foreign Affairs in the
Council. However, a British commissioner would be responsible for trade
matters.
5. The defence of India would remain in British hands until power was ultimately
transferred to Indians.
6. The Viceroy would convene a meeting of Indian politicians including the
leaders of Congress and the Muslim League at which they would nominate
members of the new Council.
7. If this plan were to be approved for the central government, then similar
councils of local political leaders would be formed in all the provinces.
8. None of the changes suggested would in any way prejudice or prejudge the
essential form of the future permanent Constitution of India.

The Congress while objecting the demand asserted its rights to select the
representative of any community, including Muslims, as the Congress nominees to
the Council.

Wavell Plan was constituted to resolve the political deadlock of existing India
but he abandons the proposals due to a disagreement between leaders of Muslim
League and Congress, and finally, the proposals were dissolved at the Shimla
Conference.