21EC72 - Question & Answer Bank of Module 4 & 5

Q1: Compare the working principles of FDMA, TDMA, CDMA and SDMA
Ans:

TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)

1. Definition: TDMA divides the available bandwidth into time slots, with each user assigned a unique time
slot for communication.
2. Working Principle: Multiple users share the same frequency but transmit sequentially in their assigned
time slots.
3. Efficiency: Effective for systems with bursty traffic but can suffer from delays if time slots are
underutilized.
4. Application: Used in 2G cellular systems like GSM and in satellite communication.
5. Advantages: Reduces interference between users and is easier to implement compared to CDMA.
6. Disadvantages: Time synchronization is critical, and fixed time slots may lead to inefficiencies during
low traffic.

FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)

1. Definition: FDMA allocates separate frequency bands to each user for communication.
2. Working Principle: Users transmit simultaneously but on different frequency channels, ensuring no
overlap.
3. Efficiency: Offers continuous transmission, ideal for voice communications but has lower spectral
efficiency compared to TDMA and CDMA.
4. Application: Used in analog systems like the first-generation (1G) cellular systems and satellite
communication.
5. Advantages: Simple to implement, with minimal cross-talk between users.
6. Disadvantages: Bandwidth is rigidly divided, leading to underutilization during low traffic; requires guard
bands to avoid interference.

CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)

1. Definition: CDMA assigns unique codes to each user, allowing them to share the same frequency and
time resources.
2. Working Principle: Data is spread over a wide bandwidth, and only the intended receiver can decode the
signal using the corresponding code.
3. Efficiency: Highly spectral efficient, supports multiple users with overlapping frequencies.
4. Application: Used in 3G cellular systems like WCDMA and in GPS.
5. Advantages: Resistant to interference, supports soft handoffs, and provides high capacity for data and
voice communication.
6. Disadvantages: Complex to implement, requires precise power control to avoid near-far issues.

SDMA (Space Division Multiple Access)

1. Definition: SDMA uses spatial separation, such as beamforming, to allocate distinct spatial paths to
different users.
2. Working Principle: Relies on directional antennas or multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) technology
to target specific users.
3. Efficiency: Enhances capacity by reusing frequencies in different spatial directions.
4. Application: Widely used in advanced wireless systems like 4G, 5G, and satellite communications.
5. Advantages: Increases system capacity and efficiency without additional bandwidth or power.
6. Disadvantages: Requires sophisticated antenna systems and is dependent on accurate spatial
separation of users.
Q2: With a neat diagram summarize the OFDMA and SC-FDMA
Ans:
Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiple Access (OFDMA) is a multi-user version of the Orthogonal
Frequency-Division Multiplexing (OFDM) digital-modulation scheme. This is similar to FDM in concept.
However, in the case of OFDM, all of the sub-channels are dedicated to a single data source. The OFDM
scheme uses advanced digital signal-processing techniques to distribute the data over multiple
carriers at precise frequencies. The precise relationship among the subcarriers is referred to as
orthogonality. This means that the peaks of the power spectral density of each subcarrier occur at a
point at which the power of other subcarriers is zero. With OFDM, the subcarriers can be packed tightly
together because there is minimal interference between adjacent subcarriers.
Let there be a data stream operating at R bps and an available bandwidth of (N × b), where N is an integer
related to the number of subcarriers, and b is the base frequency, centered at 0. The entire bandwidth
could be used to send the data stream, in which case each bit duration would be 1/R. The alternative is
to split the data stream into N substreams, using a serial-to-parallel converter. Each substream has a
data rate of R/N bps and is transmitted on a separate subcarrier, with a spacing between adjacent
subcarriers of b. Now the bit duration is N/R. The base frequency, b is the lowest-frequency subcarrier.
All of the other subcarriers are integer multiples of the base frequency
For transmission, the set of OFDM subcarriers is further modulated to a higher frequency band. A digital
modulation scheme used with OFDM is Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK). In this case, each
transmitted symbol represents two bits. To minimise ISI, data are transmitted in bursts, with each burst
consisting of a cyclic prefix followed by data symbols. The cyclic prefix is used to absorb transients from
previous bursts caused by multipath. The resulting waveform created by the combined multipath
signals is not a function of any sample from the previous burst

SC-FDMA
Single-carrier FDMA (SC-FDMA) is a frequency-division multiple access scheme. SC-FDMA is a new
multiple access technique, which utilises single-carrier modulation, DFT-spread orthogonal frequency
multiplexing, and frequency domain equalisation. It has similar structure and performance to OFDMA.
SC-FDMA is currently adopted as the uplink multiple access scheme in 3GPP, and a variant of SC-FDMA
using code spreading is used in 3GPP2 uplink. IEEE 802.16 is also considering it for uplink.
SC-FDMA can be viewed as a linearly precoded OFDMA scheme (LP-OFDMA). It can also be viewed as
a single-carrier multiple access scheme. In fact, it is a multi-user version of the Single-Carrier
Frequency-Domain-Equalisation (SC-FDE) modulation scheme. Single Carrier FDMA (SC-FDMA) is an
extension of SC-FDE to accommodate multiple-user access. SC-FDMA is also regarded as DFT-
precoded or DFT-spread OFDMA.
The main advantage of SC-FDE and SC-FDMA/LP-OFDMA signals over conventional OFDM and OFDMA
signals is that they have lower peak-to-average power ratio (PAPR) because of its inherent single carrier
structure.
In SC-FDMA, guard intervals with cyclic repetition are introduced between blocks of symbols in view to
efficiently eliminate time spreading (caused by multi-path propagation) among the blocks, similar to
that available in OFDM. In OFDM, inverse FFT (IFFT) on the transmitter side, and Fast Fourier Transform
(FFT) is applied on the receiver side on each block of symbols. In SC-FDE, both FFT and IFFT are applied
on the receiver side, but not on the transmitter side, whereas in SC-FDMA, both FFT and IFFT are applied
on the transmitter side as well as on the receiver side.
In SC-FDMA, multiple access is made possible by inserting silent Fourier-coefficients on the
transmitter side before the IFFT, and removing them on the receiver side before the IFFT. Different users
are assigned to different Fourier-coefficients (sub-carriers).
In SC-FDMA, equalisation is achieved on the receiver side after the FFT calculation, by multiplying each
Fourier coefficient by a complex number. This operation is identical to that of in OFDM as well as SC-
FDE.
Thus, it is more capable of combating frequency-selective fading and phase distortion. One of the main
advantages is that frequency domain equalisation and FFT requires less computation power than
conventional time-domain equalisation
Q3: With neat diagrams summarize the multiple carrier multiple access schemes
Ans is same is Q2
Q4: Select the operation of Mobile (Cellular)-to-Mobile (Cellular) Call Procedure in Cellular
system and describe stepwise.
Ans:
Step 1. The originating mobile subscriber initiates the call in the same manner as it would do for a
mobile-to-landline call.
Step 2. The cell-site controller receives the caller’s identification number and the destination
telephone number through a reverse control channel, which are then forwarded to the MTSO.
Step 3. The MTSO sends a page command to all cell-site controllers to locate the called mobile
subscriber (which may be anywhere within or out of the service area).
Step 4. Once the called mobile subscriber is located, the destination cell-site controller sends a page
request through a forward control channel to the called mobile subscriber to determine if it is on and
not busy.
Step 5. After receiving a positive response to the page, the available free traffic channels are assigned
to both the calling and called mobile subscribers.
Step 6. Call-progress tones are given to both the calling and called mobile subscribers (ring-back and
ringtones respectively).
Step 7. When the MTSO receives a response that the called mobile subscriber has answered the
incoming call, the call-progress tones are terminated, and the conversation begins.
Step 8. If a mobile subscriber wishes to initiate a call and all traffic channels are busy, the MTSO
sends a directed retry command, instructing the calling mobile subscriber’s unit to reattempt the call
through a neighbouring cell.
Step 9. If the MTSO cannot allocate traffic channels through a neighbouring cell, it sends an intercept
message to the calling mobile subscriber over the forward control channel. During the mobile-
initiated call stage, if all the traffic channels assigned to the nearest cell-site are busy, then the mobile
subscriber makes a preconfigured number of repeated attempts. After a certain number of failed
attempts, a busy tone is returned to the calling mobile subscriber. This situation is termed as call
blocking.
Step 10. If the called mobile subscriber is busy, the calling mobile subscriber receives a busy signal.
Step 11. If the called mobile number is invalid, the calling mobile subscriber receives a recorded
message announcing that the call cannot be processed by the network
Q5: Select the operation of Mobile (Cellular)-to-Landline (PSTN) Call Procedure in Cellular
system and describe stepwise.
Ans:
Step 1. Calls from mobile subscribers to landline telephone subscribers can be initiated by entering
the land-line telephone number into the mobile unit’s keypad. The mobile subscriber then presses a
send key, which transmits the called landline telephone number as well as the mobile unit’s
identification number (MIN), ESN and Station Class Mark over a reverse control channel to the base
station.
Step 2. The base station receives a call-initiation request along with the MIN, ESN, and Station Class
Mark. If the calling mobile unit’s ID number is valid, the cell-site controller routes the called landline
telephone number over a wireline trunk circuit to the MTSO.
Step 3. The MTSO uses either standard call progress signals or the SS7 signaling protocol network to
locate a switching path through the PSTN to the called landline telephone subscriber.
Step 4. Using the cell-site controller, the MTSO assigns the calling mobile subscriber an available traffic
or voice channel and instructs the mobile subscriber to get tuned to that channel.
Step 5. After the cell-site controller receives verification that the mobile subscriber has tuned to the
selected voice channel and it has been determined that the called landline telephone number is not
busy, the mobile subscriber receives an audible call progress tone (ring-back) while the landline
telephone caller receives a standard ringing tone.
Step 6. If a suitable switching path is available to the landline telephone number, the call is completed
when the landline party answers the incoming call on its telephone.
Q7: What is handoff? Explain the operation of Intra and Inter-MSC handoff management in detail
Ans:

Handover (or handoff) management in GSM ensures that a call or data session is seamlessly transferred from
one cell or network element to another as the mobile station (MS) moves. Handover can occur within the
same Mobile Switching Center (MSC) or between different MSCs, categorized as Intra-MSC and Inter-MSC
handovers.

1. Intra-MSC Handover

This type of handover occurs within the same MSC area. It can be further divided into two scenarios:

• Intra-BTS Handover:

o The handover happens within the same Base Transceiver Station (BTS).

o Triggered when the MS moves within the same cell but requires a change in frequency or
timeslot due to interference or congestion.

o Example: Switching to a less congested channel within the same BTS.

• Inter-BTS, Intra-BSC Handover:

o The handover occurs between two BTSs managed by the same Base Station Controller (BSC).

o Typically triggered when the MS moves to a different cell within the same BSC coverage area.

• Inter-BSC, Intra-MSC Handover:

o The handover occurs between two BSCs under the same MSC.

o Managed by the MSC, which coordinates between the source and target BSCs.

2. Inter-MSC Handover

This type of handover occurs when the MS moves from one MSC area to another. It is more complex because it
involves coordination between two MSCs:

• Trigger:

o Happens when the user moves to a cell controlled by a different MSC, typically during long-
distance movement or across administrative boundaries.

• Procedure:

1. The source MSC initiates the handover process and communicates with the target MSC.

2. The target MSC allocates the necessary resources (e.g., channels, timeslots) in the target BSC and BTS.

3. Once resources are ready, the source MSC signals the MS to switch to the new cell and updates the
Visitor Location Register (VLR) for the user's new location.

4. Call data or session continuity is ensured by forwarding data between the two MSCs during the
transition.

• Challenges:

o Requires inter-MSC signaling and resource allocation.

o Ensures data integrity and call continuity across different network segments.
Comparison:

Aspect Intra-MSC Handover Inter-MSC Handover

Complexity Simpler, limited to one MSC More complex, involves coordination between MSCs

Coverage Area Within a single MSC area Across different MSC areas

Delay Minimal delay Slightly higher due to inter-MSC signaling

Resource Allocation Handled within the same MSC Requires resource coordination between MSCs
Q8: With a neat diagram explain the GSM system architecture
Ans:

The GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) architecture is organized into distinct
subsystems, each responsible for specific functions in a cellular network.

1. Network Switching System (NSS)

The NSS is the core network responsible for managing communication between users and external
networks. It handles switching, mobility management, authentication, and billing.
• Main Components:
o Mobile Switching Center (MSC): The central node for call routing and signaling, managing
voice, SMS, and data traffic.
o Visitor Location Register (VLR): A temporary database containing subscriber information
for users currently in a specific geographical area.
o Home Location Register (HLR): A permanent database storing subscriber data like SIM
details, service subscriptions, and current location.
o Authentication Center (AUC): Provides security functions, including verifying the
subscriber's identity and encrypting communication.
o Equipment Identity Register (EIR): Maintains a list of valid mobile equipment by IMEI
(International Mobile Equipment Identity) to block stolen or unauthorized devices.

2. Base Station System (BSS)

The BSS connects mobile stations to the NSS, handling radio communications and managing resources
in the radio access network.
 • Main Components:
o Base Transceiver Station (BTS): The physical infrastructure responsible for transmitting
and receiving radio signals to/from mobile stations within its coverage area.
o Base Station Controller (BSC): Manages multiple BTSs, handles radio resource
allocation, call setup, and handovers between BTSs.
• Functions:
o Provides the air interface (radio communication) between mobile stations and the
network.
o Controls and optimizes the use of radio frequencies.

3. Mobile Station (MS)

The MS represents the end-user device and SIM card used for communication.
• Main Components:
o Mobile Equipment (ME): The hardware part of the device, including the handset, radio
interface, and user interface.
o Subscriber Identity Module (SIM): A removable smart card containing unique subscriber
data like IMSI (International Mobile Subscriber Identity), encryption keys, and stored
contacts.
• Functions:
o Provides access to the network via the air interface.
o Ensures user authentication through the SIM.

4. Operation and Support System (OSS)

The OSS is responsible for network monitoring, management, and optimization. It provides tools and
systems to ensure smooth operation of the GSM network.
• Functions:
o Network Monitoring: Tracks the performance and health of network components.
o Fault Management: Identifies and resolves technical issues in the network.
o Configuration Management: Handles network setup and reconfiguration tasks.
o Performance Analysis: Evaluates network performance and implements improvements.
o Billing and Customer Care Support: Assists in generating billing data and managing
customer services.
Q9: With a neat diagram develop the flow diagram of following system operations in GSM
a) Authentication request
b) Location updating
c) Ciphering mode check
d) Call initiation and call confirmation procedures
Ans:
a)

b)
c)

d)
Q10: List out the GSM services and features.
Ans:
GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) offers a wide range of services and features that
enable efficient communication. These services are categorized into Telephony Services, Data
Services, and Supplementary Services, alongside specialized features enhancing user experience.

1. Telephony Services (Teleservices)

These services provide basic communication capabilities for voice and text:
• Voice Calls: High-quality mobile-to-mobile and mobile-to-fixed voice communication.
• Emergency Calls: Access to emergency services without requiring network registration.
• Short Message Service (SMS): Text messaging with a maximum of 160 characters.
• Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS): Sending and receiving multimedia content (images,
audio, video).

2. Data Services (Bearer Services)

These services support data communication and internet access:
• Circuit-Switched Data (CSD): Data transfer over circuit-switched channels, enabling slow-
speed internet access.
• General Packet Radio Service (GPRS): Packet-switched data for faster internet and email
access.
• High-Speed Circuit-Switched Data (HSCSD): An enhanced version of CSD for higher-speed
data transmission.
• EDGE (Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution): An improved data transfer technology for
faster speeds than GPRS.

3. Supplementary Services
These services enhance user experience and offer advanced functionality:
• Call Forwarding: Redirects calls to another number.
• Call Waiting and Call Hold: Alerts users of incoming calls and allows switching between calls.
• Call Barring: Restricts certain types of calls, such as international dialing.
• CLIP/CLIR (Calling Line Identification Presentation/Restriction): Shows or hides the caller’s
number.
• Conference Calling: Enables multiple parties to participate in a single call.

4. Advanced GSM Features

• Roaming: Seamless connectivity while traveling across networks and countries.
• Authentication and Encryption: Ensures secure communication using SIM-based
authentication and data encryption.
• Cell Broadcast Service (CBS): Broadcasting text messages to all subscribers in a cell.
• Location-Based Services: Services like emergency location tracking and navigation.
• Enhanced Messaging Services (EMS): Combines text with simple multimedia elements.
Q11: Explain the concept of GSM Channel.
Ans:

The GSM channel concept organizes communication between mobile stations (MS) and the network using a
structured framework of radio frequencies and timeslots. GSM operates within specific frequency bands (e.g.,
900 MHz or 1800 MHz), divided into carriers, with each carrier further split into timeslots using Time Division
Multiple Access (TDMA). Each timeslot represents a channel.

GSM channels are broadly classified into traffic channels (TCH) and control channels (CCH):

1. Traffic Channels (TCH):

These carry user data such as voice calls and SMS. Full-rate (TCH/F) and half-rate (TCH/H)
configurations optimize bandwidth.

2. Control Channels (CCH):

These manage signaling and network coordination. Subtypes include:

o Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH): Transmits network information to all mobile stations.

o Common Control Channel (CCCH): Handles connection requests and paging.

o Dedicated Control Channel (DCCH): Provides point-to-point signaling during an active

connection.

A frequency and timeslot allocation strategy ensures multiple users can share the same carrier without
interference. Guard bands and synchronization reduce cross-channel interference. The combination of
frequency, time, and control mechanisms creates a scalable and efficient framework for GSM communication.