Introduction:

The course NAVIGATION Terrestrial & Coastal Navigation is a field of study that focuses on the process of monitoring and
controlling the movement of a craft or vehicle from one place to another. Also an art used for the specialized knowledge
used by navigators to perform navigation tasks. All navigational techniques involve locating the navigator's position
compared to known locations or patterns by depending on Island, Landmarks, Lighthouses. Involves navigating in
restricted waters with frequent or constant determination of position relative to nearby geographic and hydrographic
features.

The Sailings ; Dead reckoning involves the determination of one’s present or future position by projecting the ship’s
course and distance run from a known position. A closely related problem is that of finding the course and distance from
one known point to another. For short distances, these problems are easily solved directly on charts, but for trans-oceanic
distances, a purely mathematical solution is often a better method. Collectively.

Objective of this module: the students will be able to gain knowledge and Derive the information required in a parallel or
plane sailing problems using traverse table or calculators , Determine the uses of the traverse and middle latitude sailing
formulae including correct departure, course and distances between two positions and the mean latitude; Derive the
information required in a Traverse and Middle Latitude sailing problems using traverse table or calculators.

Topics covered on this module;

Type of Sailing
-Sailing Problems for parallel and plane with the use of Traverse Table or Calculators,

-Traverse Sailing ,Middle Latitude Sailing,

-Sailing Problems for traverse and middle latitude with the use of Traverse Table or Calculators

Discussion:

TRAVERSE TABLE

Traverse tables can be used in the solution of any of the sailings except great circle and composite. They consist of the
tabulation of the solutions of plane right triangles. Because the solutions are for integral values of the course angle and
the distance, interpolation for intermediate values may be required.

Through appropriate interchanges of the headings of the columns, solutions for other than plane sailing can be made. For
the solution of the plane right triangle, any value N in the distance (Dist.) column is the hypotenuse; the value opposite in
the difference of latitude (D. Lat.) column is the product of N and the cosine of the acute angle; and the other number
opposite in the departure (Dep.) column is the product of N and the sine of the acute angle. Or, the number in the D. Lat.
column is the value of the side adjacent, and the number in the Dep. column is the value of the side opposite the acute
angle.
Hence, if the acute angle is the course angle, the side adjacent in the D. Lat. column is meridional difference m; the side
opposite in the Dep. column is DLo. If the acute angle is the midlatitude of the formula p = DLo cos L m, then DLo is any
value N in the Dist. column, and the departure is the value N × cos Lm in the D. Lat. column.

The examples below clarify the use of the traverse tables for plane, traverse, parallel, mid latitude, and Mercator sailings.

PLANE SAILING USING TRAVERSE TABLE.

In plane sailing the figure formed by the meridian through the point of departure, the parallel through the point of arrival,
and the course line is considered a plane right triangle. ILLUSTRATED NEXT PAGE.

P1 and P2 are the points of departure and arrival, respectively. The course angle and the three sides are as labeled. From
this triangle: cos C = 1/D sin C = P / D tan C = P / 1

From the first two of these formulas the following relationships can be derived:
l= D cos C D = l sec C p = D sin C.

Label l as N or S, and p as E or W, to aid in identification of the quadrant of the course. Solutions by calculations and
traverse tables are illustrated in the following examples:

Example 1: A vessel steams 188.0 miles on course 005°.

Required: (1) (a) Difference of latitude and (b) departure by computation. (2) (a) difference of latitude and (b) departure
by traverse table.

Solution:

(1) (a) Difference of latitude by computation:

diff latitude = D × cos C

= 188.0 miles × cos (005°)
 = 187.3 arc min
= 3° 07.3' N

(1) (b) Departure by computation:

departure = D × sin C
= 188.0 miles × sin (005°)
= 16.4 miles

Answers:
(a) Diff. Lat. = 3° 07.3' N
(b) departure = 16.4 miles

(2) Difference of latitude and departure by traverse table:

Enter the traverse table and find course 005° at the top of the page. Using the column headings at the top of the table,
opposite 188 in the Dist. column extract D. Lat. 187.3 and Dep. 16.4.

Answers:
(a) D. Lat. = 187.3' N.
(b) Dep. = 16.4 mi. E.

Example 2: A ship has steamed 136.0 miles north and 203.0 miles west.

Required: (1) (a) Course and (b) distance by computation. (2) (a) course and (b) distance by traverse table.

Solution:
(1) (a) Course by computation:

C = arctan Dep. / diff Lat.

C = arctan 203.0 / 136.0
C = N 56° 10.8' W
C = 304°(to nearest degree)

Draw the course vectors to determine the correct course. In this case the vessel has gone north 136 miles and west 203
miles. The course, therefore, must have been between 270° and 360°. No solution other than 304° is reasonable.

(1) (b) Distance by computation:

D = diff. latitude × sec C

= 136 miles × sec (304°)
= 136 miles × 1.8
= 244.8 miles

Answers:
(a) C = 304°
(b) D = 244.8 miles

(2) Solution by traverse table:

Enter the table and find 136 and 203 beside each other in the columns labeled D.Lat. and Dep., respectively. This occurs
most nearly on the page for course angle 56°. Therefore, the course is 304°. Interpolating for intermediate values, the
corresponding number in the Dist. column is 244.3 miles.

Answers:
(a) C = 304°
(b) D = 244.3 mi.
 PARALLEL SAILING USING TRAVERSE TABLE & CALCULATOR

Parallel sailing consists of the interconversion of departure and difference of longitude. It is the simplest form of spherical
sailing. The formulas for these transformations are:

DLo = p sec L, and p = DLo cos L

Example 1: The DR latitude of a ship on course 090° is 49°30' N. The ship steams on this course until the longitude
changes 2°30'.

Required: The departure by (1) computation and (2) traverse table.

Solution:

(1) Solution by computation:

DLo = 3° 30'
DLo = 210 arc min
p = DLo × cos L
p = 210 arc minutes × cos (49.5°)
p = 136.4 miles

Answer:
p = 136.4 miles

(2) Solution by traverse table

Enter the traverse table with latitude as course angle and substitute DLo as the heading of the Dist. column and Dep. as
the heading of the D. Lat. column. Since the table is computed for integral degrees of course angle (or latitude), the
tabulations in the pages for 49° and 50° must be interpolated for the intermediate value (49°30'). The departure for
latitude 49° and DLo 210' is 137.8 miles. The departure for latitude 50° and DLo 210' is 135.0 miles. Interpolating for the
intermediate latitude, the departure is 136.4 miles.

Answer:
p = 136.4 miles

Example 2: The DR latitude of a ship on course 270° is 38°15'S. The ship steams on this course for a distance of 215.5
miles.

Required: The change in longitude by (1) computation and (2) traverse table.

Solution:

(1) Solution by computation

DLo = 215.5 arc min × sec (38.25°)

DLo = 215.5 arc min × 1.27
DLo = 274.4 minutes of arc (west)
DLo = 4° 34.4' W

Answer:
DLo = 4° 34.4' W

2) Solution by traverse table

Enter the traverse tables with latitude as course angle and substitute DLo as the heading of the Dist. column and Dep. as
the heading of the D. Lat. column. As the table is computed for integral degrees of course angle (or latitude), the
tabulations in the pages for 38° and 39° must be interpolated for the minutes of latitude. Corresponding to Dep. 215.5
miles in the former is DLo 273.5', and in the latter DLo 277.3'. Interpolating for minutes of latitude, the DLo is 274.4'W.

Answer:
DLo = 4° 34.4' W

================================================================================================
Traverse Sailing ,Middle Latitude Sailing,

MID- LATITUDE SAILING

Middle-latitude sailing combines plane sailing and parallel sailing. Plane sailing is used to find difference of latitude and
departure when course and distance are known, or vice versa. Parallel sailing is used to interconvert departure and
difference of longitude. The mean latitude (Lm) is normally used for want of a practical means of determining the middle
latitude, or the latitude at which the arc length of the parallel separating the meridians passing through two specific
points is exactly equal to the departure in proceeding from one point to the other. The formulas for these transformations
are:

DLo = p sec Lm, and p = DLo cos Lm.

The mean latitude (Lm) is half the arithmetic sum of the latitudes of two places on the same side of the equator. It is
labeled N or S to indicate its position north or south of the equator. If a course line crosses the equator, solve each course
line segment separately.

Example 1: A vessel steams 1,253 miles on course 070° from lat. 15°17.0' N, long. 151°37.0' E.

Required: Latitude and longitude of the point of arrival by (1) computation and (2) traverse table.

Solution:

(1) Solution by computation:

l = D cos C; p = D sin C; and DLo = p sec Lm.

D = 1253.0 miles.

C = 070°
 l = 428.6' N

p = 1177.4 miles E
L1 = 15°17.0' N
l = 7°08.6' N
L2 = 22°25.6' N

Lm = 18°51.3' N
DLo = 1244.2' E
λ1 = 151°37.0' E
DLo = 20°44.2' E
λ2 = 172° 21.2' E

Answer:
L2 = 22° 25.6' N
l2 = 172° 21.2' E

(2) Solution by traverse tables:

Enter the traverse table with course 070° and distance 1,253 miles. Because a number as high as 1,253 is not tabulated in
the Dist. column, obtain the values for D. Lat. and Dep. for a distance of 125.3 miles and multiply them by 10.
Interpolating between the tabular distance arguments yields D. Lat. = 429' and Dep. = 1,178 miles. Converting the D. Lat.
value to degrees of latitude yields 7° 09.0'. The point of arrival’s latitude, therefore, is 22° 26' N. This results in a mean
latitude of 18° 51.5' N.

Reenter the table with the mean latitude as course angle and substitute DLo as the heading of the Dist. column and Dep.
as the heading of the D. Lat. column. Since the table is computed for integral degrees of course angle (or latitude), the
tabulations in the pages for 18° and 19° must be interpolated for the minutes of Lm. In the 18° table, interpolate for DLo
between the departure values of 117.0 miles and 117.9 miles. This results in a DLo value of 123.9. In the 19° table,
interpolate for DLo between the departure values of 117.2 and 118.2. This yields a DLo value of 124.6.

Having obtained the DLo values corresponding to mean latitudes of 18° and 19°, interpolate for the actual value of the
mean latitude: 18° 51.5' N. This yields the value of DLo: 124.5. Multiply this final value by ten to obtain DLo = 1245
minutes = 20° 45' E.

Add the changes in latitude and longitude to the original position’s latitude and longitude to obtain the final position.

Answer:
L2 = 22° 26' N
l2 = 172° 22.0' E

TRAVERSE SAILING;

A traverse is a series of courses or a track consisting of a number of course lines, such as might result from a sailing vessel
beating into the wind. Traverse sailing is the finding of a single equivalent course and distance.

Though the problem can be solved graphically on the chart, traverse tables provide a mathematical solution. The distance
to the north or south and to the east or west on each course is tabulated, the algebraic sum of difference of latitude and
departure is found, and converted to course and distance.

Example: A ship steams as follows: course 158°, distance 15.5 miles; course 135°, distance 33.7 miles; course 259°,
distance 16.1 miles; course 293°, distance 39.0 miles; course 169°, distance 40.4 miles.

Required: Equivalent single (1) course (2) distance.

Solution: Solve each leg as a plane sailing and tabulate each solution as follows: For course 158°, extract the values for D.
Lat. and Dep. opposite 155 in the Dist. column. Then, divide the values by 10 and round them off to the nearest tenth.
Repeat the procedure for each leg.

Course Dist. N S E W
degrees mi. mi. mi. mi. mi.
158 15.5 14.4 5.8
135 33.7 23.8 23.8
135 33.7 23.8 23.8
259 16.1 3.1 15.8
293 39.0 15.2 35.9
169 40.4 39.7 7.7
 Subtotals 15.2 81.0 37.3 51.7
-15.2 -37.3
N/S Total 65.8 S 14.4 W
Thus, the latitude difference is S 65.8 miles and the departure is W 14.4 miles. Convert this to a course and distance using
the formulas discussed.

Answer:
(1) C = 192.3°
(2) D = 67.3 miles.

Glossary:

1. Plane sailing solves problems involving a single course and distance, difference of latitude, and departure, in
which the Earth is regarded as a plane surface. This method, therefore, provides solution for latitude of the point
of arrival, but not for longitude. To calculate the longitude, the spherical sailings are necessary. Plane sailing is not
intended for distances of more than a few hundred miles.
2. Traverse sailing combines the plane sailing solutions when there are two or more courses and determines the
equivalent course and distance made good by a vessel steaming along a series of rhumb lines.
3. Parallel sailing is the interconversion of departure and difference of longitude when a vessel is proceeding due
east or due west.
4. Middle- (or mid-) latitude sailing uses the mean latitude for converting departure to difference of longitude when
the course is not due east or due west.
5. Mercator sailing provides a mathematical solution of the plot as made on a Mercator chart. It is similar to plane
sailing, but uses meridional difference and difference of longitude in place of difference of latitude and departure.
6. Great circle sailing involves the solution of courses, distances, and points along a great circle between two points.
7. Composite sailing is a modification of great circle sailing to limit the maximum latitude, generally to avoid ice or
severe weather near the poles.

MERIDIAN – Imaginary semi-circle joining the earth's poles, and crossing the equator and all latitudes (baselines) at
right angles.
RHUMB LINES – or loxodrome is an arc crossing all meridians of longitude at the same angle, i.e. a path with constant
bearing as measured relative to true or magnetic north.

GREAT CIRCLE – also known as an orthodrome . A circle on the surface of a sphere that lies in a plane passing through
the sphere's center.
LATITUDE – is an angle which ranges from 0° at the Equator to 90° (North or South) at the poles. Lines of constant
latitude, or parallels, run east to west as circles parallel to the equator.

TRUE COURSE – the course of a ship measured with respect to True North.

LONGITUDE – Angular distance East or West on the earth's surface, measured by the angle contained between the
meridian of a particular place and some prime meridian, as that of Greenwich, England, and expressed either in degrees
or by some corresponding difference in time.