 3-POINT STARTER FOR D.C.

SHUNT MOTOR:

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 4-POINT STARTER FOR D.C. COMPOUND MOTOR:

Page 12
 SERIES MOTOR STARTER WITH N.L.R.:

 CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS OF MOVING-IRON ATTRACTION TYPE METER:

Page 13
 8. UNDERGROUND CABLES
 Cable is any current carrying conductor either of solid or stranded type provided with over all
insulation.
Underground cables are being mostly utilized for transmission and distribution of electrical
energy. For certain loads for example air-port, thickly populated areas it is necessary to use
underground cable for distribution, transmission and service connections.
 Underground cable can be specified by number of cores, voltage they can withstand or type of
insulation.
 Principle insulating material used in cables are rubber, vulcanized India rubber impregnated
paper, varnished cambric and polyvinyl chloride.
 The type of insulation to use must have following properties.
i) It should have high specific resistance.
ii) It should be tough and flexible.
iii) It should not be hygroscopic.
iv) It should be capable of standing high temperatures.
v) It should be non-inflammable.
vi) It should not be attacked by acids and alkalis

Comparison between Overhead system and Underground system

Overhead Underground
1) Repair-easy to repair Not easy to repair
2) Fault location is easy and quick Fault location is not easy
3) Initial cost is less Initial cost is more
4) Due to more spacing of the conductor Charging current is more
charging current is less in over head system.
5) Jointing is easy Jointing is difficult
6) Maintenance cost is more Maintenance cost is less
7) Safety is less Safety is more
8) Appearance is shabby Compact and invisible.
9) Affected by Lightning and thunderstorm. No effect of lighting and thunderstorm.
10) Interference to Telephone lines. No interference to Telephone lines.

According to voltage they can be classified:

1) L.T. - (Low tension cable) up to 1000 V
2) H.T. – (High tension cable) up to 11 kV.
3) S.T. – (Super tension cable) from 22 kV to 33 kV.
4) E.H.T. – Extra high tension cable from 33 kV to 66 kV.
5) Oil filled cable – 66 kV to 132kV.

Types of Three Phase Cable or H. T. Cable as per construction:

1) Belted type
2) Screened type [H type]
3) S.L. cable [Separate lead]
4) H.S.L. cable [Combination of H and S.L. type]
5) Super tension cables

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CONSTRUCTION OF CABLE:

1. Conductor: All cables have solid or stranded Aluminum or copper conductor.

2. Insulation (core): Conductor with one layer of insulation is called core. All cables have one
centre core and number of cores. Different insulations used to insulate the conductors are paper
varnished cambric impregnated paper or P.V.C. Thickness of layer depending upon voltage to
be withstand by the cable.
3. Metallic sheath: A metallic sheath is provided over the insulation so as to prevent the entry of
moisture into the insulating material. The metallic sheath is of leador lead alloy. Metallic
sheath protect the cable from moisture, gases, acids and alkalies in the soil.
4. Bedding: Over the metallic sheath comes a layer of bedding which consists of paper tape
compounded with a fibrous material. Sometimes jute strands or hessian tape is also used for
bedding to protect metallic sheath against corrosion and mechanical injury due to armouring.
5. Armouring: Armouring is provided to avoid mechanical injury to the cable and it consists of
providing one or two layers of galvanized steel wires or steep tapes.
6. Serving: In order to protect armoring from atmospheric condition layer of fibrous material or
P.V.C. is provided over the armouring.

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 LYING OF CABLES:
Before laying a cable under the ground its route should be surveyed and the position of
water mains or drains should be ascertained. The cable to be buried must have following
properties:
1) The moisture should not enter the core of the cable.
2) It must have high insulation resistance.
3) It should be able to withstand heat produced due to flow of currents.
4) Armoured cable should be used.
5) It should not be very costly and bulky.
6) It should be sufficiently flexible.

Different Methods of Laying Under Ground Cable:

1) Direct in ground method [Trench Laying]
2) Pipe [duct] lying
3) Trough lying

1. Direct Laying:
In this method a trench of about 1.5 meters deep 0.5 m wide is dug. The trench is
covered with a layer of fine sand of about 10 cm thickness and cable is laid over this sand bed.
The sand prevents entry of moisture from the ground and protects the cable from decay. After
the cable has been laid in the trench, it is covered with another layer of soil of about 15 cm
thickness. Bricks or tiles are laid on this layer of soil and finally trench is filled by soil. When
more than one cable is laid in the same trench horizontal, spacing of at least 30 cm is provided.

Advantages:
i. Simple, cheap, clean and safe.
ii. Favorable condition for dissipation of heat.

Disadvantages:
i. Alteration and extension cannot be made easily.
ii. Localization of fault is difficult.

2. Pipe or duct laying or Draw In system:

In this method conduit or duct of cast iron or concrete are laid in the ground with man-
holes at suitable position along the cable route. Cable is then pulled into position from man-
holes. The cables to be laid in this way need not to be armoured. This method is used in
workshops, road crossing.

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Advantages:
i. Repairs alterations or additions can be made without opening the ground.
ii. Mechanical protection is strong.

Disadvantages:
i. Initial cast is high.
ii. Unfavorable conditions for dissipation of heat.

3. Troughs lying or Solid system:

In this method of laying, the cable is laid in open pipes and troughs dug out in earth
along the cable route. Troughing is of cast iron, asphalt or treated wood. After the cable is laid
in position, the troughing is filled with bituminous or asphaltic compound and covered over
with a lit. Trough is of U shape and having one or three compartments to receive the cables.

Disadvantages:
i. Expensive
ii. Requires skilled labor so rarely used.

Cable Jointing
Two types of cable joints:
1) Straight through joints.
2) T-joints
General steps are as follows:
i) Marking of cutting point with an allowance of 5 cm overlap approximately. Tie up the ends
with binding wire at 15 to 20 cm from the jointing end.
ii) Removing insulation making conductor open for 3 cm.
iii) Twisting conductor ends.
iv) Soldering with the help of cotton tape or by pouring molten solder.
v) Insulating the joint with paper tape.
vi) Allow the joint to cool down.
vii) Sealing all the openings with adhesive compound.
viii) Paint the joint with corrosive resistive black paint.
Open circuit, short circuit and earth fault in the cable can be detected with the help of megger or test
lamp.

WIRES CABLE
Conductor with insulation is called as wire When insulation is provided over group of wire is
cable.
Flexibility is more Flexibility is less
Cost is less Cost is more
Mechanical strength is less Mechanical strength is more
Not used for HV or EHT lines Used for HT and EHT lines

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 9. ILLUMINATION

 SOME IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS:-

Light: It is a radiant form of energy from a hot or luminous body.

Luminous flux: It is defined as total quantity of light energy emitted per second from a luminous
body. Unit of luminous flux is lumen.

Lumen: It is a unit of luminous flux. If the source is of one candle power, the luminous flux per unit
solid angle from source is one lumen.

Luminous Intensity: It is defined as flux emitted by lighting sources per unit solid angle. Unit of
luminous intensity is candela.

Illumination: It is luminous flux received per unit area. Its unit is lumen/m2 or also called Lux.

Lux: It is defined as the illumination of the inside of the sphere of radius one meter at the center of
which there is a source of one candle power.

Various types of electric lamps:

1) Arc Lamps.
2) Incandescent Lamps
3) Gas filled Lamps.
4) Gaseous discharge Lamps.

Various methods of producing light by electricity are:

a) By an Arc
Ex: Carbon arc Lamp, Flame arc Lamp, Magnetic arc Lamp.
b) By incandescence of heated filament.
c) By glow discharge.

 Filament Lamp or Incandescent Lamp:

a) Lamp is made of glass globe.
b) The glass blub contains tungsten filament.
c) The bulb is evacuated to prevent oxidation of filament and also to prevent temperature being
lowered by radiation.
d) When electric current is passed through the filament, heat is produced in the filament due to its
high resistance and temperature increases.
e) At low temperature, it gives heat and at high temperature, it gives both heat and light.
f) Tungsten filament is most commonly used due to its
(i) High melting point - 34000 c .
(ii) High resistivity.
(iii) Low temp co-efficient
(iv) Being Ductile.
(v) Mechanically strong to withstand vibration.
g) Average efficiency is 10 lumens / watt.

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h) Normal life is thousand working hours.

Advantages:
(i) Operates at unity power factor.
(ii) No effect of surrounding air temperature.

Disadvantages:
(i) If filament lamp is worked beyond 20000 C , it vaporizes quickly and blackens lamp.
(ii) For higher efficiency, it is necessary to use working temperature more than 20000 C which is
possible by filling the bulb with inert gas. They are called gas filled lamp
 Gaseous discharge lamps:
a) Gaseous discharge lamps have been developed to overcome these short comings.
b) It consists of glass quartz tube containing 2 electrodes and small quantity of gas or vapour at
low pressure.
c) In this lamp, light is obtained by applying P.D. to a gas contained by the lamp under suitable
pressure.
d) Due to application of P.D., gas gets ionized and electric current flows.

Types of gaseous discharges lamps:

1) Fluorescent lamps
2) Sodium vapour lamps
3) Mercury vapour lamps.
4) Neon lamps.
5) Neon Sign Tubes

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GASEOUS DISCHARGE LAMPS:
1. Fluorescent lamp/tube or low Pressure Mercury Vapour Lamp:

(Also called low Pressure Mercury Vapour Lamp) LPMV

a) Fluorescent tube uses phenomenon of fluorescence.
b) 07In this lamp, discharge through vapour produces ultraviolet waves causing fluorescence in
certain materials called phosphor.
c) Inner side of fluorescent lamp is coated with phosphor or fluorescent powder which absorbs
invisible ultraviolet rays and radiates visible light rays.
d) Tube contains small quantity of Argon gas and one or two drops of mercury globules.
e) Tube is provided with electrodes of tungsten and coated with electron emissive material.
f) Presence of Argon helps in quick vaporization.
g) Efficiency is 40 lumens/watt and life is 4000 working hours.

 Operation :-
(i) When AC voltage is applied across tube light, thermi-ionic emission takes place at electrode.
(ii) But mains voltage (230V) is not sufficient to pull the electrons through tube.
(iii) In the beginning there is no stream of electrons formed.
(iv) The circuit remains incomplete.
(v) To complete the circuit, a starter is connected in parallel with tube as a bypass circuit.
(vi) Starter houses bimetallic strips.
(vii) When supply is switched on, the potential across bimetallic strip causes sparking in a small gap
of starter.
(viii) It causes glow discharge not enough to heat the electrodes but they are sufficient to heat
bimetallic strip.
(ix) Due to heating, strip bends and makes contact.
(x) In this way, circuit gets completed.
(xi) Due to this, choke gets fully charged.
(xii) After few seconds due to absence of sparking there is no heat given out and bimetal cools
down, breaking the contact.
(xiii) At that instant, choke discharges giving voltage impulse of about 1100 V across tube.

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(xiv) Temperature gets raised and gas gets ionized.
(xv) A stream of electrons is formed in few such cycles. Due to repetition of this cycle for 2-3
times, we see flickering of tube light. Once conduction begins through the tube, mercury
globules are evaporated and we get bluish light.
(xvi) When tube starts conducting starter circuit is cut off.
(xvii) Even if starter is removed, tube continues to glow.

Function of Starter: Starter puts the electrodes directly across supply mains and completes the circuit
at the time of starting, so that choke gets charged and electrodes get heated to emit sufficient electrons.

Function of Choke:
1) Provided a voltage impulse for starting.
2) Acts as ballast or stabilizer for running period.

 Distinguish between Incandescent lamp and Fluorescent lamp.

Incandescent lamp Fluorescent lamp
1) Power factor is unity 1) Power factor is lagging.
2) Light intensity is less. 2) Light intensity is more.
3) Produces glare on eyes. 3) Cool and pleasant light.
4) Cheap 4) Costly
5) Can work on reduced supply voltage. 5) Cannot work on reduced supply voltage.
6) Efficiency is 4 to 10 lumens/ Watt. 6) Efficiency is 40 lumens / Watt.
7) Life is 1000 working hours. 7) Life is 4000 working hours
8) Stroboscopic effect is not found 8) Stroboscopic effect is found.

2. Sodium Vapour Lamp:

a) It consists of specially made discharge tube.

b) Over this discharge tube another glass tube is provided for conservation of heat.
c) Transformer is used to provide 470-480 V
d) Power factor is very low, i.e. 0.3 lag.
e) Capacitor is used to improve power factor.
f) Inner tube contains 2 electrodes, sodium gas and small quantity of Neon gas.
g) Operation:
(i) When lamp is not in operation, sodium is usually in the form of solid deposited on side walls

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 of tube.
(ii) When lamp is connected across supply mains, discharge takes place in Neon gas and gives red
orange glow.
(iii) Sodium gradually vaporizes and ionizes giving yellowish light.
h) Efficiency is 50 lumens/watt.
i) Life is 3000 working hours.
j) Time for full glow=15 mins.

Application: Street lighting, outdoor lighting where discrimination of color is not required.

3. Neon Lamp:
a) It consists of glass bulb filled with neon gas with small percentage of helium.
b) The electrodes used are fixed only a few mm apart so that lamps maybe made for voltage as
low as 110 V A.C. or 150 V D.C.
c) This lamp gives orange-pink colored light. Power consumption is low (about 5 watts).
d) Efficiency is 40 lumens/watt.

4. Neon Tubes Or Neon Signs:

a) Used for advertisement and decoration purpose.
b) Neon tubes are used in varying lengths up to 8m and are bent into almost any desired shape
during manufacturing.
c) Neon tube contains two electrodes one at each end of the tube.
d) Electrodes are made of steel or copper.
e) Nickel wires are used for connection of letters in neon tubes.
f) Neon tubes are manufactured in different colors by changing composition of glass and by
adding different gases.

Fig.Circuit connection

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 Gas Used Color
1. Helium a. Pink
2. Nitrogen b. Golden yellow
3. Sodium c. Yellow
4. Xenon ,krypton d. Pale blue
5. Mercury Vapour e. Bluish white

5. Mercury Vapour Lamp:

a. It consists of inner tube enclosed in outer
glass envelope.
b. In addition to two main electrodes, a
starting electrode is also provided.
c. Inner tube contains Argon + Mercury.
d. When supply is switched on, voltage is
applied between auxiliary electrode and
main electrode.
e. Discharge through Argon takes place.
f. This enables main discharge to
commence.
g. As lamp warms up, Mercury vaporizes.
h. Discharge takes place between two main
electrodes.
i. Time taken for full glow 4 to 5 min.
j. Efficiency -50 lumens/watt.
k. Application :
(i) Shops
(ii) Street light
(iii) Show Rooms
(iv) Gate lights.

 SCHEMES OF LIGHTING:

1. Direct lighting:

a. In this scheme more than 90%light is made to fall on the working plane.
b. This is most efficient scheme, but it causes shadows and glares.
c. Used for industrial and general outdoor lighting.

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 2. Semi –Direct Lighting:

a. 60% of total light is made to fall directly downwards

b. 40% sent up wards diffused with the help of sheds and hanging type arrangements.
c. Such type of scheme is best suited for rooms with high ceiling.

3. Semi –Indirect lighting :

a. In this lighting scheme,60% of total light flux is thrown to reflector or ceiling for diffused
reflection and rest 40% reaches working plane directly.
b. This lighting scheme is glare free.
c. Used for indoor light decoration purpose.

4. Indirect lighting:

a. 90% of total light flux is thrown upwards to the ceiling for diffused reflection by using inverted
reflector.
b. Glare is minimum.
c. Shadows are less prominent.
d. Used for decoration purpose in theatres and hotels.

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The following table shows the Illumination required for different places:
Places Illumination in foot-candles
Cinema, Auditorium, Corridors, Stair cases Night 1 to 5
Clubs, Hospital wards etc.
Dining Halls, Hotels, Conference Hall, Reception 10
room
Street light, Railway bogie, banks 15

Reading, Writing, Office, Store room, Library, 20

Kitchen, Showrooms
Typing work, Design and drawing room, Office, Bank 30 to 50
Counters
For every delicate, precision, minute repairs, Clock, above 50
Watch-repairs, etc.

Laws of Illumination
In case of a point source the illumination of a surface is inversely proportional to the square of the
distance of the surface from the source of light.

1) Space - Height Ratio:It is defined as the ration of horizontal distance between adjacent lamps to
height of their mounting.
=
ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ

2) Utilization Factor:
ℎ
Utilization factor=
It depends on:
a. Height of Lamps
b. Area of utilization
c. Scheme of lighting
d. Type of lamp
e. Wall paints
For direct lighting scheme, utilization factor is 0.25-0.5
For indirect lighting scheme, utilization factor is 0.1-0.25

1. Depreciation Factor:It is the ratio of illumination under normal working conditions to the
illumination when everything is clean.
Illumination under normal working conditions
Depreciation factor =
Illumination when every thing is clean
It is always less than1.
Generally 0.75-0.8

Formula for finding total lumens Required :

Lumens Required=

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Advantages of Good Illumination:
i) It increases production in the workshop.
ii) It reduces the chances of accidents.
iii) It does not strain the eyes.
iv) It increases the interior decoration of the building.
v) Glare free and shadow less illumination can be obtained.
vi) Optimum utilization of light.

 Flood Lighting:
a. It means flooding of large surface with light from powerful projectors.
b. Types of flood lighting are according to application:
(i) Aesthetic flood lighting.
(ii) Industrial & commercial flood lighting.
(iii) Advertisements.
c. It is necessary to concentrate the light from light source into a relatively narrow beam.
d. Projector used is known as flood light projector.
e. Reflectors are made of silver glass or chromium plate.

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 10. ELECTRICAL APPLIANCES

1. ELECTRIC IMMERSION HEATER:

(a)

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(b) Working Principle: NIt works on the principle of heating effect of electric current.
According to joules law, Heat = I 2 .R.t joules.

(c) Construction:
(i) Metallic tube: It is a hollow tube and made of Cu.
(ii) Heating element: It is made of nichrome and is placed centrally in the Cu tube.
(iii) Insulating powder: The gap between heating element and Cu tube is filled with MgO.
It is a good insulator and a good thermal conductor.
(iv) Supply chord: It is a V.I.R. wire connected with 3-pin plug for safety.

(d) Faults:
i. Short circuit faults: This can be checked by series test lamp by connecting the testing terminal
to the heating coil. If the series test lamp glow very bright it is a S.C. faults.
ii. Open circuit faults: This can be checked by test lamp by connection the testing terminal to the
heating coil. If the lamp does not glow, it is a open circuit faults.
iii. Earth faults: This can be checked by test lamp by connecting the first testing terminal to the
body and second terminal to the heating coil if the lamp glows this is an earth faults, this can
be removed by providing earthing to the body.

(e) Precautions:
i. Do not use the heater continuously for a longer period of time.
ii. Do not use the heater without liquid.
iii. Use proper capacity chord.

2. Electric Geyser:
(a)

(b) Working Principle: It works on the principle of heating effect of electric current.

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(c) Construction:
(i) Storage tank: The inner tank is made of tinned Cu in which water is heated and the outer
cylinder is made up of steel.
(ii) Glass wool: The space between the two tanks is filled with glass wool which is a good
insulator and a good thermal reflector.
(iii) Heating element: It is made up of nichrome and can be one or two in numbers in the storage
tank.
(iv) Thermostat: To control the heating element temperature. It is connected with thermostat in the
storage tank.
(v) Earthing: To prevent electric shock, the body of the geyser is earthed.

(d) Faults: (Same as above)

(i) Short circuit faults (ii) Open circuit faults (iii) Earth faults

(e) Precautions:
1. Make sure the water level is above heating element.
2. Use proper earthing.
3. Use proper supply chords.

3. ELECTRICIRON:
(a) Circuit Diagram :

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(b) Working principle: It works on the heating effect of electric current.An electric iron relies on
a basic combination of heat and pressure to remove creases from clothes. When an electric
current is passed through a coil (or any other heating element present in the iron), it gets very
hot. This heat is then transferred to the base plate (the smooth, flat surface that you place
against clothes while ironing) through conduction, which elegantly and precisely irons your
clothes.

(c) Construction :
(i) Sole plate / Base plate: The sole plate is the thick, triangular-shaped slab of iron that
forms the base over which the electric iron is built up. It is made up of nickel plated
steel. It is used to iron the cloths.
(ii) Heating element: The heating element is present between the sole plate and pressure
plate. It is pressed hard between the two plates. The heating element consists of
nichrome wire wound around a sheet of mica. The two ends of the nichrome wire are
connected to the contact strips. The contact strips are connected to the terminals of the
iron.
Properties of Heating Element:
i) High Resistance, ii) High melting point,
iii) Low temperature coefficient of resistance, iv) Low oxidation.
(iii) Mica: The mica is good insulator and good thermal conductors and has very high
melting points. Mica sheets are used to cover the heating element.
(iv) Asbestos sheet: This sheet is placed above the mica sheet; it is a good insulator and a
good thermal reflector to reflect the complete heat to the base plate. It separates and
thermally insulates the top plate from the heating element.
(v) Pressure / Weight plate: This plate is generally called the top plate as it follows the
shape of sole plate. The pressure plate has some holes through which the studs form the
base plate passes through. We should tighten the nuts on the studs in such a way that
the pressure plate and sole plate are pressed tight against each other. In some iron the
pressure plate is heavy and made of cast iron while in some other cases, it is a thin
sheet of steel, about ¼ cm thick.The weight plate is placed over the asbestos sheet for
uniform distribution of heat.
(vi) Handle: Made up of wood or ebonite. It is used to hold the iron.
(vii) Thermostat: This is connected in series with the heating element to control the heat.
The thermostat in an iron uses a bimetallic strip, and as the name implies, a bimetallic
strip is made up of two different types of metal – with dissimilar coefficients of
expansion – that are bonded together.
At moderate temperatures, the contact point remains in physical contact with the
bimetallic strip. However, when the temperature of the iron exceeds a certain limit, the
strip begins to bend towards the metal with a lower coefficient of expansion. As a
result, the strip ceases to be physically connected to the contact point, the circuit opens
and current ceases to flow.Given that the circuit remains open for some time, the
temperature of the iron drops, the strip acquires its original shape and the current flows
again. This cycle is repeated until you switch off its power supply from the main

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 electricity source. This is the reason why your iron seems to power on and off of its
own accord.
(viii) Switch: To on or off the supply.
(ix) Chord: To Supply electricity to coil. It is covered with cotton layer.

(d) Faults:
(i) Short circuit faults: - Short circuited coil or burnt coil
(ii) Open circuit faults: - Due to breakage in heating elements, loose connection, and
disconnection of heating elements from the supply terminals.
(iii) Earth faults: - Due to damaged insulation coil may touch the body.

4. CEILING FAN:

(a) Working principle: It works on the principle of rotating magnetic field.

(b) Circuit Diagram and Layout:

(c) Construction of ceiling fan motor:

It consists of,
(i) Starting winding
(ii) Running winding
(iii) Capacitor (c).
(iv) Squirrel cage rotor
(v) Regulator

 Single phase capacitor run and start induction motor, rated at 230 V ± 10 % at a frequency of 50
Hz, is generally employed in ceiling fan.

 This motor comprises two parts that are stator and rotor. The stator, build up of laminated silicon
steel, uses two windings termed as starting and running windings located 90 degree electrical
apart.

 The starting torque relies on sine of angle among starting winding and running winding current.
Thus Capacitor is used generate needed phase shift among these current and therefore to generate
high starting torque and will be connected in series with starting winding.

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 Generally in ceiling fan, an electrolytic capacitor of 2.5 mF±5% will be employed. The capacitor
and starting winding will be in circuit throughout running as well and therefore enhance the power
factor. Thus this motor will also be termed as permanent capacitor induction motor. Rotor uses 1-
phase squirrel cage winding.

(a) Main parts of ceiling fan: refer figure given.

i) Bolts and shackle: They are used to hold the hanging rod onto the ceiling.

ii) Canopy: There are two canopies top/upper and bottom/lower canopy. Upper canopy is
used to cover the bolts and shackle, while the lower canopy is used to cover the capacitor
housing. Bottom canopy is mounted under and in the centre of the motor of the fan. This is
employed to conceal and protect several components that can involve wires, capacitors and
switches. On fans which need oiling, the bottom canopy frequently conceals the oil reservoir
that lubricates the bearings.

iii) Hanging Rod or Suspension Rod: Suspension rod is made up of rigid galvanized steel pipe of
suitable length and diameter. This metal pipe is employed to defer the fan from the ceiling.
One end of the pipe is bolted or screwed at the position particularly made on the motor body to
receive the suspension rod. Another end of the suspension rod is attached to 2 plates, to from a
"U" shaped joint, along with the help of a nut and bolt (with extra lock nut).
1. It suspends the body of fan (motor) from the ceiling.
2. It allows the wire to pass through it.
3. It also acts as a shock absorber.

iv) Motor: The motor used in ceiling fan is the single phase, permanent capacitor type motor.
Following are the main parts of the motor.
a) Stator: The stator has two winding, one is main winding and other is starting winding.
Both the winding are displaced from each other by 90 0 in the space. A capacitor connected
permanently in series with the starting winding. Since the capacitor is connected
permanently in the circuit, it is continuous duty rated time having its value in between 2 to
20  F .
b) Rotor: Rotor surrounds the stator. The rotor is of squirrel cage type. The rotor winding are
skewed to avoid humming sound and magnetic locking between stator and rotor fields.

v) Blades: The blades are built up of sheet steel or aluminum sheets. Aluminum blades are much
lighter than steel sheet plates and also enhance the efficiency of the fan. The ceiling fans
generally comprise 3 or 4 angular blades. The four blade fan provides more air circulation
compared to three blade fans. The blades are 120o mechanically apart and might be curved at
an angle of 10o.There are generally three blades connected to the rotor shaft. If the blades
would have been flat, the air would have circulated only in the area right below the fan.

vi) Terminal Connector: They are used to connect the supply wires with the windings.

vii) Regulator: The speed of fan is controlled by speed regulator. The regulator consists of a
number of resistance steps in series. It is connected to the fan motor in series. The applied
voltage to the motor is varied by changing the resistance in steps till the fan works on the
desired speed.

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viii) Ball bearing: Friction free and noise free movements of rotating parts are make sure through
providing ball bearing among the rotating and stationary parts. The ceiling fan might comprise
single or double ball bearings. The bearings made up of high quality steel are frequently
greased with superior quality for the long life and noise free operation of it.
Common faults and Remedies: Open circuit fault, short circuit fault and earth fault are
checked as usual by a series test lamp as explained earlier.
The fan becomes very hot, or the blades rotate slowly: This may be due to the damaged
capacitor; blade angle might be disturbed, short circuit or an earth fault, worn out brushes and
bearings.
The fan produces noise: This may be due to defective blade angle, no proper lubrication,
bending of shaft, damaged bearings.
The fan body is not revolving: There may be a defect in the gear or the oscillating rod.

 Study of table fan:

Study of different parts:
a) Gear Box: To rotate the fan about the vertical axis.
b) Capacitor: To start the motor instantaneously.
c) Stand: To give support to the motor.
d) Front and back guards: To protect the blades.
e) Blades: To circulate air.
f) Regulator: To control speed.
g) Oscillating knob: To control oscillation of the fan.
h) Motor: Permanent capacitor type single phase induction motor.

 Electric Toaster:
An auto toaster is a domestic electrical device which is used to bake the slices of bread.
Parts: - 1. Metal body 2.Bakelite base 3. Heating element
4.Lifting knob 5. Automatic adjustment knob

 Constructional details
1. Heating element is made up of nichrome. It is a ribbon shaped and wound on a mica sheet.
2. Elements are mounted on the sides of slices kept vertically. Elements are connected in
parallel.
3. Thermostat is used for temperature control in automatic toaster. Thermostat houses
bimetallic strip it functions on the principle that different metals have different rate of
expansion when heated.
For ex. Brass has a greater coefficient of expansion than iron. If a strip is made of bimetal (i.e.
Brass and iron) and heated beyond the certain temperature it will bend downwards.

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 Working :
As soon as the toaster is switched on, current passes through the element and the bimetallic
strip is heated .If it is overheated it bends to a certain extent and breaks the circuit through
timer switch. After sometime it cools and comes to an original position pushing the lever and
releasing a spring device, which carries the slices upwards. This action completes the toasting
of bread pieces by breaking the circuit, main supply and the timer switch.

 Electric Hot plate:

Hot plates are used for cooking food stuffs.
 Construction and working
1. Spirally wound heating element made up of nichrome is embedded in between an insulating
cemented material like plaster of paris or fire clay.
2. This assembly is fitted inside the cast iron plate.
3. Heating element is independently controlled by a separate switch. When either switch is in ON
position it gives half of the full heat and when both switches are on the full heat is available.
4. It works on the heating effect of electric current. When current flows to heating elements heat
is produced.

Fig. Double burner electric hot plate Fig. single burner electric hot plate

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 12. SINGLE PHASE MOTORS

 Why Single Phase induction Motors are not self starting?

1 When a 1 a.c. supply is given to a stator of 1 motors only alternating flux is
produced in stator. It is not of rotating type.
2. Hence rotational torque is not produced.
3. Alternating magnetic flux cannot move the rotor.
4. Therefore the motors are not self starting.

 Broad Classification of 1 motors

1 Motors

1 IM Repulsion A.C.Series unexcited

motor Motor synchronous
motor

split phase capacitor Shaded pole

motor motor motor

capacitor start Permanent Capacitor start

Induction Run capacitor capacitor Run
motor motor motor

1. Split Phase motors (Resistance Start Induction Run Motors):

(a) Sketch Diagram:

(b) Construction:
(i) Stator: It is made up of silicon steel stamping having internal slots for receiving single
phase stator winding.

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123
 (ii) Stator winding: - It is made up of good quality enameled copper and is split into
starting winding/auxiliary winding and running/main winding. The main winding has
very low resistance and a high inductive reactance whereas the starting winding has
high resistance and low inductive reactance.
(iii) Rotor: It is a round cylindrical part having slots on the periphery for round Cu bars and
is made of silicon steel stamping.
(iv) Rotor conductors: These are round Cu bars embedded in the rotor slots& permanently
short circuited (squirrel cage rotor)
(v) Centrifugal Switch: It is connected in series with the starting winding.

(c) Working:
(i) When an A.C supply is given to the stator of the motor, the current ( I ) splits into Im&
Is flowing in the main winding& starting winding.
(ii) The current (Im) lags the applied voltage by greater angle since more inductive & (Is)
lags the applied voltage by a smaller angle since more resistive less inductive.
(iii) The currents Im and Is produces it own flux m & S having a phase angle difference
which interact and r.m.f is set and the rotor start rotating.
(iv) When the rotor reaches 70 – 80% of the normal speed, the centrifugal switch is
operated and the starting winding is disconnected electrically from the circuit. Hence
the name resistance start induction run motor.
(v) As starting torque is proportional to phase angle between Im&Is, starting torque is less.

D.O.R: can be changed by interchanging the connection of either starting winding or

running winding but not both at a same time.
Application: Small machine tools, duplicating machines, oil burner

2. Capacitor motors:
(a) Capacitor start induction run motors
(b) Permanent capacitor motors.
(c) Capacitor start capacitor run motors.

(a) Capacitor start Induction run motor :

(i) Sketch diagram :

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124
Starting Current = I st  Sin
(ii) Construction :
(a) Stator: It is made up of silicon steel stamping having internal slots for stator winding.
(b) Stator winding: it is made up of good Quality enameled Cu & split as starting winding
and running winding.
(c) Rotor: It is round cylindrical part having slots for round copper bars and is made of
silicon steel.
(d) Rotor conductors: These are round copper bars embedded in the rotor slots and
permanently short circuited (squirrel cage rotor).
(e) Centrifugal switch: It is connected in series with the starting winding

(iii) Working :
(a) When an AC supply is given to the motor, the current (I) splits into Im and Is flowing in
the main winding and starting winding.
(b) The current (Im) lags by a greater angle since more inductive and Current (Is) leads by a
smaller angle since more capacitive and less inductive.
(c) The current (I m ) and (I s ) produces its own flux m and s having a phase angle
difference which interacts and rotor starts rotating.
(d) When the rotor reaches 70- 80% of the normal speed, the centrifugal switch is operated
and starting winding is disconnected electrically from the circuit.

D.O.R Can we change by making starting winding as running and vice versa.

Application:
(i) Refrigerator (ii) drilling machine (iii) lathe machine
(iv) pumps (v) cooler (vi) printing press

(b) Permanent Capacitor motors :

(i) Circuit diagram

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125
(ii) Construction
(a) Stator: It is made up of silicon steel stamping having internal slots for stator winding.
(b) Stator winding: It is made up of good quality enameled copper and is split into starting
winding and running winding
(c) Rotor: It is round cylindrical part having slots for round copper bars and is made up of
silicon steel stamping.
(d) Rotor conductors: These are round copper bars embedded in the rotor slots and
permanently short circuited (Squirrel cage rotor).

(iii) Working
(a) When an AC supply is given to the motor, the current (I) splits into Im and Is flowing in
the main winding and starting winding.
(b) The Current (Im) lags the applied voltage by a greater angle since more inductive and
Current (Is) Leads the voltage by a smaller angle since more capacitive and less
inductive.
(c) This creates a phase angle difference between main winding flux and starting winding
flux and rotating magnetic flux is set up .Thus rotor starts rotating.
(d) The capacitor remains permanently in the circuit even in the running condition

D.O.R Can be change by making starting winding as running and vice versa.

Application : (i) Ceiling fan (ii) table fan

(C) Capacitor start Capacitor Run Motor

(i) Circuit diagram

(ii) Construction
(a) Stator. It is made up of silicon steel stamping of having internal slots for stator winding.
(b) Stator winding: it is made up of good Quality enameled Cu and is split as starting
winding and running winding
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 (c) Rotor: It is round cylindrical part having slots for round copper bars and is made of
silicon steel.
(d) Rotor conductors: These are round copper bars embedded it the rotor slots and
permanently short circuited (squirrel cage rotor).
(e) Centrifugal switch: It is connected in series with the capacitor C1.’

(iii) Working
(a) The two capacitors are used Cap1 and Cap2. Cap1 is of higher value but short duty and
Cap2 is of lower value but continuous duty.
(b) When the supply is switched on the current (I) splits into splits into Im and Is flowing in
the main winding and starting winding.
(c) The Current (Im) lags by a greater angle since more inductive and Current (Is) leads by a
smaller angle since more capacitive and less inductive.
(d) This creates a phase angle difference between main winding flux and starting winding
flux and rotating magnetic flux is set up .Thus rotor starts rotating.
(e) When the rotor reaches 70- 80% of the normal speed, the centrifugal switch is operated
and the cap1 is disconnected from the circuit whereas Cap2 remains permanently in the
circuit.

Application: (I) Room Cooler (II) Refrigerator (III) Compressor

Specialty (i) p. f. is improved (ii) higher efficiency (iii) higher torque(iv) starts quickly

D.O.R: Can be change by making starting winding as running and vice versa.

3. Shaded Pole Motor:

(i) circuit diagram

(ii) Construction
(a) Stator: It is made up of silicon steel stamping having salient poles. A slot is cut in the
pole and a Cu coil is placed at one corner. Copper coil is known as shading coil. This
part of the pole is known as shaded part and the remaining as unshaded part.
(b) Stator winding [field winding]: It is made up of good quality enameled copper and
wound on salient poles.
(c) Rotor: It is cylindrical part made up of silicon steel stamping having slots for rotor
bars.
(d) Rotor conductors: Made up of round copper bars which are placed in rotor slots and are
permanently short circuited (sq. cage)
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127
(iii) Working:

Fig. A
(a) When the supply is switch “ON” the field current is rapidly increasing along OA in the
field winding produces flux in the poles. According to transformer action e.m.f. is
induced in the shading coil causing heavy current to circulate it according to Lenz’s law
in such a direction as to oppose the rise of field current .Hence flux shifts mostly to the
un shaded part and the magnetic axis lies along the middle of un shaded part.

(b) Consider the moment when field current is near its peak value i.e. AB change in
exciting field current is less. So the induced current in the shading coil is very less.
Hence the flux is uniformly distributed over the pole face. So the magnetic axis lies to
the center of the whole pole.

Fig. B
(c) At one instance the current in the shading coil decreases very rapidly i.e. BC and hence
the M.A shifts towards the shaded pole. It seems as if the M.A is moving from the un
shaded pole to shaded pole and the rotating magnetic field is setup and the rotor starts
rotating.

Fig. C
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128
 D.O.R: It is not possible to change the D.O.R. of these motor as the position of the copper
rings are fixed.

Application:
The low initial cost suits the shaded-pole motors to low horsepower or light duty applications.
Perhaps their largest use is in multi-speed fans for household use. But the low torque, low
efficiency and less sturdy mechanical features make shaded-pole motors impractical for most
industrial or commercial use, where higher cycle rates or continuous duty are the norm.
(i) Small fans (ii) Toys (iii) hair dryers

4. Repulsion Motor (Repulsion Start Induction Run Motor):

(i) Circuit Diagram

(ii) Construction:
(a) Stator: It is made up of silicon steel stamping having non salient poles for stator
winding.
(b) Stator winding: It is made up of good quality enameled copper and is wound on the
stator pole.
(c) Rotor: It is round cylindrical part having slots for copper winding and is made up of
silicon steel stampings. It is same as the armature of D.C Motor.
(d) Rotor winding: These are made up of good quality enameled cu and placed in the rotor
slots the ends of which are connected to the carbon brushes.
(e) Commutator: It consist of alternate layers of copper and mica segments
(f) Brushes: Made up of carbon or graphite placed in the holder and ride against
commutator .The brushes are shorted by connecting them directly with a cu wire
(jumper).

(iii) Working:
(i) When current is given to the stator winding field is set up .Let an instant the field is
such that N pole is at the top and S pole is at the bottom and the MA lies vertical.
(ii) The Brush Axis is neither horizontal nor vertical, but at an intermediate angle  .
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129
 (iii) The like poles of the stator and rotor repel each other and the rotor starts rotating.
(iv) Since the rotor rotates because of repulsive force it is called Repulsion Motor.
(v) The speed of this motor can be changed by shifting the position of brushes.

D.O.R: It can be change by shifting the brushes in reversed direction.

Application: (i) Refrigerator (ii) mixing machine

(iii) Floor polishing machine (iv) lifts
(v) compressor

5. AC series Motor:
Introduction:-
Universal Motor is a small version of a.c. series motor. It works on A.C. supply as well as D.C.
supply.
(i) Circuit diagram:

(ii) Construction:
A.C. series motor is similar in construction as D.C. series motor and has the main
parts.
(a) Field pole: It is made up of silicon steel stamping and salient type for field winding.
(b) Field winding: It is made up of good quality enameled copper and is wound on the field
pole.
(c) Armature: It is round cylindrical part having slots on the periphery for the armature
winding.
(d) Armature winding: It is made up of good quality enameled copper placed in the
armature slots the ends of which are connected to the commutator.
(e) Commutator: Itconsists of alternate layers of copper and mica segments.
(f) Brushes: There are made up of carbon or graphite.

(iii) Working:
(a) If D.C. series motor is connected to AC. supply. It will rotate with unidirectional torque
which can be explained as follows.
(b) For the instantaneous polarity the direction of the current in the series field coil and

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130
 armature coil is as shown in figure (a). As per the theory, When a current carrying
conductor is placed in the magnetic field it experiences a force in certain direction and
its direction is given by Fleming’s Left Hand Rule.
(c) In the first case, armature starts rotating in anticlockwise direction.
(d) In the next half cycle of a.c. instantaneous polarities are changed as shown n the figure
(e) The direction of field as well as direction of current in the armature is also changed.
(f) By Fleming’s left hand rule, we find that direction of rotation of armature is same that
is anticlockwise. Thus we can conclude that to the D.C. series motor even if a.c. supply
is given the motor develops at unidirectional torque.
(g) But for the good performance of a.c. series motor or universal motor some
modifications are to be made in the motor.

Sr. Problems Modification

No.
1 As magnetic field is alternating large eddy Structure is made of silicon steel
current and hysteresis loss Stamping
2 Sparking due to poor commutation Commutating poles are provided.
3 Power factor is low Compensating winding is provided.

D.O.R - Can be changed by reversing the terminals of armature with respect to field coil.
Application:-
(i) Vacuum cleaner (ii) Mixers (iii) Sewing Machine
(iv) Drill Machine (v) Cinema projector.

 SPEED CONTROL OF UNIVERSAL MOTOR: (3 Marks)

1. Resistance Method
2. Tapping –field method.
3. Centrifugal mechanism

1. Resistance Method: Motor speed is controlled by connecting a variable resistance R in series

with the motor.

2. Tapping –field method: Field pole is tapped at various points and speed is controlled by
varying the field strength.
Sr. No. Purpose Suitable Motor
1 Printing Press Capacitor Start Motor
2 Lathe Machine Capacitor Start Motor
3 Centrifugal Pump Capacitor Start Motor
4 Electric Drill Machine Universal Motor
5 Mixer Universal Motor
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6 Sewing Machine Universal Motor
7 Radiogram Tape Recorder Shaded pole or synchronous motor
8 Shaving Machine Shaded pole or synchronous motor
9 Refrigerator Shaded pole or Capacitor Start / Run
Motor
10 Cooler Capacitor Start Motor
11 Cinema Projector Universal Motor
12 Ceiling or Table fan Permanent Capacitor type Motor
13 Wall Clocks Shaded Pole or 1phase Synchronous
Motor
14 Floor Polishing Machine Repulsion Type Motor
15 Vacuum Cleaner Universal Motor
16 Toy Motor Shaded Pole Motor
17 Tape Recorder 1phase Synchronous Motor

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132
 13. THEORY OF ROTATING MAGNETIC FIELD AND
3-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

Production of Rotating Field:

When two or three phase supply is given to stationary coils wound for two or three phase a
uniformly rotating magnetic flux of constant value is produced.
Two Phase Supply:
1. A 2 phase – 2pole stator having two identical windings, having phase difference
between them is of 900.
2. Magnetic flux produced due to current flowing in each phase is assumed sinusoidal.
The assumed positive direction of fluxes are as shown in fig.(a)

Fig. (a)
i) When   0
Flux produced by phase 1 [ 1 ]= 0
Flux produced by phase 2 [ 2 ] = Maximum negative
Resultant flux  r  m is in a downward direction.

ii) When   450

m
1  Positive,
2

2  m Negative
2
Resultant flux r  m although shifted 450 clockwise.

iii) When   900

1  Maximum positive
2  0
Resultant flux  r  m shifted by 900 from its original position.

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133
 0
iv) When  135
m
1  - positive
2

2  m - Positive
2
Resultant flux r  m shifted clockwise by another 450.

v) When
 180
1  0
2  Maximum positive
Resultant flux r  m shifted through 1800 from its
position at the beginning.
Hence we conclude :
1. Magnitude of the resultant flux is constant.
N s 120 f / P rpm
2. Resultant flux rotates at synchronous speed given by
N s 120 f / P rpm

 Three phase supply :

1. When three phase supply is connected to 3 phase winding which are 1200 apart from
each other different fluxes 1 , 2, 3 are produced which are 1200 apart from each other.
The resultant of these three fluxes is a that the rotating magnetic field of constant
magnitude is produced.
2. The assumed positive direction of the fluxes. Let the maximum flux due to any one of

three phases be m . The resultant flux  r at any instant is given by the vector sum of
the individual fluxes 1 , 2, 3 due to three phase. We will consider values of  at four
instants corresponding to points marked 0, 1, 2 and 3.

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When   0

Magnetic flux produced by phase 1 = 1 = 0.

3
Magnetic flux produced by phase 2 = 2  m - negative
2
3
Magnetic flux produced by phase 3 = 3  m - positive
2

When   600 corresponding to point 1

3
1  m - positive
2
3
2  m - negative
2
3  0

When  1200
3
1  m = Positive
2
2  0
3
3  m = Negative
2

When   1800
1  0
3
2  m  Positive
2
3
3  m  Negative
2

We conclude them:
1. Resultant flux is of constant value i.e. 1.5 times the maximum value of the flux due to
any phase.
2. Resultant flux rotates at synchronous speed given by N s 120 f / P .

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 THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR:
Advantage of 3 IM :
(i) Compact & Simple in construction
(ii) Shape & weight is small
(iii) Maintenance is less
(iv) Self – starting

Drawbacks :
(i) Speed variation is difficult
(ii) Speed variation arrangement is not reliable
(iii) Starting torque is not more.
(iv) Efficiency decreases with speed variation

 Construction of 3 I.M :
1. Stator: It is made up of silicon steel stamping having internal slots for stator winding.

Fig. Silicon Steel stampings for induction motor stator

2. Stator winding: It is made up of good quality enameled copper and is either star or delta
connected.

3. Rotor: It is a round cylindrical part having slots on the periphery to receive round copper bars
or rotor winding. There are two types of rotor:

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136
 (i) Squirrel Cage Rotor used in squirrel cage induction motor.

Fig. Skew angle in squirrel cage rotor Fig. Squirrel cage rotor

(ii) Phase wound rotor used in slip ring induction motor.

4. Rotor winding:
(i) Squirrel Cage: These are round copper bars which are embedded in rotor slots and are
permanently short circuited.
(b) Slip ring: This is made up of good quality enameled copper and is star connected. The
ends of which are connected to the slip rings through which external resistance can be
added. 5. Slip rings: These are mounted on the shaft and are made of phosphor –bronze.

Fig. Slip rings

6. Brushes: These are made of carbon and kept touching to the Commutator under the tension of
the springs.

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137
(a) Squirrel cage motor:

(b) Squirrel cage motor :

2. Slip –Ring (Wound – rotor) motor:

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138
WORKING OF THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR:
Explanation:
1. The poles are not present physically it is shown for simplicity. When 3 supply is given
to the stator, magnetic flux of constant magnitude but rotating at synchronous speed
120f
(Ns= p ) is set up. Let an instant (a) stator field is acting downwards and rotating in
clockwise direction
2. The flux passes through air gap and cut the stationary rotor conductor. Due to Relative
speed between rotating flux and stationary conductors EMF is induced in rotor
conductors.
3. The direction of this e.m.f. can be found by Fleming’s Right Hand Rule.
4. This causes current to circulate in the rotor conductor, whose direction is shown by dot.
5. This current carrying conductor produces magnetic field according to right hand thumb
rule is shown in the fig (b).
6. These two fields interact and the resultant field is produced.
7. It is seen that the effective field on the L.H.S is stronger as they are in same direction
whereas the effective field on the R.H.S is weaker as they are in opposite direction.
8. This produces force on the R.H.S which can be proved by Flemings Left Hand Rule.
9. Hence the rotor starts rotating in the clock wise direction. In the same direction as stator
rotating field.

Synchronous speed:
When 3-phase supply is given to 3-phase stator rotating magnetic field is
produced in stator. The speed of rotating magnetic field in stator is called
synchronous speed.
NS is synchronous speed of the stator magnetic field.
120  f
Ns 
P
F = Frequency
P = No. of poles.

Slip speed and slip:

Rotor runs in the direction of stator magnetic field. Speed of the rotor is N is always
less than NS. Slip speed: Difference between rotating magnetic field of stator and actual speed
of rotor or motor is called slip speed.

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 Slip speed = N s  N
Slip: Slip speed expressed in terms of synchronous speed ( N s ) is called slip
N N
Slip  s
Ns
Percentage Slip
N N
% slip  s 100
Ns
Slip is about 3 to 5 percentage for induction motor.

Frequency of rotor current:

i) When rotor is stationary frequency of rotor current rotor is same as supply frequency.
But when rotor start rotating frequency of rotor current depends upon slip speed.
ii) Let at any slip speed, frequency of rotor current is f '
120 f
Ns        (i )
P
f = Supply frequency
Frequency of rotor current is f '
120 f
Ns  N          (ii )
P
Dividing (ii) by (i)
Ns  N f '

Ns f
f'
s
f
f '  sf

Changing D.O.R of 3  I.M

R-Y-B of 3 supply is connected to R –Y –B terminal of 3 motor. This is called as
phase sequence.
By changing any of the two terminals, the phase sequence is changed & the motor starts
to rotate in opposite direction.
(i.e R –Y – B changed to R – B – Y or Y – R – B or B – Y - R)

Suppose :
D.O.R. is clockwise D.O.R. is anticlockwise
supply Terminal Motor terminal Supply terminals Motor terminals

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140
 What is meant by Skew shape or advantages of squirrel cage type rotor?
Definition: The rotor slots are not exactly parallel to the shaft but they are slightly inclined
such a shape is called as skew shape.
Advantages:
1. The motor starts quickly.
2. Humming sound is not produce
3. The magnetic locking effect of stator & rotor is reduced due to which rotor may refuse
to start.
4. Rotor resistance slightly increases due to increased length of rotor conductor.

 Necessity of starters for 3 I.M (2m)

1. When the 3 supply is given to the 3 stator winding, e.m.f is induced in the rotor
circuit also, due to magnetic induction.
2. Rotor circuit of 3 squirrel cage I.M is just like short circuited secondary of
transformer.
3. The rotor conductors being shorted draws heavy current (i.e 10 times F.L current)
4. Moreover , the rotor winding is of low resistance to withstand such a heavy current.
5. Thus, to limit the starting current motor of 5 H.P and above should always be started
through a suitable starter.
6. When motor picks up speed back e.m.f. is developed and running current gets
automatically limited. Back e.m.f. is proportional to speed. At stand still speed is zero
and back e.m.f. is zero so large current flows through the circuit.
(a) Due to high current windings may get damage.
(b) Line voltage drop increases.

Types of 3 I.M (2M)

(i) Slip-ring or wound Rotor motor.
(ii) Squirrel cage motor.
(iii) Double – Cage motor.
(iv) Deep – Bar cage motor
Types of Starters suitable for Sq. cage motors.
(i) Stator – Resistance starter.
(ii) Star Delta starter
(iii) Auto – X’mer starter.
(iv) D.O.L starters.
Types of starters suitable for slip ring motor.
(i) Rotor Resistance Starter
(ii) D.O.L starter.

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1. Stator – Resistance Starter :

1. Three equal resistances are connected in each phase of the stator. As these resistances
are connected in series with stator windings of the motor, some voltage drops across
series resistances and reduced voltage is applied to the motor.
2. Thus, motor starts with a reduced voltage & draws less current.
3. When the rotor gains 70 to 80% of rated speed, back e.m.f is developed and current
gets automatically limited. The handle is moved to ‘RUN’ position.
4. At this position the resistances are cut out & stator receives full voltage & the motor
runs with the desired speed
5. This starter is used up to 7.5 H.P. motors.

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2. Star –delta Starter:

i. It is a simple manually operated starter which connects the stator to the supply. At the
time of starting the stator windings are connected in star.
1
ii. These reduces the voltage, per phase by times VL
3
iii. This, motor starts with a safer value of current.
iv. Once the motor gains speed back e.m.f is developed and current gets automatically
limited.
v. The handle is moved to ‘RUN’ position and the windings are connected in delta. In
delta phase voltage is equal to line voltage. Thus rated line voltage is applied to the
motor in running condition.

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3. Auto transformer starter: -
Explanation
i. Three 1 auto transformers are used for each phase of a 3 motor.
ii. The tapings are identical for each autotransformer.
iii. This steps –down the voltage in every phase.
iv. Thus, the motor starts with the safe current at ‘START’ & when motor catches speed
back e.m.f is developed and current gets automatically controlled , the handle is moved
to the ‘RUN’ position & the motor runs with it, rated capacity.

Starter for slip ring (Wound rotor) Motor. Rotor resistance starter:

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 i. At start the three equal resistances in the form of a circular arrangement are connected
in the rotor circuit.
ii. As external resistance is added in the rotor circuit, the motor starts with safe current.
iii. When motor catches speed the handle is moved from ‘START’ to ‘RUN’ position
gradually, cutting off the resistances from the rotor circuit.
iv. There is a switch which prevents starting the motor directly in ‘RUN’ position of the
handle.

DIRECT ONLINE STARTER

Starter for both types of motors : D.O.L (Direct ON- LINE Starters)
Explanation:
1 This is called direct on line starter because when the starters is switched ‘ON’ the
motor is connected directly to the supply lines.
2. The working voltage of N.V.C is 440 V
3. It is suitable for motors upto 5 H.P

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 4. The starter has a magnetic coil ‘A’ wound on the attracted armature type of relay.
When switch is on it gets energized and the armature ‘B’ is attracted. The set of
contacts ‘C’ in the contactor are made ‘on’ and supply is given to the motor.
5. If supply fails the coil releases the armature and motor is disconnected from supply.
6. If motor is over loaded the strips ‘D’ bend downwards disconnecting the motor from t
he supply.

Starting torque and Running torque :

Torque :
It is running or twisting moment of a force about an axis.
It is measured by product of force and radius at which the force acts.

Starting torque :
The torque develop by motor at the instant of starting is called starting torque.
KE 2R
Tst  2 r r2
Rr  X r
3
K = constant =
2 N s
N s  Synchronous speed in r.p.s.
Er = Rotor E.M.F.
= Rotor resistance / phase
X r  Rotor reactance / phase
1. Tst  Rr
To obtained more starting torque rotor resistance has to be more.
2. Tst  Er 2 or Tst  V 2
Running torque :
It is the torque which is required to run the motor at the normal speed and normal load.
KSEr 2 Rr
TR  2
Rr  S 2 X 2
When slip is S the rotor E.M.F. changes to SE r and rotor reactance will be X r  SX r
In Normal Running Condition the slip is small.
X r = S (2 fL) is very small. Hence can be neglected w.r.t. Rr .
1
1. Tr 
Rr
To obtained maximum running torque for a given motor, rotor resistance must be less.
2. Tr  V 2
Torque of a machine is proportional to the square of applied voltage.

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Double cage Motor :

 Why such motors are developed?

We know that,  starting Torque  Ts  R r  Rotor resitance  where as
 In squirrel cage I.M the rotor resistance is low and we cannot add external resistance in
Squirrel cage rotor.
Therefore it has low starting torque.
The double cage motor is so developed that it overcomes the above difficulty (i.e it has high
starting torque with reasonable starting current and which maintains high efficiency and good
speed regulation under normal operating condition)

Double cage motor:

1. The outer cage is of high resistance iron or brass cage whereas the inner cage is of low
resistance copper
2. At the time of starting, the frequency of rotor current is = supply frequency (i.e. 50 Hz)
( F ' = SF)
X L  2 fL
3. Therefore the copper cage becomes more inductive, therefore it accepts only a small
amount of current and the motor is started by the high resistance brass or iron cage.
4. As the motor gains speed, the frequency of the rotor current decreases, therefore the
copper cage accepts greater proportion of current; hence the motor runs with low
resistance of copper cage.
5. Thus, this motor has high starting and running torque as well.

Important formula
120
1. NS  f Where, N s  synchronous speed f= frequency P  number of stator poles

2. Slip speed = N S  N .
It is the difference between synchronous speed (Ns) and the rotor speed (N).
N N
3. Slip (S) = S
NS
N N
3. % Slip = S X 100
NS
4. Frequency of rotor current  f '
f '  sf

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Examples
(1) A 12 pole, 3 50 Hz I.M runs at a speed of 475 r.p.m. find the following
(i) Ns (ii) Slip speed
(iii) % slip (iv) frequency of rotor current at this speed

Solution: Data   12 , N = 475 R.P.M.

120
Solution: (i) NS  f

120
=  50 = 500 R.P.M.
12
(ii) Ns – N = Slip speed
Slip speed = 500 – 475 = 25 r.p.m
N N
(iii) % Slip = S X 100
NS
500  475 25
 100 =  5%
500 5
(iv) f ' = Sf
= 0.5  50  2.5 c / S

2. A 3 I.M is wound for 4 poles supplied from a 50 c/s system, calculate.

(i) Ns
(ii) Nr when slip it 4%
(iii) f'
Solution:
120f 120  50
(i) Ns    1500 r.p.m
p 4
Ns  Nr
(ii) % S  100
Ns
Ns  N
4   100
Ns
4 1500  Nr
 
100 1500
 6000  1,50,000  100Nr
150000  6000
 Nr 
100
144000

100
Nr = 1440 r.p.m

(iii) % S = 4%
 S  0.04
 f '  Sf
 0.04  50
= 2 c/s

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Comparison between Square Cage I.M and Slip Ring I.M

Square Cage I.M Slip Ring I.M

1. Starting torque is poor 1. Starting torque is good

2. Running torque is good 2. Running torque is not so good
3. Less maintenance is required 3. More maintenance is required.
4. Capacity is low 4. Capacity is high
5. Speed can be changed by changing poles 5. speed can be changed by adding
resistance in rotor circuit
6. Used for lathe machine, printing machine 6. Used in lifts, cranes

7. External resistance cannot be added in the 7. Additional resistance can be added in the
rotor circuit. rotor circuit.
8. Power factor is low 0.6 to 0.8. 8. Power factor is high 0.8 to 0.9.
9. Mechanically strong. 9. Mechanically not so strong.
10. Slip is less. 10. Slip is more.

 Speed control methods of 3-phase induction motor:

From Stator Side :-
i Speed control by changing frequency
ii. Speed control by changing poles
iii. Speed control by changing applied voltage
From rotor side:-
i. Speed control by Rheostatic method
ii. Speed change by cascade control
iii. by injecting e.m.f. in the rotor circuit.

From stator side:

1. Speed control by changing frequency
(i) The frequency is directly proportional to the speed.
(ii) If the frequency is changed the speed also changes (i.e. if frequency is increased the
speed will also increase and vice versa)
(iii) This method is not practical and therefore it is costly. It is used for electrically driven
ships.

2. Speed control by changing poles

(i) The pole changing methods effects the speed inversely (i.e. by increasing the poles, the
speed is decreased and vice versa)
(ii) E.g. for 2 pole : N s = 3000 r.p.m.
for 4 pole : N s = 1500 r.p.m.
Used for elevator motors traction motors.
3. Speed control by changing applied voltage

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 (i) This methods is not used because to get a little change in speed a larger change in
voltage is required.
(ii) This charge in voltage seriously disturbs the magnetic condition of the motor which is
objectionable.

From rotor side :

1. Speed control by Rheostatic method
(i) This methods is suitable only for slip ring type motor.
(ii) Three external resistance of same value can be added in the rotor circuit through the
brushes.
(iii) This involves more loss in the rotor circuit, therefore decreases the efficiency .

2. Speed change by cascade control

(i) The two induction motor are mechanically coupled.
(ii) The rotor of first induction motor phase wound whereas the rotor of second induction
motor is either phase wound or square cage rotor.
(iii) The supply is given to the stator of induction motor one whereas the stator of induction
motor two receives supply from rotor of induction motor one./
(iv) This methods is costly as too induction motor are used.

 Why Induction motor is called so?

Ans. : This motor is called as induction motor because there is no electrical connection of the rotor to
the three phase supply in the stator, but still the current is induced in the rotor circuit according
to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction.

 What is meant by single phasing? Explain its effect?

Ans. : If any one phase (out of 3-phase) is disconnected electrically then the remaining 2-phases are
connected electrically in series with each other, this effect is called single phasing.

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 (i) If this effect occurs when the motor is at stand still, the motor will not start as it will
produce only alternating field.
(ii) If the motor is already running, then it will continue to run but it will heat unduly and
draw more current as it behaves as if 1  motor is supplying 3  load.

MAINTENANCE OF INDUCTION MOTOR

1. DAILY MAINTENANCE
a) Temperature of bearings be checked
b) Winding temperature be checked
c) Inspect load conditions, starters, protective devices.
2. WEEKLY MAINTENANCE
a) Put grease of proper grade and quantity in bearings if required.
b) Check air gap by feeler gauge.
c) Inspect ventilation ducts for any dust and dirt.
3. MONTHLY MAINTENCE
a) Trip circuits / oil circuit breakers be checked.
b) Controlling / starter devices be over hauled.
c) Brushes are checked as regards shape and tensions.
4. QUARTERLY MAINTENCE
a) Oil in bearings /grease be replaced.
b) Check alignment with sprit level or thread in case of belt coupling.
c) Clean all the contact points of starter with sand paper.
5. HALF YEARLY MAINTENANCE
a) Replace the brushes.
b) Smoothen the surface of slip rings.
c) Windings be cleaned and re-varnished and supported.
6. ANNUAL MAINTENANCE
a) Resistance of earth connection be checked with earth tester.
b) Re-solder the joints of rotor bars and end rings.
c) Replace worn out bearings.
d) Check all the insulation resistance.
e) Complete over hauling.

 Common troubles and possible causes in 3 phase induction motors

Trouble Possible causes

A. Running Hot 1. High Voltage
2. Blocked ventilating ducts.
B. Fails to start 1. Single phasing
2. Gone fuses.
C Runs slow 1. Low Voltage
2. Overload
D Stops after starting 1. Hot bearings
2. Single phasing in running condition.

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 14. SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

Characteristic Features:
1. It runs either at synchronous speed or not at all.
2. It is not self-starting. It has to be run up to synchronous speed by some means.
3. It is capable of being operated under a wide range of power factors.
The constructional details:
1. Stator – It is stationary part made of silicon steel stampings having slots on inner
periphery.
2. Stator windings – It is a star or delta connected super enamelled copper winding
inserted in the stator slots.
3. Rotor – Cylindrical part having poles on the surface. It is also made of silicon steel
stampings. There are two types of rotors :
a. Salient pole type
b. Smooth cylindrical shape
4. Rotor windings – Enamelled copper windings is put on the poles and excited by D.C.
supply received from exciter.
5. Exciter – It is a small capacity D.C. shunt generator generally mounted on same shaft
of that of rotor and when moving generates D.C. supply to be fed to rotor windings.
6. Slip rings and brushes – There are two slip rings made of phosphor bronze fitted on
the shaft. Two carbon brushes are kept touching with slip ring.

 Working of synchronous motor OR

 Why synchronous motor is not self starting?
1. When a 3- phase stator winding is fed by 3- phase supply then a magnetic flux of
constant magnitude but rotating at synchronous speed is produced.
2. D.C. voltage from exciter is supplied through brushes and slip rings to the rotor. Thus
rotor poles are formed as N and S.
3. Suppose the stator poles are at that instant situated at points A and B, the two similar
poles N of rotor and Ns of stator as well as S and Ss will repel each other and rotor
tends to rotate in the anticlockwise direction as shown in the figure.
4. But half a period later, stator poles having rotated around interchange their position. Ns
attracts S and Ss attracts N. Hence, rotor tends to rotate clockwise as shown in (a)
5. Rotor is not subjected to unidirectional torque owing to large inertia. Rotor cannot
respond to such quickly reversing torque with the result it remains stationary.

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 How the motor can be started?
If the rotor poles also shift their positions along with the stator poles, then there will be
unidirectional torque. Hence by some mechanical force, rotor is rotated then there is magnetic
locking between stator and rotor poles. Even if now mechanical source is taken out, the motor
keeps on rotating with the speed=Ns.

 DIFFERENT METHODS OF STARTING SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR.

1. PROVIDING DAMPER WINDINGS –

i. Damper winding consist of copper bars placed in slots provided on pole faces of salient rotor
poles.
ii. These copper bars are short circuited with the help of short circuiting ring on both the ends.
iii. This winding is similar to squirrel cage winding.
iv. At starting, field winding is kept unexcited and motor is not loaded. Three phase voltage is
applied to stator winding.
v. The rotating flux is produced which links with short circuited damper winding and induces emf
in it as per Faradays first law of electromagnetic induction.
vi. Motor starts as a three phase induction motor.
vii. When it acquires speed near to synchronous speed the D.C. excitation is switched ON and the
motor is pulled into synchronism and runs as synchronous motor. This motor is called as
Induction start synchronous run motor.

2. USE OF PONY M OTOR –

It is a small induction motor which can be geared to the synchronous motor. This
induction motor drives the synchronous motor and when the speed is nearly synchronous speed
the D.C. excitation is made on to the rotor, the motor pulls up into synchronism at the same
time the induction motor is switched off and may be disconnected detaching its gearing.

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3. EXCITER USED AS A D.C. MOTOR – Exciter can be run as a D.C. motor. Supply may be
separately available. This will drive the synchronous motor up to the required synchronous
speed then the exciter is switched ON and the rotor is pulled into synchronism.

4. D.C. GENERATOR AS A LOAD OF SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR CAN BE RUN AS D.C. MOTOR –

The (load) D.C. generator is run as a D.C. motor to drive the rotor of synchronous motor, when
the rotor of synchronous motor reaches synchronous speed the exciter is switched ON and the
rotor is pulled into synchronism. Now the same synchronous motor drives this D.C. generator.

 SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR APPLICATIONS

1. Poly phase synchronous motor finds extensive applications.
a. Power factor correction: Over-excited synchronous motor (synchronous condenser)
having leading power factor are widely used for improving power factor.
b. Constant speed – constant load drives: Driving D.C. generators, rubber mills, textile
mills, pumps, ship-propulsion, and compressors.
c. Voltage regulation: Because of inductive loads the voltage at the end of long
transmission lines varies greatly. As a voltage regulator, synchronous motor is used.
2. Single phase fractional H.P synchronous motors are widely used in clocks and stroboscope.

 V-CURVE AND INVERTED V-CURVE

1. V-CURVE

i. V-curves of synchronous motor show how armature current varies with its field current
(exciting current) when motor input is constant.
ii. Armature current is more for low values and high values of excitation (though it is
lagging for low excitation and leading for high excitation).
iii. It has minimum value corresponding to certain excitation.
iv. Variation of armature current with excitation is known as V-curves because of its
shape.

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2. INVERTED V-CURVE

i. For the same input armature current varies over a wide range and so causes the power
factor to vary accordingly.
ii. Over excited motor runs with leading power factor.
iii. Under excited motor runs with lagging power factor.
iv. In between, power factor is unity.
v. Variation of power factor with excitation is like inverted V-curve.
vi. Minimum armature current corresponds to unity power factor.

 Hunting of synchronous motor:

i. When suddenly mechanical load on rotor shaft increases or decreases then it causes
rotor oscillations and rotor oscillates about its equilibrium (it falls back or advances)
position corresponding to mechanical load. Rotor oscillations are called Hunting or
surging or phase swinging.
ii. Hunting is highly undesirable because if rotor oscillation frequency becomes equal to
natural frequency of rotor, mechanical resonance will occur.
iii. Amplitude of oscillation will increase to a very high value andThere is possibility that
rotor may fall out of synchronism.
iv. For reducing hunting damper windings are provided.
v. Damper windings are copper bars provided on rotor pole shoes and short circuited on
both sides.

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