CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

PLASTICS

Plastic is widely used as a conventional material in terms of packaging, synthetic

materials and other things that is essential to life. According to Bradford (2017), Plastic

is made up of polymers, polymers are materials that was made up of long-chained and

repeating molecules. They are used for widely variety of products like grocery bags,

water bottles, food packaging and textile fibers.

As the world need plastics for our daily purposes, million tons of plastics were

produced worldwide. Plastic is a synthetic material made from a wide range of organic

polymers such as polyethylene, PVC, nylon, etc., that can be molded into shape while

soft and then set into a rigid or slightly elastic form. Plastic is selected as the best

packaging due to its versatility, low cost and permeability. Plastic materials are unable

to be degraded by present natural microorganisms upon their disposal to the

environment. As a result, these non-biodegradable plastics remain in the environment

for a long time and cause an Increase in solid waste production. (Emuliy J. North, 2013)

The use of plastic mulch in agriculture has increased dramatically in the last 10

years throughout the world. This increase is due to benefits such as increase in soil

temperature, reduced weed pressure, moisture conservation, reduction of certain insect

pests, higher croр yields, and more efficient use of soil nutrients. However, disposing of
used plastic films, which cause pollution, has led to development of photodegradable

and biodegradable mulches. Here we review the use of plastic mulches in agriculture,

with special reference to biodegradable mulches.

Plastic consumption and waste are two of the major concerns in the modern

world. Polyethylene for example is currently the leading plastic material, with a global

consumption of about 83 million metric tons in 2010, mostly for use in plastic bag

production. Plastics normally biodegrade very slowly, with full degradation occurring

after 500 or 1000 years. Plastic electronics on the other hand represent an emerging

field of science and technology that began in the realm of academic curiosity thirty

years ago, but which has now made some amazing advancements.

BIO-PLASTIC

Bioplastic is utilized as a holder that halfway comprises of common materials,

for example, starch, sustenance squander, and can even be made from farming side-

effects. Starch is a characteristic biopolymer that is made generously out of various

polymer sorts of glucose which is amylose and amylopectin. It assumes a beneficial job

in the public eye concerning the generation incorporate its inexhaustibility, great oxygen

obstruction in dry territories, wealth, reasonableness. and biodegradability (Tabil et. al.,

2007). The similarities of the examination and study incorporates the creation and

arrangement of biodegradable packs. Both includes the utilization of starch as one of the

essential materials in delivering biodegradable bags.

 According to Arikan, E. and, Ozsoy, H. (2015), they are advantages and

disadvantages of using bio-plastics. For the advantages: (1) Bio-plastics are made of

renewable sources than the plastics made from synthetic materials; (2) Bio-plastics

generates fewer green-house gases and it contains no toxins and it eases the effects of

global warming (3) Bio-plastics are energy efficient They use less energy than

conventional plastics; (4) Bio-plastics offers a wide variety of zero waste end of life

options (5) Bio plastics will reduce the amount of plastic waste ;(6) Organisms can be

benefit from the nutrients of the bio-plastic after it decompose ;(7) Bio- plastic will help

the environment to replenish its sources. As for the disadvantages: (1) Bio- plastics

costs twice the price of the conventional plastics (2) Bio-plastics have recycling

problems and it can contaminate the recycling process (3) Bio-plastics reduces the

amount of raw materials (4) Bio plastics lacks proper legislation. Many countries have

not used any law in using bio-plastic as an alternative to conventional plastic.

These plastics are environment friendly & biodegradable, and are safer option

than the petroleum-based plastics. These biodegradable plastics break down into carbon

dioxide, water & inorganic compounds and degrade completely. (Shah, M., Rajhans, S.,

Pandya, H., & Mankad, A.)

LEMON

Lemon, also known as Citrus limon (L.) Burm., is a yellow or pale yellow

prolate fruit with five to ten seeds that is used in many different food cultures around the

world. The fruit's juice, which is valued for its tart, tangy, and fresh flavor, is frequently
used as an ingredient in both homemade and commercial recipes. It is a source of

dietary fiber and polysaccharides (chiefly Pectin, 25–35%) with adequate water and oil-

holding capacity (Srivastava and Malviya, 2011; Rafiq et al., 2018). In this study, lemon

(Citrus limon) peel is explored for developing biodegradable film since it is highly

underutilized.

CORNSTARCH

Starch having a high amylose content (~30%) has an excellent film-forming

capacity (Mali et al., 2005). Starch has certain limitations owing to its high hydrophilic

nature, the mechanical strength of starch-based biomaterial is affected when exposed to

moisture for an extended period (Nazrin et al., 2022). In this context, the addition of

pectin and glycerol to a starch-based film can improve the film thickness, solubility, and

tensile strength (Layuk et al., 2019).

CHIA SEEDS

Chia seeds (Salvia hispanica L.) are promising raw material for the

development of biodegradable and edible polymers due to their composition and

properties. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of drying process of chia mucilage

(oven and freeze‐drying) and the incorporation of chia oil in films for food packaging.

The films were formed by casting using chia mucilage and glycerol. The polymers

developed were evaluated by physicochemical properties, microstructure, thermal

properties, and biodegradation. The drying process of mucilage and oil incorporation in

films affected mainly mechanical and color properties. Freeze‐dried mucilage resulted

in superior mechanical performance. Differences were caused by the effect of drying

process in the molecular structure of chia mucilage and the incorporation of oil among

the polymer chains. (Sibele et al., 2019).

MUCILAGINOUS COMPOUND

A very high content of mucilaginous material is known to be present in chia

seeds (Salvia hispanica). Chia seeds around 5–7% of the whole chia seed weight

corresponds to a complex carbohydrate polymer called mucilage. This polysaccharide is

also a by-product generated during the production of chia seed protein hydrolysates,

which have shown bioactive properties, chia seed mucilage (CSM) has mainly been

used as a thickening agent. However, a study by Salazar Vega, I. M., Quintana Owen,

P., & Segura Campos, M. R. showed that CSM and proteins can be combined to

develop edible or biodegradable films with improved physical properties.

GLYCERIN

According to Encyclopedia Britannica (2019) Glycerin is a colorless, viscous,

and sweet tasting liquid from the alcohol family. In 1948 glycerol was obtained as by

product in making animal soaps and vegetable oils. The term glycerin was introduced in

the year 1811 by the french chemist Michel Eugene Cheryreul. It also acts as a

plasticizer to promote flexibility and to reduce brittleness and it also binds up the starch

to make a useful bioplastic.

VINEGAR

According to Schon M, Schwartz, P (n.d) Vinegar, is 6% in volume solution of

acetic acid liberates acetate ions and hydrogen ions in solution, because starch polymers

will react to ions and make them be disarranged easily in the solution. This disorder,

resulting from the disruption by the water and the ionization by the acetic acid, makes

the resulting cast film more homogenous. It also help the starch to stay intact with its

molecules.

WATER

According to Schon and Schwartz (2018), Water plays a major role in bioplastic

production First dissolving the starch acts as a solvent. Additionally, after heating it

helps the starch molecules stay disrupted

PROPERTIES AFFECTS DECOMPOSITION

Decomposition means to break down, it is refers to the rupture or breakdown of

some complex organic matter into a simpler inorganic matter. Also in ecosystem, it's the

important process, thus, we can say it is metabolic process that takes into a new

compound or as raw materials, it converts and processes them to a simple compound.

According to the study of BYJU'S (2020), there is so many factors that can affect the

decomposition of compound in terms of their litter quality depends on the structural and

chemical properties of litter, temperature regulates the growth and activity of

microorganisms, aeration when oxygen present in the pores of the soil helps in the

growth of microorganisms, soil pH that presence of cations and anions governs the pH

of the soil, which in tum affects microbial growth, and inorganic chemicals also a

factors that can affect the decomposition. The process of decomposition is

fragmentation, leaching, catabolism, humification, and last is the mineralization.

RELATED STUDIES

Recent study states that if we can have biodegradable plastics which are eco-

friendly, we could sustain a better global life for the planet. Biodegradable plastic

decomposes naturally in the environment. This is achieved when microorganisms in the

environment metabolize and break down the structure of biodegradable plastic. The end

result is one which is less harmful to the environment the traditional plastics. (Rod Alire

et al, 2010)

SYNTHESIS

Previous study on this aimed to evaluate the effects of drying process of chia

mucilage (oven and freeze‐drying) and the incorporation of chia oil in films for food

packaging. The films were formed by casting using chia mucilage and glycerol. The

polymers developed were evaluated by physicochemical properties, microstructure,

thermal properties, and biodegradation. The drying process of mucilage and oil

incorporation in films affected mainly mechanical and color properties.

 REFERENCES

Dai H., Yu J., Geng F., Ma X. Preparation and properties of starch-based film using N-
(2- hydroxyethyl) formamide as a new plasticizer. Polym. Plast. Technol. Eng.
2009;48:866-870. doi: 10.1080/03602550902994938. [CrossRef]
Duran, K., et. al. (n.d.). Cassava starch as a major component in making biodegradable
plastic. Retrieved from https://www.scribd.com/doc/158669 509/Cassava-Starch-As-A-
Major-Component-In-Making-Biodegradable- Plastic
Fabunmi, O.O., Tabil J.r., L.G., Panigrahi, S., & Chang, P.R. (2007). Retrieved from
Research Gate: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/242221295 Developing
Biodegradable Plastics from starch?fbclid=lWAR3SIKZ4m PaTVtFPWfb7JIE-c-
Ubomsr8Mgrjaa-MEx3Rbh9vugAcwoV0k0

Gadhave, R.V., Das, A., Mahanwar, P.A. and Gadekar, P.T. (2018, May 30) Starch
Based Bio-Plastics: The Future of Sustainable Packaging, Open Journal of Polymer
Chemistry, 8, 21-33.
Galdeano M.C., Mali S., Grossmann M.V.E., Yamashita F., García M.A. Effects of
plasticizers on the properties of oat starch films. Mater. Sci. Eng. C. 2009;29:532-538.
doi: 10.1016/j.msec.2008.09.034. [CrossRef]
Hafiza M.N., Isa M.I.N. Correlation between structural, ion transport and ionic
conductivity of plasticized 2-hydroxyethyl cellulose based solid biopolymer electrolyte.
J. Membr. Sci. 2020;597:117176. doi: 10.1016/j.memsci.2019.117176. [CrossRef]
[Google Scholar]
Hazrati K.Z., Sapuan S.M., Zuhri M.Y.Μ., Jumaidin R. Effect of plasticizers on
physical, thermal, and tensile properties of thermoplastic films based on Dioscorea
hispida starch. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2021 doi:10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2021.06.099.
[PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
Hazrol M.D., Sapuan S.M., Zainudin E.S., Zuhri M.Y.M., Abdul Wahab N.I. Corn
starch (Zea mays) biopolymer plastic reaction in combination with sorbitol and glycerol.
Polymers. 2021;13:242. doi: 10.3390/polym13020242. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
Ibrahim M.I.J., Sapuan S.M., Zainudin E.S., Zuhri M.Y.M., Edhirej A. Advanced
Processing, Properties, and Applications of Starch and Other Bio-Based Polymers.
Elsevier; Amsterdam, The Netherlands: 2020. Processing and characterization of
cornstalk/sugar palm fiber reinforced cornstarch biopolymer hybrid composites; pp. 35-
46. [Google Scholar

Iwata, T. (2015, January 12). Biodegradable and Bio-Based Polymers: Future Prospects
of Eco-Friendly Plastics. Retrieved from https://onlinelibrary.
wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/anie.201410770
Jouki M., Khazaei N., Ghasemlou M., HadiNezhad M. Effect of glycerol concentration
edible film production from cress seed carbohydrate gum. Carbohydr. Polym.
2013:96:39-46. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2013.03.077. [ [CrossRef] [Google Scholar].
Mooney, B.P. (2009). The second green revolution? Production of plant-based
biodegradable plastics. Retrieved from http://www.biochemj.org/content/
418/2/219.abstract

Nordin N., Othman S.H., Rashid S.A., Basha R.K. Effects of glycerol and thymol on
physical, mechanical, and thermal properties of corn starch films. Food Hydrocoll.
2020;106:105884. doi: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2020.105884. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

Reddy. R.L., et. al. (2013 May). Study of Bio-plastics as Green & Sustainable
Alternative to Plastics. International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced
Engineering. Vol. 3, Issue 5.
Santana R.F., Bonomo R.C.F., Gandolfi O.R.R., Rodrigues L.B., Santos L.S., dos
Santos Pires A.C., de Oliveira C.P., da Costa Ilhéu Fontan R., Veloso C.M.
Characterization of starch-based bioplastics from jackfruit seed plasticized with
glycerol. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2018;55:278-286. doi: 10.1007/s13197-017-2936-6.
[PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
Wang J., Cheng F., Zhu P. Structure and properties of urea-plasticized starch films with
different urea contents. Carbohydr. Polym. 2014;101:1109-1115. doi:
10.1016/j.carbpol.2013.10.050. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
Waterschoot J., Gomand S.V., Fierens E., Delcour J.A. Production, structure,
physicochemical and functional properties of maize, cassava, wheat, potato and rice
starches. Starch/Staerke. 2015;67:14-29. doi: 10.1002/star.201300238. [CrossRef]
[Google Scholar]