AGNIESZKA ŁYCZKO

ENGLISH FOR MATHEMATICS

A Mathematician’s Guide to Professional
Communication in English

KRAKÓW 2015
Copyright: Agnieszka Łyczko

Wydawca: Studium Praktycznej Nauki Języków Obcych Politechniki Krakowskiej

ul. Warszawska 24, 31-155 Kraków
tel. (12) 628-28-87; fax (12) 628-28-80
e-mail: [email protected]

Druk: Dział Poligrafii Politechniki Krakowskiej

ul. Skarżyńskiego 1, 31-866 Kraków
tel. (12) 628 37 29
fax (12) 628 37 70

ISBN 978-83-934646-2-3
 page 3

CONTENTS

Introduction.............................................................................. 5
1. Mathematical symbols and operations................................. 6
2. Numbers............................................................................. 16
3. Sets.................................................................................... 29
4. Functions............................................................................ 40
5. Types of functions............................................................... 47
6. Fractions............................................................................. 56
7. Roots.................................................................................. 71
8. Complex powers.................................................................. 82
9. Basic concepts in geometry................................................. 88
10. Triangles............................................................................. 94
11. Circles................................................................................. 100
12. Hexagon and ellipse............................................................ 105
13. Solids.................................................................................. 109
14. Equations........................................................................... 114
15. Systems of equations........................................................... 123
16. Fields of mathematics......................................................... 131
17. Basic concepts of probability............................................... 141
18. Events................................................................................. 151
19. Statistics............................................................................. 158
20. Data representation............................................................. 168
21. Census................................................................................ 174
22. Sampling............................................................................. 181
23. Types of sampling................................................................ 189
24. Mean, median, mode........................................................... 195
25. Statistical inference............................................................. 205
26. Consumer mathematics. Simple and compound interest..... 208
27. Annual percentage rate....................................................... 214
28. Rent-to-own........................................................................ 218
29. Amortization, annuity, sinking funds................................... 222
Communicative activities section – Student B............................ 229
Communicative activities section – Student C............................ 298
Communicative activities section – Student D............................ 305
Snowball activity bank............................................................... 309
Audioscripts.............................................................................. 313
Answer key................................................................................ 324
Glossary.................................................................................... 356
References................................................................................. 364
 page 5

Introduction

This book has been written for students of Mathematics at B2 (upper

intermediate) and C1 (advanced) level of English, who would like to
improve and develop their reading, listening and speaking skills in
the field of mathematical science. Students of other sciences might
also find it useful in expanding their technical language.
The book presents a number of texts and some recordings illustrating
the problems associated with mathematics. The materials come from
British and American sources therefore, the original spelling of words
has been kept. It contains twenty nine units subdivided into parts,
which include a variety of activities aimed at technical vocabulary
practice and developing communicative skills. Each unit can be
treated as a whole or analysed selectively depending on the students’
needs and purposes.
The answer key is included at the back of the book, thus it can be
used as a self-study material.
English-Polish glossary will help students understand various
mathematical concepts and expand their vocabulary resources.
The author’s aim is to encourage students not only to learn new
technical vocabulary but also to apply mathematical terminology in
spoken language.

Acknowledgements

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to dr Katarzyna

Pałasińska for her invaluable assistance as far as technical
vocabulary is concerned and thorough analysis of the whole material.
I would like to thank Mrs Elżbieta Han-Wiercińska whose help,
practical support and advice resulted in many improvements to this
book.
Finally, I wish to thank my husband and my son for their patience
and encouragement.
page 6

UNIT 1. MATHEMATICAL SYMBOLS AND OPERATIONS

LEAD-IN

What is mathematical notation? Put the sentences in the correct

order to form the definition of mathematical notation.
1. They include relatively simple symbolic representations, such as
the numbers 0, 1 and 2, function symbols sin and +, conceptual
symbols, such as lim, dy/dx, equations and variables and complex
diagrammatic notations such as Penrose graphical notation and
Coxeter-Dynkin diagrams.
2. Mathematical notation is a system of symbolic representations
of mathematical objects and ideas.
3. Mathematical notations are used in mathematics, the physical
sciences, engineering and economics.

Task I. Match the symbols with expressions from the box.

structure constant    Coxeter-Dynkin diagram

symmetrization

– ____________________________

– _____________________________

– _________________________________

Task II. Study the list of mathematical symbols and operations

and their interpretations.
equality /is equal to/equals x = y means x and y represent
the same thing or value
 Unit 1. Mathematical symbols and operations page 7

inequality/is not equal to/does not equal x ≠ y means that

x and y do not represent the same thing or value
strict inequality/is less than x < y means x is less than y
strict inequality/ is greater than x > y means x is greater
than y
(very) strict inequality/is much less than x  y means x
is much less than y
(very) strict inequality/is much greater than x  y means x
is much greater than y
is less than or equal to x ≤ y means x is less than or equal
to y
is greater than or equal to x ≤ y means x is greater than or
equal to y
proportionality/is proportional to/varies as y µ x means
that y = kx for some constant k if y = 2x, then y µ x
addition/plus/add 4 + 6 means the sum of 4 and 6 disjoint
union/the disjoint union of ... and ... A1  A2 means the
disjoint union of sets A1 and A2
subtraction/minus/take/subtract 9 − 4 means the
subtraction of 4 from 9. 8 ‒ 3 = 5
a collection of elements A = {3, 7, 9, 14}, B = {9, 14, 28}
intersection, objects that belong to set A and set B,
A  B = {9, 14}
union, objects that belong to set A or set B,
A  B = {3, 7, 9, 14, 28}
subset, subset has fewer elements or equal to the set,
{9, 14, 28} ⊆ {9, 14, 28}
/division/divided by/over 6 : 3 or 6/3 means the division
of 6 by 3
quotient group/mod G/H means the quotient of group G
modulo its subgroup H {0, a, 2a, b, b + a, b +2a}/{0, b} =
= {{0, b}, {a, b + a}, {2a, b +2 a}}
plus-minus 6 ± 3 means both 6 + 3 and 6 ‒ 3. The equation
x = 5 ± 4, has two solutions, x = 7 and x = 3 measurement
10 ± 2 or equivalently 10 ± 20% means the range from 10 ‒ 2
to 10 + 2
approximately equal/is approximately equal to x ≈ y means
x is approximately equal to y
page 8 Unit 1. Mathematical symbols and operations

congruence/is congruent to ABC @ DEF means triangle

ABC is congruent to (has the same measurements as)
triangle DEF isomorphic/is isomorphic to G @ H means that
group G is isomorphic (structurally identical) to group H
multiplication/times/multiplied by 3 × 4 means the
multiplication of 3 by 4
Cartesian product/the Cartesian product of ... and .../the
direct product of ... and ...
convolution/convolution/convolved with f ∗ g means the
∞
convolution of f and ( f ∗ g )(t ) = ∫−∞
f (τ ) g (t − τ )d τ complex
conjugate/conjugate z* means the complex conjugate of z
tensor product/tensor product of modules/tensor product of

means the tensor product of V and U. V ⊗R U means the

tensor product of modules V and U over the ring R
square root/the (principal) square root of

means the nonnegative number whose square is x. 4 =2

complex square root
mean/overbar/bar x (often read as “x bar”) is the mean
(average value = of xi). x {1=, 2, 3, 4, 5 }; x 3 complex
conjugate/conjugate z means the complex conjugate of z.
unit vector/hat a (pronounced “a hat”) is the normalized
version of vector a, having length 1
absolute value/modulus x means the distance along
the real line (or across the complex plane) between x and
zero. |3| = 3
Euclidean norm or Euclidean length or magnitude x
means the (Euclidean) length of vector x. For x = (3, –4) ·
x = 32 + (−4)2 = 5
Determinant A means the determinant of the matrix A
1 2
= 5 , cardinality/size of/order of X means the
2 9
cardinality of the set X
 Unit 1. Mathematical symbols and operations page 9

norm/norm of/length of x means the norm of the element

x of a normed vector space, x +y £ x + y nearest
integer function x means the nearest integer to x
factorial n! means the product 1 × 2 × ... × n.
4! = 1 × 2 × 3 × 4 = 24 logical negation/not.
The statement !A is true if and only if A is false
the set of natural numbers N means either {0, 1, 2, 3, ...} or
{1, 2, 3, ...}.
infinity ∞ is an element of the extended number line that
is greater than all real numbers; it often occurs in limits
1
lim =¥
x →0 x

n
summation/sum over … from … to … of ∑a
k =1
k means
a1 + a2 + … + an

Task III. Match the symbols and operations with their

interpretations.
1. x=y 2. x≠y
3. x>y 4. xy
5. x≥y 6. 4+6
7. 9–4 8. 6±3
9. 3×4 10. V⊗U
11. 6 : 3 or 6⁄3 12. x
13. x 14. x
15. n! 16. x ≈ y
a) both 6 + 3 and 6 − 3
b) x is approximately equal to y
c) the problem A can be polynomially reduced to the problem B
d) x and y represent the same thing or value
e) the nearest integer to x
f) the tensor product of V and U
g) x and y do not represent the same thing or value
h) x is greater than or equal to y
page 10 Unit 1. Mathematical symbols and operations

i) the nonnegative number whose square is x

j) x is greater than y
k) the multiplication of 3 by 4
l) x is much less than y
m) the distance along the real line (or across the complex plane)
between x and zero
n) the sum of 4 and 6
o) the product 1 × 2 × ... × n
p) the subtraction of 4 from 9
q) the division of 6 by 3

Task IV. Work with partner. Student B: Look at the

communicative activities section (p. 229).
Study the mathematical symbols below, read them to B.
Ask him/her to write them down.
1. 1. ____
2. | | 2. ____
3. ! 3. ____
4. a 4. ____
5. ³ 5. ____
6. Σ 6. ____
Listen to B and write down the mathematical symbols...........

Task V. Unscramble the words connected with mathematical

operations. Match them with the Polish equivalents in
the box below. There is one extra word you do not need.
1. LUTMPICTAINOL ……………………………………………………..
2. BRUTSCANOIT ………………………………………………………..
3. DATNOIID ………………………………………………………………
4. ISDINOVI ……………………………………………………………….
5. UTIOQNET ……………………………………………………………..
6. DEADDN ………………………………………………………………..
7. URTAMENRO ………………………………………………………….
8. IEDNUMN ………………………………………………………………

iloraz dzielenie odejmowanie dodawanie składnik sumy

odjemna odjemnik mnożenie licznik
 Unit 1. Mathematical symbols and operations page 11
Task VI. Read about basic mathematical operations. Put the
missing sentences A, B, C or D in the gaps 1–4.

A) ... meaning that if we start with any number and add any
number and then subtract the same number we added ...
B) ... describes two distinct but related settings and it involves
taking a set of size a and forming b groups that are equal in size.
C) It can also represent combining physical and abstract quantities
using different kinds of numbers: negative numbers, fractions,
irrational numbers, vectors, decimals and more.
D) The area of a rectangle does not depend on which side you
measure first, which illustrates that the order numbers are
multiplied together in doesn’t matter.

Addition is a mathematical operation that represents combining

collections of objects together into a larger collection. It is signified
by the plus sign (+) ................. (1). Addition follows several important
patterns. It is commutative, meaning that order does not matter,
and it is associative, meaning that when one adds more than two
numbers, order in which addition is performed does not matter.
Addition also obeys predictable rules concerning related operations
such as subtraction and multiplication. The numbers or the objects
to be added in general addition are called the terms, the addends,
or the summands.
a + b = c     addend (a) + addend (b) = sum (c)
In arithmetic, subtraction is one of the four basic binary operations
which is the inverse of addition, ............... (2), we return to the
number we started with. Subtraction is denoted by a minus sign (–)
in infix notation, in contrast to the use of the plus sign for addition.
Since subtraction is not a commutative operator, the two operands
are named. The traditional names for the parts of the formula:
c − b = a    minuend (c) − subtrahend (b) = difference (a)
Multiplication (×) is the operation of scaling one number by another.
Because the result of scaling by whole numbers can be thought of as
consisting of some number of copies of the original, whole-number
products greater than 1 can be computed by repeated addition;
for example, 3 multiplied by 4 (often said as “3 times 4”) can be
calculated by adding 4 copies of 3 together:
page 12 Unit 1. Mathematical symbols and operations

3 × 4 = 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 = 12
3 and 4 are the factors and 12 is the product
Multiplication can also be visualized as counting objects arranged
in a rectangle (for whole numbers) or as finding the area of a rectangle
whose sides have given lengths (for numbers generally). ........... (3).
Multiplication is also defined for other types of numbers (such as
complex numbers), and for more abstract constructs such as matrices.
Conceptually, division .......... (4). The size of each group formed,
c, is the quotient of a and b. Unlike addition, subtraction, and
multiplication, the set of all integers is not closed under division.
Dividing two integers may result in a remainder. To complete
the division of the remainder, the number system is extended to
include fractions or rational numbers.
a:b=c
In the expression a : b = c, a is called the dividend or numerator,
b the divisor or denominator and the result c is called the quotient

Task VII. Complete the table using the mathematical terms

from the text.

RESULT
NAME OF
SYMBOL OPERATION COMPONENTS OF THE
OPERATION
PROCESS
a+b=c the sum of a and addition addends, sum
b is c/ the total summands
of a and b is c/ a
plus b equals c/
a increased by b
equals c
a–b=c

a×b=c

a:b=c
 Unit 1. Mathematical symbols and operations page 13
Task VIII. Find twelve terms associated with symbols and
mathematical operations. Match them with the
definitions. The words go down ↓ and across →.

A N O T A T I O N B V N J I T

A B C V G H J K Q W E R H R H

I S C O N G R U E N C E H E D

N U F G H A Z X S L K O P M I

E M P N U M E R A T O R A A A

Q M R A M H D I V I S O R I G

U G O P I O Y W Q R T U S N R

A D D E N D A S D F G T D D A

L U U S U J T Q F D H E I E M

I F C D E K E W Y O J R V R B

T G T X N L N S U H K G I K C

Y N B Z D V S U M M A N D A D

T B Q V B H O D R E T P E Q F

S V S U B T R A H E N D N E G

D E N O M I N A T O R L D V H

1. ............................................... process or method of noting

or setting down by means of a special system of signs or symbols.
2. ............................................... a figure, usually consisting of
a line drawing, made to accompany and illustrate a geometrical
theorem, mathematical demonstration.
3. ............................................... a relation between two
numbers indicating that the numbers give the same remainder
when divided by some given number.
4. ............................................... the term of a fraction, usually
above the line, that indicates the number of equal parts that are
to be added together.
page 14 Unit 1. Mathematical symbols and operations

5. ............................................... a number by which another

number is divided.
6. ............................................... the condition of being unequal;
lack of equality.
7. ............................................... the aggregate of two or more
numbers, magnitudes, quantities, or particulars as determined
by or as if by the mathematical process of addition.
8. ............................................... a number from which another
is subtracted.
9. ............................................... a part of a sum.
10. ............................................... that term of a fraction, usually
written under the line, that indicates the number of equal parts
into which the unit is divided.
11. ............................................... a number that is subtracted
from another.
12. ............................................... a number that is to be divided
by a divisor.

Task IX. Work with a partner. Student B: Look at the

communicative activities section (p. 229).
Read your mathematical formulas to B who will write them
down. Check your partner’s operations for mistakes.
1. 2+2≠5
2. ............................................................................
3. x  ex
4. ............................................................................
5. if y = 2x
6. ............................................................................
7. 4 =2
8. ............................................................................
9. − 5 = 5 = 5
10. ............................................................................
11. x +y £ x + y
12. ............................................................................
13. 4! = 1 × 2 × 3 × 4 = 24
 Unit 1. Mathematical symbols and operations page 15
14. ............................................................................

1
15. lim =¥
x →0 x

Task X. Work with a partner. Student B: Look at the

communicative activities section (p. 230).
B will ask you about the clues missing in his/her crossword.
Do not read the words, give their definitions. Take it in turns
to complete the crossword.
Example: B: What is 1 across?
A: It means that two things do not represent the same
quantity or value.

1. I N E Q U A L I T Y

2.

3. P R O D U C T

4.

5. M I N U E N D

6.

7. D I V I D E N D

8.

9. M U L T I P L I C A T I O N

10.
page 16

UNIT 2. NUMBERS

LEAD-IN

Work in groups of ten. You will receive a card with a word in

English and its Polish equivalent. Learn your word and tear away
the Polish part. Move round the classroom and exchange your
card with other students. You should remember as many words
as possible.
Write down as many words connected with numbers as you can.
Compare your list with a partner.

Task I. Work with a partner. Answer the question.

Five-eighths of students at one college live off campus. If one-
-sixth of these students need parking permits and there are 14.400
students enrolled, how many parking permits will be needed?
....................................................................................................
....................................................................................................
.................................................................................................. .

Task II. Think about your own experiences connected with

numbers. In what circumstances, apart from the science
of mathematics, do we use numbers and how important
are these in our lives? Answer the questions.
a) What is the difference between a number and a numeral?
b) What functions does a numeral have?
c) What is meant by binary operation?
d) How are integers represented in the number system?

Task III. Read the paragraph and check your answers.

A number is a mathematical object used for counting, labelling,
and measuring. In mathematics the definition of number has been
extended over the years to include such numbers as zero, negative
numbers, rational numbers, irrational numbers, and complex
numbers. Mathematical operations are certain procedures that take
one or more numbers as input and produce a number as output.
 Unit 2. Numbers page 17
Unary operations take a single input number and produce a single
output number. For example, the successor operation adds one to an
integer, thus the successor of 4 is 5. Binary operations take two input
numbers and produce a single output number. Examples of binary
operations include addition, subtraction, multiplication, division,
and exponentiation. The study of numerical operations is called
arithmetic. A notational symbol that represents a number is called
a numeral. In addition to their use in counting and measuring,
numerals are often used for labels (telephone numbers), for ordering
(serial numbers), and for codes (e.g., ISBNs). In common use, the word
number can mean the abstract object, the symbol, or the word for
the number. Different types of numbers are used in many cases.
Numbers can be classified into sets, called number systems.

Important number systems

 Natural 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ... or 1, 2, 3, 4, ...
 Integers ..., −5, −4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ...
– Positive integers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ...

 Rational a/b where a and b are integers and b

is not zero
 Real The limit of a convergent sequence
of rational numbers
 Complex a + bi where a and b are real numbers
and i is the square root of −1

Task IV. Work with a partner. Student B: Look at communicative

activities section (p. 230).
Read about numbers and be ready to answer your partner’s
questions concerning your passage. You may refer to the passage
to answer the questions.
Natural numbers are the ordinary whole numbers used for counting
(“there are 6 coins on the table”) and ordering (“this is the 3rd largest
city in the country”). These purposes are related to the linguistic
notions of cardinal and ordinal numbers, respectively. A later notion
is that of a nominal number, which is used only for naming. There
page 18 Unit 2. Numbers

is no universal agreement about whether to include zero in the set

of natural numbers: some define the natural numbers to be the
positive integers {1, 2, 3, ...}, while for others the term designates
the non-negative integers {0, 1, 2, 3, ...}. The former definition is
the traditional one, with the latter definition first appearing in the
19th century. Some authors use the term “natural number” to
exclude zero and “whole number” to include it; others use “whole
number” in a way that excludes zero, or in a way that includes both
zero and the negative integers. The addition and multiplication
operations on natural numbers have several algebraic properties.
The first is closure under addition and multiplication in which
for all natural numbers a and b, both a + b and a × b are natural
numbers. Associativity states that for all natural numbers a, b,
and c, a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c and a × (b × c) = (a × b) × c. Another
important property is commutativity (for all natural numbers a
and b, a + b = b + a and a × b = b × a). Natural number have identity
elements so for every natural number a, a + 0 = a and a × 1 = a.
Distributivity of multiplication over addition for all natural numbers
a, b, and c, a × (b + c) = (a × b) + (a × c). They never use zero divisors,
therefore, if a and b are natural numbers such that a × b = 0 then
a = 0 or b = 0. The integers (from the Latin integer, literally
“untouched,” hence “whole”) are formed by the natural numbers
(including 0) (0, 1, 2, 3, ...) together with the negatives of the non-
zero natural numbers (−1, −2, −3, ...). Viewed as a subset of the real
numbers, they are numbers that can be written without a fractional
or decimal component, and fall within the set {..., −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, ...}.
For example, 21, 4, and −2048 are integers; 9.75, 5½, and 2 are
not integers. The set of all integers is often denoted by a boldface Z
(or blackboard bold , Unicode U+2124 ), which stands for Zahlen
(German for numbers) The integers (with addition as operation) form
the smallest group containing the additive monoid of the natural
numbers. Like the natural numbers, the integers form a countably
infinite set. In algebraic number theory, these commonly understood
integers, embedded in the field of rational numbers, are referred
to as rational integers to distinguish them from the more broadly
defined algebraic integers.
Ask B questions about and real and rational numbers.
1. What is the relationship between rational numbers and integers?
2. What is the decimal expansion of a rational number?
 Unit 2. Numbers page 19
3. What’s the difference between rational and irrational numbers?
4. Why is a real number defined as a quantity along a continuous
line?
5. What are two basic properties of real numbers?

Task V. Work with a partner and match the words underlined

in both passages with the definitions below. Match
them with their Polish equivalents in the box.
1. .............................. (v) to recognise or show the difference
between people or things
2. .............................. (adj) suited, that can exist together without
problems or conflict
3. .............................. (adv) in the same order as already
mentioned
4. .............................. (v) to have sb/sth as parts or members, to
be composed of sb/sth
5. .............................. (v) to mark or indicate sth clearly, to
specify sth
6. .............................. (v) to complete or bring sth to an end
7. .............................. (adj) equivalent or related
8. .............................. (adj) fixed deeply and firmly in a mass of sth
9. .............................. (v) to reject as a possibility, to ignore or
leave sth out, not to include
10. ............................. (adj) coming one after the other without
interruption

zanurzony zakończyć odpowiednio zawierać określić

odróżnić kolejny wykluczyć zgodny odpowiadający

Task VI. Complete the sentences with words from Task V.

1. It was when we started living together that we found we just
weren’t ………………………..
2. He’s colour-blind and can’t ……………… between red and green
easily.
3. In the 200 metres, Lizzy and Sarah came first and third
……………….
4. This train will ………………… at the next stop. Passengers who
wish to continue should change trains.
page 20 Unit 2. Numbers

5. As the course becomes more difficult, there’s usually

a …………………. drop in attendance.
6. They officially ……………. the area as unsuitable for human
habitation.
7. Microbes must, as far as possible, be ……………. from the room
during an operation.
8. This is the fifth ………………. weekend that I’ve spent working,
and I’m a bit fed up with it.
9. The course ……………….. a class book, a practice book, and a CD.
10. A sense of guilt was deeply ………………… in my conscience.

Task VII. Read about complex numbers and choose the right
vocabulary item a, b, c or d for each gap.
A complex number is a number which can be put in the form a + bi,
where a and b are real numbers and i is called the _______________ (1)
unit, where i2 = −1. In this expression, a is called the real part and
b the imaginary part of the complex number. Complex numbers
_______________ (2) the idea of the one-dimensional number line to
the two-dimensional complex plane by using the horizontal axis for
the real part and the vertical axis for the imaginary part. The complex
number a + bi can be _______________ (3) the point (a, b). A complex
number whose real part is zero is said to be purely imaginary,
whereas a complex number whose imaginary part is zero is a real
number. In this way the complex numbers _______________ (4)
the ordinary real numbers while extending them in order to solve
problems that cannot be solved with only real numbers. Complex
numbers are used in many scientific fields, including engineering,
electromagnetism, quantum physics, and ________________ (5)
mathematics, such as chaos theory.
1. a) imaginating b) imaginary c) imaginative
2. a) extend b) include c) combine
3. a) connected with b) identified with c) subjected to
4. a) contain b) consist c) compile
5. a) theoretic b) scientific c) applied
 Unit 2. Numbers page 21
A complex number can be visually represented as a pair of numbers
(a, b) forming a vector on a diagram called an Argand diagram,
representing the complex plane. Re is the real axis, Im is the imaginary
axis, and i is the imaginary unit, satisfying i2 = −1.

Task VIII. Work with a partner. Student B: Look at the

communicative activities section (p. 232).
Read the questions and answers to B. Ask him/her to give the
right answer A, B, C or D. (A: stands for the correct answer.)
1. Which one of the following is an imaginary number?

A) Π B) 5 C) −5 D) i2

A: π and 5 are both real numbers that can be represented by

points on the real number line. π is approximately 3.14 and 5
2 2
is approximately 2.2, i = ( −1) = −1, which is also a real number

−5 = (−1 × 5) = i × 5 = i 5. Being a multiple of i, this is an

imaginary number.
2. What is a simpler number equivalent to i7?
A)1 B) –1 C) I D) –i
A: i = i
7 (2+2+2+1)
= i × i × i × i = (–1) × (–1) × (–1) × i = –i
2 2 2 1

3. What is a simpler number equivalent to i9?

A) 1 B) -1 C) i D) –i
A: i =i
9 (2+2+2+2+1)
=i × i × i × i × i = (–1) × (–1) × (–1) × (–1) × I = i. Another
2 2 2 2 1

way to do this is to remember that i4 = 1. So i9 = i4 × i4 × i = i

4. Which one of the following numbers is real?
A) ∞ B) I C) i2 D) i3
A: ∞ is the symbol for Infinity, which is not a real number, i is
the symbol for −1, which is not a Real number, i2 = ( −1)2 = −1,
which is a real number, i3 = ( −1)3 = ( −1)2 × −1 = (−1) × −1 = −i,
which is not a real number.
5. What is (-25)?
A) 5 B) 5i C) –5 D) –5i
A: (−25) = (25 × −1) = (25) × (−1) = 5i
page 22 Unit 2. Numbers

Task IX. Unscramble the words connected with numbers. Match

them with their Polish equivalents.
1. NCTSARDNETLAEN …………………………………………………
2. AGMNIRYIA ……………………………………………………………
3. ONCBIFCAI ……………………………………………………………
4. POMXLCE ……………………………………………………………..
5. CRNRECEUCE ……………………………………………………….
6. IGANLODA …………………………………………………………….

przekątna zespolona urojona przestępna Fibonacciego

rekurencja

Task X. Study the sentences below and decide if they are True
or False. Discuss with a partner. Listen to the recording
and check your answers.
1. In the Cartesian plane imaginary numbers fall on the horizontal
axis.
2. An imaginary number is a number whose square equals –1.
3. The first two numbers in the Fibonacci sequence are 1 and 2.
4. Fibonacci numbers are closely related to the golden ratio.
5. Fibonacci numbers have a variety of applications.
6. Only few real and complex numbers are transcendental.
7. The square root of 2 is a transcendental number.
8. For any two transcendental numbers a and b, at least one of
a + b and a x b must be transcendental.

Task XI. Listen to the recording again and write the missing
phrases.
1. The imaginary number i is defined solely ______ ______ ___________
that its square is −1. With i defined this way, it follows directly
from algebra that i and −i are both _______ ________ of −1.
2. Applications of Fibonacci numbers include computer algorithms
such as the Fibonacci _________ _________ and the Fibonacci heap
data structure, and graphs called Fibonacci ____________ used for
interconnecting parallel and distributed systems.
3. But Cantor’s ____________ argument proves that the real numbers
are _____________; so the set of all transcendental numbers must
also be uncountable.
 Unit 2. Numbers page 23
4. Using a counting argument one can show that there exist
transcendental numbers which have ___________ ___________
quotients and hence are not Liouville numbers.
5. Any ______________ ____________function of a single variable
yields a transcendental value when applied to a transcendental
argument.
6. An algebraic function of several variables may ______________ an
algebraic number when applied to transcendental numbers if
these numbers are not algebraically ______________________.

Task XII. Complete the table with opposites as in the example.

Positive adjective Negative adjective

constant non-constant
rational
finite
countable
transcendental
imaginary
perfect
curling
bounded
partial

Task XIII. Use the words in block letters and change their form
to complete the sentences.
1. It is not a root of ......................... polynomial equation.
CONSTANCY
2. Fibonacci sequence occurs in nature, for instance in ......................
fern and the arrangement of a pine cone. CURL
3. Rational numbers are ........................... TRANSCEND
4. The square root of 2 is ............................. and not transcendental.
REASON
page 24 Unit 2. Numbers

5. The Fibonacci sequence is ............................... thus, has infinite

number of terms. BOUND
6. The decimal expansion of an irrational number continues
................... without repetition. FINISH

Task XIV. Work with a partner. Student B: Look at the

communicative activities section (p. 232).
Read your sentences to B and ask him/her to fill in the missing
words. Do not say the words in italics (answers).
1. Real number operations can be ...................... to imaginary
and complex numbers by treating i as an unknown quantity.
(extended)
2. Imaginary numbers fall on the ......................... axis of cartesian
plane. (vertical)
3. The first two numbers in the Fibonacci sequence are 0 and 1,
and each ................................ number is the sum of the previous
two. (subsequent)
4. In mathematical terms, the sequence Fn of Fibonacci numbers
is defined by the ............................ relation. (recurrence)
5. Transcendental number is a number that is not algebraic, which
means that it is not a root of a ........................ polynomial equation
with rational coefficients. (non-constant)
6. Almost all real and complex numbers are transcendental, since
the algebraic numbers are ................................ while the sets
of real and complex numbers are both uncountable. (countable)
Match the English words with their Polish equivalents. Then
listen to B’s sentences and complete them with the right words.

yield    variable    finite    unbounded    uncountably

irrational    infinite

skończony niewymierna dostarczyć zmienna

nieskończony nieograniczony nieprzeliczalnie
 Unit 2. Numbers page 25
Task XV. Find thirteen terms associated with NUMBERS.
The words go down ↓ and across →.

R A T I O N A L U J K S A Q
E C S N D U T O R D I N A L
A O L T D M F E U J K H Q R
L N U E E E R D Y Y Y S A G
A J H G A R I T H M E T I C
F U Y E D A M A R T T G G O
I G R R E L A D T R H F T M
B A I F A K G S F I F D F P
O T N G W O I X D D D S D L
N E V E N P N Z S S S E S E
A H E H Q J A J W E V S X X
C R R J R P R I M E D X S B
C E S K T D Y P Q I S C Z N
I C E I R R A T I O N A L M

Complete the sentences using words from the search box.

The first letters of the words are provided.
1. A r.......................... number is a value that represents
a quantity along a continuous line.
2. A number of binary strings of length n without consecutive 1s
is the F............................. number Fn+2.
3. A c.............................. number can be viewed as a point
or position vector in a two-dimensional Cartesian coordinate
system called the complex plane.
4. A.................................... is the oldest and most elementary
branch of mathematics, used by almost everyone, for tasks
ranging from simple day-to-day counting to advanced science
and business calculations.
5. The r................................. numbers can be defined as the
equivalence classes of the quotient set (Z × (Z∖{0})), where
the Cartesian product Z × (Z∖{0}) is the set of all ordered pairs
page 26 Unit 2. Numbers

(m,n) where m and n are integers, n is not zero (n ≠ 0), and

“~” is the equivalence relation defined by (m1, n1) ~ (m2, n2) if,
and only if, m1n2 − m2n1 = 0.
6. The i................................... (with addition as operation) form
the smallest group containing the additive monoid of the natural
numbers.
7. The additive i.........................., of a number a is the number
that, when added to a, yields zero.
8. The parity of an object states whether it is e.......................... or
odd.
9. A n............................... system is a mathematical notation
for representing numbers of a given set, using digits or other
symbols in a consistent manner.
10. An i........................... number can be written as a real number
multiplied by the imaginary unit i, which is defined by its property
i2 = –1.
11. O.........................s were introduced by Georg Cantor in 1883
to accommodate infinite sequences and to classify sets with
certain kinds of order structures on them.
12. P................................ number theorem states that the
probability that a given, randomly chosen number n is prime is
inversely proportional to its number of digits, or the logarithm
of n.
13. I................................. number cannot be represented as
a simple fraction.

Task XVI. Work with a partner. Student B: Look at the

communicative activities section (p. 233).

Add one more incorrect definition, read your words to B. Ask

him/her to guess the right meaning A, B or C (bolded).

1. Golden ratio
a) two quantities are in the golden ratio (φ) if the ratio of the
sum of the quantities to the larger quantity is equal to the
ratio of the larger quantity to the smaller one
b) two quantities are in the golden ratio (φ) if the ratio of the
sum of the quantities to the smaller quantity is equal to
the ratio of the larger quantity to the smaller one
c) ................................................................................................
 Unit 2. Numbers page 27
2. Coefficient
a) ....................................................................................
b) is a multiplicative factor in some term of an expression,
it is a number, but does not involve any variables of the
expression.
c) is a multiplicative factor in some term of an expression, it is
a number, and involves any variables of the expression.
3. Phyllotaxis
a) is the arrangement of leaves on a plant stem.
b) is the study of plant stems.
c) ................................................................................................
4. Liouville number
a) ................................................................................................
b) is a real number x with the property that, for every positive
integer n, there exist integers p and q with q = 1 and such that.
p 1
0< x − < n.
q q

c) is a real number x with the property that, for every positive

integer n, there exist integers p and q with q > 1 and such
that
p 1
0< x − < n.
q q

Now listen to B. Choose the right definition.

Task XVII. Circle the odd one out. Justify your choice.
1. real even parity irrational
2. digit entity numeral number
3. divide add subtract multiplicand
4. nought null nill one
5. compatible corresponding compile consecutive
6. distinguish terminate embedded comprise
7. horizontal vertical perpendicular polynomial
8. product quotient different sum
page 28 Unit 2. Numbers

Task XVIII. Are these positive, negative, even or odd numbers?

1. The number of students in class today.
2. The number of immediate members of your family.
3. The number of flowers in the bouquet you give to somebody?
4. The number of football players in one team.
5. The temperature today.
6. The number of exams this semester.
7. The number of classes you participate in.
8. The number of your friends.
9. The number of rooms in your house.
10. The number of coins you have in your wallet or pocket.

Task XIX. Work with a partner. Student B: Look at the

communicative activities section (p. 234).
B will ask you about the clues missing in his/her crossword.
Do not read the words, give their definitions. Take it in turns
to complete the crossword.
Example: B: What is 1 across?
You: It is the number …

1. P R I M E
2.

3. R A T I O N A L
4.

5. E N T I T Y
6.

7. I M A G I N A R Y
8.

9. R E C U R R E N C E
10.
 page 29

UNIT 3. SETS

LEAD-IN

Work in groups of ten. You will receive a card with a word

in English with its Polish equivalent. Learn your word and tear
away the Polish part. Move round the classroom and exchange
it with other students. You should remember as many words as
possible.
Complete the table with the missing words. Compare with
a partner.

English term Polish equivalent

roster
suma zbiorów
ellipsis
podzbiór
overlapping sets
zbiór rozłączny
sets intersection
odpowiedniość wzajemnie jednoznaczna
set-builder notation

Task I. Read about SETS in mathematics. There are some words

missing from this section. Look at the possibilities
provided and for each gap choose one item.

Sorting objects into groupings based on the ______ (1) of some

characteristic is a fundamental concept in mathematics and most
page 30 Unit 3. Sets

other aspects of our lives. Many words are used to descibe these
groupings, such as a ______ (2) of sheep, a pack of wolves, a basketball
team, an art collection, or a set of dishes.
In mathematics any collection of objects is called a set, and
the objects themselves are called elements or ______ (3) of the set.
In order to be useful, a set must be well defined: that is, it must
be clear whether any object _______ (4) to a set or not. The United
States is a well defined set: Indiana belongs to the set, but Alberta
does not. Sets can be defined in three basic ways: as (1) a verbal
description, (2) a roster or listing of members and (3) a description
of _______ (5) of the elements using set-builder notation. For instance,
the verbal description ‘the set of all states in the United States that
border the Gulf of Mexico’ can be represented in the other two ways
as follows:
Roster: {Alabama, Florida, Luisiana, Mississippi, Texas}
Set builder: {x:‌ x is a U.S. state that borders the Gulf of Mexico}
In both cases, a pair of braces is used to indicate the existence of
a set. The set-builder statement is read: ‘The set of all x such that
x is a U.S. state that borders the Gulf of Mexico’. Elements of a set
are _______ (6) by commas in the roster method and the order of the
elements does not matter. Often it is not convenient, or even possible,
to list all the elements in a set using this method. If the set is too large
to list all the elements we can use an ellipsis (“...”) to indicate missing
elements in the list. Thus, the set of first hundred counting numbers
can be given as {1, 2, 3, ..., 100}. This _______ (7) can also be used for
certain infinite sets; we can indicate the set of all counting numbers
as {1, 2, 3, ...}.
Sets are usually _______ (8) by capital letters, such as A, B, W,
and so on. The symbols ∈ and ∉ are used to indicate that an object is
or is not an element of a set, ________ (9). For instance, if P represents
the set of all U.S. states that border the Pacific Ocean, then Hawaii
∈ P and Nevada ∉ P. The set without any elements is called empty
or null set and is denoted by Ø. There is only one empty set. The set
of all U.S. states ________ (10) Antarctica is empty, as it is the set
of all integers that are greater than 12 and less than 13.
1. a) comparing b) following c) sharing d) combining
2. a) float b) flock c) group d) pile
3. a) chunks b) pieces c) parts d) members
4. a) belongs b) exists c) is d) stands
 Unit 3. Sets page 31
5. a) characteristics b) traits c) featured d) characteristic
6. a) spaced b) separated c) gapped d) slushed
7. a) approach b) attitude c) statement d) way
8. a) performed b) denoted c) done d) highlighted
9. a) however b) thus c) respectively d) orderly
10. a) bordering b) limiting c) restricted d) restrained

Task II. Work with partner. Student B: Look at the communicative

activities section (p. 235).
Read your description of sets and decide if the sentences are
True or False. Tell B about it.
1. Two sets are equal if and only if every element of set A can be
shown in set B.
2. One-to-one correspondence of two sets A and B is the operation
of putting together elements of both sets.
3. Establishing one-to-one correspondence between sets A and B
does not determine their equivalence.
4. Equal sets are equivalent.
5. Equivalent sets are always equal.
6. Not every set is part of the universal set.
7. Set A can be subset of B even if one element of A is not an
element of B.
Read your sentences to B and ask him/her to decide if they are
True of False.
Two sets A and B are equal, written A = B, if and only if they
have precisely the same elements. Two sets A and B can be shown
to be equal if every element of A can be shown to be in B, and vice
versa. If the two sets are not equal, written A ≠ B, we must be able
to show that there is an element in one set that is not in the other.
That is why there is only one empty set; there are no elements to
check.
There is another way to compare sets that is often useful and forms
the basis for counting. It uses the concept of a one-to-one (or 1–1)
correspondence. A one-to-one correspondence between two sets
A and B is a pairing of the elements of A with the elements of B, and
vice versa. If we can establish a one-to-one correspondence between
sets A and B, then we say the sets are equivalent, written A ~ B. There
page 32 Unit 3. Sets

may be several one-to-one correspondences between two sets. Equal

sets are always equivalent (since each element can be matched with
itself), but equivalent sets are not necessarily equal.
To deal effectively with sets, it is important first to recognise and
understand certain relationships among sets. Since every set consists
of elements from the universal set, every set is, in a sense, part of the
universal set. If one set A is ‘part’ of another set B, we say that A is
a subset of B, written A ⊆ B. If there is at least one element of A that
is not an element of B, then A is not a subset of B. If A ⊆ B , and B
has an element that is not in A, then A is a proper subset of B, written
A ⊂ B. Notice that every set is a subset of itself (A ⊆ A ), and the empty
set is a proper subset of every nonempty set (Ø ⊂ A).

Now listen to B and decide if his/her sentences are True

or False.

Task III. Fill in the missing words or phrases. The first letter
of each word is given.

a) Elements of a set are also called its M _ _ _ _ _ _.

b) Any collection of objects is called a S _ _ .
c) The set without any elements is called E _ _ _ _ _ _ _ or
N___ ___.
d) We write A = B, we read: two sets A and B are E _ _ _ _ .
e) The set that contains all the elements under consideration in
a given discussion is called the U _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___
f) If one set A is part of another set B, we say that A is
a S _ _ _ _ _ of B.
g) The intersection of A and B is the empty set, so A and B are
D_______
h) Mathematical relationships between sets can be presented
in graphical form called V _ _ _ D _ _ _ _ _ _ _
i) The set of all elements of the universal set that are not
in A form the C _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ of A
j) If it is clear whether the object belongs to the set or not, it
means that the set is W _ _ _ D _ _ _ _ _ _
k) We say that the sets are E_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _, if we can establish
a O _ _ - _ _ - _ _ _ C _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ between them.
 Unit 3. Sets page 33
Task IV. Work with partner. Student B: Look at the
communicative activities section (p. 236).
Read your sentences to B. Ask him/her to give you the right
word for each gap. Write the words if you think the sentence
makes sense.
1. The word set is used in mathematics to mean any well defined
............................ of items.
2. Many sets deal with numbers, most important of which will be
natural numbers, ........................, rational numbers and real
numbers.
3. We usually write down a set by using ....................
4. The term universal set does not refer to a ...........................
set, but rather to a set that contains all the elements arising.
5. A useful way of ......................... the relationship between
several sets is to represent them in Venn diagram.
Listen to B and complete his/her sentences with the words from
the box.

corresponding null shaded intersection boundary

universal depicting

Task V. Work in groups of three. Student B go to page 237.

Student C go to page 298.
Read your operation on sets to your partners. Ask them to draw
its representation in Venn diagram.

STUDENT A The intersection of two sets A and B   A ∩ B

page 34 Unit 3. Sets

Task VI. Work in pairs. Student B: Look at the communicative

activities section (p. 237).
Read the symbols to your partner. Ask him/her to write them
down.
1. A ∈ B   2. A ∉ B   3. ∅   4. A ⊂ B   5. A ∩ B   6. A ∪ B
Now write down the symbols that you hear.

1 2 3 4 5 6

Task VII. Unscramble the words and match them with the Polish
equivalents.
oś dziedzina zamknąć rozmyty komórka szereg
płaszczyzna wymiar dwuwartościowy przedział jądro

scrambled word unscrambled word Polish equivalent

lelc cell komórka
enoisdinm
ixsa
yrara
tvibalne
nrelke
uzyzf
npela
rilavtne
nidmoa
ctlaepnsaue

Task VIII. Work with partner. Student B: Look at the

communicative activities section (p. 237).
Read the text. Focus on the example of Cartesian product,
Cartesian plane and n-tuple.
 Unit 3. Sets page 35
A Cartesian product is a mathematical operation which returns a set
from multiple sets. It is the result of crossing members of each set
with one another. The simplest case of a Cartesian product is the
Cartesian square, which returns a set from two sets. A table can be
created by taking the Cartesian product of a set of rows and a set of
columns. If the Cartesian product rows × columns is taken, the cells
of the table contain ordered pairs of the form (row value, column
value). If the Cartesian product columns × rows is taken, the cells
of the table contain the ordered pairs of the form (column value, row
value). A Cartesian product of n sets can be represented by an array
of n dimensions, where each element is an n-tuple. An ordered pair
is a 2-tuple. An illustrative example is the Standard 52-card deck.
The standard playing card ranks {Ace, King, Queen, Jack, 10, 9, 8,
7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2} form a 13 element-set. The card suits {♠, ♥, ♦, ♣}
form a 4-element set. The Cartesian product of these sets returns
a 52-element set consisting of 52 ordered pairs which correspond to
all 52 possible playing cards. ranks × suits returns a set of the form
{(Ace, ♠), (King, ♠), ..., (2, ♠), (Ace, ♥), ..., (3, ♣), (2, ♣)}. suits × ranks
returns a set of the form {(♠, Ace), (♠, King), ..., (♠, 2 ), (♥, Ace), ...,
(♣, 3), (♣, 2)}. The Cartesian product does not return an ordered set.
For example, suits × ranks can be equivalently expressed as {(♣, 2),
(♣, 3), ..., (♥, Ace), (♠, 2 ), ..., (♠, King), (♠, Ace)}. An example in analytic
geometry is the Cartesian plane which is the result of the Cartesian
product of two sets X and Y referring to points on the x-axis and points
on the y-axis, respectively. This Cartesian product can be denoted as
X × Y. It produces the set of all possible ordered pairs whose first
component is a member of X and second component is a member
of Y (e.g., the whole of the x–y plane). Alternatively, the Cartesian
product can be denoted as Y x X, in which case the first component
of the order pair is a member of Y and the second component of the
ordered pair is a member of X. The Cartesian product is therefore not
commutative.
Listen to B carefully and answer the questions in note form.
1. What is a membership function?
2. When is x not included in the fuzzy set?
3. What are bivalent sets called?
4. What kind of set can be referred to as kernel?
page 36 Unit 3. Sets

Task IX. Work with a partner. Student B: Look at the

communicative activities section (p. 238).
Read your sentence beginnings (bolded) to B who will try to
provide the right endings (italics). Do not read the part in italics.
1. The simplest case of a Cartesian product is the Cartesian
square, which returns a set from two sets.
2. A Cartesian product of n sets can be represented by an array
of n dimensions, where each element is an n-tuple.
3. The Cartesian product can be denoted as Y × X, in which
case the first component of the ordered pair is a member of Y
and the second component of the ordered pair is a member of X.
Study the endings. Your partner will read the beginning of
a sentence. You have to choose an ending.
a) … assessment of the membership of elements in a set.
b) … a bivalent condition — an element either belongs or does not
belong to the set.
c) … are called [0, 1]-valued membership functions.

Task X. Find twelve terms associated with mathematical sets.

The words go down ↓ and across →. Then complete
the sentences with the right words.

I E N Y B O U N D A R Y
N O U A C V G D Z I Q E
T E L D V M X I F P I O
E L L I P S I S R N N V
R D S A J G H J K O T E
S V U G U S R O S T E R
E C F R I D T I L A R L
C X U A O F R N K T V A
T D Z M A H F T P I A P
I S Z H D N A S K O L W
O E Y T F M V E N N A Q
N U J R D T Z T B D S H
 Unit 3. Sets page 37
1. The ……………………. of a subset S of a topological space X is
the set of points which can be approached both from S and
from the outside of S.
2. Two or more sets ............................ if they have any common
parts.
3. The ……………………… of two sets A and B is the set that
contains all elements of A that also belong to B or equivalently,
all elements of B that also belong to A, but no other elements.
4. A ………….................. diagram shows all possible logical
relations between a finite collection of sets and illustrates simple
set relationships in probability, ogic, statistics, linguistics and
computer science.
5. In measure theory, any set of measure 0 is called
a …………………. set.
6. Set-builder …………………… is used for describing a set by
stating the properties that its members must satisfy.
7. Wherever an …………………… is used to denote a range, it is
punctuated as though it were an element of the set.
8. By contrast to classical approach ……………………… set theory
permits the gradual assessment of the membership of elements
in a set.
9. The closed …………………. [0, 1] is the set of all real numbers
that are greater than or equal to 0 and less than or equal to 1.
10. ................... .................s are sets whose intersection is the
empty set.
Task XI. Work with a partner. Student B: Look at the
communicative activities section (p. 239).
Before you start talking to your partner, make sure you can explain the
clues in your part in English. Your partner will ask you about the clues
in your part of the crossword. Explain each clue in English. Ask your
partner about the clues missing in your part.
1. S U B S E T
2.
3. C O M P L E M E N T
4.
5. D E P I C T I N G
6.
7. D I A G R A M
8.
page 38 Unit 3. Sets

Task XII. Work with your partner. Read the instruction and
compute the right answer.
The annual Sports Awards program for the girls of Western High
honoured 39 girls who had participated in volleyball, basketball and
softball. Of the 27 girls who participated in volleyball or basketball,
5 had participated in both. Of the 27 girls who participated in basketball
or softball, 6 had participated in both. And of 33 girls who participated
in volleyball and softball, 4 had participated in both. If there were
18 girls who participated in volleyball, how many participated in each
of the other sports, and how many participated in all three sports?
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
...................................................................................................... .

Task XIII. Complete the passage with the words from the box.
Check your answer to Task XII.

therefore substituting union duplications participated

First, let V be the set of girls in volleyball, B the set of girls in basketball
and S in softball. The number of elements in the .............................. (1)
of two sets, A and B, is n(A B) = n(A) + n(B) – (A B ). Applying this
to sets V and B and using the given information, we have:
N(V B) = n(V) + n(B) – n(V B ) or 27 = 18 + n(B ) – 5. Thus,
n(B ) = 27 – 18 + 5 = 14, or 14 girls .................................... (2) in
basketball. Similarly, n(V S) = n(V) + n(S) – n(V S ) or 33 =
= 18 + n(S ) – 4. .................................. (3), n(S ) = 33 – 18 + 4 = 19,
or 19 girls participated in softball.
The principle for counting the number of elements when three
sets are involved is similar to that for two sets; we have to allow for
.................................. (4). From a Venn diagram for three sets
we have:
 Unit 3. Sets page 39

n(A B C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) – n(A B) – n(A C ) – n(B C ) +

+ N(A B C ).
Applying this result to our sets V, B and S, we ahve the following:
N (V B S) = n(V) + n(B) + n(S) – n(V B ) – n(V S ) – n(B S) +
+ n(V B S ).
........................................ (5) the known information about the sets,
we have:
39 = 18 + 14 + 19 – 5 – 4 – 6 + n(V B S ).
Simplifying, we have 39 = 36 + n(V B S ), from which we conclude
that there were three girls who participated in all three sports.
page 40

UNIT 4. FUNCTIONS

LEAD-IN

Find six English words associated with functions. The words go

down ↓ and across →. Match them with their Polish equivalents:
wykładnicza odwrotna wielomianowa trygonometryczna
kosinus   funkcja

P O L Y N O M I A L H U O
C D F E W Q A N V C N Y R
O Z X C V B N V M L K H J
S D E X P O N E N T I A L
I P R G D S A R A S C V N
N Q W E R T Y S U I O K M
E A S D F G H E J K L M N
T R I G O N O M E T R I C
Z X C V B N M L K J H G F
Q F U N C T I O N Z D G Y

Task I. What is a function? Work with a partner and answer

the question.

Read the definition of function and check.

Function is an expression, rule, or law that defines a relationship

between one variable (the independent variable) and another
variable (the dependent variable). Functions are ubiquitous in
mathematics and are essential for formulating physical relationships
in the sciences. The modern definition of function was first given
in 1837 by the German mathematician Peter Dirichlet who stated
that: If a variable y is so related to a variable x that whenever
a numerical value is assigned to x, there is a rule according to which
a unique value of y is determined, then y is said to be a function
 Unit 4. Functions page 41
of the independent variable x. This relationship is commonly
symbolized as y = f (x). In addition to f (x), other abbreviated symbols
such as g(x) and P (x) are often used to represent functions of the
independent variable x, especially when the nature of the function
is unknown or unspecified.

Task II. There are various types of functions. Read the definitions
of functions and choose options a or b. Check with
a partner.
1. Polynomial function is
a) function whose terms are all multiples of the variable raised
to a whole number; e.g., 8 × 5 − 5 × 2 + 7
b) a function whose terms are all multiples of the invariable raised
to a rational number; e.g., 8 × 5 − 5 × 2 + 7
2. Exponential function is
a) a relation of the form y = ax, with the dependent variable x
ranging over the entire rational number line as the exponent
of a positive number a
b) a relation of the form y = ax, with the independent variable
x ranging over the entire real number line as the exponent
of a positive number a
3. Trigonometric function is
a) one of six functions (sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent, secant,
and cosecant) that represent ratios of sides of right triangles,
also known as the circular functions
b) one of five functions (sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent and
secant) that represent ratios of sides of acute triangles, also
known as the circular functions
4. Inverse function is
a) function that undoes the effect of another function. For
example, the inverse function of the formula that converts
Celsius temperature to Fahrenheit temperature is the formula
that converts Fahrenheit to Celsius
b) a function that does the effect of another function. For example,
the inverse function of the formula that simplifies Celsius
temperature to Fahrenheit temperature is the formula that
converts Fahrenheit to Celsius
page 42 Unit 4. Functions

Task III. Read the passage and check your answers.

Many widely used mathematical formulas are expressions of known
functions. For example, the formula for the area of a circle, A = πr2,
gives the dependent variable A (the area) as a function of the
independent variable r (the radius). Functions involving more than
two variables also are common in mathematics, as can be seen in
the formula for the area of a triangle, A = bh/2, which defines A as
a function of both b (base) and h (height). In these examples, physical
constraints force the independent variables to be positive numbers.
When the independent variables are also allowed to take on negative
values—thus, any real number—the functions are known as real-
-valued functions.
The formula for the area of a circle is an example of a polynomial function.
The general form for such functions is P (x) = a0 + a1x + a2x2+ ⋯ + anxn,
where the coefficients (a0, a1, a2,…, an) are given, x can be any real
number, and all the powers of x are counting numbers (1, 2, 3, …).
When the powers of x can be any real number, the result is known
as an algebraic function. Polynomial functions have been studied
since the earliest times because of their versatility—practically any
relationship involving real numbers can be closely approximated by
a polynomial function. Polynomial functions are characterized by
the highest power of the independent variable. Special names are
commonly used for such powers from one to five—linear, quadratic,
cubic, quartic, and quintic.
Polynomial functions may be given geometric representation by
means of analytic geometry. The independent variable x is plotted
along the x-axis (a horizontal line), and the dependent variable y is
plotted along the y-axis (a vertical line). The graph of the function then
consists of the points with coordinates (x, y) where y = f (x). Another
common type of function that has been studied since antiquity is
the trigonometric functions, such as sin x and cos x, where x is the
measure of an angle. Because of their periodic nature, trigonometric
functions are often used to model behaviour that repeats, or “cycles.”
Non-algebraic functions, such as exponential and trigonometric
functions, are also known as transcendental functions. Practical
applications of functions whose variables are complex numbers are
not so easy to illustrate, but they are nevertheless very extensive.
They occur, for example, in electrical engineering and aerodynamics.
 Unit 4. Functions page 43
If the complex variable is represented in the form z = x + iy, where
i is the imaginary unit (the square root of −1) and x and y are real
variables, it is possible to split the complex function into real and
imaginary parts: f(z) = P(x, y) + iQ(x, y).
By interchanging the roles of the independent and dependent
variables in a given function, one can obtain an inverse function.
Inverse functions do what their name implies: they undo the action
of a function to return a variable to its original state. Thus, if for
a given function f(x) there exists a function g(y) such that g(f(x)) = x
and f(g(y)) = y, then g is called the inverse function of f and given the
notation f–1, where by convention the variables are interchanged. For
example, the function f(x) = 2x has the inverse function f−1(x) = x/2.
A function may be defined by means of a power series. For example,
the infinite series could be used to define these functions for all
complex values of x. Other types of series and also infinite products
may be used when convenient. An important case is the Fourier
series, expressing a function in terms of sines and cosines. Such
representations are of great importance in physics, particularly in the
study of wave motion and other oscillatory phenomena. Sometimes
functions are most conveniently defined by means of differential
equations. For example, y = sin x is the solution of the differential
equation d2y/dx2 + y = 0 having y = 0, dy/dx = 1 when x = 0;
y = cos x is the solution of the same equation having y = 1, dy/dx = 0
when x = 0.

Task IV. Read the passage again and answer the questions.
1. What is a real-valued function?
2. How is algebraic function related to the power of x?
3. What kind of representation can polynomial functions have?
4. What other names do transcendental functions have?
5. What is the Fourier series?

Task V. Match the words in bold type in the text with their
definitions below.
1. ................................ covering a large area; having a great range,
2. ................................ something which controls what you do by
keeping you within particular limits,
page 44 Unit 4. Functions

3. ................................ suitable for your purposes and needs

and causing the least difficulty,
4. ................................. ability to change easily from one activity
to another or ability to be used for many different purposes

Task VI. Work with a partner. Student B: Look at the

communicative activities section (p. 239).
Read the passage and write the questions for the missing
details. Ask your partner for the missing details.
Riemann zeta function is useful in number theory for investigating
properties ................................... (1) Written as ζ(x), it was
originally defined as ............................ (2) ζ(x) = 1 + 2−x + 3−x + 4−x + ⋯.
When x = 1, this series is called the harmonic series, which increases
without bound—i.e., its sum is infinite. For values of x larger than 1,
the series ....................................... (3) as successive terms are
added. If x is less than 1 and greater than 0, the sum is again infinite.
The zeta function was known to .............................. (4) Leonhard
Euler in 1737, but it was first studied extensively by the German
mathematician Bernhard Riemann. In 1859 Riemann published
a paper ............................... (5) for the number of primes up to any
preassigned limit—a decided improvement over the approximate
value given by the prime number theorem. However, Riemann’s
formula depended on knowing the values at which a generalized
version of the zeta function .................................. (6). (The Riemann
zeta function is defined for all complex numbers—numbers of the
form x + iy, where i = (−1) —except for the line x = 1.)
 Unit 4. Functions page 45
1. ______________________________________________________
2. ______________________________________________________
3. ______________________________________________________
4. ______________________________________________________
5. ______________________________________________________
6. ______________________________________________________

Read about Riemann zeta function and answer B’s questions.

Riemann knew that the function equals zero for all negative even
integers (1) −2, −4, −6, … (so-called trivial zeros), and that it has
an infinite number of zeros in the critical strip of complex numbers
(2) between the lines x = 0 and x = 1, and he also knew that all
nontrivial zeros (3) are symmetric with respect to the critical line
x = 1/2. Riemann conjectured that all of the nontrivial zeros are on
the critical line, a conjecture that subsequently became known (4) as
the Riemann hypothesis. In 1900 the German mathematician David
Hilbert called the Riemann hypothesis one of the most important
questions in all of mathematics, as indicated by its inclusion in his
influential list (5) of 23 unsolved problems with which he challenged
20th-century mathematicians. In 1915 the English mathematician
Godfrey Hardy proved that an infinite number of zeros occur on the
critical line, and by 1986 the first 1,500,000,001 nontrivial zeros
were all shown to be on the critical line. Although the hypothesis may
yet turn out to be false, investigations of this difficult problem have
enriched the understanding (6) of complex numbers.
page 46 Unit 4. Functions

Task VII. Work with a partner. Student B: Look at the

communicative activities section (p. 240.)
B will ask you about the clues missing in his/her crossword.
Do not read the words, give their definitions. Take it in turns
to complete the crossword.
Example: B: What is 1 across?
You: It is the …
1. S P E C I F I E D
2.

3. T R I G O N O M E T R I C
4.

5. A P P L I C A T I O N
6.

7. G A U S S
8.

9. E X P L I C I T
10.

11. C O N J E C T U R E
12.
 page 47

UNIT 5. TYPES OF FUNCTIONS

Task I. Check what you know about the distribution function.

What applications does it have? Study the sentences
and decide which of them are True and which are False.
Discuss with a partner.
1. Distribution function describes the probability that a system will
take on a specific value or set of values.
2. The binomial distribution gives the probabilities that heads will
come up a times and tails n + a times (for 0 ≤ a ≤ n), when a fair
coin is tossed n times.
3. The highest point on the curve indicates the least common value,
which in most cases will be close to only part of the population.
4. A distribution function may consider as many variables as one
chooses to include.
5. The graph of the normal distribution is characterized by two
parameters: the mean and the standard deviation.
6. The normal distribution is produced by the normal complexity
function.
7. The probability of a random variable falling within any range
of values is equal to the proportion of the area enclosed under the
function’s graph between the given values and above the y-axis.
8. Carl Friedrich Gauss developed a three-parameter exponential
function in 1809 in connection with studies of astronomical
observation errors.
Now read the passage and check your answers.

Distribution function is a mathematical expression describing

the probability that a system will take on a specific value or set
of values. The classic examples are associated with games of chance.
page 48 Unit 5. Types of functions

The binomial distribution gives the probabilities that heads will come
up a times and tails n − a times (for 0 ≤ a ≤ n), when a fair coin is
tossed n times. Many phenomena, such as the distribution of IQs,
approximate the classic bell-shaped, or normal, curve. The highest
point on the curve indicates the most common or modal value, which
in most cases will be close to the average for the population. A well-
-known example from physics is the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution
law, which specifies the probability that a molecule of gas will be found
with velocity components u, v, and w in the x, y, and z directions.
A distribution function may take into account as many variables as
one chooses to include.
Normal distribution, also called Gaussian distribution, is the most
common distribution function for independent, randomly generated
variables. Its familiar bell-shaped curve is ubiquitous in statistical
reports, from survey analysis and quality control to resource
allocation. The graph of the normal distribution is characterized by
two parameters: the mean, or average, which is the maximum of
the graph and about which the graph is always symmetric; and the
standard deviation, which determines the amount of dispersion away
from the mean. A small standard deviation (compared with the mean)
produces a steep graph, whereas a large standard deviation (again
compared with the mean) produces a flat graph.
The normal distribution is produced by the normal density function,
2 2
p(x ) = e −( x −µ ) /2σ / σ 2π. In this exponential function e is the constant
2.71828…, is the mean, and σ is the standard deviation. The probability
of a random variable falling within any given range of values is
equal to the proportion of the area enclosed under the function’s
graph between the given values and above the x-axis. Because the
denominator (σ 2π ), known as the normalizing coefficient, causes
the total area enclosed by the graph to be exactly equal to unity,
probabilities can be obtained directly from the corresponding area—
i.e., an area of 0.5 corresponds to a probability of 0.5. Although
these areas can be determined with calculus, tables were generated
in the 19th century for the special case of = 0 and σ = 1, known
as the standard normal distribution, and these tables can be used
for any normal distribution after the variables are suitably rescaled
by subtracting their mean and dividing by their standard deviation,
(x − µ)/σ.
 Unit 5. Types of functions page 49
The term “Gaussian distribution” refers to the German
mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss, who first developed a two-
-parameter exponential function in 1809 in connection with
studies of astronomical observation errors. This study led Gauss to
formulate his law of observational error and to advance the theory
of the method of least squares approximation.

Task II. Work with a partner. Student B: Look at the

communicative activities section (p. 241).
Read your sentences to B who will try to put in the missing
words. Listen and check if they make sense before you write
them down.
1. Distribution law specifies the probability that a molecule of gas
will be found with …........................ components u, v, and w
in the x, y, and z directions.
2. Gaussian distribution is the most common distribution function
for …........................ randomly generated variables.
3. The mean, or average is the …........................ of the graph
and about which the graph is always symmetric.
4. The denominator (σ 2π ), known as the normalizing
…......................., causes the total area enclosed by the graph
to be exactly equal to unity.
Listen to B’s sentences and try to put in the missing words
from the box.

flat    squares    dispersion    obtained

Task III. Match the English terms with their Polish equivalents.
Write them in the table.
krzywa/łuk differentiable function szpic/wierzchołek
real variable funkcja liniowa cusp meagre set
wartość rzeczywista curve zbiec się/skupiać diffeomorphic
linear function różnorodny converge małoliczebny zbiór
funkcja różniczkowalna
page 50 Unit 5. Types of functions

English term Polish term

Task IV. Work with a partner. Student B: Look at the

communicative activities section (p. 242).
Read your phrases and definitions to B and ask him/her to
choose the correct answer a or b (bolded).
1. Cusp
a) is a type of singular point of a curve. Cusps are local
singularities in that they are not formed by self-intersection
points of the curve. The cusps are all diffeomorphic to one
of the following forms: x2 − y2k+1 = 0, where k ≥ 1 is an integer
b) it is a type of singular point of a curve. Cusps are local
singularities in that they are formed by self-intersection points
of the curve. They are all differentiable to one of the following
forms: x2 − y2k+1 = 0, where k ≥ 0 is an integer
2. Meagre set
a) is a set which, considered as a subset of a topological space,
is large and considerable
b) is a set which, considered as a subset of a topological space,
is small or negligible
 Unit 5. Types of functions page 51
Task V. Read the passage about differentiable function and put
the missing sentences A–C in gaps 1–3.

1. 2. 3.

A differentiable function of one real variable is a function whose

derivative exists at each point in its domain. ________ (1), be relatively
smooth, and cannot contain any breaks, bends, or cusps. More
generally, if x0 is a point in the domain of a function f, then f is said
to be differentiable at x0 if the derivative f′(x0) exists. This means that
the graph of f has a non-vertical tangent line at the point (x0, f(x0)).
_________ (2).
If f is differentiable at a point x0, then f must also be continuous
at x0. In particular, any differentiable function must be continuous
at every point in its domain.
Most functions which occur in practice have derivatives at all points
or at almost every point. However, a result of Stefan Banach states
that the set of functions which have a derivative at some point is
a meagre set in the space of all continuous functions. ________ (3).
The first known example of a function that is continuous everywhere
but differentiable nowhere is the Weierstrass function.
A) The function f may also be called locally linear at x0, as it can be
well approximated by a linear function near this point.
B) Informally, this means that differentiable functions are very
atypical among continuous functions.
C) As a result, the graph of a differentiable function must have
a non-vertical tangent line at each point in its domain …

Task VI. Work with partner. Can you identify what type
of function it is? Choose from the terms in the box.

  ___________________________

linear   polynomial   even   differentiable   odd
distribution
page 52 Unit 5. Types of functions

Student B: Look at the communicative activities section (p. 242).

Read your sentences to B and ask him/her to decide if they are
True or False. Correct the wrong answers.
1. The only function whose domain is all real numbers which
is both even and odd is the non-constant function which is identically
zero (i.e., f(x) = 0 for all x) T/F (constant function)
2. The sum of two even functions is even, and any constant multiple
of an odd function is even. T/F (multiple of an even function)
3. The sum of two odd functions is odd, and any constant multiple of
an odd function is odd. T/F
4. The difference between two odd functions is odd. T/F
5. The product of two even functions is an odd function.
T/F (even function)
6. The product of two odd functions is an odd function.
T/F (even function)
7. The product of an even function and an odd function is an odd
function. T/F
8. The quotient of two even functions is an even function. T/F
9. The integral of an even function from −A to +A is twice the integral
from 0 to +A where A is finite, and the function has no vertical
asymptotes between −A and A. T/F

Task VII. Work with partner. Student B: Look at the

communicative activities section (p. 243).
Read your sentence beginnings to B and ask him/her to provide
the right endings. Write the ending if you think the sentence
makes sense.
1. Functions are ubiquitous in mathematics and are _______________
______________________________________.
2. In addition to f(x), other abbreviated symbols such as g(x) and P(x)
are often used to represent _____________________________________.
3. Functions involving more than two variables also are common in
mathematics, __________________________________________________.
 Unit 5. Types of functions page 53
4. When the independent variables are allowed to take on negative
values __________________________________________.
5. Practically any relationship involving real numbers can __________
_________________________________.
6. The graph of the function ____________________________________.
7. Because of their periodic nature, _______________________________.

Study the endings. Your partner will read the beginning

of a sentence. You have to choose an ending (a–g).

a) … is the most common distribution function for independent,

randomly generated variables.
b) … is equal to the proportion of the area enclosed under the
function’s graph between the given values and the x-axis.
c) … heads will come up a times and tails n − a times when a fair
coin is tossed n times.
d) … complex numbers of the form x + iy, where i = (−1) −
except for the line x = 1.
e) … are on the critical line, which subsequently became known
as the Riemann hypothesis.
f) … two parameters: the mean, which is the maximum
of the graph and the standard deviation, which determines
the amount of dispersion away from the mean.
g) … in a given function, one can obtain an inverse function.
page 54 Unit 5. Types of functions

Task VIII. Find nine words connected with functions, use

the terms to complete the sentences below. The words
go down ↓ and across →.

T R I G O N O M E T R I C V N
U Y D A D A S G D O C P O I U
B Q E W I E R T I U O I S D M
I F R G S H J K F L M Z X C A
Q U I N T I C V F B P N M Q X
U A V S R H O J E K O L P O I
I Q A W I R E T R Y S U G H M
T A T S B D F G E H I J L K U
O X I C U B F U N C T I O N M
U T V Y T E I G T S I A S D G
S Z E X I V C B I N O M K L O
Q W E R O T I H A D N S Z X C
Y U I K N L E M B N B V C X Z
E T Y W G D N V L C X B N Z A
O H J Y T U T I E L B D F G S

Complete the sentences with the words from the word box.
1. The ……….…… of a function is the largest value that the function
takes at a point either within a given neighborhood or on the function
domain in its entirety.
2. Function ………........ is the point-wise application of one function to
the result of another to produce a third function.
3. Gauss sums are the analogues for finite fields of the Gamma
function and they are ……………………. in number theory.
4. …………………….. functions relate the angles of a triangle to
the lengths of its sides.
5. In linear algebra, the leading ………………….. of a row in a matrix
is the first nonzero entry in that row.
6. The ………………….. measures the instantaneous rate of change
of the function and is defined as the limit of the average rate
 Unit 5. Types of functions page 55
of change in the function or as the length of the interval on which
the average is computed tends to zero.
7. …………………….s are a class of linear functions that map a set
of test functions into the set of real numbers.
8. If a function is ………………….. at x0, then all of the partial
derivatives must exist at x0.
9. The graph of a ……………………….. is its set of ordered pairs F.

Task IX. Work with your partner and answer the question.
You find a paper that has a sequence of numbers on it, although
the fourth number is obscured, as are all the numbers after the fifth
one. The partial sequence you can read is 2, 5, 11, **, 47, **, **, ... Is it
possible to determine what the fourth number should be and then
predict the value of the tenth number?
........................................................................................................

Task X. Read the solution and put the missing sentences a–c
into gaps 1–3.
First, we note that the difference between the first and second number
is 3, while the difference between the second and the third numbers is
6. .......... (1) Since this does not fit the known information, we have to try
another pattern. Thus, if the differences are doubling, then the next two
differences would be 12 and 24 and the next two numbers would be 23
and 47. This fits the information. Extending this pattern of differences,
we get the next five numbers 95, 191, 383, 767, 1535. .......... (2) This
sequence could be defined recursively as f(n + 1) = 2xf(n) + 1. Another
way to look at the sequence is to think of it as 3-1, 6-1, 12-1, **, 48-1, **,
**, ... ........ (3) Finally, from the previous pattern, it might be discovered
that the first three numbers satisfy the equation f(n) = 3x2 to the power
of n – 1 –1, where n is a positive integer. Obviously, there can be some
other patterns that fit the known data but produce different values for
the unknown numbers.
1. a) Then the fourth number would be 24-1, and the next five numbers
would be 96-1, 192-1, 384-1, 768-1, and 1535-1
2. b) If you look at the ratio of one number to the next, you might note
that 5 = 2x2 + 1 and 11 = 2x5 + 1
3. c) If the differences are increasing by 3, then the next two differences
would be 9 and 12, and the next two numbers would be 20 and 32
page 56

UNIT 6. FRACTIONS

LEAD-IN

Work with a partner. Student B: Look at the communicative

activities section (p. 244).
Talk to a partner and ask about the missing terms and
definitions. Next, match the English terms with the Polish ones.
ułamek niewłaściwy ułamek złożony mianownik
ułamek dziesiętny ułamek zwykły ułamek równoważny
licznik ułamek właściwy

POLISH
ENGLISH TERM DEFINITION
EQUIVALENT
1. common/vulgar is a rational number
fraction written as a/b, where
the integers a and b
are called numerator
and denominator,
respectively
2. proper fraction

3. improper fraction fraction in which

numerator is less than
denominator
4. decimal fraction

5. numerator integer representing

a number of equal parts
6. denominator

7. equivalent fraction fraction resulting from

multiplying numerator
and denominator of
another fraction by the
same (non-zero) number
8. compound fraction
 Unit 6. Fractions page 57
Task I. Read the statements and decide if they are TRUE
or FALSE. Compare your answers with a partner.
1. Fraction can be defined as the ratio of a and b.
2. Any two fractions a/b and c/d can be brought to a common
denominator.
3. Irreducible fraction can be divided by a common factor.
4. The least common multiple of the numbers in the fraction form is
taken as the common denominator.
5. Fractions can be represented as ordered pairs.

Task II. Read the definition of fraction and check your guesses.
A fraction is a number consisting of one or more equal parts of a unit.
It is denoted by the symbol a/b, where a and b ≠ 0 are integers. The
numerator a of a/b denotes the number of parts taken of the unit;
this is divided by the number of parts equal to the number appearing
as the denominator b. A fraction may also be considered as the ratio
produced by dividing a by b. The fraction a/b remains unchanged if
both the numerator and the denominator are multiplied by the same
non-zero integer. Owing to this fact, any two fractions a/b and c/d
may be brought to a common denominator, i.e. a/b and c/d may be
replaced by fractions equal to a/b and c/d, respectively, both of which
have the same denominator. Moreover, fractions may be reduced by
dividing their numerator and denominator by the same number;
accordingly, any fraction may be represented as an irreducible fraction,
i.e. a fraction the numerator and denominator of which have no
common factors. The sum and the difference of two fractions a/b and
c/b having a common denominator are given by a/b ± c/b = a ± c/b.
In order to add or to subtract fractions with different denominators
they must first be reduced to fractions with a common denominator.
As a rule, the least common multiple of the numbers b and d is taken
as the common denominator. Multiplication and division of fractions
is given by the following rules: a/b × c/d = ac/bd, a/b : c/d = a/b · d/c,
(c ≠ 0). A fraction a/b is said to be a proper fraction if its numerator
is smaller than its denominator; otherwise it is an improper fraction.
A fraction is said to be a decimal fraction if its denominator is a power
of the number 10. Fractions may be represented as ordered pairs
of integers (a, b), b ≠ 0, for which an equivalence relation has been
specified (an equality relation of fractions), namely, it is considered
page 58 Unit 6. Fractions

that (a, b)=(c, d) if ad = bc. The operations of addition, subtraction,

multiplication, and division are defined in this set of fractions by the
following rules: (a, b) ± (c, d) = (ad ± bc, bd), (a, b) × (c, d) = (ac, bd),
(a, b) : (c, d) = (ad, bc), (thus, division is defined only if c ≠ 0). A similar
definition of fractions is convenient in generalizations and is accepted
in modern algebra. The set of fractions (of the integers) is denoted
by Q. With the arithmetical operations and natural order it is an
ordered field. The absolute value gives a metric on Q. Completion
of Q in this metric leads to R, the ordered field of real numbers.
In this connection, a fraction is also called a rational number, and
a number from R that is not a fraction is called an irrational number.

Task III. Work with a partner. Student B: Look at the

communicative activities section (p. 245).
Read your sentence beginnings (bolded) to B who will try to
complete them. Do not read the part of sentence in italics.
Check the logical connections.
The fraction a/b remains unchanged if both the numerator and the
denominator are multiplied by the same non-zero integer.
Fractions may be reduced by dividing their numerator and
denominator by the same number.
Any fraction may be represented as an irreducible fraction,
i.e. a fraction the numerator and denominator of which have no
common factors.
Now listen to B and choose the right sentence endings.
a) …they must first be reduced to fractions with a common
denominator.
b) …(a, b), b ≠ 0, for which an equivalence relation has been
specified.
c) …the numbers b and d is taken as the common denominator.

Task IV. Scan the text and match the headings A–I with the
corresponding paragraphs.
A) MIXED FRACTIONS
B) DECIMAL FRACTIONS AND PERCENTAGES
 Unit 6. Fractions page 59
C) RATIOS
D) SPECIAL CASES
E) COMPLEX FRATIONS
F) NOTATION
G) COMPOUND FRACTIONS
H) PROPER AND IMPROPER FRACTIONS
I) RECIPROCAL AND INVISIBLE DENOMINATOR
1. _____________________
In the examples 2/5 and 7/3, the slanting line is called a solidus or
forward slash. In the examples 2/5 and 7/3, the horizontal line is
called a vinculum or, informally, a “fraction bar.” In computer displays
and typography, simple fractions are sometimes printed as a single
character, e.g. 1/2 (one half). Scientific publishing distinguishes four
ways to set fractions, together with guidelines on use:
●● case fractions: 1/2, generally used for simple fractions and for
showing mathematical operations;
●● special fractions: 1/2, not used in modern mathematical
notation, but in other contexts;
●● shilling fractions: 1/2, so called because this notation was used
for pre-decimal British currency (£), as in 2/6 for a half crown,
meaning two shillings and six pence. While the notation “two
shillings and six pence” did not represent a fraction, the forward
slash is now used in fractions, especially for fractions in-line
with prose, to avoid uneven lines. It is also used for fractions
within fractions (complex fractions) or within exponents to
increase legibility;
●● built-up fractions: 1/2, while large and legible, these can be
disruptive, particularly for simple fractions or within complex
fractions.
2. ____________________
The relationship between two or more numbers that can be sometimes
expressed as a fraction is called ratio. Typically, a number of items
are grouped and compared in a ratio, specifying numerically the
relationship between each group. Ratios are expressed as “group 1
to group 2 ... to group n”. For example, if a car lot had 12 vehicles
of which 2 are white, 6 are red, and 4 are yellow, the ratio of red
to white to yellow cars is 6 to 2 to 4. The ratio of yellow cars to
page 60 Unit 6. Fractions

white cars is 4 to 2 and may be expressed as 4:2 or 2:1. A ratio may

be typically converted to a fraction when it is expressed as a ratio
to the whole. In the above example, the ratio of yellow cars to the
total cars in the lot is 4:12 or 1:3. We can convert these ratios to
a fraction and say that 4/12 of the cars or 1/3 of the cars in the lot
are yellow.
3. ____________________
Common fractions can be classified as either proper or improper.
When the numerator and the denominator are both positive, the
fraction is called proper if the numerator is less than the denominator,
and improper otherwise. In general, a common fraction is said to
be a proper fraction if the absolute value of the fraction is strictly
less than one—that is, if the fraction is between ‒1 and 1 (but not
equal to ‒1 or 1). It is said to be an improper fraction or top-heavy
fraction if the absolute value of the fraction is greater than or equal
to 1. Examples of proper fractions are 2/3, ‒3/4, and 4/9; examples
of improper fractions are 9/4, ‒4/3, and 8/3.
4. _______________
A mixed numeral (often called a mixed number, also called a mixed
fraction) is the sum of a non-zero integer and a proper fraction.
This sum is implied without the use of any visible operator such
as “+”. For example, in referring to two entire cakes and three
quarters of another cake, the whole and fractional parts of the
3 3
number are written next to each other: 2 + = 2 . This is not to
4 4
be confused with the algebra rule of implied multiplication. When
two algebraic expressions are written next to each other, the
operation of multiplication is said to be “understood”. In algebra,
b
a for example is not a mixed number. Instead, multiplication
c
b b
is understood: a = a × . An improper fraction is another way to
c c
write a whole plus a part. A mixed number can be converted to an
3
improper fraction as follows: write the mixed number 2 as a sum
4
3
2 + , convert the whole number to an improper fraction with the
4
 Unit 6. Fractions page 61

8 3
same denominator as the fractional part, + , add the fractions.
4 4
3 11
The resulting sum is the improper fraction. In the example, 2 = .
4 4
Similarly, an improper fraction can be converted to a mixed number
as follows:
1. Divide the numerator by the denominator. In the example, 11/4,
divide 11 by 4.11/4 = 2 with remainder 3.
2. The quotient (without the remainder) becomes the whole number
part of the mixed number. The remainder becomes the numerator
of the fractional part. In the example, 2 is the whole number part
and 3 is the numerator of the fractional part.
3. The new denominator is the same as the denominator of the
11 3
improper fraction. In the example, they are both 4. Thus =2 .
4 4
3
Mixed numbers can also be negative, as in −2 , which equals
4
 3 3
−  2 +  = −2 − .
 4 4

5. ______________________
The reciprocal of a fraction is another fraction with the numerator
and denominator reversed. The reciprocal of 3/7, for instance, is 7/3.
The product of a fraction and its reciprocal is 1, hence the reciprocal
is the multiplicative inverse of a fraction. Any integer can be written
as a fraction with the number one as denominator. For example,
17 can be written as 17/1, where 1 is sometimes referred to as the
invisible denominator. Therefore, every fraction or integer except for
zero has a reciprocal. The reciprocal of 17 is 1/17.
6. ___________________
In a complex fraction, either the numerator, or the denominator,
or both, is a fraction or a mixed number, corresponding to division
1 3
12
of fractions. For example, 2 and 4 are complex fractions.
1 26
3
page 62 Unit 6. Fractions

To reduce a complex fraction to a simple fraction, treat the longest

fraction line as representing division. If, in a complex fraction, there
is no clear way to tell which fraction line takes precedence, then
the expression is improperly formed, and meaningless.
7. ____________________
A compound fraction is a fraction of a fraction, or any number of
fractions connected with the word of, corresponding to multiplication
of fractions. To reduce a compound fraction to a simple fraction,
just carry out the multiplication (see the section on multiplication).
For example, 3/4 of 5/7 is a compound fraction, corresponding to
3 5 15
× = . The terms compound fraction and complex fraction are
4 7 28
closely related and sometimes one is used as a synonym for the other.
8. ______________________
A decimal fraction is a fraction whose denominator is not given
explicitly, but is understood to be an integer power of ten. Decimal
fractions are commonly expressed using decimal notation in which
the implied denominator is determined by the number of digits to the
right of a decimal separator, the appearance of which (e.g., a period,
a raised period (•), a comma) depends on the locale. Thus for 0.75
the numerator is 75 and the implied denominator is 10 to the
second power, viz. 100, because there are two digits to the right of
the decimal separator. In decimal numbers greater than 1 (such as
3.75), the fractional part of the number is expressed by the digits to
the right of the decimal (with a value of 0.75 in this case). 3.75 can
be written either as an improper fraction, 375/100, or as a mixed
75
number, 3 . Decimal fractions can also be expressed using
100
scientific notation with negative exponents, such as 6.023 × 10−7,
which represents 0.0000006023. The 10−7 represents a denominator
of 107. Dividing by 107 moves the decimal point 7 places to the left.
Decimal fractions with infinitely many digits to the right of the decimal
separator represent an infinite series. For example, 1/3 = 0.333...
represents the infinite series 3/10 + 3/100 + 3/1000 + ... .
Another kind of fraction is the percentage (Latin per centum meaning
“per hundred”, represented by the symbol %), in which the implied
 Unit 6. Fractions page 63
denominator is always 100. Thus, 75% means 75/100. Related
concepts are the permille, with 1000 as implied denominator, and the
more general parts-per notation, as in 75 parts per million, meaning
that the proportion is 75/1,000,000.
9. ________________________
A unit fraction is a vulgar fraction with a numerator of 1, e.g. 1/7.
Unit fractions can also be expressed using negative exponents, as in
2−1 which represents 1/2, and 2−2 which represents 1/(22) or 1/4.
An Egyptian fraction is the sum of distinct positive unit fractions,
1 1
for example + . This definition derives from the fact that the
2 3
ancient Egyptians expressed all fractions except 1/2, 2/3 and 3/4
in this manner. Every positive rational number can be expanded as
1 1 1
an Egyptian fraction. For example, 5/7 can be written as + + .
2 6 21
Any positive rational number can be written as a sum of unit fractions
1 1 1
in infinitely many ways. Two ways to write 13/17 are + +
2 4 68
1 1 1 1
and + + + .
3 4 6 68
A dyadic fraction is a vulgar fraction in which the denominator is
a power of two, e.g. 1/8.

Task V. Read the text more carefully and answer the questions.
1. What are the slanting and horizontal lines of the fraction called?
2. Which type of fractal notation is not used in modern mathematics?
3. What is ratio and how is it related to fraction?
4. What is a top-heavy fraction?
5. How can you convert a mixed number to an improper fraction?
6. Provide an example of an invisible denominator.
7. What is a decimal seperator?
8. What is the most characteristic feature of percentage?
9. What special types of fractions do you know?
10. Which fraction has denominator in the power of two?
page 64 Unit 6. Fractions

Task VI. Work with a partner. Student B: Look at the

communicative activities section (p. 245).
Read your sentences to B and ask him/her to fill in the missing
words.
1. If a number of items are grouped and compared in a ratio, they
are ............................. numerically in terms of the relationship
between each group.
2. An improper or ...................... fraction is the one in which the
absolute value is greater than or equal to 1.
3. The product of a fraction and its reciprocal is 1, hence the reciprocal
is the ................................... of a fraction.
4. If, in a complex fraction, there is no clear way to tell which fraction
line takes ............................, then the expression is improperly
formed, and meaningless.
5. Another kind of fraction is the percentage, in which the
........................ denominator is always 100.
Match the words in the box with their Polish equivalents.
Then listen to B’s sentences and choose the right word.

invisible   distinct   converted   sum   explicitly
multiplicative invert

suma odwrotność względem mnożenia odrębny niewidoczny

wyraźnie przekształcony

Task VII. In the grid find the names of three laws associated
with mathematical operations. Match them with
the Polish equivalents.
K W E G F A N B B T Y U
C O M M U T A T I V E N
S A S E W R T Y U I O P
R K J H G D S A Z X E Q
D I S T R I B U T I V E
T A X C H Y U K Y O K L
A S S O C I A T I V E M

prawo: łaczności przemienności rodzielności

 Unit 6. Fractions page 65
Task VIII. Work in groups of three. Student B: Look at the
communicative activities section (p. 246). Student C:
Look at the communicative activities section (p. 298).
Read your text and complete the table with the missing details.
Ask your partners about the other details.

Name of operation Procedure Examples

Multiplication and division

of equivalent fractions

Comparing fractions

Addition

Subtraction

Multiplication

Division

Converting decimal to
fraction

Multiplying the numerator and denominator of a fraction by the

same (non-zero) number results in a fraction that is equivalent to
the original fraction. This is true because for any non-zero number
n, the fraction n/n = 1. Therefore, multiplying by n/n is equivalent
to multiplying by one, and any number multiplied by one has the
same value as the original number. By way of an example, start with
the fraction 1/2. When the numerator and denominator are both
multiplied by 2, the result is 2/4, which has the same value (0.5) as
1/2. To picture this visually, imagine cutting a cake into four pieces;
two of the pieces together (2/4) make up half the cake. Dividing
the numerator and denominator of a fraction by the same non-zero
number will also yield an equivalent fraction. This is called reducing
or simplifying the fraction. A simple fraction in which the numerator
page 66 Unit 6. Fractions

and denominator are coprime, that is, the only positive integer that
goes into both the numerator and denominator evenly is 1, is said to
be irreducible, in lowest terms, or in simplest terms. For example,
3/9 is not in lowest terms because both 3 and 9 can be exactly
divided by 3. In contrast, 3/8 is in lowest terms—the only positive
integer that goes into both 3 and 8 evenly is 1. Using these rules, we
5 1 10 50
can show that = = = . A common fraction can be reduced
10 2 20 100
to lowest terms by dividing both the numerator and denominator by
their greatest common divisor. For example, as the greatest common
divisor of 63 and 462 is 21, the fraction 63/462 can be reduced to
lowest terms by dividing the numerator and denominator by 21.
The Euclidean algorithm gives a method for finding the greatest
common divisor of any two positive integers.
Comparing fractions with the same denominator only requires
comparing the numerators.
3 2
> because 3 > 2.
4 4
If two positive fractions have the same numerator, then the fraction
with the smaller denominator is the larger number. When a whole is
divided into equal pieces, if fewer equal pieces are needed to make
up the whole, then each piece must be larger. When two positive
fractions have the same numerator, they represent the same number
of parts, but in the fraction with the smaller denominator, the parts
are larger. One way to compare fractions with different numerators
and denominators is to find a common denominator. To compare a/b
ad bc
and c/d, these are converted to and . Then bd is a common
bd bd
denominator and the numerators ad and bc can be compared.
2 1 4 3
? gives > It is not necessary to determine the value of the
3 2 6 6
common denominator to compare fractions. This short cut is known
as “cross multiplying” – you can just compare ad and bc, without
computing the denominator.
5 3
? Multiply top and bottom of each fraction by the denominator
18 17
of the other fraction, to get a common denominator:
 Unit 6. Fractions page 67

5 × 17 4 × 18
? The denominators are now the same, but it is not
18 × 17 17 × 18
necessary to calculate their value – only the numerators need to be
5 4
compared. Since 5 × 17 (= 85) is greater than 4 × 18 (= 72), > .
18 17
Also note that every negative number, including negative fractions,
is less than zero, and every positive number, including positive
fractions, is greater than zero, so every negative fraction is less than
any positive fraction.

Task IX. Match the verbs from box A with the noun phrases from
box B. Write down the logical connections and their
Polish equivalents.
A

to position to give to reduce to find to cancel

to simplify to break

the common denominator the answer the decimal in product

a complex fraction reciprocal of a fraction a fraction
the denominator into primes

1. …………………………………………………………………….
2. …………………………………………………………………….
3. …………………………………………………………………….
4. …………………………………………………………………….
5. …………………………………………………………………….
6. …………………………………………………………………….
7. …………………………………………………………………….
page 68 Unit 6. Fractions

Task X. Read the definition of an algebraic fraction. For each

gap choose one word a, b or c.
An algebraic fraction is the ....................... (1) quotient of two algebraic
3x
expressions. Two examples of algebraic fractions are 2 and
x + 2x − 3
x +2
. Algebraic fractions are ........................... (2) the same laws
x2 − 3
as arithmetic fractions.
If the numerator and the denominator are polynomials, as in
3x
2
, the algebraic fraction is called a rational fraction
x + 2x − 3
(or rational expression). An irrational fraction is one that
....................... (3) the variable under a fractional exponent, as in
x +2
. The terminology used to describe algebraic fractions is
x2 − 3
similar to that used for ordinary fractions. For example, an algebraic
fraction is in .......................... (4) terms if the only factor common
to the numerator and the denominator is 1. An algebraic fraction
whose numerator or denominator, or both, contains a fraction, such
1
1+
as x , is called a complex fraction.
1
1−
x
Rational numbers are the quotient field of integers. Rational
expressions are the quotient field of the polynomials (over some
integral domain). Since a coefficient is a polynomial of degree zero,
a radical expression such as 2 / 2 is a rational fraction. Another
example is p/2, the radian measure of a right angle.
The term partial fraction is used when .......................... (5)
rational expressions. The goal is to write the rational expression
as the sum of other rational expressions with denominators of
............................. (6) degree. For example, the rational expression
2x 1 1
2
can be rewritten as the sum of two fractions: and .
x −1 x +1 x −1
This is useful in many areas such as integral calculus and differential
equations.
 Unit 6. Fractions page 69
1. a) indicated b) indicative c) indication
2. a) subject at b) subject on c) subject to
3. a) complies b) contains c) converses
4. a) lowest b) lower c) low
5. a) composing b) decomposing c) recomposing
6. a) lesser b) last c) least

Task XI. Work with a partner. Student B: Look at the

communicative activities section (p. 249).
Read the words and definitions to B. Ask him/her to choose the
right definition a, b or c.
1. Radical is
a) a symbol used to indicate the square root or nth root.
b) a symbol used to indicate the denominator.
c) a symbol used to indicate the numerator.
2. Monomial is
a) a product of powers of variables, or formally any value
obtained by finitely many multiplications of a variable.
If only a single variable x is considered, this means that any
monomial is either 1 or a power xn of x, with n a positive
integer.
b) a product of powers of variables, or formally any value obtained
by infinitely many multiplications of a variable. If only a single
variable x is considered, this means that any monomial
is either -1 or a power xn of x, with n a positive integer.
c) a product of powers of variables, or formally any value
obtained by infinitely many multiplications of a variable.
If only a single variable x is considered, this means that any
monomial is either –1 or a power xn.
page 70 Unit 6. Fractions

Task XII. Work with a partner. Student B: Look at the

communicative activities section (p. 249).
Read your fractions and their decimal expansions to B. Then
listen to your partner and fill in the table.

FRACTION DECIMAL EXPANSION

1. 1/2 0.5
2.
3. 1/4 0.25
4.
5. 1/6 0.1666666666...
6.
7. 1/8 0.125
8.
 page 71

UNIT 7. ROOTS

LEAD-IN

Work in groups of ten. You will get a card with a word and
its Polish equivalent. Learn it and tear away the Polish part.
Exchange your word with other members of your group. Try to
remember as many words as possible. Do not write anything!
Complete the table. Compare with a partner.

English term Polish equivalent

wykładnik
subscript
indeks górny
cube root
podnieść do potęgi
radicand
wyciągnąć pierwiastek
rational power
pierwiastek arytmetyczny
surd

Task I. Read about root and put the verbs in the right
grammatical form. Check with a partner.
In mathematics, the nth root of a number x is a number r which,
when ....................... (raise) to the power of n, ........................
(equal) x

r n = x,

where n is the degree of the root. A root of degree 2 .........................

(call) a square root and a root of degree 3, a cube root. Roots of
higher degree are referred to ......................... (use) ordinal numbers,
as in fourth root, twentieth root, etc.
page 72 Unit 7. Roots

For example:
●● 2 is a square root of 4, since 22 = 4.
Roots are usually ........................ (write) using the radical symbol
with x denoting the square root, 3 x denoting the cube root,
4 n
x denoting the fourth root, and so on. In the expression x,
n is called the index, is the radical sign, and x is called the
radicand. When a number is presented under the radical symbol,
it must return only one result like a function, so a non-negative real
root, called the principal nth root, is preferred rather than others.
An unresolved root, especially one using the radical symbol, is often
referred to as a surd or a radical. Any expression ...........................
(contain) a radical, whether it is a square root, a cube root, or a higher
root, is called a radical expression. In calculus, roots are treated as
special cases of exponentiation, where the exponent is a fraction:
n
x = x 1/n .

Task II. Match sentence beginnings 1–5 with endings A–E.

1. A real number or complex number...
2. While the roots of 0 are not distinct (all equaling 0) ...
3. If n is even and the number is real and positive ...
4. If n is even and the number is real and negative ...
5. If n is odd and the number is real ...
a) one of its nth roots is positive, one is negative, and the rest
are complex but not real.
b) one nth root is real and has the same sign as the number,
while the other roots are not real.
c) has n roots of degree n.
d) the n nth roots of any other real or complex number are all
distinct.
e) none of the nth roots are real.
 Unit 7. Roots page 73
Task III. Choose the right answer. Compare with a partner. Next,
read the passage and check your answer.
1. The root test is
a) dependent on the quality of an infinite series
b) known as the radicand test
c) responsible for convergence of an infinite series
The root test is a criterion for the convergence of an infinite series.
It depends on the quantity and states that the series converges
absolutely if this quantity is less than unity, but diverges if it is
greater than unity. It is particularly useful in connection with power
series. The root test was developed by Augustin-Louis Cauchy
and is known as the Cauchy root test or Cauchy’s radical test. For
a series
¥

∑a
n =1
n the root test uses the number

C = limsup n an , where “lim sup” denotes the limit superior,

n →¥

possibly ∞. Note that if

lim n an , converges then it equals C and may be used in the root
n →¥

test instead. The root test states that:

●● if C < 1 then the series converges absolutely,
●● if C > 1 then the series diverges,
●● if C = 1 and the limit approaches strictly from above then the
series diverges,
●● otherwise the test is inconclusive (the series may diverge,
converge absolutely or converge conditionally).
There are some series for which C = 1 and the series converges, e.g.
Σ 1/2n2, and there are others for which C = 1 and the series diverges,

e.g. Σ 1/2n.
This test can be used with a power series
¥
f (z ) = ∑c
n =0
n (z − p )n

where the coefficients cn, and the center p are complex numbers
and the argument z is a complex variable.
page 74 Unit 7. Roots

The terms of this series would then be given by an = cn(z − p)n. One
then applies the root test to the an as above. Sometimes a series
like this is called a power series “around p”, because the radius of
convergence is the radius R of the largest interval or disc centred
at p such that the series will converge for all points z strictly in the
interior, convergence on the boundary of the interval or disc generally
has to be checked separately. A corollary of the root test applied
to such a power series is that the radius of convergence is exactly
1/ limsup n c n , taking care that we really mean ∞ if the denominator
n →¥

is 0.

Task IV. Decide if the following statements are true or false.

Find reference in the text.
1. The root test depends on the quality and unity of series.
2. The test states that the series diverges if it is less than unity.
3. Infinity can be the limit superior.
4. If c is more than one the series converges.
5. The test can be applied to power series.
6. In power series around p the radius of convergence is the radius R
of the smallest interval or disc centred at p.

Task V. Choose the right definition of each term. Match them

with Polish equivalents.
okrąg szereg rozbieżny jedność wniosek/następstwo
szereg nieskończony szereg zbieżny
1. infinite series
a) sequence of numbers that continues indefinitely
b) class of infinite number
2. convergent series
a) the sequence of the partial sums {S1, S 2 , S 3 , } that converges
b) the sequence of the partial quotients { Q } that converges
3. divergent series
a) the infinite sequence of the partial sums of the series that has
a limit
b) the infinite sequence of the partial sums of the series that does
not have a limit
 Unit 7. Roots page 75
4. unity
a) is the integer before three and after two
b) the state of being undivided or unbroken, one
5. disc
a) the region in a plane bounded by a circle
b) the region in a circle bounded by a plane
6. corollary
a) a statement that proves the root test
b) proposition that follows directly from the proof of another
proposition, an obvious deduction

Task VI. Read the paragraph and complete it with the words
in the box.

power base raised squared matrix extension

index   equations   integer   function

Exponentiation is a mathematical operation, written as bn, involving

two numbers, the .......................... (1) b and the exponent
(..................... (2) or power) n. When n is a positive integer,
exponentiation corresponds to repeated multiplication; in other
words, a product of n factors, each of which is equal to b (the product
itself can also be called ...................... (3)):
bn = b
×…
 b
×
n
just as multiplication by a positive integer corresponds to repeated
addition
b ×n = b
+…
+b
n
The exponent is usually shown as a superscript to the right of the
base. The exponentiation bn can be read as: b raised to the n-th
power, b raised to the power of n, or b ............................. (4)
by the exponent of n, most briefly as b to the n. Some exponents
have their own pronunciation: for example, b2 is usually read
as b squared and b3 as b cubed. The power bn can be defined
also when n is a negative .............................. (5), for nonzero
b. No natural ............................ (6) to all real b and n exists,
but when the base b is a positive real number, bn can be defined
for all real and even complex exponents n via the exponential
page 76 Unit 7. Roots

......................... (7) ez. Exponentiation where the exponent

is a ............................... (8), is used for solving systems of
linear differential ............................... (9). Exponentiation is
applied pervasively in many other fields, including economics,
biology, chemistry, physics, and computer science, with applications
such as compound interest, population growth, chemical reaction
kinetics, wave behaviour, and public key cryptography.

Task VII. Work with partner. Student B: Look at the

communicative activities section (p. 250).
Read the text and write the questions for the missing details.
Ask your partner for the missing details.
Perhaps the most familiar example of subscripts is (Where?)
___________________. For example, the formula for glucose is C6H12O6
meaning that it is (What? )______________________. A subscript
can also distinguish between different versions of (What type ...?)
_____________________ particle. Similarly, subscripts are used
frequently in mathematics (Do what?)____________________________
_____; for example, in an equation x0 and xf may indicate (What?)
_______________________, while vrocket and vobserver would stand for the
velocities of a rocket and an observer. Commonly, variables with a
zero in the subscript are referred to as the variable name followed
by naught. (e.g. v0 would be read, “v-naught”). Subscripts are often
used to refer to (What?) _______________________. For example, in
the sequence O = (45, –2, 800), O3 refers to the third member of
sequence O, which is 800. Also in mathematics and computing,
subscript can be applied to represent the radix, or base, of a written
number, especially (Where?) ________________________________. For
example, comparing values in hexadecimal, denary, and octal one
might write Chex = 12dec = 14oct. Subscripted numbers dropped below
the baseline are also used for the denominators of stacked fractions,
like this: 67/68. The only common use of these subscripts is for the
denominators of diagonal fractions, like ½ or the signs for percent %,
permille ‰, and basis point. Certain standard abbreviations are also
composed as diagonal fractions, such as ℅ (care of).
1. ________________________________________________________
2. ________________________________________________________
3. ________________________________________________________
 Unit 7. Roots page 77
4. ________________________________________________________
5. ________________________________________________________
6. ________________________________________________________
7. ________________________________________________________
Now read the text and answer B’s questions.
Ordinal indicators are sometimes written as superscripts (1st, 2nd,
3rd, 4th, rather than 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th), although many English-
-language style guides recommend against this use. Other languages
use a similar convention, such as 1er or 2e in French, or 4ª and
4º in Italian, Portuguese, and Spanish. Many abbreviations use
superscripts, especially historically. Examples in English include
Jos and Wm (for Joseph and William). The standard abbreviation for
“number”, “№”, also uses a superscript. Superscripts are used for the
standard abbreviations for service mark and trademark ™. The signs
for copyright © and registered trademark ® are also sometimes
superscripted, depending on the use or the typeface. Superscripted
numerals are used for the numerators of diagonal fractions, like ¾ or
the signs for percent %, permille ‰, and basis point. Certain standard
abbreviations are also composed as diagonal fractions, such as ℅
(care of). In mathematics, high superscripts indicate that one number
or variable is raised to the power of another number or variable. Thus
y4 is y raised to the fourth power, 2x is 2 raised to the power of x, and
the famous equation E = mc2 includes a term for the speed of light
squared. The charges of ions and subatomic particles are also denoted
with superscripts. Cl- is a negatively charged chlorine atom, Pb4+ is
an atom of lead with a charge of positive four, e− is an electron, e+ is
a positron, and μ+ is an antimuon. Atomic isotopes are written using
superscripts. The numerators of stacked fractions (such as 34/35)
usually use high-set superscripts, although some specially designed
glyphs keep the top of the numerator aligned with the top of the full-
-height numerals.

Task VIII. Decide if the following sentences are True or False.

Correct the false statements. Compare with a partner.

1. Superscripts are not used for the standard abbreviations for

service mark and trademark.
2. Ordinal indicators are sometimes written as superscripts.
page 78 Unit 7. Roots

3. Superscripted numerals are used for the numerators of

perpendicular fractions, like ¾ or the signs for percent %,
permille ‰, and basis point.
4. In mathematics, high superscripts indicate that one number or
variable is not raised to the power of the same number or variable.
5. The charges of ions and subatomic particles are also denoted
with superscripts.
6. The denominators of stacked fractions usually use high-set
superscripts.
7. A subscript can distinguish between different versions of
a subatomic particle.
8. Subscripts are frequently used to define different versions
of different variables.
9. Variables with a zero in the superscript are referred to as
the variable name followed by naught.
10. Subscripts indicate members in a mathematical sequence or set.
11. Subscripted numbers dropped below the baseline are used
for the numerators of stacked fractions.
12. The only common use of the subscripts is for the denominators
of diagonal fractions.

Task IX. Work with partner. Student B: Look at the

communicative activities section (p. 251).

Read the passage about imaginary exponents with base e. Focus

on Euler’s identity and exponentiation of triangle. Be ready to
answer B’s questions.

The exponential function ez can be defined as the limit of (1 + z/N) N,

as N approaches infinity, and thus eiπ is the limit of (1 + iπ/N)N.
In this animation N takes various increasing values from 1 to 100.
The computation of (1 + iπ/N)N is displayed as the combined effect
of N repeated multiplications in the complex plane, with the final
point being the actual value of (1 + iπ/N)N. It can be seen that as N
gets larger (1 + iπ/N)N approaches a limit of −1. Therefore, eiπ = −1,
which is known as Euler’s identity. The geometric interpretation of the
operations on complex numbers and the definition of the exponential
function is the clue to understanding eix for real x. Consider the right
triangle (0, 1, 1 + ix/n). For big values of n the triangle is almost
a circular sector with a small central angle equal to x/n radians.
 Unit 7. Roots page 79
The triangles (0, (1 + ix/n)k, (1 + ix/n)k+1) are mutually similar for all
values of k. So for large values of n the limiting point of (1 + ix/n)n is
the point on the unit circle whose angle from the positive real axis
is x radians. The polar coordinates of this point are (r, θ) = (1, x), and
the Cartesian coordinates are (cos x, sin x). So eix = cos x + i sin x,
and this is Euler’s formula, connecting algebra to trigonometry by
means of complex numbers. The solutions to the equation ez = 1
are the integer multiples of 2πi. More generally, if ev = w, then every
solution to ez = w can be obtained by adding an integer multiple of 2πi
to v. Thus the complex exponential function is a periodic function with
period 2πi. More simply: eiπ = −1; ex + iy = ex(cos y + i sin y). The power
z = ex + iy can be computed as ex · eiy. The real factor ex is the absolute
value of z and the complex factor eiy identifies the direction of z. If b
is a positive real number, and z is any complex number, the power bz
is defined as ez·ln(b), where x = ln(b) is the unique real solution to the
equation ex = b. So the same method working for real exponents also
works for complex exponents. The identity (b z )u = b zu is not generally
valid for complex powers. The identity is, however, valid when z is
a real number, and also when u is an integer.

Now ask B questions about complex powers

1. What is the principal value?
2. How many possible values does a non-rational power of a complex
number have?

Task X. Complete the sentences with words from the box.

solution periodic defined identifies understanding

repeated congruent handled

1. The computation of (1 + iπ/N)N is displayed as the combined effect

of N ……………….. multiplications in the complex plane, with
the final point being the actual value of (1 + iπ/N)N.
2. The geometric interpretation of the operations on complex
numbers and the definition of the exponential function is the clue
…………………. eix for real x.
3. The complex exponential function is a ………………. function with
period 2πi.
page 80 Unit 7. Roots

4. If i is the imaginary unit and n is an integer, then in equals 1, i, −1,

or −i, according to whether the integer n is ………….… to 0, 1, 2,
or 3 modulo 4.
5. The rational power of a complex number must be the …………….
to an algebraic equation.
6. Complex powers and logarithms are more naturally ……………. as
single valued functions on a Riemann surface.
7. The real factor ex is the absolute value of z and the complex
factor eiy ………………. the direction of z.
8. The powers of negative real numbers are not always ………………..
and are discontinuous even where defined.

Task XI. Work with partner. Student B: Look at the

communicative activities section (p. 252).
Read your sentence beginnings (bolded) to B who will provide
you with the correct endings. Do not read the part in italics.
1. The geometric interpretation of the operations on complex
numbers and the definition of the exponential function is the clue
to understanding eix for real x.
2. For large values of n the limiting point of (1 + ix/n)n is the
point on the unit circle whose angle from the positive real axis is x
radians.
3. If b is a positive real number, and z is any complex number,
the power bz is defined as ez·ln(b), where x = ln(b) is the unique real
solution to the equation ex = b.
4. The identity (b z )u = b zu is valid when z is a real number, and also
when u is an integer.
Now listen to B and choose the right endings.
a) … leaves us with functions that are not continuous.
b) … must be the solution to an algebraic equation.
c) … an infinite number of possible values because of the multi-
-valued nature of the complex logarithm.
d) … not always defined and are discontinuous even where
defined.
 Unit 7. Roots page 81
Task XII. Work with a partner. Student B: Look at the
communicative activities section (p. 253).
Before you start talking to your partner, make sure you can
explain the clues in your part in English. Your partner will ask
you about the clues in your part of the crossword. Explain each
clue in English. Ask your partner about the clues missing in
your part.

1. P R I N C I P A L
2.

3. U N R E S O L V E D
4.

5. P O W E R
6.

7. N A U G H T
8.

9. A L I G N E D
10.

11. B A S E
12.

13. E X T R A C T
14.

15. S U P E R S C R I P T
16.
page 82

UNIT 8. COMPLEX POWERS

LEAD-IN

Work with a partner. Student B: look at the communicative

activities section (p. 254).
Complete the chart and ask your partner for the answers.

VERB ADJECTIVE NOUN

unity
circle circle
--------------------------------- principal
imagine
polar polarity
exponential
integrate integral
solvable

Task I. Read the passage and fill in the missing words. Choose
from the pairs of words below (1–5). Compare your answers with
a partner.

A complex number w such that wn = 1 for a .............................. (1)

integer n is an nth root of unity. Geometrically, the nth roots of
unity lie on the unit ................................ (2) of the complex plane
at the vertices of a regular n-gon with one ............................... (3)
on the real number 1.
 Unit 8. Complex powers page 83
If wn = 1 but wk ≠ 1 for all natural numbers k such that 0 < k < n, then
w is called a primitive nth root of unity. The negative unit −1 is the
only ............................. (4) square root of unity. The imaginary unit
i is one of the two primitive 4-th roots of unity; the other one is −i.
The number e2πi (1⁄n) is the primitive nth root of unity with the smallest
positive complex ................................. (5). (It is sometimes called
the principal nth root of unity, although this terminology is not
universal and should not be confused with the principal value of n 1,
which is 1)
2 πi 2 πik
The other nth roots of unity are given by (e n )k = e n for 2 ≤ k ≤ n.
1. a) negative b) positive
2. a) sphere b) circle
3. a) vertex b) axis
4. a) complex b) primitive
5. a) argument b) arrangement

Task II. The paragraphs of this short description have been

jumbled. Put them in the right order. Next, check your
answers with the teacher.

1 2 3

A) The set of nth roots of a complex number w is obtained by

multiplying the principal value w1/n by each of the nth roots
of unity. For example, the fourth roots of 16 are 2, −2, 2i,
and −2i, because the principal value of the fourth root of 16
is 2 and the fourth roots of unity are 1, −1, i, and −i.
B) Although there are infinitely many possible values for a general
complex logarithm, there are only a finite number of values for
the power wq in the important special case where q = 1/n and
n is a positive integer. These are the nth roots of w; they are
solutions of the equation zn = w. As with real roots, a second
root is also called a square root and a third root is also called
a cube root.
C) It is conventional in mathematics to define w1/n as the principal
value of the root. If w is a positive real number, it is also
page 84 Unit 8. Complex powers

conventional to select a positive real number as the principal

value of the root w1/n. For general complex numbers, the nth
root with the smallest argument is often selected as the principal
value of the nth root operation, as with principal values of roots
of unity.

Task III. You are going to listen about complex powers. Before
you listen match the words in column A with the word
in column B. Write down collocations.
A B
conjugate form
geometric part
polar number
principal interpretation
complex value
imaginary power
1. ………………………………………………..
2. ………………………………………………..
3. ………………………………………………..
4. ………………………………………………..
5. ………………………………………………..
6. ………………………………………………..

Task IV. Read the statements below. Together with a partner

try to correct the mistakes in the sentences. Listen to
the recording and check if you were right.
1. It is often easier to compute simple powers by writing the number
to be exponentiated in the polar form.
2. Every conjugate number z can be written in the polar form.
3. The polar angle θ is not ambiguous since any multiple of 2π
could be added to θ without changing the location of the point.
4. Each choice of θ gives in general a similar possible value of the
power.
5. For complex numbers with a positive real part and zero imaginary
part using the principal value gives the same result as using
the corresponding real number.
 Unit 8. Complex powers page 85
6. The final formula allows complex powers to be computed easily
from decompositions of the base into Cartesian form and the
exponent into polar form.

Task V. Unscramble the words connected with exponentiation.

IYTUN ..........................................
ARIADN ..........................................
IEVCENDERG ..........................................
DANIRCDA ..........................................
EOEATNPXTOIINN ..........................................
DIYTIETN ..........................................
XDINE ..........................................
SIDC ..........................................
REVBLIAA ..........................................
OIMLAGTRH ..........................................
EVGCERNOECN ..........................................
AUROLMF ..........................................
YUPELEPMTT ..........................................

Task VI. Find the words from Task V in the grid. The words go
down ↓ and across →.

R O O T U U N I T Y I L O V E
A S U R D D E F Y F K O V O X
D A N Q G F Q H F D H G A P P
I N D E X G E J R S G A R L O
C G F W I T R V A Z D R I K N
A S Q U A Y Y C D A E I A M E
N K Y T O E D D I Z D T B N N
D I S C P Q D E A E T H L F T
C O N V E R G E N C E M E T I
X L I U T W S B J Q H W B G A
Z M U E M P T Y T U P L E P T
S N K D I D E N T I T Y F Q I
A U L F O R M U L A E T D W O
W Y P C E I A S O U W G C A N
Q D I V E R G E N C E B S R N
page 86 Unit 8. Complex powers

Task VII. Work with partner. Student B: Look at the

communicative activities section (p. 254).
Write the missing false definitions. Then read expressions
and definitions to B and ask him/her to guess the right answer
A, B or C.
1. multi-valued function
a) is a left-total relation where every input is associated with
at least one output
b) ...............................................................................................
c) is a left-total relation where every input is associated with only
one output
2. polar form
a) another way of encoding points in the complex plane, other
than using the x- and y-coordinates, using the distance
of a point P to O, whose coordinates are (0, 0) and the
angle of the line through P and O
b) another way of encoding points in the complex plane, other
than using the x- and y-coordinates, using the area of a point
P to 5, whose coordinates are (0, 5) and the angle of the line
through P and O
c) ................................................................................................
3. empty tuple
a) ................................................................................................
b) empty set of elements
c) empty sequence of elements
4. formula
a) ................................................................................................
b) is an object constructed using the symbols of a given language
c) is an entity constructed using the symbols and formation
rules of a given logical language

Task VIII. Work with a partner. Student B: Look at the

communicative activities section (p. 255).
B will ask you about the clues missing in his/her crossword.
Do not read the words, give their definitions. Take it in turns
to complete the crossword.
 Unit 8. Complex powers page 87
Example: B: What is 1 across?
You: It is the result of subtraction.

1. T H E O R E M
2.

3. C O N G R U E N T
4.
5. F A C I L I T A T E
6.

7. C O M P L E X
8.
9. E X P O N E N T A T I O N
10.

11. A M B I G U O U S
12.
13.C O R O L L A R Y
14.
15. C U B E R O O T
16.
page 88

UNIT 9. BASIC CONCEPTS IN GEOMETRY

LEAD-IN

Work with a partner. Student B: Look at the communicative

activities section (p. 256).
Ask student B for the missing terms in the chart.
ENGLISH TERM POLISH EQUIVALENT
bisector
kąt wklęsły
obtuse angle
kąt pełny
acute angle
kąty przystające
adjacent angle
kąt dopełniający do 360°
angle of depression
kąt płaski
complementary angle

Task I. Read the short passage about angles and fill in the words
from the box.

magnitude generated vertex order swept combination

endpoint varies directed about

An angle is a .................. of two rays with a common ...................

called a .................... The size of the angle .................. by a revolving
line ................ from zero to one complete revolution as the line
is rotated ........................
a vertex to its original position. Given the radius of a circle, the
..................... of the angle can be measured by the length of
 Unit 9. Basic concepts in geometry page 89
the circular arc ............... out by the rotating ray. In elementary
geometry, the ................ of rays is usually ignored. But, ..................
or oriented angles are important, for example, in trigonometry.

Task II. What types of angles do you know? Match the words
in italics with the pictures. There are more words than
you need.

acute reflex right oblique obtuse straight

complementary congruent adjacent conjugate

Task III. Work with a partner. Read the sentences and decide if
you agree or disagree with them. Explain why. Next,
read the passage and check your guesses.
1. An angle is defined as the space between two parallel lines.
2. You can denote the size of an angle by means of circular movement
that maps rays into one another.
3. Equivalent angles differ by the multiple of a half circle.
4. The most common units used to measure angles are the degree
and the radian.
5. The spread between the lines of an angle is the square of sine
of the angle.
6. The right angle consists of two horizontal lines.
7. Adjacent angles have one vertex and edge.
8. The words ‘acute’ and ‘obtuse’ have opposite meanings.
An angle equal to 1/4 turn (90° or π/2 radians) is called a right angle.
Two lines that form a right angle are said to be perpendicular or
orthogonal Angles equal to 1/2 turn (180° or two right angles) are
called straight angles. Angles that are not right angles or a multiple
of a right angle are called oblique angles. Angles smaller than a right
angle (less than 90°) are called acute angles. Angles larger than a right
page 90 Unit 9. Basic concepts in geometry

angle and smaller than a straight angle (between 90° and 180°) are
called obtuse angles (“obtuse” meaning “blunt”). Angles larger than
a straight angle but less than 1 turn (between 180° and 360°) are
called reflex angles. Angles that have the same measure (i.e. the
same magnitude) are said to be congruent. Following this definition
for congruent angles, an angle is defined by its measure and is not
dependent upon the lengths of the sides of the angle (e.g. all right
angles are congruent). Angles that share a common vertex and edge
but do not share any interior points are called adjacent angles Two
angles that sum to one right angle (90°) are called complementary
angles. The difference between an angle and a right angle is termed
the complement of the angle. Two angles that sum to a straight angle
(180°) are called supplementary angles. The difference between an
angle and a straight angle (180°) is termed the supplement of the
angle. Two angles that sum to one turn (360°) are called explementary
angles or conjugate angles. The angle between a plane and an
intersecting straight line is equal to ninety degrees minus the angle
between the intersecting line and the line that goes through the point
of intersection and is normal to the plane.

Task IV. Work with a partner. Study the questions below. Next,
read and check your answers.
1. When are angles called equivalent?
2. How are angles measured?
3. What units are used to measure angles?
4. How are angles defined in rational geometry?
In many geometrical situations, angles that differ by an exact multiple
of a full circle are effectively equivalent, it makes no difference how
many times a line is rotated through a full circle because it always
ends up in the same place. However, this is not always the case.
For example, when tracing a curve such as a spiral using polar
coordinates, an extra full turn gives rise to a quite different point on
the curve.
 Unit 9. Basic concepts in geometry page 91
The angle θ is the quotient of s and r. In order to measure an
angle θ, a circular arc centred at the vertex of the angle is drawn,
e.g. with a pair of compasses. The length of the arc s is then divided
by the radius of the circle r, and possibly multiplied by a scaling
constant k which depends on the units of measurement that are
s
chosen: θ = k . The value of θ thus defined is independent of the
r
size of the circle: if the length of the radius is changed then the arc
length changes in the same proportion, so the ratio s/r is unaltered.
In dimensional analysis, angles are considered to be dimensionless.
There are several units used to measure angles, depending on the
choice of the constant k in the formula above. Of these units, treated
in more detail below, the degree and the radian are by far the most
common. With the notable exception of the radiant, most units of
angular measurement are defined such that one full circle (i.e. one
revolution) is equal to n units, for some whole number n. For example,
in the case of degrees, n = 360. A full circle of n units is obtained by
setting k = n/(2π) in the formula above. The formula above can be
rewritten as k = θr/s. One full circle, for which θ = n units, corresponds
to an arc equal in length to the circle’s circumference, which is 2πr,
so s = 2πr. Substituting n for θ and 2πr for s in the formula, results
in k = nr/(2πr) = n/(2π).

θ = s/r rad = 1 rad.

There are several alternatives to measuring the size of an angle by
the corresponding angle of rotation. The grade of a slope or gradient
is equal to the tangent of the angle, or sometimes the sine. Gradients
are often expressed as a percentage. For very small values (less than
5%), the grade of a slope is approximately the measure of an angle
in radians.
In rational geometry the spread between two lines is defined at the
square of sine of the angle between the lines. Since the sine of an
angle and the sine of its supplementary angle are the same any angle
of rotation that maps one of the lines into the other leads to the same
value of the spread between the lines.
page 92 Unit 9. Basic concepts in geometry

Task V. Work with a partner. Student B: Look at the

communicative activities section (p. 256).
Read your sentences to B and ask him/her to fill in the missing
words.
1. Angles that differ by an exact …………………. of a full circle are
effectively equivalent.
2. In order to measure an angle θ, a circular arc centred at the
…………… of the angle is drawn.
3. Most units of angular ………………….. are defined such that one
full circle is equal to n units, for some whole number n.
4. The value of θ defined is independent of the ……………… of the
circle.
5. When tracing a curve such as a spiral using polar ……………… ,
an extra full turn gives rise to a quite different point on the curve.
Next, listen to B’s sentences and complete them with words
below. You do not need to use all of the words.

circumscription alternatives magnitude circumference sine

cosine gradients

Task VI. Put the sentences a-c into the gaps 1–3.
a) … the clockwise angle from B to C, the anticlockwise angle from
B to C, the clockwise angle from C to B, or the anticlockwise
angle from C to B
b) For example, the angle at vertex A enclosed by the rays AB and
AC is denoted BAC or BÂC.
c) Lower case roman letters (a, b, c...) are also used.
In mathematical expressions, it is common to use Greek letters (α, β,
γ, θ, ϕ ...) to serve as variables standing for the size of some angle.
_____ (1). In geometric figures, angles may also be identified by the
labels attached to the three points that define them. _________ (2).
Sometimes, where there is no risk of confusion, the angle may be
referred to simply by its vertex (“angle A”). Potentially, an angle
denoted, say, BAC might refer to any of four angles: ___________ (3),
where the direction in which the angle is measured determines its
 Unit 9. Basic concepts in geometry page 93
sign. However, in many geometrical situations it is obvious from
context that the positive angle less than or equal to 180 degrees is
meant, and no ambiguity arises. Otherwise, a convention may be
adopted so that BAC always refers to the anticlockwise (positive)
angle from B to C, and ∠CAB to the anticlockwise (positive) angle
from C to B.
page 94

UNIT 10. TRIANGLES

Task I. Work with a partner and match the English terms with
the Polish ones below.
ostrokątny równoboczny różnoboczny równoramienny
rozwartokątny prostokątny nieprostokątny

Task II. Work with a partner. Student B: Look at the

communicative activities section (p. 257).
Read the descriptions of three types of triangles and identify
them in the pictures. Ask your partner to describe the other
triangles.

Triangles can be classified according to the relative lengths of their

sides:
●● In an equilateral triangle all sides have the same length.
An equilateral triangle is also a regular polygon with all angles
measuring 60°.
 Unit 10. Triangles page 95
●● In an isosceles triangle, two sides are equal in length.
An isosceles triangle also has two angles of the same measure;
namely, the angles opposite to the two sides of the same
length; this fact is the content of the isosceles triangle theorem,
which was known by Euclid. Some mathematicians define
an isosceles triangle to have exactly two equal sides, whereas
others define an isosceles triangle as one with at least two equal
sides. The latter definition would make all equilateral triangles
isosceles triangles. The 45–45–90 right triangle, which appears
in the tetrakis square tiling, is isosceles.
●● In a scalene triangle, all sides are unequal and equivalently
all angles are unequal. Right triangles are scalene if and only if
not isosceles.
In diagrams representing triangles “tick” marks along the sides
are used to denote sides of equal lengths – the equilateral triangle
has tick marks on all 3 sides, the isosceles on 2 sides. The scalene
has single, double, and triple tick marks, indicating that no sides
are equal. Similarly, arcs on the inside of the vertices are used to
indicate equal angles. The equilateral triangle indicates all 3 angles
are equal; the isosceles shows 2 identical angles. The scalene
indicates by 1, 2, and 3 arcs that no angles are equal.

Task III. Work with a partner. Correct the sentences.

1. An equilateral triangle is also an irregular polygon with all
angles measuring 65°.
2. The side next to the right angle is the hypotenuse which is
the longest side of the oblique triangle.
3. An isosceles triangle has two angles of the same measure; namely,
the angles opposite to the two sides of different length.
4. A triangle that has one interior angle that measures more than
85° is an obtuse triangle so, if the greatest side length is c, then
a2 + b2 < c2.
5. In a scalene triangle, all sides are equal and equivalently
all angles are equal.
6. A triangle where two angles have the same measure and
all three sides have the same length is equilateral.
page 96 Unit 10. Triangles

Task IV. Work with a partner and choose the right sentence
ending a or b. Next, read the paragraph and check.
1. Three lines are concurrent if
a) they meet at a single point
b) they intersect at a single point
2. Three points are collinear if
a) they are lying on the same straight line
b) they are lying on three intersected lines.
There are hundreds of different constructions that find a special
point associated with a triangle, satisfying some unique property.
Often they are constructed by finding three lines associated in
a symmetrical way with the three sides (or vertices) and then
proving that the three lines meet in a single point: an important tool
for proving the existence of these is Ceva’s theorem, which gives
a criterion for determining when three such lines are concurrent.
Similarly, lines associated with a triangle are often constructed by
proving that three symmetrically constructed points are collinear.

Task V. Work in groups of three. Student B: Look at the

communicative activities section (p. 258). Student C:
Look at the communicative activities section (p. 300).
Read about bisector and orthocenter and match them with the
right representations. Next, ask your partners about the other
pictures.

A perpendicular bisector of a side of a triangle is a straight line

passing through the midpoint of the side and being perpendicular to
 Unit 10. Triangles page 97
it, i.e. forming a right angle with it. The three perpendicular bisectors
meet in a single point, the triangle’s circumcenter; this point is
the center of the circumcircle, the circle passing through all three
vertices. The diameter of this circle, called the circumdiameter, can
be found from the law of sines. The circumcircle’s radius is called
the circumradius. Thales’ theorem implies that if the circumcenter
is located on one side of the triangle, then the opposite angle is
a right one. If the circumcenter is located inside the triangle, then
the triangle is acute; if the circumcentre is located outside the
triangle, then the triangle is obtuse.
An altitude of a triangle is a straight line through a vertex and
perpendicular to (i.e. forming a right angle with) the opposite side.
This opposite side is called the base of the altitude, and the point
where the altitude intersects the base (or its extension) is called the
foot of the altitude. The length of the altitude is the distance between
the base and the vertex. The three altitudes intersect in a single
point, called the orthocenter of the triangle. The orthocenter lies
inside the triangle if and only if the triangle is acute.

Task VI. Decide if the statements are True or False. Correct the
mistakes.
1. The two perpendicular bisectors meet in a single point which is
the triangle’s circumcenter. T/F
2. If the circumcenter is located inside the triangle, then the triangle
is obtuse. T/F
3. The opposite side of the triangle is called the foot of the altitude,
and the point where the altitude intersects the base is called the
base of the altitude. T/F
4. The orthocenter lies inside the triangle if and only if the triangle
is equilateral. T/F
5. The incircle is the circle which lies inside the triangle and touches
two of its sides. T/F
6. There are three other important circles called the excircles
which lie outside the triangle and touch two sides as well as the
extension of the third side of the triangle. T/F
7. The centroid of a rigid triangular object is also its center of
density. T/F
page 98 Unit 10. Triangles

8. The distance between a vertex and the centroid is three times

the distance between the centroid and the midpoint of the
opposite side. T/F
9. The diameter of the nine-point circle is half that of the circumcircle
and it touches the incircle and the two excircles. T/F
10. The center of the nine-point circle lies between the orthocenter
and the circumcenter, and the distance between the centroid and
the circumcenter is one third of that between the centroid and
the orthocenter. T/F
11. Symmedian results in reflecting a median in the angle bisector
that passes through the same angle. T/F
Task VII. Work with a partner. Student B: Look at the
communicative activities sction (p. 259).
Read your questions and answers to your partner and ask
him/her to choose the right option A, B or C (bolded).
1. Heron’s formula states that
a) the area of a triangle whose sides have lengths a, b, and c is
A = s(s − a )(s − b )(s − c ), where s is the perimeter of the triangle;
a +b +c
that is, s = .
2
b) the area of a triangle whose sides have lengths a, b, and c
is A = s(s − a )(s − b )(s − c ), where s is the semiperimeter
a +b +c
of the triangle; that is, s = .
2
c) the area of a triangle whose sides have lengths a, b, and c is
A = s(s − a )(s − b )(s − c ), where s is the semiperimeter of the
a +b +c
angle; that is, s = .
2
2. Pick’s theorem
a) provides a simple formula for calculating the area A of
the polygon in terms of the number i of lattice points
in the interior located in the polygon and the number b
of lattice points on the boundary placed on the polygon’s
b
perimeter: A = i + − 1.
2
 Unit 10. Triangles page 99
b) provides a simple formula for calculating the area A of
the polyhedron in terms of the number i of lattice points
in the exterior of the polyhedron and the number b of lattice
points on the boundary placed on the polyhedron’s perimeter:
b
A = i + − 1.
2
c) provides a simple formula for calculating the area A of
the polygon in terms of the number i of lattice points
in the exterior of the polygon and the number b of lattice points
b
on the boundary placed on the polygon’s perimeter: A = i + − 1.
2
page 100

UNIT 11. CIRCLES

LEAD-IN

How can a circle be defined. Think of as many ways as possible.

Exchange your ideas with a partner.
Find eight words connected with a circle in the grid. Next, match
them with their Polish equivalents.

ognisko obszar krzywa rachunek położenie

promień zawierać granica

R L O C U S T Y I R
A S C U R V E S D E
D E L L I P S E I G
I C A L C U L U S I
U F O C U S A Q K O
S B O U N D A R Y N
E N C L O S E W F K
T R A C E O U T Y K

Task I. Read the passages and fill in the missing words from
the boxes.
1. A circle is a simple ………………. of Euclidean geometry that is the
set of all ………………….. in a plane that are at a given distance
from a given point, the ………………... The distance between any
of the points and the centre is called the …………….. It can also
be defined as the …………….. of a point ……………….. from a fixed
point.

points shape centre equidistant locus radius

2. A circle is a simple closed ………………. which divides the plane

into two …………………: an interior and an exterior. In everyday
use, the term “circle” may be used ……………………. to refer to
either the …………………… of the figure, or to the whole figure
 Unit 11. Circles page 101
………………… its interior; in strict technical usage, the circle is
the former and the latter is called a ……………….

interchangeably   disk   curve   boundary   regions   including

3. A circle can be defined as the curve ………………… by a point

that ………………. so that its ………………… from a given point is
………………...

distance   constant   traced out   moves

4. A circle may also be defined as a special ………………… in which

the two ……………………. are ……………………. and the eccentricity
is 0, or the two-dimensional shape …………………… the most area
per unit ……………….. , using ………………….. of variations.

enclosing ellipse perimeter coincident calculus foci

Task II. Work with a partner. Student B: Look at the

communicative activities section (p. 259).
Ask B about the missing words from your chart. Complete the
missing words.

ENGLISH TERM POLISH EQUIVALENT

sieczna
tangent
średnica
semicircle

chord
odcinek kołowy
circular sector
obwód koła
arc
środek ciężkości
page 102 Unit 11. Circles

Task III. Work with a partner. Student B: Look at the

communicative activities section (p. 260).
Read your definitions to B and ask him/her to give you the right
words.
1. …………………… – any connected part of the circle.
2. …………………… – the point equidistant from the points on the
circle.
3. …………………… – a line segment whose endpoints lie on the
circle.
4. …………………... – a region bounded by two radii and an arc lying
between the radii.
5. …………………… – a region, not containing the centre, bounded
by a chord and an arc lying between the chord’s endpoints.
6. …………………… – the length of one circuit along the circle.
Listen to B’s definitions and match them with the words from
the box.

secant tangent diameter semicircle passant radius

Task IV. Can you think of any theorems associated with

a circle? Discuss with your partner. Next, read the
statements and decide if they are correct.
1. If M is the point on a chord PQ of a circle, through which two other
chords AB and CD are drawn; AD and BC intersect chord PQ at X
and Y correspondingly. Then M is the midpoint of XY.
 Unit 11. Circles page 103

2. The six circles theorem states that there is a chain of six circles
together with a triangle where each circle is tangent to one side
of the triangle and also to the preceding circle in the chain.

Study the theorems and check your answers to Task IV.

The butterfly theorem is a classical result in Euclidean geometry,
which can be stated as follows: Let M be the midpoint of a chord PQ
of a circle, through which two other chords AB and CD are drawn;
AD and BC intersect chord PQ at X and Y correspondingly. Then M
is the midpoint of XY.
In geometry, the six circles theorem relates to a chain of six circles
together with a triangle, such that each circle is tangent to two sides
of the triangle and also to the preceding circle in the chain. The chain
page 104 Unit 11. Circles

closes, in the sense that the sixth circle is always tangent to the first
circle. The name may also refer to Miquel’s six circles theorem, the
result that if five circles have four triple points of intersection then
the remaining four points of intersection lie on a sixth circle.
 page 105

UNIT 12. HEXAGON AND ELLIPSE

Task I. Work with a partner. Student B: Look at the

communicative activities section (p. 261).
Read your sentence beginnings and endings to B who will try to
choose the correct ending a−c (bolded).
1. A dihedral group is
a) the group of symmetries of a regular polygon, including
both rotations and reflections.
b) the group of symmetries of an irregular polygon,
including rotations.
c) the group of symmetries of a regular polygon, including
reflections.
2. A tessellation of a flat surface is
a) the tiling of a plane using one or more geometric shapes, called
tiles, with overlaps and gaps.
b) the tiling of a plane using one or more geometric shapes,
called tiles, with no overlaps and no gaps.
c) the tiling of a plane using one or more geometric shapes, called
tiles, with some overlaps and no gaps.

Task II. Read about hexagon and complete the text with words
from the box.

tile perimeter formula reflection height vertices

circumscribing diagonals equilateral efficient

A regular hexagon has all sides of the same length, and all
internal angles are 120 degrees. A regular hexagon has 6 rotational
page 106 Unit 12. Hexagon and ellipse

symmetries (rotational symmetry of order six) and 6 ……………… (1)

symmetries (six lines of symmetry), making up the dihedral group D6.
The longest …………………… (2) of a regular hexagon, connecting
diametrically opposite …………………… (3), are twice the length of
one side. From this it can be seen that a triangle with a vertex at the
center of the regular hexagon and sharing one side with the hexagon
is equilateral, and that the regular hexagon can be partitioned into
six ……………………… (4) triangles.
Like squares and equilateral triangles, regular hexagons fit together
without any gaps to …………………….. (5) the plane (three hexagons
meeting at every vertex), and so are useful for constructing tessellations.
The cells of a beehive honeycomb are hexagonal for this reason
and because the shape makes ………………………. (6) use of space
and building materials. The Voronoi diagram of a regular triangular
lattice is the honeycomb tessellation of hexagons. It is not usually
considered a triambus, although it is equilateral. The area of a regular
hexagon of side length t is given by
3 3 2
A= t  2.598076211t 2 .
2
An alternative ………………………… (7) for area is A = 1.5dt where the
length d is the distance between the parallel sides, also referred to as
the flat-to-flat distance, or the ……………………… (8) of the hexagon
when it sits on one side as base, or the diameter of the inscribed circle.
Another alternative formula for the area if only the flat-to-flat distance,
d, is known, is given by
3 2
A= d  0.866025404d 2 .
2

The area can also be found by the formulas A = ap /2 and

A = 2a 2 3  3.464102a 2 , where a is the apothem and p is the
perimeter. The …………………………. (9) of a regular hexagon of side
length t is 6t, its maximal diameter 2t, and its minimal diameter
d = t 3. If a regular hexagon has successive vertices A, B, C, D,
E, F and if P is any point on the ………………………. (10) circle between
B and C, then PE + PF = PA + PB + PC + PD.
 Unit 12. Hexagon and ellipse page 107
Task III. Work with a partner. Student B: Look at the
communicative activities section (p. 261).
Read about ellipse and be ready to tell about its properties
to your partner.

Ellipses have two mutually perpendicular axes about which the ellipse
is symmetric. These axes intersect at the center of the ellipse due to
this symmetry. The larger of these two axes, which corresponds to
the largest distance between antipodal points on the ellipse, is called
the major axis or transverse diameter. On the figure it is represented
by the line between the point labeled –a and the point labeled a.
The smaller of these two axes, and the smallest distance across
the ellipse, is called the minor axisor conjugate diameter. The semi-
major axis denoted by a and the semi-minor axis denoted by b
in the figure, are one half of the major and minor axes, respectively.
These are sometimes called the major and minor semi-axes, the major
and minor semi-axes, or major radius and minor radius. The four
points where these axes cross the ellipse are the vertices and are
marked as a, −a, b, and −b. In addition to being at the largest
and smallest distance from the center, these points are where
the curvature of the ellipse is maximum and minimum.

Listen to B and decide if the sentences are True or False.

1. The sum of the distances from any point P on the ellipse to the foci
is non-constant and equal to the major axis (PF1 + PF2 = –2a).
2. The linear eccentricity of the ellipse is the distance to the focal
point from the center of the ellipse.
page 108 Unit 12. Hexagon and ellipse

3. If the eccentricity equals 0 the foci meet at the center point

and form a circle.
4. If one focus is kept fixed and the other is not allowed to move
arbitrarily far away they result in parabola.

Task IV. What methods of drawing ellipse do you know? Listen

and complete the missing information in the table.

Name of method 1. 2. 3.

Equipment
required

Description
 page 109

UNIT 13. SOLIDS

Task I. What Platonic solids do you know? Match the solids with
their names and Polish equivalents.
czworościan    sześcian    ośmiościan    dwunastościan
dwudziestościan

octahedron   dodecahedron   icosahedron   tetrahedron
hexahedron

Task II. Complete the table.

SCRAMBLED WORD UNSCRAMBLED WORD POLISH EQUIVALENT
EOCN
SIRMP
HEPSRE
MRYIPAD

Task III. Work in groups of four. Student B: Look at the

communicative activities section p. 263. Student C:
Look at the communicative activities section p. 301.
Student D: Look at the communicative activities
section p. 305.
Read about the pyramid and complete the table. Tell your
partners about the pyramid.

Name Pyramid Prism Cone Sphere

Definition

Volume

Area
page 110 Unit 13. Solids

Pyramid is a polyhedron formed by connecting a polygonal base and

a point, called the apex. Each base edge and apex form a triangle. It is
a conic solid with polygonal base. A pyramid with an n-sided base will
have n + 1 vertices, n + 1 faces, and 2n edges. When unspecified,
the base is usually assumed to be square. If all edges of a pyramid
are tangent to a sphere so that the average position of the tangential
points are at the center of the sphere, then the pyramid is said to be
canonical, and it forms half of the dual polyhedron of a cube.
1
The volume of a pyramid is V = Bh where B is the area of the base
3
and h the height from the base to the apex. This works for any polygon,
regular or non-regular, and any location of the apex, provided that
h is measured as the perpendicular distance from the plane which
contains the base. The formula can be formally proved using calculus:
By similarity, the linear dimensions of a cross section parallel to the
base increase linearly from the apex to the base. The scaling factor
y h −y
is 1 − , or , where h is the height and y is the perpendicular
h h
distance from the plane of the base to the cross-section. Since the
area of any cross section is proportional to the square of the shape’s
(h − y )2
scaling factor, the area of a cross section at height y is B × ,
h2
B
or since both b and h are constants 2
(h − y )2 . The volume is given
h
h
B h −B 1
∫
2
by the integral 2 (h − y ) dy = 2
(h − y )3 = Bh . For example,
h 0 3h 0 3
the volume of a pyramid whose base is an n-sided regular polygon
with side length s and whose height is h is:
n π
V = hs 2 cot .
12 n
PL
The surface area of a pyramid is A = B + where B is the base area,
2
P is the base perimeter and L is the slant height L = h 2 + r 2 where
h is the pyramid altitude and r is the in radius of the circle inside
the base.
 Unit 13. Solids page 111
Task IV. Complete the sentences from the passages with the
missing words. Compare with other partners.

square solid radius tangent axis perpendicularly

meridians polyhedron

1. The pyramid is said to be canonical if all edges of a pyramid

are ……………………… to a sphere so that the average position
of the tangential points are at the center of the sphere.
2. In oblique cones the axis does not pass ………………………..
through the centre of the base therefore, it may be any shape
and the apex may lie anywhere.
3. A parallelepiped is a prism of which the base is a parallelogram,
or equivalently a ………………………… with six faces which are all
parallelograms.
4. Cavalieri’s principle compares the cone to a vertically scale right
……………………….. pyramid which forms one third of a cube.
5. A great circle is a circle on the sphere that has the same center
and …………………….. as the sphere and consequently divides
it into two equal parts.
6. Great circles through the two poles are called lines
or ……………………… of longitude, and the line connecting
the two poles is called the axis of rotation.
7. The cone is assumed to be right circular, which means that
the base is a circle and the ………………… passes through
the centre of the base at right angles to its plane.
8. An n-prism, having regular polygon ends and rectangular sides,
approaches a cylindrical ………………………… as n approaches
infinity.
page 112 Unit 13. Solids

Task V. Find sixteen words connected with geometry. The words

go up and down ↓ backwards and forwards →

R D O D E C A H E D R O N T E
C O N J U G A T E O P T R W L
I B H G F D S A S P H E R E H
R T N K S A D E P R T Y U Q F
C U M C B S F G I R D T I U X
U S I S O S C E L E S U O I I
M E W Q A F G J L K L N P D R
F D A O C T A H E D R O N I T
E Z B I S E C T O R N G S S C
R E T Y U I O P L F O I P T E
E M I N C I R C L E G R O A R
N B C W P N H U A G A E I N I
C G R A D I E N T T X P U T D
E I Z X V C A S U Y E J K B R
Q M C I R T N E C O H T R O D

Task VI. Complete the crossword.

Across
2. made up of exactly similar parts facing each other or around
an axis
5. a solid having four plane triangular faces; a triangular pyramid
8. the action of moving around an axis or center
9. the amount of space that a substance or object occupies, or that
is enclosed within a container
Down
1. of or denoting circles, arcs, or other shapes that share the same
center
2. shaped like a sphere
3. a line or outline that gradually deviates from being straight for
some or all of its length
 Unit 13. Solids page 113
4. relating to or situated on the opposite side of the earth
6. an area or division, esp. part of a country or the world having
definable characteristics but not always fixed boundaries
7. extremely small
10. make something longer, esp. unusually so in relation to its width
page 114

UNIT 14. EQUATIONS

LEAD-IN

Name the equations. Use the terms from the box. Match them
with their Polish equivalents.
logarytmiczne różniczkowe wykładnicze wielomianowe
kwadratowe o współczynnikach ułamkowych sześcienne
równoważne jednoczesne liniowe
1) ax + by + c = 0 .......................................
2) ax2 + bx + c = 0 .......................................
3) ax3 + bx2 + cx = 0 .......................................
4) abx = y .......................................
5) 2x/5 + 1/5 = 13 .......................................
6) x – 6 = 5    x – 11 = 0 .......................................
7) 2log x = 12 .......................................
8) 6x – 2y = 10    3x – y = 5 .......................................
9) y⁴ + xy/2 = x³/3 – xy² + y² – 1/7 .......................................
10) x² x d² y/dx² + x dy/dx + (x² – µ²)y = 0 .......................................

fractional differential quadratic simultaneous

polynomial linear logarithmic cubic equivalent
exponential

Task I. Read the definition of equation and translate the Polish

terms into English.
An equation is a (twierdzenie matematyczne ..................................)
that (przyjmuje .................................) the equality of two expressions.
In modern notation, this is written by placing the expressions on
either side of an equals sign (=), for example x + 3 = 5 asserts that
x + 3 is equal to 5. The = symbol was invented by Robert Recorde
(1510–1558), who considered that nothing could be more equal
than (równoległe .................................) straight lines with the same
length.
Equations often express relationships between given quantities,
the (wiadome .............................), and quantities yet to be
 Unit 14. Equations page 115
determined, the (niewiadome ............................). By convention,
unknowns are denoted by letters at the end of the alphabet, x, y,
z, w, …, while knowns are denoted by letters at the beginning, a, b,
c, d, … . The process of expressing the unknowns in terms of the
knowns is called (rozwiązanie ............................) the equation.
In an equation with a single unknown, a value of that unknown
for which the equation is true is called a solution or root of the
equation. In a set of simultaneous equations, or system of equations,
multiple equations are given with multiple unknowns. A solution to
the system is an (przypisanie ...............................) of values to all
the unknowns so that all of the equations are true.

Task II. Discuss the questions with a partner. Next, read the
passage and check your answers.
1. What is a free variable?
2. When does an equation become an identity?
3. What is optimisation?
When solving an equation we find what values (numbers, functions,
sets etc.) fulfill a condition stated in the form of an equation (two
expressions related by equality). These expressions contain one
or more unknowns, which are free variables for which values are
sought that cause the condition to be fulfilled. To be precise, what is
sought are often not necessarily actual values, but, more in general,
mathematical expressions. A solution of the equation is an assignment
of expressions to the unknowns that satisfies the equation; in other
words, expressions such that, when they are substituted for the
unknowns, the equation becomes an identity.
For example, the equation x + y = 2x – 1 is solved for the unknown x
by the solution x = y + 1, since substituting y + 1 for x in the equation
results in (y + 1) + y = 2(y + 1) – 1, a true statement. It is also possible
to take the variable y to be the unknown, and then the equation
is solved by y = x – 1. Or x and y can both be treated as unknowns,
and then there are many solutions to the equation, some of which
are (x, y) = (1, 0) – that is, x = 1 and y = 0 – and (x, y) = (2, 1), and,
in general, (x, y) = (a + 1, a) for all possible values of a. Depending on
the problem, the task may be to find one solution – any solution will
do – or all solutions. The set of all solutions is called the solution set.
It is also possible that the task is to find a solution, among possibly
page 116 Unit 14. Equations

many, that is best in some respect. Problems of that nature are called
optimization problems; solving an optimization problem is generally
not referred to as “equation solving”. A wording such as “an equation
in x and y”, or “solve for x and y”, implies that the unknowns are as
indicated: in these cases x and y.

Task III. Find ten words in the grid and match them with their
Polish equivalents below.
prędkość przyspieszenie istotny jakościowy
dokładność/precyzyjność opór zmienna pochodna
grawitacja wyraźny

A C C E L E R A T I O N
C G A T Y U R P O W V E
C R V E L O C I T Y A X
U A S D F G H E N M R P
R V A Z X C V B N J I L
A I K H G R D S A Q A I
C T W E R T Y U I O B C
Y Y A S D F G H J K L I
P R O M I N E N T E E T
S R E S I S T A N C E Q
A S D E R I V A T I V E
Q U A L I T A T I V E N

Task IV. Study the sentences connected with differential

equations. Decide if they are TRUE or FALSE. Compare
with a partner.
1. A differential equation is an equation for an known function
of several variables that relates the values of the function itself
and its derivatives of various orders.
2. Only the simplest differential equations admit solutions given by
explicit formulas.
 Unit 14. Equations page 117
3. All properties of solutions of a given differential equation may
be determined by finding their exact form.
4. If a self-contained formula for the solution to equation is not
available, it may be numerically approximated using computers.

Task V. Read the passage and check your answers.

A differential equation is a mathematical equation for an unknown
function of one or several variables that relates the values of the
function itself and its derivatives of various orders. Differential
equations play a prominent role in engineering, physics, economics
and other disciplines, specifically whenever a deterministic relation
involving some continuously varying quantities (modeled by
functions) and their rates of change in space and/or time (expressed
as derivatives) is known or postulated. This is illustrated in classical
mechanics, where the motion of a body is described by its position
and velocity as the time value varies. Newton’s laws allow one (given
the position, velocity, acceleration and various forces acting on
the body) to express these variables dynamically as a differential
equation for the unknown position of the body as a function
of time. In some cases, this differential equation (called an equation
of motion) may be solved explicitly. An example of modelling a real
world problem using differential equations is the determination
of the velocity of a ball falling through the air, considering only
gravity and air resistance. The ball’s acceleration towards the ground
is the acceleration due to gravity minus the deceleration due to air
resistance. Gravity is considered constant, and air resistance may
be modeled as proportional to the ball’s velocity. This means that
the ball’s acceleration, which is a derivative of its velocity, depends on
the velocity. Finding the velocity as a function of time involves solving
a differential equation. Differential equations are mathematically
studied from several different perspectives, mostly concerned with
their solutions — the set of functions that satisfy the equation.
Only the simplest differential equations admit solutions given by
explicit formulas; however, some properties of solutions of a given
differential equation may be determined without finding their exact
form. If a self-contained formula for the solution is not available,
the solution may be numerically approximated using computers.
The theory of dynamical systems puts emphasis on qualitative
analysis of systems described by differential equations, while many
page 118 Unit 14. Equations

numerical methods have been developed to determine solutions with

a given degree of accuracy.

Task VI. Complete the sentences from the passage about

differential equations. Use words from the box.

explicitly differential acceleration qualitative velocity

prominent

1. Differential equations play a …………………… role in engineering,

physics, economics and other disciplines,
2. Finding the ………………….. as a function of time involves solving
a differential equation of motion.
3. The theory of dynamical systems puts emphasis on
…………………….. analysis of systems described by differential
equations.
4. Differential equation, called an equation of motion may be solved
…………………….
5. The ball’ …………………….., which is a derivative of its velocity,
depends on the velocity.
6. Newton’s laws allow to express the variables dynamically as
a …………………… equation for the unknown position of the body
as a function of time.

Task VII. Work with partner. Student B: Look at the

communicative activities section (p. 264).
Read the text and write down questions about the missing
details. Ask B about the missing details.
An ordinary differential equation (ODE) is a differential equation
in which the unknown function (also known as the dependent
variable) is ........................................................ (1). In the simplest
form, the unknown function is a real or complex valued function,
but more generally, ........................................................ (2): this
corresponds to considering a system of ordinary differential equations
for a single function. Ordinary differential equations are further
classified ................................................... (3) with respect to the
independent variable appearing in the equation. The most important
cases for applications are ................................................... (4). For
 Unit 14. Equations page 119
example, Bessel’s differential equation (in which y is the dependent
variable) is a second-order differential equation. In the classical
literature also distinction is made between differential equations
explicitly solved with respect to the highest derivative and differential
equations in an implicit form. A partial differential equation (PDE)
is a differential equation ....................................................... (5)
and the equation involves its partial derivatives. The order is defined
similarly to the case of ordinary differential equations, but further
classification into ................................................. (6), especially for
second-order linear equations, is of utmost importance. Some partial
differential equations do not fall into any of these categories over
the whole domain of the independent variables and they are said to
be of ....................................... (7).
1. ________________________________________________________
2. ________________________________________________________
3. ________________________________________________________
4. ________________________________________________________
5. ________________________________________________________
6. ________________________________________________________
7. ________________________________________________________

Now read the text and answer B’s questions.

Both ordinary and partial differential equations are broadly
classified as linear and nonlinear. A differential equation is linear
if the unknown function and its derivatives appear to the power 1
(products are not allowed) and nonlinear otherwise. The characteristic
property of linear equations is that their solutions form an affine
subspace of an appropriate function space, which results in much
more developed theory of linear differential equations. Homogeneous
linear differential equations are a further subclass for which the
space of solutions is a linear subspace i.e. the sum of any set of
solutions or multiples of solutions is also a solution. The coefficients
of the unknown function and its derivatives in a linear differential
equation are allowed to be known functions of the independent
variable or variables; if these coefficients are constants then one
speaks of a constant coefficient linear differential equation. There
are very few methods of solving nonlinear differential equations
exactly; those that are known typically depend on the equation
page 120 Unit 14. Equations

having particular symmetries. Nonlinear differential equations can

exhibit very complicated behavior over extended time intervals,
characteristic of chaos. Even the fundamental questions of existence,
uniqueness, and extendability of solutions for nonlinear differential
equations, and well-posedness of initial and boundary value
problems for nonlinear PDEs are hard problems and their resolution
in special cases is considered to be a significant advance in the
mathematical theory. Linear differential equations frequently appear
as approximations to nonlinear equations. These approximations are
only valid under restricted conditions. For example, the harmonic
oscillator equation is an approximation to the nonlinear pendulum
equation that is valid for small amplitude oscillations.

Task VIII. Find in the texts words to match the definitions.

a) ................................. consisting of parts or people who are
similar to each other or are of the same type,
b) ................................. used to emphasize how important or
serious something is,
c) .................................. a device consisting of a weight on
a stick or thread which moves from one side to the other,
especially one which forms a part of some types of clocks,
a change, especially from one opinion to an opposite one,
d) .................................. ability to expand,
e) .................................. clear and exact,
f) .................................. suggested but not communicated
directly,

Task IX. Complete the table with adjectives as in the example.

NOUN ADJECTIVE

distinction distinctive

solution

vision

differentiation
 Unit 14. Equations page 121

algebra

consistence

ellipsis

line

significance

homogeneity

Task X. Work with a partner. Student B: Look at the

communicative activities section (p. 266).
Read your first sentence to B but do not say the word in CAPITALS,
say ‘bleep’. B will complete the sentence with the appropriate
word. Continue taking turns to read your sentences.

1. Bleep differential equations frequently appear as approximations

to nonlinear equations. LINEAR
2. Further classification into bleep, hyperbolic, and parabolic
equations, especially for second-order linear equations, is of
utmost importance. ELLIPTIC
3. Initial and boundary value problems for nonlinear PDEs are hard
problems and their resolution is considered to be a bleep advance
in the mathematical theory. SIGNIFICANT
4. Bleep linear differential equations are a further subclass for which
the space of solutions is a linear subspace. HOMOGENOUS

B is going to read a sentence to you. Listen and complete

the sentence with an adjective/noun from the table in Task IX.
page 122 Unit 14. Equations

Task XI. Work with a partner. Student B: Look at the

communicative activities section (p. 266).

Before you start talking to your partner, make sure you can
explain the clues in your part in English. Your partner will
ask you about the clues in your part of the crossword. Explain
each clue in English. Ask your partner about the clues missing
in your part.

1 I N D E P E N D E N T
2

3 C L A S S I F Y
4

5 V E L O C I T Y
6

7 D E N O T E
8

9 Q U A N T I T Y
10

11 D O M A I N
12

13 V E C T O R
14

15 F O R M U L A
16

17 S O L U T I O N
18

19 E X P O N E N T I A L
20
 page 123

UNIT 15. SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS

LEAD-IN

What do the abbreviations DAE and ODE stand for? Unscramble

the words and put them together to form collocations.
LEBAGAIRC   ATUOQNIE   TFINDERLAFE
……………………………………………………………………………..…
ENIFTLAFDRE   NYROARDI   ENITOQAU
…………………………………………………………………………….….

Task I. Match sentence beginnings 1–5 with endings A–E.

Compare with a partner. Listen and check.
1. DAE is distinct from ODE in that ...
2. In the context of DAEs the term algebraic ...
3. The highest order of a derivative necessary ...
4. The solution to a DAE consists of ...
5. DAEs are a general form of systems of differential equations ...
a) … in the process of finding the initial values of the equation
is called the differentiation index.
b) … for vector–valued functions x in one independent variable.
c) … the former is not completely solvable for the derivatives
of all components of the function x.
d) … searching for consistent initial values and computing
the trajectory.
e) … only means that it does not comprise any derivatives and
is not related to abstract algebra.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Task II. Read the passage and fill in the gaps with the right
words. Next check your answers with the teacher.
The Cauchy–Riemann differential equations in complex analysis
............................. (1) a system of two partial differential equations
page 124 Unit 15. Systems of equations

which must be .......................... (2) if we know that a complex function

is complex differentiable. Moreover, the equations are necessary and
........................ (3) conditions for complex differentiation once we
assume that its real and imaginary parts are ............................. (4)
real functions of two variables. The Cauchy–Riemann equations on
a pair of real-valued functions of two real variables u(x,y) and v(x,y)
are the two equations:
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
=   (1a)    and     =−   (1b)
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
Typically u and v are taken to be the real and ................................ (5)
parts, respectively of a complex-valued function of a single complex
variable z = x + iy, f(x + iy) = u(x,y) + iv(x,y). Suppose that u and v are
real-differentiable at a point in an open subset of , which can be
considered as functions from 2 to . This implies that the partial
derivatives of u and v exist (although they need not be continuous)
and we can .............................. (6) small variations of f linearly. Then
f = u + iv is complex-differentiable at that point if and only if the partial
derivatives of u and v satisfy the Cauchy–Riemann equations (1a)
and (1b) at that point. The .......................... (7) existence of partial
derivatives satisfying the Cauchy–Riemann equations is not enough
to ............................. (8) complex differentiability at that point. It is
necessary to make sure that u and v are real differentiable, which
is a stronger condition than the existence of the partial derivatives
but it is not necessary to ....................... (9) continuity of these partial
derivatives.
1. a) encompasses b) contains c) consist of
2. a) satisfied b) dispersed c) divided
3. a) insufficient b) sufficient c) suffice
4. a) differentiable b) various c) variable
5. a) imaginative b) imagery c) imaginary
6. a) approach b) approximate c) influence
7. a) solely b) sole c) solitary
8. a) inquire b) obligate c) ensure
9. a) require b) inquire c) suffice
 Unit 15. Systems of equations page 125
Task III. You are going to listen about holomorphy of a complex
function. Before you listen discuss the questions with
a partner.
1. What is holomorphy?
2. Under what conditions a complex function is holomorphic?
3. Can a complex function be analytic at the same time?
Listen and answer the questions from Task III.

Task IV. Match the bolded words from Task VI with their
definitions and Polish equivalents.
przypisanie być uzasadnionym sprzeczny/nielogiczny
krzywa jednocześnie ćwiartka koła rozwiązalny

1. .................................. (adj.) not in agreement with each other,

tending to change,
2. .................................. (n) the act of ascribing something to
somebody or something else,
3. .................................. (n) a quarter of a circle,
4. .................................. (adj.) that can have a result,
5. ................................... (adv) happening or being done at exactly
the same time,
6. ................................... (n) a line which bends continuously and
has no straight parts,

Task V. Study the sentences and decide if they are TRUE

or FALSE. Compare with a partner.
1. A solution to a system of equations is a specification of the values
of all variables that satisfies at least one of the equations.
2. Sometimes not all variables can be solved for in a form of equation.
3. If the number of equations is the same as the number of variables,
then the system is exactly solvable in the sense that the set of its
solutions is finite.
4. A consistent system is a system of equations with at least two
solutions.
5. Systems of two equations in two real-value unknowns usually
appear as one of six different types.
page 126 Unit 15. Systems of equations

6. Systems that represent intersecting sets usually have a finite

number of solutions, each formed by the coordinates of one
point of intersection.
7. Systems in which both equations simplify down to an identity have
a finite number of solutions: all points of the plane.
8. The equation x2 + y2 = 0 can be thought of as the equation
of a circle whose radius has shrunk to zero and represents
a single point: (x = 0, y = 0).

Task VI. Read and find reference in the passage. Correct the
false sentences.
In mathematics, simultaneous equations are a set of equations
containing multiple variables. This set is often referred to as a system
of equations. A solution to a system of equations is a particular
specification of the values of all variables that simultaneously
satisfies all of the equations. To find a solution, the solver needs to
use the provided equations to find the exact value of each variable.
Generally, the solver uses either a graphical method, the matrix
method, the substitution method, or the elimination method. Some
textbooks refer to the elimination method as the addition method,
since it involves adding equations (or constant multiples of the said
equations) to one another. Sometimes not all variables can be solved
for, and so an answer for at least one variable must be expressed in
terms of other variables and so the set of all solutions is infinite; this
is typical for the case where the system has fewer equations than
variables. If the number of equations is the same as the number of
variables, then probably (but not necessarily) the system is exactly
solvable in the sense that the set of its solutions is finite; for a system
of linear equations in this case there is exactly one solution, for
other systems to have several solutions is also typical. A consistent
system is a system of equations with at least one solution. Sometimes
a system is inconsistent, or has no solution; this is typical for the
case where the system has more equations than variables. If these
rules about connection between number of solutions and numbers
of equations and variables do not hold, then such situation is often
referred to as dependence between equations or between their left
parts. For instance, this occurs in linear systems if one equation
is a simple multiple of the other (representing the same line, e.g.
2x + y = 3 and 4x + 2y = 6) or if the ratio of like variables in two linear
 Unit 15. Systems of equations page 127
equations is the same (representing parallel lines, e.g. 2x + y = 3
and 6x + 3y = 7 where the ratio of comparable letters is 3).
Systems of two equations in two real-value unknowns usually appear
as one of five different types, having a relationship to the number
of solutions:
1. Systems that represent intersecting sets of points such as lines
and curves, and that are not of one of the types below. This can be
considered the normal type, the others being exceptional in some
respect. These systems usually have a finite number of solutions,
each formed by the coordinates of one point of intersection.
2. Systems that simplify down to false (for example, equations such
as 1 = 0). Such systems have no points of intersection and no
solutions. This type is found, for example, when the equations
represent parallel lines for linear set of equations.
3. Systems in which both equations simplify down to an identity
(for example, x = 2x − x and 0y = 0). Any assignment of values to
the unknown variables satisfies the equations. Thus, there are an
infinite number of solutions: all points of the plane.
4. Systems in which the two equations represent the same set
of points: they are mathematically equivalent (one equation
can typically be transformed into the other through algebraic
manipulation). Such systems represent completely overlapping
lines, or curves, etc. One of the two equations is redundant and
can be discarded. Each point of the set of points corresponds
to a solution. Usually, this means there are an infinite number
of solutions.
5. Systems in which one (and only one) of the two equations
simplifies down to an identity. It is therefore redundant, and
can be discarded, as per the previous type. Each point of the set
of points represented by the other equation is a solution of which
there are then usually an infinite number.
The equation x2 + y2 = 0 can be thought of as the equation of
a circle whose radius has shrunk to zero, and so it represents
a single point: (x = 0, y = 0), unlike a normal circle containing an
infinity of points. This and similar examples show the reason why
the last two types described above need the qualification “usually”.
An example of a system of equations of the first type described above
with an infinite number of solutions is given by x = |x|, y = |y|
(where the notation |•| denotes the absolute value function), whose
page 128 Unit 15. Systems of equations

solutions form a quadrant of the x-y plane. Another example is

x = |y|, y = |x|, whose solution represents a ray. Another example
is (x+1)(x+y) = 0, (y+1)(x+y) = 0, whose solution represents a line
and a point.

Task VII. Work with partner. Student B: Look at the

communicative activities section (p. 267).
Read your sentences to B and ask him/her to fill in the missing
words.
1. Simultaneous equations are a set of equations …………………
multiple variables.
2. Some textbooks refer to the elimination method as the
………………….. method, since it involves adding equations to
one another.
3. If the number of equations is the same as the number of variables,
then probably the system is exactly solvable in the sense that
the set of its ……………….. is finite.

Listen to B’s sentences and put in the missing words from the
box. There is one extra word you do not need to use.

simultaneous equivalent ratio represents

Task VIII. Work with partner. Student B: Look at the

communicative activities section (p. 268).
Read your first sentence to B but do not say the word in CAPITALS,
say ‘bleep’. B will complete the sentence with the appropriate
word. Continue taking turns to read your sentences.
1. A solution to a system of equations is a particular bleep of the
values of all variables that simultaneously satisfies all of the
equations. SPECIFICATION
2. To find a solution, the bleep needs to use the provided equations
to find the exact value of each variable. SOLVER
3. Sometimes a system is bleep, which means that it has more
equations than variables. INCONSISTENT
 Unit 15. Systems of equations page 129
Listen to B’s sentence and complete it with one of the words
from the box in the right form.

differ suffice reduce

Task IX. Work with a partner. Read the task and try to answer
the question.
You and a group of other students are working all day Saturday on
a project. At lunchtime, you go to the nearby sandwich shop to get
take-out sandwiches for the group. You buy six chicken sandwiches
and four beef sandwiches. The bill is $36.70. After working all
afternoon, and knowing that you’ll have to work late, the group decides
to get another order of take-out. This time you buy eight chicken
sandwiches and two beef sandwiches for $38.10. When the work
is done and it’s time to settle the bill, you can’t remember the prices
of the sandwiches. You try to call the sandwich shop, but it’s now
closed. Can you figure out how much each kind of sandwich costs?

Task X. Read the passage and complete the words from the box.
There is ONE extra word you do not need to use. Check
your answer to the previous task.

graph equivalent variable intersection quantities

approximation purchase elimination equation linear
substitution multiplied

There are two ....... (1) we wish to know. One is the price of a chicken
sandwich, which we will call C, and the other is the price of the beef
sandwich, which we will call B. The first ........... (2) can be represented
by the ................. (3) E1 6C + 4B =36.7, while the second can be
represented by the equation E2 8C + 2B =38.1. This gives us a system
of two .............. (4) equations in two variables. The best approach
to solving the problem is to use ................. (5) and back .............. (6)
The easier ............. (7) to eliminate is B. To do this, we first multiply
E1 by –1 and then multiply E2 by 2.
–1 x E1: –6C – 4B = –36.7
2 x E2: 16C + 4B = 76.2
page 130 Unit 15. Systems of equations

Combining these to form the new equation E3, our system is

................. (8) to
E1: 6C + 4B = 36.7
E3: 10C = 39.5
From E3, we can conclude that C = 3.95, and using back substitution
in E1, we get 6(3.95) + 4B = 36.7 which simplifies to 4B = 13.0, or
B = 3.25. This means that a chicken sandwich costs $3.95 and a beef
sandwich costs $3.25.
The other approach we can use is to ...................... (9) both equations
and look for the point of ....................... (10). With the graphing
approach, however, we usually only get an .................... (11). Exact
answers require the use of algebraic methods.
 page 131

UNIT 16. FIELDS OF MATHEMATICS

LEAD-IN

What is mathematics? Work with a partner and write a short

definition of mathematical science.

Task I. Read the passage and put in the missing words from the
box. There is ONE extra word you do not need to use.
Match the words with their Polish equivalents.

research   reasoning   reduction   encompassing   solve
deduction   patterns   inquiry   conjectures

Mathematics (from Greek μάθημα máthēma, “knowledge, study,

learning”) is the abstract study of subjects ............................
(1) quantity, structure, space and change. Mathematicians seek
out ........................... (2) and formulate new ........................ (3).
Mathematicians resolve the truth or falsity of conjectures by
mathematical proof. The research required to ............................ (4)
mathematical problems can take years or even centuries of sustained
............................ (5). Since the pioneering work of Giuseppe Peano
(1858–1932), David Hilbert (1862–1943), and others on axiomatic
systems in the late 19th century, it has become customary to
view mathematical ........................ (6) as establishing truth by
rigorous ......................... (7) from appropriately chosen axioms and
definitions. When those mathematical structures are good models
of real phenomena, then mathematical ............................... (8) can
provide insight or predictions about nature.

wzory   rozwiązać   dedukcja   rozumowanie    obejmujący
prace badawcze   redukcja   badanie/zapytanie
przypuszczenie/domysł

Task II. Mathematics can be divided into numerous fields of

scientific analysis. How many areas of mathematical
page 132 Unit 16. Fields of mathematics

study can you name? Look at the list below and cross
out expressions which do not belong to mathematics.
number theory   engineering   algebra   analysis   architecture
geometry mechanics arithmetic topology biotechnology
calculus graphics matrix coding chemistry

Task III. Match the words with definitions.

1. inquiry ..........
2. conjecture ...........
3. encompass ..........
4. ramification ..........
5. vector ..........
6. integers ..........
7. axiom .........
8. aleph numbers .........
9. polynomial ........
10. topology ........
11. uncertainty ..........
12. theorem ........
a) (n) a geometric entity endowed with magnitude and direction
as well as a positive-definite inner product; an element of
a Euclidean vector space
b) (v) to include something, to surround or cover completely
c) (n) a premise or starting point of reasoning accepted as true
without controversy, statement that is accepted as true without
further proof or argument
d) (n) a request for help or information about somebody or
something
e) (n) it is the major area of mathematics concerned with properties
that are preserved under continuous deformations of objects,
such as stretching
f) (n) in set theory they denote a sequence of numbers used to
represent the cardinality or size of infinite sets
g) (n) a number of complex or unexpected results that follow
an action or a decision
h) a guess
i) (n) whole numbers formed by the natural numbers
(including 0) together with the negatives of the non-zero
 Unit 16. Fields of mathematics page 133
natural numbers, they can be written without a fractional or
decimal component
j) (n) it is an expression of finite length constructed from
variables (also called indeterminates) and constants, using
only the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication,
and non-negative integer exponents
k) (n) a rule or general principle in mathematics, often expressed
in symbols
l) (n) the lack of certainty, a state of having limited knowledge
where it is impossible to exactly describe the existing state,
a future outcome, or more than one possible outcome
Task IV. Read paragraphs A-D and match them with the bolded
words in the introduction.
Mathematics can be subdivided into the study of quantity, structure,
space, and change (i.e. arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and analysis).
In addition to these main concerns, there are also subdivisions
dedicated to exploring links from the heart of mathematics to other
fields like logic, set theory foundations to the empirical mathematics
of the various sciences (applied mathematics) and more recently
to the rigorous study of uncertainty.
A) ________________________
This study starts with natural numbers and integers (“whole
numbers”) and arithmetical operations on them, which are
characterized in arithmetic. The deeper properties of integers are
studied in number theory. The twin prime conjecture and Goldbach’s
conjecture are two unsolved problems in number theory. As the
number system is further developed, the integers are recognized as
a subset of the rational numbers. These, in turn, are contained within
the real numbers, which are used to represent continuous quantities.
Real numbers are generalized to complex numbers. Consideration
of the natural numbers also leads to the transfinite numbers, which
formalize the concept of infinity. Another area of study is size, which
leads to the cardinal numbers and then to another conception
of infinity: the aleph numbers, which allow meaningful comparison
of the size of infinitely large sets.
B) __________________________
Calculus was developed as a powerful tool to investigate it. Functions
arise as a central concept describing a changing quantity. The study
page 134 Unit 16. Fields of mathematics

of real numbers and functions of a real variable is known as real

analysis. There is also complex analysis field for the investigation
of complex numbers. Functional analysis focuses attention on
spaces of functions. One of many applications of functional
analysis is quantum mechanics. Many problems lead naturally to
relationships between quantity and its rate of change, and these
are studied as differential equations. Many phenomena in nature
can be described by dynamical systems, chaos theory makes precise
the ways in which many of these systems exhibit unpredictable yet
still deterministic behaviour.
C) ____________________________
Many mathematical objects, such as sets of numbers and functions,
exhibit internal structure as a consequence of operations or relations
that are defined on the set. Mathematics then studies properties
of those sets that can be expressed in terms of that structure; for
instance number theory studies properties of the set of integers
that can be expressed in terms of arithmetic operations. Moreover,
it frequently happens such structured sets (or structures) exhibit
similar properties, which makes it possible, by a further step of
abstraction, to state axioms for a class of structures, and then study
at once the whole class of structures satisfying these axioms. Thus
one can study groups, rings, fields and other abstract systems;
together such studies constitute the domain of abstract algebra.
Another example of an algebraic theory is linear algebra, which is
the general study of vector spaces whose elements called vectors
have both quantity and direction, and can be used to model relations
between points in space. This is one example of the phenomenon
that the originally unrelated areas of geometry and algebra have very
strong interactions in modern mathematics. Combinatorics studies
ways of enumerating the number of objects that fit a given structure.
D) ____________________________
This study originates with geometry – in particular, Euclidean
geometry. Trigonometry is the branch of mathematics that deals
with relationships between the sides and the angles of triangles and
with the trigonometric functions. It combines space and numbers,
and encompasses the well-known Pythagorean theorem. The modern
study of space generalizes these ideas to include higher-dimensional
geometry, non-Euclidean geometries, which play a central role
 Unit 16. Fields of mathematics page 135
in general relativity and topology. Quantity and space both play a role
in analytic geometry, differential geometry, and algebraic geometry.
Within algebraic geometry is the description of geometric objects
as solution sets of polynomial equations, combining the concepts
of quantity and space, and also the study of topological groups,
which combine structure and space. Lie groups are used to study
space, structure, and change. Topology in all its ramifications may
have been the greatest growth area in 20th century mathematics
including point-set topology, set-theoretic topology, algebraic
topology and differential topology.

Task V. Decide if the sentences are TRUE or FALSE.

1. Integers are the subset of irrational numbers.
2. Real numbers represent continuous quantities.
3. Transfinite numbers deal with the problem of infinite sets.
4. Real analysis is the study of real numbers and functions of
irrational variables.
5. Number theory studies features of sets of whole numbers that can
be expressed in terms of arithmetic operations.
6. The analysis of rounds, fields and other abstract systems is the
domain of abstract algebra.
7. Geometric object is a set of polynomial equations, combining
the concepts of quantity, space and dimensional groups.
8. Topology is subdivided into five major areas of study.

Task VI. Work with partner. Student B: Look at the

communicative activities section (p. 268).
a) Read only the BOLDED parts of your sentences to B and ask
him/her to finish them. Check if his/her guesses are correct.
Do not show your sentences to your partner.
1. The twin prime conjecture is one of the unsolved problems
in number theory.
2. Functional analysis focuses attention on spaces of functions
and applies to quantum mechanics.
3. Linear algebra is the study of vector spaces whose elements have
both magnitude and direction and can be used to model relations
between points in space.
page 136 Unit 16. Fields of mathematics

4. Trigonometry combines space and numbers and encompasses

the well-known Pythagorean theorem.
5. Algebraic geometry is the description of geometric objects
as solution sets of polynomial equations, combining the concept
of quantity and space.
b) Your partner will read the beginning of a sentence. Study
the endings below and choose one for each beginning.

a) …many dynamical systems exhibit unpredictable yet still

deterministic behavior.
b) …relationships between the sides and the angles of the triangles
and trigonometric functions.
c) …the transfinite numbers, which formalise the concept of infinity.
d) …including point-set, set-theoretic, algebraic and differential
topology.
e) …of the set of integers that can be expressed in terms of arithmetic
operations.

Task VII. Find twelve terms connected with the fields of

mathematical research. The words go down ↓ and
across →.
Q E F H J B M Z A D G H U P W T
D A A B D G F R E T M J Z S C K
S D L H A C E B J K N L I P A B
U J G E O M E T R Y U F Z X L V
A E E B N A R I T H M E T I C P
B G B A D G W G H D B E O O U T
Z C R V T E R P O B E N P O L M
H N A Y S E T S T O R P O N U A
A S D F G H J K L O T M L B S T
S A N A L Y S I S Y H L O W Q R
Q V W E R T Y U I O E P G L K I
L E J H G F D S A Z O X Y C V X
M C O M B I N A T O R I C S G S
H T Y U I O P L M N Y S A W Q B
X O M C B B N J I L K G H F D R
Z R V B L O G I C S A G T E W Y
 Unit 16. Fields of mathematics page 137
Task VIII. Work with partner. Student B: Look at the
communicative activity section (p. 269).
Read your definitions to B who will write them in his/her table.
Your partner will read definitions missing in your table. Next,
together with your partner choose the Polish equivalents of the
words in the box below.

MATHEMATICAL DEFINITION POLISH EQUIVALENT

TERM
1. fibula prehistoric artefact
made of bones used
for counting

2. calculus

3. convergence process of moving

towards and meeting
at the same place
4. adjacent

5. modulus absolute value

of a real or complex
number (|a|)

6. polygon

7. diameter straight line segment

that passes through
the center of the circle
and whose endpoints
are on the boundary
of the circle
page 138 Unit 16. Fields of mathematics

8. hypotenuse

9. rod a thin straight piece of

wood or metal

10. integral

wielokąt, zbieżność, średnica, rachunek (np. różniczkowy), pręt,

styczny, całka, liczydło, przeciwprostokątna,
moduł liczby zespolonej

Task IX. Work with partner. Student B: Look at the

communicative activity section (p. 271).
Read your questions and answers to B. Ask him/her to choose
the right answer A, B or C (bolded). Do not show your page to
your partner.
1. The oldest known mathematical object is the ........................
dated to approximately 35.000 BC consisting of 29 distinct
notches cut into baboon’s fibula.
    a) Lebombo bone   b) Lebombo chain   c) Lebombo joint
2. The earliest evidence of written dates back to the ancient
Sumerians who created ................
    a) algorithms   b) multiplication tables   c) subtraction tables
3. Thales who used ...................... to solve problems such as
calculating the height of pyramides and the distance of ships
from the shore is credited with the first use of deductive reasoning
and thus considered the first true mathematician.
    a) number theory   b) calculus   c) geometry
4. Pythagoras established the Pythagorean School, whose doctrine
was that mathematics ruled the universe and whose motto was
..............................
    a) all is number    b) all is numeral    c) all is numeric system
 Unit 16. Fields of mathematics page 139
5. Archimedes widely considered the greatest mathematician
of antiquity, used the......................... to calculate the area
under the arc of a parabola with the summation of an infinite
series, in a manner quite similar to modern calculus.
    a) method of exhaustion    b) method of compilation
    c) method of coordination
6. Luca Pacioli, an Italian Renaissance mathematician introduced
symbols of ................... for the first time in a printed book
entitled Summa Arithmetica.
    a) division and multiplication   b) plus and minus
    c) plus and multiplication
7. In the 19th century lived .......................... who contributed to
the science and did revolutionary work on functions of complex
variables, in geometry, and on the convergence of series.
    a) Johannes Friedrich Gauss   b) Thomas Friedrich Gauss
    c) Carl Friedrich Gauss
8. The 19th century saw the beginning of a great development
of ..............................
    a) abstract modulus   b) abstract algebra   c) abstract function
9. In mathematics, the four colour theorem states that, given
any separation of a plane into contiguous regions, producing
a figure called a map, no more than four colours are required to
colour the regions of the map so that no ...................... regions
have the same color.
    a) two adjacent regions    b) three adjacent regions
    c) four adjacent regions
10. A fractal is a mathematical set that has a fractal dimension
that usually exceeds its topological dimension and may fall
between the integers. Fractals are typically ................... which
means they are „the same from near as from far”.
    a) similar   b) self-similar   c) self-dissimilar
11. A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers, symbols, or
expressions, arranged in ......................... The individual items
in a matrix are called its elements or entries.
    a) rows and beams   b) beams and columns
    c) rows and columns
12. Pascal’s theorem states that if an arbitrary ....................... is
inscribed in any conic section, and pairs of opposite sides are
page 140 Unit 16. Fields of mathematics

extended until they meet, the three intersection points will lie
on a straight line, the Pascal line of that configuration.
    a) hexagon         b) polygon         c) polynomial
 page 141

UNIT 17. BASIC CONCEPTS OF PROBABILITY

LEAD-IN

Read the task and answer the question. Compare with a partner.
Following the wedding, the attendants for the groom loaded the
wedding gifts into a van and took them to the reception hall. After
they had taken all of the presents into the hall, they noticed that three
of the presents did not have gift cards from the senders. They returned
to the van and found the three cards, but there was no way to tell
which card went with which gift. Slightly flustered, they decided to
arbitrarily put each card with one of the untagged gifts. What are
the chances that at least one of those gifts received the correct card?
Now read the solution and put in the missing expressions from
the box. Did you answer the question correctly?

belongs   conclude   receives   combinations   respective
outcomes

Let E be the event that at least one gift …………………… (1) the correct
card. We will indicate the three gifts by letters A, B, and C, and their
……………….. (2) cards by a, b, and c. We list all the possible choices
for ………………………… (3) of gifts and cards in the following table.
Each line of the table indicates one way in which the gifts can be
matched with the cards. For example, the entry (B, c) means that
gift B receives the card that ………………… (4) with gift C.
(A, a) (B, b) (C, c)
(A, a) (B, c) (C, b)
(A, b) (B, a) (C, c)
(A, b) (B, c) (C, a)
(A, c) (B, b) (C, a)
There are six ………………… (5) in the sample space, and only
the fourth and fifth lines correspond to all the gifts receiving
the wrong cards. In the other four cases, at least one card is
matched with the correct gift. We …………………….. (6) that
P(E) = 4/6 = 2/3.
page 142 Unit 17. Basic concepts of probability

Task I. Complete the table as in the example. Match the words

with their Polish equivalents below.
wynik prawdopodobieństwo szacować doświadczenie
próbka/wzorzec

Scrambled word Unscrambled word Polish equivalent

vnete event zdarzenie losowe
mlaspe
ritpoabliyb
pirmenxtee
tmocueo
tmieseta

Task II. What is probability? Compare your answer with

a partner. Read and check.
Probability is the mathematics of chance, and the terminology used
in probability theory occurs many times in daily life. You may read
in an article about test results in medical science that a patient has
a 6 in 10 chance of improving if treated with drug X. We interpret
this to mean that in a large group of patients, say 100, who have the
same symptoms as the patient being treated 6/10 × 100 = 60 of them
improved when administered drug X. Probability tells us the relative
frequency with which we can expect an event to occur. That is, if we
repeat an experiment over and over, the fraction of times the event
occurs should be the probability of the event. The probability can be
reported as a fraction, a decimal, or a percent, but it must always be
between zero and one. The greater the probability, the more likely
the event is to occur.

Task III. Complete the sentences without looking back into

the passage.
1. Probability is the m………………….. o…… c…………………, and
the terminology used in probability theory occurs many times
in daily life.
 Unit 17. Basic concepts of probability page 143
2. Probability tells us the relative f……………………… with which
we can expect an event to occur.
3. If we repeat an experiment over and over, the fraction of times
the event occurs should be the p……………………. of the event.
4. The probability can be reported as a fraction, a d…………………. ,
or a p…………………. , but it must always be between zero and one.
5. The greater the probability, the m………………. l……………..
the event is to occur.

Task IV. In the context of probability what do the following

terms refer to: experiment, outcome, sample space
and event? Read the passage and check.
To study probability in a mathematically precise way, we need
special terminology and notation. Making an observation or taking
a measurement of some act, such as flipping a coin, is called an
experiment. An outcome is one of the possible results of an experiment,
such as getting a head when flipping a coin. The set of all the possible
outcomes is called the sample space. Finally, an event is any collection
of possible outcomes. That is, an event is a subset of the sample
space.

Task V. Work with partner. Student B: Look at the

communicative activities section (p. 272).
Read the text and write down questions about the missing
details. Ask for missing details.
1. ____________________________________________________?
2. ____________________________________________________?
3. ____________________________________________________?
4. ____________________________________________________?
5. ____________________________________________________?
The empirical probability, also known as relative frequency,
or experimental probability, is 1) ………………………………………
in which a specified event occurs to the total number of trials, not
in a theoretical sample space but in an actual experiment.
In a more general sense, empirical probability estimates
2) ……………………………….. In statistical terms, the empirical
page 144 Unit 17. Basic concepts of probability

probability is an estimate or estimator of a probability. In simple

cases, where the result of a trial only determines whether or not
the specified event has occurred, modelling using a binomial
distribution might be appropriate and then the empirical estimate
is 3) ………………………….. It is the Bayesian estimate for the same
case if certain assumptions are made for the prior distribution
of the probability. If a trial yields more information, the empirical
probability can be improved on 4) …………………………........ if such
a model is fitted, it can be used to derive an estimate of the probability
of the specified event. An advantage of estimating probabilities
using empirical probabilities is that this procedure is relatively free
of assumptions. For example, consider estimating the probability
among a population of men that they satisfy two conditions: they
are over 6 feet in height and they prefer strawberry jam to raspberry
jam. A direct estimate could be found by 5) …………………………….
to give the empirical probability of the combined condition.

Read the text and answer B’s questions.

An alternative estimate could be found by multiplying the proportion

of men who are over 6 feet in height with the proportion of men who
prefer strawberry jam to raspberry jam, but this estimate relies on
the assumption that the two conditions are statistically independent.
A disadvantage in using empirical probabilities arises in estimating
probabilities which are either very close to zero, or very close to one.
In these cases very large sample sizes would be needed in order to
estimate such probabilities to a good standard of relative accuracy.
Here statistical models can help, depending on the context, and in
general one can hope that such models would provide improvements
in accuracy compared to empirical probabilities, provided that
the assumptions involved actually do hold. For example, consider
estimating the probability that the lowest of the daily-maximum
temperatures at a site in February in any one year is less than zero
degrees Celsius. A record of such temperatures in past years could
be used to estimate this probability. A model-based alternative
would be to select of family of probability distributions and fit it to
the dataset containing past years′ values. The fitted distribution
would provide an alternative estimate of the desired probability. This
alternative method can provide an estimate of the probability even
if all values in the record are greater than zero.
 Unit 17. Basic concepts of probability page 145
Decide if the statements are True or False. Check with a partner.

1. Experimental probability is the ratio of the number of outcomes

in which a specified event occurs to the total number of trials
in an experiment.
2. In simple cases, using a binomial distribution might not be sufficient
to estimate the maximum likelihood.
3. A statistical model can be used to estimate the probability
of the specified event.
4. Estimating probabilities which are either very close to zero,
or very close to one requires large sample sizes.
5. Statistical models do not provide improvements in accuracy.
6. Probability distributions  can provide an estimate of the probability
even if all values in the record are greater than zero.

Task VI. Work with partner. Student B: Look at the

communicative activities section (p. 274).
Talk to a partner and ask about the missing terms and
definitions. Next, match the English terms with the Polish ones.

określony/nazwany krańcowy/marginalny
warunkowy/zależny zachowany przypadkowy odrzucony

English word Definition Polish equivalent

1. random applied without any

pattern, reason or
regularity, accidental

2.

3.discarded thrown out, disposed of

4.

5.marginal relating to, or situated

at the edge or margin
of something

6.
page 146 Unit 17. Basic concepts of probability

Task VII. Study the questions with a partner. Next, read the
passage and answer the questions.
1. What is marginal distribution?
2. How is distribution of marginal variables obtained?
3. How can we compute the probability that a pedestrian will be hit
by a car while crossing the road without paying attention to the
traffic light?
4. How can we find joint probability distribution for the case
of pedestrian being hit by a car?
5. What is marginal distribution in the case of the car accident?
In probability theory and statistics, the marginal distribution
of a subset of a collection of random variables is the probability
distribution of the variables contained in the subset. It gives the
probabilities of various values of the variables in the subset without
reference to the values of the other variables. This contrasts with
a conditional distribution, which gives the probabilities contingent
upon the values of the other variables.
The term marginal variable is used to refer to those variables
in the subset of variables being retained. These terms are dubbed
“marginal” because they used to be found by summing values
in a table along rows or columns, and writing the sum in the
margins of the table. The distribution of the marginal variables is
obtained by marginalizing over the distribution of the variables
being discarded, and the discarded variables are said to have
been marginalized out. In many applications an analysis may start
with a given collection of random variables, then first extend the
set by defining new ones (such as the sum of the original random
variables) and finally reduce the number by placing interest in
the marginal distribution of a subset (such as the sum). Several
different analyses may be done, each treating a different subset of
variables as the marginal variables. Suppose that the probability
that a pedestrian will be hit by a car while crossing the road at
a pedestrian crossing without paying attention to the traffic light is
to be computed. Let H be a discrete random variable taking one value
from {Hit, Not Hit}. Let L be a discrete random variable taking one
value from {Red, Yellow, Green}. Realistically, H will be dependent
on L. That is, P(H = Hit) and P(H = Not Hit) will take different values
depending on whether L is red, yellow or green. A person is, for
 Unit 17. Basic concepts of probability page 147
example, far more likely to be hit by a car when trying to cross while
the lights for cross traffic are green than if they are red. In other words,
for any given possible pair of values for H and L, one must consider
the joint probability distribution of H and L to find the probability
of that pair of events occurring together if the pedestrian ignores
the state of the light. However, in trying to calculate the marginal
probability P (H = hit), what we are asking for is the probability that
H = Hit in the situation in which we don›t actually know the particular
value of L and in which the pedestrian ignores the state of the light.
In general a pedestrian can be hit if the lights are red OR if the lights
are yellow OR if the lights are green. So in this case the answer for
the marginal probability can be found by summing P (H, L) for all
possible values of L, with each value of L weighted by its probability
of occurring.

Conditional distribution: P(H|L)

L = Red L = Yellow L = Green

H = Not Hit 0.99 0.9 0.2

H = Hit 0.01 0.1 0.8

To find the joint probability distribution, we need more data. Let’s

say that P (L = red) = 0.2, P (L = yellow) = 0.1, and P (L=green) = 0.7.
Multiplying each column in the conditional distribution by the
probability of that column occurring, we find the joint probability
distribution of H and L, given in the central 2×3 block of entries.

Joint distribution: P(H,L)

L = Red L = Yellow L=Green Marginal probability P(H)

H = Not Hit 0.198 0.09 0.14 0.428

H = Hit 0.002 0.01 0.56 0.572

Total 0.2 0.1 0.7 1

The marginal probability P(H = Hit) is the sum along the H = Hit row
of this joint distribution table, as this is the probability of being hit
when the lights are red OR yellow OR green. Similarly, the marginal
probability that P(H = Not Hit) is the sum of the H = Not Hit row.
page 148 Unit 17. Basic concepts of probability

Task VIII. Work with a partner. Study the diagrams and match
them with the right captions.
1. A tree diagram, in which branch probabilities are conditional
on the event associated with the parent node.
2. An illustration of conditional probabilities with the Euler diagram.
The unconditional probability P(A) = 0.52. However, the conditional
probability P(A|B1) = 1, P(A|B2) ≈ 0.75, and P(A|B3) = 0.
3. Venn Pie Chart describing conditional probabilities.

Task IX. Read the passage and put the sentences 1‒7 in the
correct order. Compare with a partner.

A conditional probability measures the probability of an event given

that (by assumption, presumption, assertion or evidence) another
event has occurred. If the events are A and B respectively, this is said
to be “the probability of A given B”. It is commonly denoted by P(A|B ),
or sometimes PB(A).
The concept of conditional probability is one of the most fundamental
and one of the most important concepts in probability theory. But
conditional probabilities can be quite slippery and require careful
interpretation. In statistical inference, the conditional probability
is an update of the probability of an event based on new information.
Incorporating the new information can be done as follows:
1. To derive P(A|B ) = PB(A) so that P(B|B ) = 1 we re-scale P(A ∩ B )
by dividing by P(B ).
2. We start with a probability measure on a sample space, say
(X, P ).
 Unit 17. Basic concepts of probability page 149
3. Whenever P(B ) > 0 with the original probability measure on
the original sample space (X, P ), B must be the sure event in
the restricted space (B, PB ) and thus PB(B ) must be 1.
4. Let the event of interest be A.
5. If we wish to measure the probability of the event A knowing
that event B has or will have occurred we need to examine event A
as it is restricted to event B.
6. Since both A and B are events in the same sample space,
A restricted to B is A ∩ B.
7. This results in P(A|B ) = P(A  B )|P(B ) whenever P(B ) > 0 and 0
otherwise.
This approach results in a probability measure that is consistent
with the original probability measure and satisfies all the Kolmogorov
Axioms.
The conditioning event is interpreted as evidence for the conditioned
event. That is, P(A) is the probability of A before accounting for
evidence E, and P(A|E) is the probability of A after having accounted
for evidence E or after having updated P(A). This is consistent with
the most frequent interpretation.
P(A|B ) (the conditional probability of A given B) may or may not be
equal to P(A) (the unconditional probability of A). If P(A|B ) = P(A),
A and B are said to be independent.

Task X. Answer the questions concerning conditional probability.

1. What does conditional probability measure?
2. What is conditional probability in statistical inference?
3. How is conditional event interpreted in probability?

Task XI. Work with a partner. Student B: look at the

communicative activities section (p. 274).
Read your first sentence to B but do not say the word in CAPITALS,
say ‘bleep’. B will complete the sentence with the appropriate
word. Continue taking turns to read your sentences.
1. The conditioning event is interpreted as evidence for the bleep
event. CONDITIONED
page 150 Unit 17. Basic concepts of probability

2. Empirical probability estimates probabilities from experience

and bleep. OBSERVATION
3. If a trial yields more information, the empirical probability can be
improved on by adopting further bleep in the form of a statistical
model. ASSUMPTIONS
4. An bleep estimate could be found by multiplying the proportion of
men who are over 6 feet in height with the proportion of men who
prefer strawberry jam to raspberry jam.
ALTERNATIVE
5. Statistical models can provide improvements in bleep compared
to empirical probabilities, provided that the suppositions involved
actually do hold. ACCURACY
6. A model-based option would be to select of family of probability
bleep and fit it to the dataset containing past years′ values.
DISTRIBUTIONS
B is going to read a sentence to you. Listen and change a word
from the box below to form noun/adjective to complete B’s
sentence.

like   multiply   margin   slip   analyze   fundament
 page 151

UNIT 18. EVENTS

Task I. Read the passage and put in words from the box. There
is one extra word you do not need to use.

assign overlook denote define satisfy occur measure

In Kolmogorov’s theory, the probability P of some event E,

……... (1) P(E), is usually defined in such a way that P ………. (2)
the three Kolmogorov axioms. The first axiom states that the
probability of an event is a non-negative real number:
P (E ) ∈ , P (E ) ³ 0 ∀E ∈ F
where F is the event space. In particular, P(E) is always finite,
in contrast with more general measure theory. Theories which
……………. (3) negative probability relax the first axiom. Second
axiom is the assumption of unit measure: that the probability that
some elementary event in the entire sample space ………….. (4)
is 1. More specifically, there are no elementary events outside
the sample space: P(Ω) = 1. This is often ………….. (5) in some
mistaken probability calculations; if you cannot precisely define
the whole sample space, then the probability of any subset
cannot ……………....... (6) either. Third axiom is the assumption of
σ-additivity: any countable sequence of disjoint events E1, E2, …
satisfies
¥
P (E1 ∪ E 2 ∪ ) = ∑ P (E ).
i =1
i

Task II. Work with partner. Student B: Look at the communicative

activities section (p. 275).
Read the text carefully. When you finish student B will read
sentences and ask you to decide if they are True or False.
Two events A and B are independent if and only if their
joint probability equals the product of their probabilities:
P ( A ∩ B ) = P (A )P (B ). Why this defines independence is made clear
by rewriting it with conditional probabilities:
page 152 Unit 18. Events

P (A ∩ B )
P (A ∩ B ) = P (A )P (B ) ⇔ P (A ) =
P (B )
⇔ P (A ) = P (A ½ B)
and similarly
P (A ∩ B ) = P (A )P (B ) ⇔ P (B ) = P (B ½ A ).
Thus, the occurrence of B does not affect the probability of A, and vice
versa. Although the derived expressions may seem more intuitive,
they are not the preferred definition, as the conditional probabilities
may be undefined if P(A) or P(B) are 0. Furthermore, the preferred
definition makes clear by symmetry that when A is independent of B,
B is also independent of A.
A finite set of events {Ai} is pairwise independent if every pair
of events is independent. That is, if and only if for all distinct
pairs of indices m, n P (Am ∩ An ) = P (Am )P (An ). A finite set of events
is mutually independent if and only if every event is independent
of any intersection of the other events. That is, if for every subset {An}
n  n


P  Ai  =
 i =1 
∏ P (A ).
i =1
i

This is called the multiplication rule for independent events. For more
than two events, a mutually independent set of events is pairwise
independent, but the converse is not necessarily true.
Read the sentences to B and ask him/her to decide if they are
True or False.
1. For every a and b, the events {X ≤ a} and {Y ≤ b} are dependent
events.
2. A set of random variables is pairwise independent if every pair
of random variables is independent.
3. A set of random variables is mutually independent if for any
infinite subset X1, , X n and any finite sequence of numbers
a1, ,an , the events { X1 £ a1 }, ,{ X n £ an } are mutually dependent
events.
4. The definition of independence works for complex-valued
random variables or for random variables taking values in any
measurable space.
 Unit 18. Events page 153
Task III. Work with partner. Student B: Look at the
communicative activities section (p. 276).
Read your first sentence to B but do not say the word in CAPITALS,
say ‘bleep’. B will complete the sentence with the appropriate
word. Continue taking turns to read your sentences.
1. In probability theory, the Borel–Kolmogorov paradox is a paradox
bleep to conditional probability with respect to an event of
probability zero. RELATING
2. When dealing with experiments that are bleep, probabilities
describe the statistical number of outcomes considered, divided
by the number of all outcomes. RANDOM
3. Tossing a fair coin twice will yield head-head with probability
1/4, because the four outcomes head-head, head-tails, tails-head
and tails-tails are bleep likely to occur. EQUALLY
4. The theory of probability is a representation of probabilistic
concepts in formal terms that can be considered bleep from
their meaning. SEPARATELY
5. Formal terms are manipulated by the rules of mathematics and
logic, and any results are interpreted or translated back into
the problem bleep DOMAIN
6. Probability theory is applied in everyday life in risk bleep and in trade
on financial markets, governments apply probabilistic methods
in environmental regulation, where it is called pathway analysis.
ASSESSMENT
Listen to B and complete the sentences with the English
equivalents of the words in the box.

statystyczny dane rzetelność zastosowany/zawarty

gwarancja określać

Task IV. Complete the missing words. Each line stands for
one letter. The first letter is provided. Next, listen
and check your answers.
1. Starting from arbitrary, subjective probabilities for a group
of agents, some Bayesians claim that all agents will eventually
have s _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ similar assessments of probabilities,
given enough evidence.
page 154 Unit 18. Events

2. Frequentists posit that the probability of an event is its

relative frequency over time, i.e., its relative frequency of
o _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ after repeating a process a large number of times
under similar conditions.
3. Propensity theorists think of probability as a physical propensity,
or disposition of a given type of physical situation to y _ _ _ _ an
outcome of a certain kind or to yield a long run relative frequency
of such an outcome.
4. Propensities, or chances, are not relative frequencies, but
p _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ causes of the observed stable relative frequencies.
5. Propensities are i _ _ _ _ _ _ to explain why repeating a certain kind
of experiment will generate a given outcome type at a persistent
rate.
6. Pignistic probability, in decision theory, is a probability that
a rational person will a _ _ _ _ _ to an option when required
to make a decision.
7. In pignistic probability a person may have certain beliefs or
a lack of knowledge, or u _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ about the options
and their actual likelihoods.
8. When it is necessary to make a decision (such as deciding
whether to place a bet), the behaviour of the rational person
would suggest that the person has assigned a set of regular
o _ _ _ _ _ _ _ to the options.
9. Under the frequency interpretation of probability, it is assumed
that as the length of a series of t _ _ _ _ _ increases without bound,
the fraction of experiments in which a given event occurs will
approach a fixed value, known as the limiting relative frequency.
10. Initially the probability of an event to occur was defined as
number of cases favourable for the event, over the number
of total p _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ possible in an equiprobable sample
space.
11. If the event is “occurrence of an even number when
3 1
a d _ _ _ is rolled”, the probability is given by = , since 3 faces
6 2
out of the 6 have even numbers and each face has the same
probability of appearing.
12. The law of large numbers states that the sample average
1 n
Xn = ∑
n k =1
X k of a s _ _ _ _ _ _ _ of independent and identically
 Unit 18. Events page 155
distributed random variables Xk converges towards their common
expectation µ, provided that the expectation of X k is finite.

Task V. Find fourteen words in the grid. Next, fill in the

sentences.
Q P X L C R Z O Y H P T R C S
V W R Y A J I C F R U R O O A
G A J O A C N S E P A F T N M
D V R K B E I S X N E N A D P
R F T I U A U R D Y O N M I L
O H U Q A M B O I I T O I T E
E N E Q P B M I T P X Q T I I
E R T T Y A L U L J M K S O J
F R I S U G B E G I U E E N K
M O I X A I D S I K T P F A I
N A M A R G I N A L Y Y S L P
N O I T P M U S S A H H Q J T
W Y S I N D E P E N D E N C E
G I U U K O X O C R I K E Q C
D O W I X T U N T B K J N C U
1. These calculations are based on the ________________ that the
prices will rise.
2. Euclid’s _________________ form the foundation of his system
of geometry.
3. In English, the ________________ is expressed by ‘would’.
4. We must find a way of achieving a more equitable __________
of resources.
5. This theory needs to be backed up with solid _____________
evidence.
6. This unemployment insurance ______________ allows you to
estimate how much your benefits will be before you file a new
unemployment insurance claim.
7. We can surely do better in reducing the ____________ and
intensity of emerging market financial crises.
8. The new government will break up state-owned monopolies
and guarantee the central bank’s______________.
9. The report suggests that there has only been a _____________
improvement in women’s pay over the past few years.
page 156 Unit 18. Events

10. The decision was based on the _________________ that the

information that they had been given was correct.
11. Spam filters calculate the _________________ of a message being
spam.
12. They discussed the idea of carrying out ______________ forensic
audits on listed companies as a deterrent to fraud.
13. The marketing poll was conducted by telephone among
a representative ______________ of 1,136 adults.
14. Those who bought ________________ annuities a few years ago
are already losing money on them.

Task VI. Work in pairs. Complete the crossword.

Across
6. the fact of being exact or correct
7. describes a process or system that is connected with random
probability
10. observation or measurement of some act
12. to pretend to be or to do something, especially in a way that is
not easy to believe
 Unit 18. Events page 157
13. to provide a view of, especially from above
14. to get something from something else
16. having a clear independent shape or form
Down
1. possible results of an experiment
2. not assigned
3. always behaving or happening in a similar, especially positive,
way
4. the quality of having parts that match each other, especially
in a way that is attractive, or similarity of shape or contents
5. to suggest something as a basic fact or principle from which
a further idea is formed or developed
8. any vertical block of words or numbers
9. to make someone upset and confused, especially when they are
trying to do something
11. a guess that you make or an opinion that you form based
on the information that you have
15. collection of possible outcomes

Task VII. Work in pairs. Find the missing letters in the

cryptogram.
page 158

UNIT 19. STATISTICS

LEAD – IN

Match words associated with statistics. Write the logical

connections below.

size   probability   value   central   plot   inferential
theory   sample   scatter   data   random   maximum
distribution   tendency   statistics   variable

1. ……………………………………………………
2. ……………………………………………………
3. ……………………………………………………
4. ……………………………………………………
5. ……………………………………………………
6. ……………………………………………………
7. ……………………………………………………
8. ……………………………………………………

Task I. Work with partner. Student B: look at the communicative

activities section (p. 277).

Talk to a partner and ask about the missing terms and

definitions. Next, match the English terms with the Polish ones.

ENGLISH TERM DEFINITION POLISH TERM

1. DISPERSION (also called variability, scatter,

or spread) denotes how
stretched or squeezed
distribution is

2. MEAN
 Unit 19. Statistics page 159

3. MEDIAN is a numerical value

separating the higher half
of data sample, population,
or probability distribution,
from the lower half

4. MODE

5. DEVIATION (represented by the Greek

letter sigma, σ) shows how
much variation or dispersion
from the average exists

6. KURTOSIS

7. SKEWNESS is a measure of the asymmetry

of probability distribution
of a real-valued random
variable about its mean

8. CENTRAL
   TENDENCY

odchylenie średnia wskaźnik częstotliwości główna tendencja

środkowa/mediana rozproszenie skośność kurtoza

Task II. Read the passage and complete it with the words from
the box.

summarise median unlike discipline dispersion

distinguished deviation conclusions represent
overall   number
page 160 Unit 19. Statistics

Descriptive statistics is the _________________ (1) of quantitatively

describing the main features of a collection of information,
or the quantitative description itself. Descriptive statistics
are ____________________ (2) from inferential statistics
(or inductive statistics), in that descriptive statistics aim to
_____________________ (3) a sample, rather than use the data
to learn about the population that the sample of data is thought
to _________________ (4). This generally means that descriptive
statistics, _________________ (5) inferential statistics, are not
developed on the basis of probability theory. Even when a data
analysis draws its main _________________ (6) using inferential
statistics, descriptive statistics are generally also presented. For
example, in a paper reporting on a study involving human subjects,
there typically appears a table giving the _________________ (7)
sample size, sample sizes in important subgroups (e.g., for
each treatment or exposure group), and demographic or clinical
characteristics such as the average age, the _________________ (8)
of subjects of each sex, and the proportion of subjects with
related comorbidities. Some measures that are commonly used
to describe a data set are measures of central tendency and
measures of variability or _________________ (9). Measures of central
tendency include the mean, _________________ (10) and mode, while
measures of variability include the standard _________________ (11)
(or variance), the minimum and maximum values of the variables,
kurtosis and skewness.

Task III. Answer the questions.

1. How is descrpitive statistics different from inferential statistics?
2. What information is needed for statistical analysis?
 Unit 19. Statistics page 161
Task IV. Organising and picturing data. Match the words with
the representations.

BAR GRAPH    CORRELOGRAM    HISTOGRAM    PIE CHART

Task V. Work in groups of four. Student B: Look at the

communicative activities section (p. 278). Student C:
Look at the communicative activities section (p. 303).
page 162 Unit 19. Statistics

Student D: Look at the communicative activities

section (p. 307).
Read about bar graph and complete the table. Listen to Students
B, C and D and complete other details.
Bar graph Histogram Correlogram Pie chart
how is it
represented?
what
functions
does it have?

A bar graph is a chart with rectangular bars with lengths

proportional to the values that they represent. The bars can be
plotted vertically or horizontally. A vertical bar chart is sometimes
called a column bar chart.
A bar graph shows comparisons among categories. One axis of the
chart shows the specific categories being compared, and the other
axis represents a discrete value. Some bar graphs present bars
clustered in groups of more than one (grouped bar graphs), and others
show the bars divided into subparts to show cumulate effect (stacked
bar graphs). Bar graphs can be used for more complex comparisons
of data with grouped bar charts and stacked bar charts. In a grouped
bar chart, for each categorical group there are two or more bars. These
bars are colour-coded to represent a particular grouping. For example,
a business owner with two stores might make a grouped bar chart
with different colored bars to represent each store: the horizontal axis
would show the months of the year and the vertical axis would show
the revenue. Alternatively, a stacked bar chart could be used. The
stacked bar chart stacks bars that represent different groups on top
of each other. The height of the resulting bar shows the combined
result of the groups. However, stacked bar charts are not suited to
datasets where some groups have negative values. In such cases,
grouped bar charts are preferable.

Task VI. Decide if the sentences are True or False. Correct

the false sentences.
1. A bar graph shows comparisons among categories, one of its axis
shows the specific categories being compared, and the other axis
represents an indiscrete value. T/F
 Unit 19. Statistics page 163
2. A histogram is a representation of frequencies, shown as
adjacent triangles, erected over discrete intervals, with an area
equal to the frequency of the observations in the interval. T/F
3. In a pie chart the arc length of each sector and its central
angle and area, is proportional to the quantity it represents. T/F
4. A correlogram is a tool for checking randomness in a data set.
T/F
5. Histograms are used to plot the density of data, and often for area
estimation. T/F
6. Stacked bar charts are suited to datasets where some groups have
negative values. T/F
7. Pie charts can show more than a few values without separating
the visual encoding from the data they represent. T/F
8. Autocorrelations should be near-zero for randomness and if the
analyst does not cater for that, the validity of many of the statistical
conclusions might be impaired. T/F

Task VII. Fill in the chart with nouns and adjectives as in the
example.

NOUN ADJECTIVE

graphics graphical

adjacent

density

random

validity

flexible

resemblance

continuous

probability

preferable
page 164 Unit 19. Statistics

Task VIII. Complete the sentences with the words from the
table.
1. ………………….. of selection is the basis for statistical analysis.
2. Bar charts are …………………….. for datasets of groups with
negative values.
3. The rectangles of a histogram are drawn so that they touch each
other to indicate ……………………. of the original variable.
4. Histograms are used for estimating the …………………… density
function of the underlying variable.
5. Pie chart is named for its ……………………… to a pie sliced into
many pieces.

Task IX. Study the questions. Compare your answers with

a partner. Next, read the paragraph and check.
a) What are whiskers?
b) What does it mean that boxplots are non-parametirc?
c) What do boxplots indicate?
In descriptive statistics, a box plot is a convenient way of graphically
depicting groups of numerical data through their quartiles. Box plots
may also have lines extending vertically from the boxes (whiskers)
indicating variability outside the upper and lower quartiles, hence
the terms box-and-whisker plot and box-and-whisker diagram.
Outliers may be plotted as individual points.
Box plots display differences between populations without making
any assumptions of the underlying statistical distribution: they are
non-parametric. The spacing between the different parts of the box
help indicate the degree of dispersion and skewness in the data, and
identify outliers. In addition to the points themselves, they allow one
to visually estimate various L-estimators, notably the interquartile
range, midhinge range, mid-range, and trimean. Boxplots can be
drawn either horizontally or vertically.

Task X. Read the passage and match the underlined words

with definitions and Polish equivalents.
Box and whisker plots are uniform in their use of the box: the bottom
and top of the box are always the first and third quartiles, and the
band inside the box is always the second quartile (the median). But
 Unit 19. Statistics page 165
the ends of the whiskers can represent several possible alternative
values, among them:
●● the minimum and maximum of all of the data
●● the lowest datum still within 1.5 IQR of the lower quartile,
and the highest datum still within 1.5 IQR of the upper
quartile
●● one standard deviation above and below the mean of the data
●● the 9th percentile and the 91st percentile
●● the 2nd percentile and the 98th percentile.
Any data not included between the whiskers should be plotted as an
outlier with a dot, small circle, or star, but occasionally this is not
done. Some box plots include an additional character to represent
the mean of the data. On some box plots a cross-hatch is placed on
each whisker, before the end of the whisker. Rarely, box plots can
be presented with no whiskers at all. Because of this variability, it
is appropriate to describe the convention being used for the whiskers
and outliers in the caption for the plot. The unusual percentiles
2%, 9%, 91%, 98% are sometimes used for whisker cross-hatches
and whisker ends to show the seven-number summary. If the data
is normally distributed, the locations of the seven marks on the
box plot will be equally spaced. Since the American mathematician
John W. Tukey introduced this type of visual data display in 1969,
several variations on the traditional box plot have been described.
Two of the most common are variable width box plots and notched
box plots.
Variable width box plots illustrate the size of each group whose data
is being plotted by making the width of the box proportional to the
size of the group. A popular convention is to make the box width
proportional to the square root of the size of the group.
Notched box plots apply a notch. Notches are useful in offering
a rough guide to significance of difference of medians; if the notches
of two boxes do not overlap, this offers evidence of a statistically
significant difference between the medians. The width of the notches
is proportional to the interquartile range of the sample and inversely
proportional to the square root of the size of the sample. However,
there is uncertainty about the most appropriate multiplier (as this
may vary depending on the similarity of the variances of the samples).
One convention is to use ±1.58 × IQR ÷ n .
page 166 Unit 19. Statistics

1. _________________ common factor

2. _________________ are the three points that divide the data set into
four equal groups, each group comprising a quarter of the data.
Q1 is defined as the middle number between the smallest number
and the median of the data set. Q2 is the median of the data. Q3
is the middle value between the median and the highest value of
the data set
3. _________________ narrowing of the box around the median
4. _________________ is an observation point that is distant from other
observations. It may be due to variability in the measurement
or it may indicate experimental error. It can occur by chance
in any distribution, but it is often indicative either of measurement
error or that the population has a heavy-tailed distribution
5. _________________ is a technique used to create tonal or shading
effects by drawing closely spaced parallel lines or lines placed at
an angle to one another
kreskowanie w kratkę mnożnik nacięcie/wycięcie poboczny
część kwartyl

Task XI. Work with a partner. Student B: look at the

communicative activities section (p. 279).

Read your half sentences to B who will try to finish them. Listen
and check they make sense before you write them down.

1. The bottom and top of the box are always the first and third
quartiles, …
2. Any data not included between the whiskers …
3. If the data is normally distributed, …
4. Variable width box plots illustrate the size of each group whose
data is being plotted ...
Study the endings. Your partner will read the beginning
of a sentence. You have to choose an ending.
a) … and inversely proportional to the square root of the size of
the sample.
b) … proportional to the square root of the size of the group.
 Unit 19. Statistics page 167
c) … this offers evidence of a statistically significant difference
between the medians.
d) … one standard deviation above and below the mean of the
data.

Task XII. Work with a partner. Student B: Look at the

communicative activities section (p. 279).

Before you start talking to your partner, make sure you can
explain the clues in your part in English. Your partner will
ask you about the clues in your part of the crossword. Explain
each clue in English. Ask your partner about the clues missing
in your part.

1. S K E W N E S S
2.

3. D I S T R I B U T E
4.

5. N O T C H
6.

7. M E D I A N
8.
page 168

UNIT 20. DATA REPRESENTATION

Task I. Form collocations from the words provided. Write them

down.
dependent arbitrary scatter superimposed quality
best-fit vertical diagram variable axis procedure
patterns relationships control
1. ………………………………………..
2. ………………………………………..
3. ………………………………………..
4. ………………………………………..
5. ………………………………………..
6. ………………………………………..
7. ………………………………………..

Task II. Read the passage and put the sentences a–g in gaps 1–7.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

A scatter plot, scatterplot, or scatter graph is a type of mathematical

diagram using Cartesian coordinates to display values for two
variables for a set of data. _______ (1). A scatter plot is used when
a variable exists that is below the control of the experimenter.
______ (2). The measured or dependent variable is customarily
plotted along the vertical axis. If no dependent variable exists, either
type of variable can be plotted on either axis and a scatter plot
will illustrate only the degree of correlation between two variables.
A scatter plot can suggest various kinds of correlations between
variables with a certain confidence interval. For example, weight
and height, weight would be on x axis and height would be on the
y axis. _______ (3). If the pattern of dots slopes from lower left to
upper right, it suggests a positive correlation between the variables
being studied. _______ (4). A line of best fit (alternatively called ‘trend
line’) can be drawn in order to study the correlation between the
 Unit 20. Data representation page 169
variables. ______ (5). For a linear correlation, the best-fit procedure
is known as linear regression and is guaranteed to generate a correct
solution in a finite time. No universal best-fit procedure is guaranteed
to generate a correct solution for arbitrary relationships. _____ (6).
In this case, an identity line, i.e., a y = x line, or a 1:1 line, is often
drawn as a reference. The more the two data sets agree, the more
the scatters tend to concentrate in the vicinity of the identity line;
if the two data sets are numerically identical, the scatters fall on
the identity line exactly.
One of the most powerful aspects of a scatter plot, however, is its
ability to show nonlinear relationships between variables. _____ (7).
The scatter diagram is one of the seven basic tools of quality control.
a) Furthermore, if the data is represented by a mixture model
of simple relationships, these relationships will be visually
evident as superimposed patterns.
b) If a parameter exists that is systematically incremented
and/or decremented by the other, it is called the control
parameter or independent variable and is customarily plotted
along the horizontal axis.
c) A scatter plot is also very useful when we wish to see how two
comparable data sets agree with each other.
d) If the pattern of dots slopes from upper left to lower right,
it suggests a negative correlation.
e) Correlations may be positive (rising), negative (falling), or null
(uncorrelated).
f) An equation for the correlation between the variables can be
determined by established best-fit procedures.
g) The data is displayed as a collection of points, each having
the value of one variable determining the position on the
horizontal axis and the value of the other variable determining
the position on the vertical axis
page 170 Unit 20. Data representation

Task III. Discuss the questions with a partner. Next, read the
passage and check.
1. What is the difference between simple linear regression and
multiple linear regression?
2. What are linear models?
3. Why do linear models have many practical applications?
Linear regression is an approach to modeling the relationship between
a scalar dependent variable y and one or more explanatory variables
denoted by X. The case of one explanatory variable is called simple
linear regression. For more than one explanatory variable, it is called
multiple linear regression. In linear regression, data are modeled
using linear predictor functions, and unknown model parameters are
estimated from the data. Such models are called linear models. Most
commonly, linear regression refers to a model in which the conditional
mean of y given the value of X is an affine function of X. Less commonly,
linear regression could refer to a model in which the median, or some
other quantile of the conditional distribution of y given X is expressed
as a linear function of X. Like all forms of regression analysis, linear
regression focuses on the conditional probability distribution of y
given X, rather than on the joint probability distribution of y and X,
which is the domain of multivariate analysis.
Linear regression was the first type of regression analysis to be studied
rigorously, and to be used extensively in practical applications. This is
because models which depend linearly on their unknown parameters
are easier to fit than models which are non-linearly related to their
parameters and because the statistical properties of the resulting
estimators are easier to determine.

Task IV. Work with a partner. Student B: Look at the

communicative activities section (p. 280).

1. Read about applications of linear regression. Concentrate on

a) the two major practical uses of linear regression
b) the terms least square and linear model
c) application of fitted linear model
d) unique effect vs. marginal effect
 Unit 20. Data representation page 171
2. Ask student B the following questions about linear regression
results. Write notes of what he/she tells you.
●● What quality do the regressors have?
●● When is the unique effect close to 0 and what does it suggest?
●● What does the expression held fixed refer to?
●● How is unique effect interpreted?
Linear regression has many practical uses. Most applications fall into
one of the following two broad categories:
●● If the goal is prediction, or forecasting, or reduction, linear
regression can be used to fit a predictive model to an observed
data set of y and X values. After developing such a model, if an
additional value of X is then given without its accompanying
value of y, the fitted model can be used to make a prediction
of the value of y.
●● Given a variable y and a number of variables X1, ..., Xp that
may be related to y, linear regression analysis can be applied to
quantify the strength of the relationship between y and the Xj,
to assess which Xj may have no relationship with y at all, and to
identify which subsets of the Xj contain redundant information
about y.
Linear regression models are often fitted using the least squares
approach, but they may also be fitted in other ways, such as by
minimizing the “lack of fit” in some other norm (as with least absolute
deviations regression), or by minimizing a penalized version of the
least squares loss function as in ridge regression. Conversely, the
least squares approach can be used to fit models that are not linear
models. Thus, although the terms “least squares” and “linear model”
are closely linked, they are not synonymous.
A fitted linear regression model can be used to identify the relationship
between a single predictor variable xj and the response variable y
when all the other predictor variables in the model are “held fixed”.
Specifically, the interpretation of βj is the expected change in y for
a one-unit change in xj when the other covariates are held fixed—
that is, the expected value of the partial derivative of y with respect
to xj. This is sometimes called the unique effect of xj on y. In contrast,
the marginal effect of xj on y can be assessed using a correlation
coefficient or simple linear regression model relating xj to y; this
effect is the total derivative of y with respect to xj.
page 172 Unit 20. Data representation

Task V. Decide if the sentences are True or False. Correct the

false statements.
1. Linear regression analysis can be applied to quantify the strength
of the relationship between y and the Xj. T/F
2. Some regressors may not allow for marginal changes while
others cannot be held fixed. T/F
3. Linear regression analysis cannot identify which subsets of the Xj
contain redundant information about y. T/F
4. Linear regression models are fitted using the least squares
approach, or by maximizing the lack of fit in some other norm.
T/F
5. The unique effect of xj can be large while its marginal effect is
near to one. T/F
6. The least squares approach cannot be used to fit models that are
not linear models. T/F
7. The meaning of the expression held fixed depends on how the
values of the predictor variables arise. T/F
8. A fitted linear regression model is used to identify the relationship
between a single predictor variable xj and the response variable y
when all the other predictor variables in the model are held fixed.
T/F
9. The marginal effect of xj on y can be assessed using a correlation
coefficient or simple linear regression model relating xj to y. T/F
10. In many cases multiple regression analysis fails to clarify the
relationships between the predictor variables and the response
variable when the predictors are correlated with each other and
are not assigned following a study design. T/F

Task VI. Work with partner. Student B: look at the

communicative activities section (p. 281).
Read your sentence beginning and endings a−c and ask your
partner to choose the correct ending (bolded).
1. Scalar dependent variable is
a) studied to see if it varies from the independent variable.
In the linear model yi = a + bx i + ei the term yi is the ith value
of the independent variable and xi is ith value of the dependent
variable
 Unit 20. Data representation page 173
b) the outcome variable which one attempts to predict or
explain using one or more independent variables. For
example, age of death could be a dependent variable, and
gender and current age might be used as independent
variables to predict it
c) in an experiment or modelling representing the input or causes
2. Quantiles
a) are points taken at regular intervals from the cumulative
distribution function (CDF) of a random variable
b) are computations where a number of similar, and often nested,
models are considered for the same data set
c) are derivatives of the linear functions of the βj which facilitate
the process of finding the minimal values
3. Affine function
a) is a function that maps an event or values of one or more
variables onto a real number intuitively representing some
“cost” associated with the event
b) is a function whose graph, in Cartesian coordinates with
uniform scales, is a line in the plane
c) is a function between affine spaces which preserves points,
straight lines, planes and sets of parallel lines after an
affine transformation
4. Covariate
a) is a secondary variable that can affect the relationship
between the dependent variable and other independent
variables of primary interest
b) is a technique that attempts to find a function which closely
approximates a set of data
c) is a model in which the median, or some other quantile of the
conditional distribution of y given X is expressed as a linear
function of X
page 174

UNIT 21. CENSUS

Task I. Work in pairs and answer the question.

As office manager for a radio station you have three tickets for
a vacation in Tahiti. There are 29 workers, all equally deserving
of extra recognition. How can you choose 3 of these 29 workers
in a way that is fair to all of them?

Task II. Now read the solution and complete the missing words
from the box. There is ONE extra word you do not need.

digits less sample numbers assign random

Choose a simple random ____________ (1). ____________ (2) each

of the 29 workers the numbers 00, 01, …, 28 in order. Looking
at the first two _____________ (3) down the last column of random
number generator table we have 99, 20, 04, 33, 49, 39, 29, 44, 77,
41, 54, 90, 70, 16, 07, … The first three numbers that are 28 or
____________ (4) are 20, 04, 16. The workers that have been assigned
with these ____________ (5) go to Tahiti.

Task III. Work with a partner. Answer the questions concerning

population statistics.
●● Have you ever been involved in a census?
●● What questions were you asked?
●● In what form were you questioned: on the Internet, by post or by
a census worker personally?

Task IV. Unscramble the words and phrases and match them
with their Polish equivalents.
1. MYDOGERHAP ……………………………………
2. RTMTLOAIY ASTER ………………………………
3. SNESCU …………………………………………….
4. TCVROEONUGIN ………………………………….
5. TSIEMTASE ………………………………………..
 Unit 21. Census page 175
6. IRMOTNIGA ………………………………………..
7. AMTNDOECRAI ……………………………………
migracja rozgraniczenie współczynnik umieralności
demografia spis ludności szacunki przeszacowanie

Task V. Read the passage about population statistics and answer

the questions.
1. How are population estimates generated?
2. What kind of information is included in a census?
3. What is the function of time series analysis in population statistics?
4. What is the difference between over-count and undercount?
Population statistics is the use of statistics to analyze characteristics
or changes to a population. It is related to social demography
and demography.
It can analyze anything from global demographic changes to local
small scale changes. For example, an analysis of global change
shows that population growth has slowed, infant mortality rates have
declined and there have been small increases in the aged.
National population statistics are usually collected by conducting
a census. However, because these are usually huge logistical
exercises, countries normally conduct censuses only once every five
to 10 years. Even when a census is conducted it may miss counting
everyone (known as undercount). Also, some people counted in the
census may be recorded in a different place than where they usually
live, because they are travelling. This may result in over-counting.
Population estimates are normally produced after the date the
estimate is for. Some estimates, such as the resident population
estimate who usually lives in a locality as at the census date, even
though the census did not count them within that locality. Census
questions usually include questions about where a person usually
lives, whether they are a resident or visitor, or also live somewhere
else, to allow these estimates to be made.
Other estimates are concerned with estimating population on
a particular date that is different to the census date, for example
the middle or end of a calendar or financial year. These estimates
page 176 Unit 21. Census

often use birth and death records and migration data to adjust census
counts for the changes that have happened since the census.
Population projections are produced in advance of the date they
are for. They use time series analysis of existing census data and
other sources of population information to forecast the size of future
populations. Because there are unknown factors that may affect
future population changes, population projections often incorporate
high and low as well as expected values for future populations.
Population projections are often recomputed after a census has been
conducted. It depends on how conjested the area is in the particular
demarcation.

Task VI. Work with partner. Student B: look at the

communicative activities section (p. 282).
Read the text and write questions for the missing details.
Ask your partner for the missing details.
1. A census is the procedure of _________________ (1). It is regularly
occurring as official count of a particular population. The term
is used mostly in connection with __________________ (2); other
common censuses include agriculture, business, and traffic censuses.
The United Nations defines the essential features of population
and housing censuses as “_____________________________ – (3)”,
and recommends that population censuses be taken at least every
10 years. United Nations recommendations also cover census topics
to be collected, official definitions, ____________________________ (4).
Census is essential to international comparisons of any kind of
statistics and censuses collect __________________ (5), not just how
many people there are, although population estimates remain an
important function of the census.
Census data are commonly used for research, business marketing,
and planning, as well as _________________________ (6). Census counts
are necessary to adjust samples to be representative of a population
by ____________________________________ (7) Similarly, stratification
requires knowledge of _______________________ (8). In some countries,
census data are used to apportion electoral representation.
1. __________________________________________________
2. __________________________________________________
 Unit 21. Census page 177
3. __________________________________________________
4. __________________________________________________
5. __________________________________________________
6. __________________________________________________
7. __________________________________________________
8. __________________________________________________

Read the passage and answer B’s questions.

A census is often construed as the opposite of a sample as everyone
is surveyed rather than a fraction. However, population census relies
on a sampling frame to count the population. This is the only way
to be sure that everyone has been included as otherwise those not
responding would not be followed up and individuals could be missed.
The fundamental premise of a census is that the population is not
known and a new estimate is to be made by the analysis of primary
data. The use of a sampling frame is counterintuitive as it suggests
that the population size is already known. However, a census is also
used to collect attribute data on the individuals in the nation. This
process of sampling marks the difference between historical census,
which was a house to house process or the product of an imperial
decree, and the modern statistical project. The sampling frame used
by census is almost always an address register. Thus it is not known
if there is anyone resident or how many people there are in each
household. Depending on the mode of enumeration, a form is sent
to the householder, an enumerator calls, or administrative records
for the dwelling are accessed. As a preliminary to the dispatch of
forms, census workers will check any address problems on the
ground. While it may seem straightforward to use the postal service
file for this purpose, this can be out of date and some dwellings may
contain a number of independent households. A particular problem
is the ‘communal establishments’ which may be student residences,
religious orders, homes for the elderly etc. As these are not easily
enumerated by a single householder, they are often treated differently
and visited by special teams of census workers to make sure they are
classified appropriately.
page 178 Unit 21. Census

Task VII. Find twelve words connected with population

statistics. The words go forwards, backwards, down
and up.

N C E N S U S M Z X C V D G B
O Q F S U A T B A Q W E R F G
I E Y R R S R V F G J U I P O
T T O F V W A N Q P T P E J N
A F P Y E Q T N U O C R E V O
L C K G Y Y A K M L S E D H M
U S H Q D E D L S L W M A F J
P H D A A D A T A I D I A M H
O J S Z R I S P Z N S S A G C
P I A E Y J D O F G E E N A T
R E N U M E R A T I O N M O A
G L C N I K F R W Q R E C B P
S I M U L T A N E I T Y N T S
D K V L C G G E Z X C V B N I
N O I T A C I F I T A R T S D

Task VIII. Complete the sentences with words from the grid.
1. ……………………. is based on the idea that the …………………. is
not known and a new estimate is made by the analysis of primary
……………….
2. Census questions usually ………………………. information about
where a person lives and what he or she does professionally.
3. Some people counted in the census may be recorded
in a different place than where they usually live, which may
result in ……………………...
4. Society is divided into …………………….. depending on the status.
5. Census worker must check dwellings before the ………………….
can be ……………………….
6. One of the most important features of census is its ……………….
 Unit 21. Census page 179
Task IX. Work with partner. Student B: Look at the
communicative activities section (p. 284).
Read the clues to B and ask him/her to fill the words in the
crossword.

Across
2. the act of analysing something
7. something that is different from the usual or common way
of behaving
8. a fact, figure, piece of data, etc. that is very different from all the
others in a set and does not seem to fit the same pattern
9. an examination of opinions, behaviour made by asking people
questions
10. someone whose job is to estimate the cost of something
page 180 Unit 21. Census

Down
1. the value that is the middle one in a set of values arranged
in order of size
3. a small amount of something that shows you what the rest
is or should be like
4. a drawing that shows information in a simple way, often using
lines and curves to show amounts
5. a bar chart/graph
6. a regular increase in the amount that someone is paid
 page 181

UNIT 22. SAMPLING

LEAD-IN

Work with a partner. Student B: Look at the communicative

activities section (p. 285).
Complete the chart and check with a partner.

POLISH VERB ADJECTIVE NOUN

sample sampling
podzielić na stratified
grupy/warstwy
realizować implementation
distinguishable distinction
wykluczać exclusive
survey survey
określać determined
collect collective

Circle the words that collocate with sampling.

plan method survey frame size design stratified
implement determine collection data exclusion

Task I. Read the passage and answer the questions.

1. What is sampling?
2. What are the benefits of sampling?
3. What does the process of sampling involve?
In statistics, sampling is concerned with the selection of a subset
of individuals from within a statistical population to estimate
characteristics of the whole population. Acceptance sampling is
used to determine if a production lot of material meets the governing
specifications. Two advantages of sampling are that the cost is lower
and data collection is faster than measuring the entire population.
page 182 Unit 22. Sampling

Each observation measures one or more properties (such as weight,

location, colour) of observable bodies distinguished as independent
objects or individuals. In survey sampling, weights can be applied
to the data to adjust for the sample design, particularly stratified
sampling. Results from probability theory and statistical theory
are employed to guide practice. In business and medical research,
sampling is widely used for gathering information about a population.
The sampling process comprises several stages:
●● Defining the population of concern
●● Specifying a sampling frame, a set of items or events possible
to measure
●● Specifying a sampling method for selecting items or events
from the frame
●● Determining the sample size
●● Implementing the sampling plan
●● Sampling and data collecting

Task II. There are two types of sampling: probability and non-
-probability. Study the examples below and together
with a partner decide which type of sampling each
example illustrates.
Example 1: We visit every household in a given street, and interview
the first person to answer the door. In any household with more than
one occupant, this is a non-probability sample, because some people
are more likely to answer the door (e.g. an unemployed person who
spends most of their time at home is more likely to answer than an
employed housemate who might be at work when the interviewer calls)
and it’s not practical to calculate these probabilities.
Example 2: We want to estimate the total income of adults living
in a given street. We visit each household in that street, identify
all adults living there, and randomly select one adult from each
household. (For example, we can allocate each person a random
number, generated from a uniform distribution between 0 and 1,
and select the person with the highest number in each household).
We then interview the selected person and find their income.
People living on their own are certain to be selected, so we simply
add their income to our estimate of the total. But a person living
 Unit 22. Sampling page 183
in a household of two adults has only a one-in-two chance of selection.
To reflect this, when we come to such a household, we would count
the selected person’s income twice towards the total. (The person
who is selected from that household can be loosely viewed as also
representing the person who isn’t selected.)

Task III. Read the two interpretations to check your answers

to Task II.
A probability sampling is one in which every unit in the population has
a chance (greater than zero) of being selected in the sample, and this
probability can be accurately determined. The combination of these
traits makes it possible to produce unbiased estimates of population
totals, by weighting sampled units according to their probability of
selection.
In the above example, not everybody has the same probability
of selection; what makes it a probability sample is the fact that
each person’s probability is known. When every element in the
population does have the same probability of selection, this is known
as an ‹equal probability of selection› (EPS) design. Such designs are
also referred to as ‹self-weighting› because all sampled units are given
the same weight.
Non-probability sampling is any sampling method where some
elements of the population have no chance of selection (these are
sometimes referred to as ‘out of coverage’/‘undercovered’), or where
the probability of selection can’t be accurately determined. It involves
the selection of elements based on assumptions regarding the
population of interest, which forms the criteria for selection. Hence,
because the selection of elements is nonrandom, non-probability
sampling does not allow the estimation of sampling errors. These
conditions give rise to exclusion bias, placing limits on how much
information a sample can provide about the population. Information
about the relationship between sample and population is limited,
making it difficult to extrapolate from the sample to the population.
Non-probability sampling methods include accidental sampling,
quota sampling and purposive sampling. In addition, non-response
effects may turn any probability design into a non-probability design
if the characteristics of non-response are not well understood, since
page 184 Unit 22. Sampling

non-response effectively modifies each element›s probability of being

sampled.

Task IV. Study the sentences below and decide whether they
refer to probability sampling (PS) or non-probability
sampling (NPS).
1. Every unit in the population has a chance of being selected
in the sample, and this probability is accurately determined.
2. Some elements of the population have no chance of selection.
3. It possible to produce accurate estimates of population totals.
4. The selection of elements is nonrandom and it does not allow the
estimation of sampling errors.
5. Exclusion bias places limits on how much information about
the population a sample can provide.
6. Equal probability of selection is when every element in the
population has the same probability of selection.

Task V. Find ten words in the grid and match them with Polish
equivalents.
stosowalny równy dokładność/trafność próba
reprezentatywny żmudny podgrupa/podzespół
wskaźnik wybieranie/dobieranie wrażliwy

R E P R E S e N T A T I V E
A S A C C U R A C Y F S T I
W E Q T Y B G V C B M E E N
A Z X C G G O P L J H L D D
V U L N E R A B L E O E I I
A S D E F O G J K O P C O C
C V B Q R U T R I A L T U A
Z X C U B P N J K Y T I S T
Q W E A T Y H J B N M O E O
A P P L I C A B L E Q N O R
 Unit 22. Sampling page 185
Task VI. Read the passage and complete it with words form
Task V.
In a simple random sample (SRS) of a given size, all subsets of the frame
are given an ______________ (1) probability. Furthermore, any given
pair of elements has the same chance of _________________ (2) as any
other such pair (similarly for triples, and so on). This minimizes bias
and simplifies analysis of results. In particular, the variance between
individual results within the sample is a good _______________ (3)
of variance in the overall population, which makes it relatively easy
to estimate the _______________ (4) of results.
However, SRS can be __________________ (5) to sampling error
because the randomness of the selection may result in a sample that
doesn’t reflect the makeup of the population. For instance, a simple
random sample of ten people from a given country will on average
produce five men and five women, but any given _________________ (6)
is likely to over represent one sex and under represent the other.
Systematic and stratified techniques attempt to overcome this
problem by “using information about the population” to choose
a more __________________ (7) sample.
SRS may also be cumbersome and _________________ (8) when
sampling from an unusually large target population. In some
cases, investigators are interested in “research questions specific”
to ________________ (9) of the population. For example, researchers
might be interested in examining whether cognitive ability as
a predictor of job performance is equally _______________ (10) across
racial groups. SRS cannot accommodate the needs of researchers
in this situation because it does not provide subsamples of the
population. “Stratified sampling” addresses this weakness of SRS.

Task VII. Put the words in the right order to form sentences.
Compare with a partner.
1. start/proceeds/Systematic/kth/element/involves/every/the/
selection/sampling/random/with/onwards/of/from/and/a/
then/then
……………………………………………………………………………………
2. point/systematic/long/sampling/As/is/a/randomized/
probability/as/is/type/the/starting/of/sampling
…………………………………………………………………………………...
page 186 Unit 22. Sampling

3. is/to/sampling/periodicities/list/Systematic/especially/in/the/
vulnerable
……………………………………………………………………………………
4. is/period/If/factor/multiple/to/sample/of/the/the/the/
unrepresentative/is/interval/present/or/used/especially/be/
likely/periodicity/and/a/is
…………………………………………………………………………………...
5. method/because/have/Systematic/an/selection/same/EPS/all/
probability/the/of/elements/sampling/is
……………………………………………………………………………………

Task VIII. Read the passage and check your sentences.

Systematic sampling relies on arranging the study population
according to some ordering scheme and then selecting elements
at regular intervals through that ordered list. Systematic sampling
involves a random start and then proceeds with the selection
of every kth element from then onwards. In this case, k = population
size/sample size. It is important that the starting point is not
automatically the first in the list, but is instead randomly chosen
from within the first to the kth element in the list. A simple example
would be to select every 10th name from the telephone directory
(an ‘every 10th’ sample, also referred to as ‘sampling with a skip
of 10’).
As long as the starting point is randomized, systematic sampling
is a type of probability sampling. It is easy to implement and the
stratification induced can make it efficient, if the variable by which
the list is ordered is correlated with the variable of interest. ‘Every
10th’ sampling is especially useful for efficient sampling from
databases.
For example, suppose we wish to sample people from a long street that
starts in a poor area (house No. 1) and ends in an expensive district
(house No. 1000). A simple random selection of addresses from this
street could easily end up with too many from the high end and too
few from the low end (or vice versa), leading to an unrepresentative
sample. Selecting (e.g.) every 10th street number along the street
ensures that the sample is spread evenly along the length of the
street, representing all of these districts. Note that if we always start
at house #1 and end at #991, the sample is slightly biased towards
 Unit 22. Sampling page 187
the low end; by randomly selecting the start between #1 and #10,
this bias is eliminated.
However, systematic sampling is especially vulnerable to periodicities
in the list. If periodicity is present and the period is a multiple
or factor of the interval used, the sample is especially likely to
be unrepresentative of the overall population, making the scheme
less accurate than simple random sampling. For example, consider
a street where the odd-numbered houses are all on the north
(expensive) side of the road, and the even-numbered houses are all
on the south (cheap) side. Under the sampling scheme given above,
it is impossible to get a representative sample; either the houses
sampled will all be from the odd-numbered, expensive side, or they
will all be from the even-numbered, cheap side.
Another drawback of systematic sampling is that even in scenarios
where it is more accurate than SRS, its theoretical properties make it
difficult to quantify that accuracy. In the two examples of systematic
sampling that are given above, much of the potential sampling error
is due to variation between neighbouring houses ‒ but because this
method never selects two neighbouring houses, the sample will not
give us any information on that variation.
As described above, systematic sampling is an EPS method, because
all elements have the same probability of selection (in the example
given, one in ten). It is not ‘simple random sampling’ because different
subsets of the same size have different selection probabilities ‒ e.g.
the set {4, 14, 24, ..., 994} has a one-in-ten probability of selection,
but the set {4, 13, 24, 34, ...} has zero probability of selection.

Task IX. Answer the questions.

1. What does systematic sampling depend on?
2. What does it involve?
3. What two examples of systematic sampling are provided in the
passage?
4. In what circumstances is it impossible to select a representative
sample?
5. Why is systematic sampling an EPS method?
page 188 Unit 22. Sampling

Task X. Work with a partner. Student B: Look at the

communicative activities section (p. 285).
Read your sentences to B who will try to give you the right
word for each gap. Write the words and check if the sentence
makes sense.
1. …………………… sampling is used to determine if a production lot
of material meets the governing specifications.
2. In survey sampling, …………… can be applied to the data to adjust
for the sample design.
3. Results from probability theory and …………… theory are employed
to guide practice.
4. The selection of elements in non-random, ………………… sampling
does not allow the estimation of sampling errors.
5. When every element in the population does have the same
probability of selection, this is known as an equal …………………
of selection.
Listen to B’s sentences and complete them with words from
the box.

quantify   periodicity   probability   spread   systematic
 page 189

UNIT 23. TYPES OF SAMPLING

Task I. Study the sentences and decide if they are True or False.
Compare with a partner.
1. Stratified sampling requires selection of relevant stratification
variables which is quite easy. T/F
2. Stratified sampling focuses on all subpopulations. T/F
3. It allows the use of different sampling techniques for different
subpopulations. T/F
4. It improves the accuracy/efficiency of estimation. T/F
5. It is useful when there are no homogeneous subgroups. T/F
6. It can be expensive to implement. T/F
7. Stratified sampling permits greater balancing of statistical power of
tests of differences between strata by sampling unequal numbers
from strata with little size variation. T/F

Task II. Work with a partner. Student B: Look at the

communicative activities section (p. 286).
Read the passage and complete the table. Next, tell B about the
benefits of stratified sampling.

Benefits of stratified sampling Drawbacks of stratified sampling

Where the population embraces a number of distinct categories,

the frame can be organized by these categories into separate “strata”.
Each stratum is then sampled as an independent sub-population,
out of which individual elements can be randomly selected. There
are several potential benefits to stratified sampling. First, dividing
the population into distinct, independent strata can enable
researchers to draw inferences about specific subgroups that may
be lost in a more generalized random sample. Second, utilizing
a stratified sampling method can lead to more efficient statistical
page 190 Unit 23. Types of sampling

estimates provided that strata are selected based upon relevance to

the criterion in question, instead of availability of the samples. Even
if a stratified sampling approach does not lead to increased statistical
efficiency, such a tactic will not result in less efficiency than would
simple random sampling, provided that each stratum is proportional
to the group’s size in the population. Third, it is sometimes the case
that data are more readily available for individual, pre-existing strata
within a population than for the overall population; in such cases,
using a stratified sampling approach may be more convenient than
aggregating data across groups. Finally, since each stratum is treated
as an independent population, different sampling approaches can be
applied to different strata, potentially enabling researchers to use
the approach best suited (or most cost-effective) for each identified
subgroup within the population.
Listen to B and write notes about the drawbacks of this method.

Task III. Choose the right alternative for each sentence.

Compare with a partner.
1. Auxiliary variable can be used to
a) provide additional sample to be designed
b) increase accuracy in sample design
2. Probability proportional to size sampling
a) is the one in which selection probability for each element is
proportional to its size measure
b) is the one which implies probability for each element
proportional to its quality
3. Variable sample size is
a) considered an obstacle to representational accuracy
b) perceived as additional data about the sample
4. Systematic sampling theory creates probability proportionate
to size sample by
a) treating each count as a single sampling unit
b) treating each count as a maximum measure
5. The PPS approach can improve accuracy for a given sample
size by
a) concentrating sample on elements that have the smallest
impact on population estimates
b) concentrating sample on large elements that have the greatest
impact on population estimates
 Unit 23. Types of sampling page 191
Task IV. Listen and check your answers.

Task V. Unscramble words and match them with their Polish

equivalents.
1. TILACECNDA …………………………………………..
2. ENLPA ……………………………………………………
3. OQATU …………………………………………………..
4. UCESALTR ……………………………………………...
grupa norma/część przypadkowy panelowy

Task VI. Work in groups of four. Student B: Look at the

communicative activities section (p. 287). Student C:
Look at the communicative activities section (p. 304).
Student D: Look at the communicative activities
section (p. 308).
Read the text and complete the table with the information
about cluster sampling. Next, work with students B, C and D
to complete the whole table.

sampling cluster quota accidental panel

Example respondents
are grouped
by …
Advantages/ reduction of …
drawbacks increase of …
requires …

Sometimes it is more cost-effective to select respondents in groups

called ‘clusters’. Sampling is often clustered by geography, or by
time periods. Nearly all samples are in some sense ‘clustered’
in time – although this is rarely taken into account in the analysis.
For instance, if surveying households within a city, we might choose
to select 100 city blocks and then interview every household within
the selected blocks. Clustering can reduce travel and administrative
costs. It also means that one does not need a sampling frame
listing of all elements in the target population. Instead, clusters can
be chosen from a cluster-level frame, with an element-level frame
page 192 Unit 23. Types of sampling

created only for the selected clusters. In the example above, the
sample only requires a block-level city map for initial selections,
and then a household-level map of the 100 selected blocks, rather
than a household-level map of the whole city. Cluster sampling
generally increases the variability of sample estimates above that
of simple random sampling, depending on how the clusters differ
between themselves, as compared with the within-cluster variation.
For this reason, cluster sampling requires a larger sample than
SRS to achieve the same level of accuracy − but cost savings from
clustering might still make this a cheaper option. Cluster sampling
is commonly implemented as multistage sampling. This is a complex
form of cluster sampling in which two or more levels of units are
embedded one in the other. The first stage consists of constructing
the clusters that will be used to sample from. In the second stage,
a sample of primary units is randomly selected from each cluster
(rather than using all units contained in all selected clusters).
In following stages, in each of those selected clusters, additional
samples of units are selected, and so on. All ultimate units (individuals,
for instance) selected at the last step of this procedure are then
surveyed. This technique, thus, is essentially the process of taking
random subsamples of preceding random samples.

Task VII. Work with a partner. Student B: Look at the

communicative activities section (p. 288).
B is going to read a sentence to you. Listen and change a word
from the box below to form a noun/adjective to complete B’s
sentence.

random   long   judge   incident   vary   statistics   science

Now, read your first sentence to B but do not say the word
in CAPITALS, say bleep. B will complete the sentence with
the appropriate word.
1. Sometimes it is more cost-effective to select bleep in groups called
clusters. RESPONDENTS
2. Clustering can reduce travel and bleep costs. ADMINISTRATIVE
3. The sample only requires a block-level city map for bleep
selections, and then a household-level map of the 100 selected
blocks. INITIAL
 Unit 23. Types of sampling page 193
4. Cluster sampling is commonly bleep as multistage sampling.
IMPLEMENTED
5. In following stages, in each of those selected clusters, bleep
samples of units are selected. ADDITIONAL
6. Each interviewer is instructed to locate and interview people who
fulfill the bleep targeted for the quota sample.
CHARACTERISTICS
7. Census data are poor or bleep. NONEXISTENT

Task VIII. Work with a partner. Student B: Look at the

communicative activities section (p. 289).
B will ask you about the clues missing in his/her crossword.
Do not read the words, give their definitions. Take it in turns
to complete the crossword.
Example: B: What is 1 across?
You: It is the result of subtraction.

1. D E T E R M I N E
2.

3. C O M B I N A T I O N
4.

5. Q U O T A
6.

7. C L U S T E R
8.

9. H O M O G E N O U S
10.

11. I M P L E M E N T
12.

13. A R R A N G E M E N T
14.
page 194 Unit 23. Types of sampling

Task IX. Work with a partner to solve the problem.

You are given the assignment to estimate the number of people
planning to purchase a DVD player in the next 12 months and to
gather demographic information about these people. Your budget is
15,000 dollars. It is possible to take a simple random sample of the
people in the United States. This will require 10 dollars of computer
time per person sampled to choose the simple random sample and
identify the people to interview. If two people are in different countries,
then it will take two people to interview them. Each interviewer costs
50 dollars and 5 dollars per person they interview. It is also possible
to take a simple random sample of people in a country at a cost
of 5 dollars per person. You would still have to pay for the interviewer.
It is estimated that you will need at least 800 interviews to get a good
estimate. What should you do?

Task X. Complete the passage with the words in the brackets

in the right form. Check your answer to Task IX.
The best way to sample is …………………………. (take) a simple
random sample. Unfortunately, your budget is not large enough
to do this. It will cost (800)(10) = 8000 ………………….. (identify)
the people in the simple random sample. There are 3130 countries.
Most of the people identified ………………… (be/sample) are going
to be in different countries. If there were only 400 countries that
these 800 people live in, then the cost of ………………….. (hire) the
interviewer will be (400)(50) = 20,000 and the costs of the interviews
will be (800)(5) = 4000. The total cost then ……………………. (be)
8000 + 20,000 + 4000 = 32,000, which is more than your budget.
You decide ………………… (try) multistage sampling. For example,
suppose you …………………. (be) to choose 100 countries in a simple
random sample of 8 people in each of these countries. The cost would
be (100)(50) = 5000 to hire the interviewer in these countries. The cost
to identify each person in these countries is (800)(5) = 4000.
The cost of interviewing the people is (800)(5) = 4000. The total
cost is 5000+4000+4000=13,000 dollars. You come in 2000 dollars
under budget!
 page 195

UNIT 24. MEAN, MEDIAN, MODE

LEAD-IN

Find eight words connected with statistics. Match them with the
words provided. Translate the phrases into Polish.

N O I T U B I R T S I D *GEOMETRIC
V N O I T A L U P O P I *AVERAGE INCOME
C I T E M H T I R A L S *NORMAL
G M O E D O M O H B V E *UNIMODAL DISTRIBUTION
A M G N N M E D I A N X *STATISTICAL
N A E M V M Z E O B T Q *SAMPLE
S Y M M E T R I C C G U *OF DATA
R I N F E R E N C E P R *PROBABILITY

1. …………………………………………………………
2. …………………………………………………………
3. …………………………………………………………
4. …………………………………………………………
5. …………………………………………………………
6. …………………………………………………………
7. …………………………………………………………
8. …………………………………………………………

Task I. Read the passage about the arithmetic mean and put
the sentences A–E in the gaps 1–5.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

a) Suppose we have a data set containing the values a1, …, an.

b) It follows that the sample mean is also the best single predictor
in the sense of having the lowest root mean squared error.
page 196 Unit 24. Mean, median, mode

c) The collection is often a set of results of an experiment, or a set

of results from a survey.
d) For example, per capita income is the arithmetic average
income of a nation’s population.
e) It has several properties that make it useful, especially as
a measure of central tendency.

The arithmetic mean, or simply the mean or average when the context
is clear, is the sum of a collection of numbers divided by the number
of numbers in the collection. ______________ (1). The term “arithmetic
mean” is preferred in some contexts in mathematics and statistics
because it helps distinguish it from other means, such as the
geometric mean and the harmonic mean. In addition to mathematics
and statistics, the arithmetic mean is used frequently in fields such
as economics, sociology, and history, and it is used in almost every
academic field to some extent. ________________ (2).
While the arithmetic mean is often used to report central tendencies,
it is not a robust statistic, meaning that it is greatly influenced by
outliers (values that are very much larger or smaller than most of the
values). Notably, for skewed distributions, such as the distribution
of income for which a few people’s incomes are substantially greater
than most people’s, the arithmetic mean may not accord with one’s
notion of “middle”, and robust statistics, such as the median, may be
a better description of central tendency.
In a more obscure usage, any sequence of values that form an
arithmetic sequence between two numbers x and y can be called
“arithmetic means between x and y”.
_______________ (3). The arithmetic mean A is defined by the formula
n
1
A=
n
∑a .
i =1
i

If the data set is a statistical population (i.e., consists of every

possible observation and not just a subset of them), then the mean
 Unit 24. Mean, median, mode page 197
of that population is called the population mean. If the data set is
a statistical sample (a subset of the population), we call the statistic
resulting from this calculation a sample mean.
The arithmetic mean of a variable is often denoted by a bar, for
example as in x (read “x bar”), which is the mean of the n values
x1, x 2 , , xn .
_______________ (4). These include:
●● If numbers x1, , xn have mean x, then (x1 − x ) +  + (xn − x ) = 0.
Since x i − x is the distance from a given number to the mean,
one way to interpret this property is as saying that the numbers
to the left of the mean are balanced by the numbers to the right
of the mean. The mean is the only single number for which
the residuals (deviations from the estimate) sum to zero.
●● If it is required to use a single number as a typical value for
a set of known numbers x1, xn , then the arithmetic mean
of the numbers does this best, in the sense of minimizing
the sum of squared deviations from the typical value: the sum of
(x i − x )2 . _____________ (5). If the arithmetic mean of a population
of numbers is desired, then the estimate of it that is unbiased
is the arithmetic mean of a sample drawn from the population.

Task II. Read the passage again and answer the comprehension
questions.
1. What types of mean can be distinguished?
2. What applications does mean have?
3. In what situations is it inaccurate?
4. What is the population mean?
5. What mathematical properties does the arithmetic mean have?

Task III. Match the words in the box with their Polish equivalents.
Next, put them in the gaps.
jednoznacznie dowolnie pojedynczy miara
ułożenie/uszeregowanie znaczenie wymiary numeryczny

single   measure   numerical   arbitrarily   arranging
uniquely   importance   dimensions
page 198 Unit 24. Mean, median, mode

In statistics and probability theory, the median is the ……………… (1)

value separating the higher half of a data sample, a population,
or a probability distribution, from the lower half. The median of a finite
list of numbers can be found by ………………. (2) all the observations
from lowest value to highest value and picking the middle one (e.g.,
the median of {3, 3, 5, 9, 11} is 5). If there is an even number of
observations, then there is no ……………………. (3) middle value; the
median is then usually defined to be the mean of the two middle
values (the median of {3, 5, 7, 9} is (5 + 7)/2 = 6), which corresponds
to interpreting the median as the fully trimmed mid-range.
The median is of central ……………………. (4) in robust statistics, as
it is the most resistant statistic, having a breakdown point of 50%:
so long as no more than half the data is contaminated, the median
will not give an ……………………. (5) large result. A median is only
defined on ordered one-dimensional data, and is independent of any
distance metric. A geometric median, on the other hand, is defined
in any number of …………………… (6). In a sample of data, or a finite
population, there may be no member of the sample whose value is
identical to the median (in the case of an even sample size); if there
is such a member, there may be more than one so that the median may
not identify a sample member. Nonetheless, the value of the median
is …………………. (7) determined with the usual definition. At most,
half the population have values strictly less than the median, and, at
most, half have values strictly greater than the median. If each group
contains less than half the population, then some of the population is
exactly equal to the median. For example, if a < b < c, then the median
of the list {a, b, c} is b, and, if a < b < c < d, then the median of the list
{a, b, c, d} is the mean of b and c; i.e., it is (b + c)/2.
The median can be used as a …………………. (8) of location when
a distribution is skewed, when end-values are not known, or when
one requires reduced importance to be attached to outliers, e.g.,
because they may be measurement errors.

Task IV. Read the passage again and decide if the sentences
are True or False. Correct the mistakes.

1. The median separates the lower half of data sample form the higher
one.
2. The median can be found by choosing the average value.
 Unit 24. Mean, median, mode page 199
3. If there is an even number of observations, median is then usually
defined to be the mean of the three middle values.
4. Geometric median is defined only in one dimension.
5. At most, half the population have values less than the median,
and, at most, half have values greater than the median.
6. In a sample of data, there may be no member of the sample whose
value is identical to the median.

Task V. Complete the text with English equivalents of the words

provided. Next check the answer with the teacher.
ułamek nieformalnie okresy/przedziały średni równo
rozmazać bezużyteczny dyskretny/oddzielny
The mode is the value that appears most often in a set of data.
The mode of a d _ _ _ _ _ _ _ probability distribution is the value
x at which its probability mass function takes its maximum value.
In other words, it is the value that is most likely to be sampled.
The mode of a continuous probability distribution is the value x
at which its probability density function has its maximum value, so,
i _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ speaking, the mode is at the peak.
Like the statistical mean and median, the mode is a way of expressing,
in a single number, important information about a random variable
or a population. The numerical value of the mode is the same as
that of the m _ _ _ and median in a Normal distribution, and it may
be very different in highly skewed distributions. The mode is not
necessarily unique, since the probability mass function or probability
density function may take the same maximum value at several points
x1, x2, etc. The most extreme case occurs in uniform distributions,
where all values occur e _ _ _ _ _ _ frequently.
In symmetric unimodal distributions, such as the normal (or Gaussian)
distribution the mean, median and mode all coincide. For samples,
if it is known that they are drawn from a symmetric distribution,
the sample mean can be used as an estimate of the population mode.
For a sample from a continuous distribution, such as [0.935...,
1.211..., 2.430..., 3.668..., 3.874...], the concept is u _ _ _ _ _ _ _ in its
raw form, since no two values will be exactly the same, so each value
will occur precisely once. In order to estimate the mode, the usual
practice is to discretize the data by assigning frequency values to
page 200 Unit 24. Mean, median, mode

i _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ of equal distance, as for making a histogram, effectively

replacing the values by the midpoints of the intervals they are assigned
to. The mode is then the value where the histogram reaches its peak.
For small or middle-sized samples the outcome of this procedure
is sensitive to the choice of interval width if chosen too narrow or
too wide; typically one should have a sizable f _ _ _ _ _ _ _ of the data
concentrated in a relatively small number of intervals (5 to 10), while
the data falling outside these intervals are also sizable. An alternate
approach is kernel density estimation, which essentially b _ _ _ _
point samples to produce a continuous estimate of the probability
density function which can provide an estimate of the mode.

Task VI. Study the sentences and correct mistakes. Compare

with a partner.

1. Statistical inference is the process of coming to conclusions on

the basis of data subject to non-random variation, for example,
observational errors or sampling variation.
2. The system of procedures for inference and induction produces
the right answers when applied to well-defined situations.
3. Inferential statistics test hypotheses and make estimations based
on sample data.
4. Statistical inference makes propositions about populations,
using data drawn from the population of interest via some form
of non-random sampling.
5. Statistical proposition is the conclusion of a statistical
inference.

Task VII. Listen to the recording and check your answers.

Task VIII. Match the words in the box with their Polish
equivalents. Next, complete the gaps.
zbiór danych hipoteza dane tylny/późniejszy
grupowanie/gromadzenie parametr
 Unit 24. Mean, median, mode page 201

posterior   clustering   parameter   hypothesis
dataset   data

Some common forms of statistical proposition are:

a) An estimate; i.e., a particular value that best approximates
some ………………… of interest,
b) a confidence interval (or set estimate); i.e., an interval
constructed using a ………………… drawn from a population so
that, under repeated sampling of such datasets, such intervals
would contain the true parameter value with the probability at
the stated confidence level,
c) a credible interval; i.e., a set of values containing, for example,
95% of ………………… belief,
d) rejection of a .........................,
e) …………………………. or classification of data points into
groups.

Task IX. Listen to the teacher and check your answers.

Task X. Work with a partner. Student B: Look at the

communicative activities section (p. 290).
Complete the chart and ask your partner for the answer.

POLISH TERM NOUN VERB

assumption
nacisk emphasize
inference
zmienność variance
vary

Task XI. Listen and read about statistical inference assumptions.

Answer the questions.
1. What is a statistical model?
2. In what circumstances are assumptions fully parametric?
page 202 Unit 24. Mean, median, mode

3. How can semi-parametric models be classified?

4. What function does the Hodges–Lehmann–Sen estimator have?
Any statistical inference requires assumptions. A statistical model
is a set of assumptions concerning the generation of the observed
data and similar data. Descriptions of statistical models usually
emphasize the role of population quantities of interest, about
which we wish to draw inference. Descriptive statistics are typically
used as a preliminary step before more formal inferences are
drawn. Statisticians distinguish between three levels of modeling
assumptions:
Fully parametric: The probability distributions describing the
data-generation process are assumed to be fully described by
a family of probability distributions involving only a finite number
of unknown parameters. For example, one may assume that the
distribution of population values is truly normal, with unknown mean
and variance, and that datasets are generated by ‘simple’ random
sampling. The family of generalized linear models is a widely used
and flexible class of parametric models.
Non-parametric: The assumptions made about the process
generating the data are much less than in parametric statistics
and may be minimal. For example, every continuous probability
distribution has a median, which may be estimated using the sample
median or the Hodges–Lehmann–Sen estimator, which has good
properties when the data arise from simple random sampling.
Semi-parametric: This term typically implies assumptions
‘in between’ fully and non-parametric approaches. For example, one may
assume that a population distribution has a finite mean. Furthermore,
one may assume that the mean response level in the population
depends in a truly linear manner on some covariate (a parametric
assumption) but not make any
parametric assumption describing
the variance around that mean
(i.e. about the presence or possible
form of any heteroscedasticity).
More generally, semi-parametric
models can often be separated into
‘structural’ and ‘random variation’
components. One component is
 Unit 24. Mean, median, mode page 203
treated parametrically and the other non-parametrically. The well-
-known Cox model is a set of semi-parametric assumptions.

Task XII. Choose the right definition for the expressions from
the passage. Compare with a partner.

1. The Hodges–Lehmann estimator is

a) robust and nonparametric estimator of population’s location
parameter
b) robust and parametric estimator of population’s location
parameter
2. Cox model is
a) approach in which if the proportional hazards assumption does
not hold then it is possible to estimate the effect parameter
with the consideration of the hazard function
b) approach to survival data in which if the proportional hazards
assumption holds then it is possible to estimate the effect
parameter without any consideration of the hazard function
3. Heteroscedascity means that
a) in a collection of random variables there are sub-populations
that have different variability from others
b) in a collection of random variables there are sub-populations
that have similar variability to others

Task XIII. Work with a partner. Student B: Look at the

communicative activities section (p. 290).

Read your sentences to B and ask him/her to fill in the missing

words.
1. Statistical inference is the process of drawing ……………………..
from data that are subject to random variation.
2. Inferential statistics are used to test hypotheses and make
………………… using sample data.
3. Data about a random process is ………………….. from its observed
behavior during a finite period of time.
page 204 Unit 24. Mean, median, mode

4. Statistical inference makes ……………………. about populations,

using data drawn from the population of interest via some form
of random sampling.
Listen to B and complete the sentences with words from
the box.

inferences variation estimated assumptions

 page 205

UNIT 25. STATISTICAL INFERENCE

Task I. Study the definitions of the central limit theorem.

Choose the correct ending a, b or c. Compare with
a partner.
The central limit theorem states that, given certain conditions,
a) The arithmetic mean of a sufficiently large number of iterates
of independent random variables will be approximately
normally distributed
b) The arithmetic mean of a sufficiently large number of iterates
of independent random variables, each with a undefined
value will be approximately normally distributed
c) The arithmetic mean of a large number of iterates of dependent
random variables, each with a well-defined variance, will be
normally distributed

Task II. Complete the table. Use Polish equivalents below.

przybliżenie określić ilościowo regresja rozbieżność
heurystyczny nieistotny ekonometria zapewnić
nieprawidłowy unieważnić

SCRAMBLED WORD UNSCRAMBLED WORD POLISH EQUIVALENT

VEDATILANI
LYFTUA
GESRINOSRE
SRNUEE
XPAMRAETSPOI
UNFQATYI

IGENEDRVCE
CSMEOTONRCIE
UTHIERSCI
ADAOMZTOINRIN
page 206 Unit 25. Statistical inference

Task III. Study the sentences and correct the mistakes that
you find. Compare with a partner.
1. Incorrect assumptions of Normality in the population validate
some forms of regression-based inference.
2. The use of parametric models in sampling human populations
is considered to increase accuracy and precision.
3. A normal distribution is the right assumption to make when
dealing with any kind of economic population.
4. The central limit theorem states that the distribution of the sample
mean for very small samples is not normally distributed, if the
distribution is not heavy tailed.
5. In the case of infinite samples, approximation results measure
how close a limiting distribution approaches the statistic’s sample
distribution.
6. The normal approximation provides a good approximation
to the sample-mean’s distribution when there are 5 (or less)
dependent samples.
7. Advanced statistics does not use approximation theory and
functional analysis to quantify the error of approximation.
8. Limiting results are statements about finite samples, and are
relevant to finite samples.
9. The magnitude of the difference between the limiting
distribution and the true distribution cannot be assessed using
simulation.

Task IV. Listen to the recording and correct the sentences

from Task III.

Task V. Listen again and complete the missing phrases.

1. Most sampling statisticians, when they deal with …………………..

……………….. at all, limit themselves to statements about
estimators based on very large samples, where the central limit
theorem ensures that ……………… ………………….. will have
distributions that are nearly normal.
2. For example, with 10,000 independent samples the normal
distribution approximates to ………… …………… ……………..
……………………. the distribution of the sample mean for many
population distributions, by the Berry–Essen theorem.
 Unit 25. Statistical inference page 207
3. Limiting results …………… …………… the generalized method
of moments and the use of generalized estimating equations,
which are popular in econometrics and ………………….

Task VI. Work with A partner. Student B: Look at the

communicative activities section (p. 290).
Read only the BOLDED parts of your sentences to B and ask
him/her to finish them. Check if his/her guesses are correct.
Do not show your sentences to your partner.
1. Two advantages of sampling are that (the cost is lower and data
collection is faster than measuring the entire population).
2. When every element in the population does have the same
probability of selection, (this is known as an ‘equal probability
of selection’ design).
3. Systematic sampling is an EPS method, (because all elements
have the same probability of selection).
4. If periodicity is present and the period is a multiple or
factor of the interval used, (the sample is especially likely to be
unrepresentative of the overall population).
5. The sample designer has access to an “auxiliary variable”
or “size measure”, (believed to be correlated to the variable
of interest, for each element in the population).
6. PPS sampling is commonly used for surveys of businesses,
(where element size varies greatly and auxiliary information is
often available).
Your partner will read the beginning of a sentence. Study
the endings below and choose one for each beginning.

a) … and one cannot therefore calculate the range of error in the

results that could be due to chance.
b) … which accurately describe randomized experiments or
random samples.
c) … depending on how the clusters differ between themselves,
as compared with the within-cluster variation.
d) … including MANOVA, growth curves, and structural equation
modeling with lagged effects.
e) … the exchangeability of the sample with the population.
f) … before more formal inferences are drawn.
page 208

UNIT 26. CONSUMER MATHEMATICS.

SIMPLE AND COMPOUND INTEREST

LEAD-IN

Work with a partner. Student B: Look at the communicative

activities section (p. 291).
Read the paragraph about Charles Dow to student B who will
correct some sentences.
The secret of acquiring great wealth on the stock market is well
known: buy low and sell high. The trick is: knowing what the market
will do. Charles Dow was a financial journalist who believed that the
stock market could be understood using mathematical principles.
Dow was a founder of Dow Jones & Company, which became
a financial empire. The Company published an index averaging
various stocks as an indicator of how the market is doing as a whole.
This publication became the precursor of The Wall Street Journal. Dow
invented the Dow Theory of buying stocks, which is based entirely on
numerical market information.
Listen to B and correct the sentences.
1. Ralph Elliott, who was an architect, studied the Great Pyramid
at Giza and concluded that the design for the structure was based
on the rational numbers.
2. He developed a theory on money movements known as the Elliott
Price Theory.

Task I. Solve the problem and answer the question concerning

interest rate.
You discover that you are the direct descendant of a man who
loaned the Continental Congress $1000 in 1777. However, he was
never repaid nor have any of his descendants received repayment.
You think it is about time to get the family money back. How much
should you demand from the U.S. government? Use an interest
rate of 6% and a compounding period of 3 months.
HINT One of these formulas can help you find the solution, which
will you use?
 Unit 26. Consumer mathematics. Simple and compound interest page 209
mt
 j 
1)  FV = PV(1 + rt)     2)   S = P 1 + 
 m
……………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………….

Task II. Read the answer and check if you were right.
Historically, a typical interest rate has been approximately 6%
and a compounding period of three months has also been typical.
To apply the compound interest formula we replace P by $1000,
j by 0.06 and m by 4. The time period is from 1777 to 2000, which
is 2000 – 1777 = 223 years, so we replace t in the formula by 223
and get $585,746,479.

Task III. Work with a partner. Student B: Look at the

communicative activities section (p. 292).
Read your definitions to B who will write them in their table.
Your partner will dictate to you the definitions missing
in your table. Next, together with your partner choose the
Polish equivalents of the words.
aktywa depozyt/zastaw dzierżawa odsetki/udział
zrzekający się odszkodowanie kapitał zakup
przywilej szansa

ENGLISH TERM DEFINITION POLISH EQUIVALENT

1. purchase something that you buy

2.
page 210 Unit 26. Consumer mathematics. Simple and compound interest

3. assets something valuable belonging

to a person or organization
that can be used for the
payment of debts
4.

5. compensation money paid to someone in

exchange for something that
has been lost or damaged
6.

7. deposit an amount of money that you

pay when you rent something,
and is returned to you when
you return the thing
8.

Task IV. Complete the passage with words from the table
in Task III.

Simple interest is a fee paid by a borrower of __________ (1) to the

owner as a form of ___________ (2) for the use of the assets. It is most
commonly the price paid for the use of borrowed money, or money
earned by _________ (3) funds.
When money is borrowed, interest is typically paid to the lender as
a percentage of the __________ (4), the amount owed to the lender.
The percentage of the principal that is paid as a fee over a certain
period of time (typically one month or year) is called the __________ (5)
rate. A bank deposit will earn interest because the bank is paying
for the use of the deposited funds. Assets that are sometimes lent
with interest include money, shares, consumer goods through hire
 Unit 26. Consumer mathematics. Simple and compound interest page 211
__________ (6), major assets such as aircraft, and even entire factories
in finance __________ (7) arrangements. The interest is calculated
upon the value of the assets in the same manner as upon money.
Interest is compensation to the lender, for risk of principal loss,
called credit risk; and __________ (8) other investments that could
have been made with the loaned asset. These forgone investments
are known as the __________ (9) cost. Instead of the lender using the
assets directly, they are advanced to the borrower. The borrower then
enjoys the benefit of using the assets ahead of the effort required to
pay for them, while the lender enjoys the benefit of the fee paid by
the borrower for the ________ (10). In economics, interest is considered
the price of credit.

Task V. Find ten words in the grid and match them with their
Polish equivalents. Next, complete the passage.
dodany uzyskać wspomagać/asystować
przekształcenie/zamiana ujawniony skuteczny
rachunek/saldo złożony uprzedni/wcześniejszy
równoważny/odpowiadający

A D V A N C E S O U B D
S Q W D E R T Y U I A I
S Z X D C V B E N M L S
I Q W E R T Y F U I A C
S A S D F G H F J K N L
T L Z X C V B E N M C O
O B T A I N F C D S E S
Z A S E R G N T M K L E
C O N V E R T I N G O D
A B U Y T R E V W O P M
E Q U I V A L E N T J U
Z C O M P O U N D I N G
page 212 Unit 26. Consumer mathematics. Simple and compound interest

Compound interest is interest __________ (1) to the principal of a deposit

or loan so that the added interest also earns interest from then on.
This addition of interest to the principal is called ____________ (2).
A bank account, for example, may have its interest compounded
every year: in this case, an account with $1000 initial principal and
20% interest per year would have a ____________ (3) of $1200 at the
end of the first year, $1440 at the end of the second year, $1728 at
the end of the third year, and so on.
To define an interest rate fully, allowing comparisons with other
interest rates, both the interest rate and the compounding frequency
must be ____________ (4). Since most people prefer to think of
rates as a yearly percentage, many governments require financial
institutions to disclose the ______________ (5) yearly compounded
interest rate on deposits or ______________ 6). For instance, the yearly
rate for a loan with 1% interest per month is approximately 12.68%
per annum (1.0112 − 1). This equivalent yearly rate may be referred
to as annual percentage rate (APR), annual equivalent rate (AER),
___________ (7) interest rate, or effective annual rate. When a fee
is charged up front to __________ (8) a loan, APR usually counts that
cost as well as the compound interest in ______________ (9) to the
equivalent rate. These government requirements ______________ (10)
consumers in comparing the actual costs of borrowing more easily.
For any given interest rate and compounding frequency, an equivalent
rate for any different compounding frequency exists.

Task VI. Answer the questions with a partner.

a) Have you ever applied for a loan?

b) If you need money urgently, where can you get a loan?
c) How would you choose a loan?

Task VII. Work with a partner. Student B: Look at the

communicative activities section (p. 293).
Read your definitions to B who will complete them with the
missing words.

1) ______________ is a loan in which the borrower pledges some asset

e.g. a car or property as collateral (secured)
 Unit 26. Consumer mathematics. Simple and compound interest page 213
2) ______________ is a very common type of debt instrument, used by
many individuals to purchase housing (mortgage)
3) ______________ loans are short term loans, atypical in that they
do not have fixed dates for repayment and carry a floating interest
rate which varies according to the prime lending rate. They can
be “called” for repayment by the lending institution at any time
(demand)
Listen to B’s definitions and complete the missing words from
the box. There is one extra word you do not need.

subsidized      concessional      balance      unsecured
page 214

UNIT 27. ANNUAL PERCENTAGE RATE

Task I. Unscramble the words and make a collocation. Next,

choose its Polish equivalent.
EPCREGATEN      TERA      UNALNA  .....................................
a) roczny dochód procentowy
b) roczna stopa procentowa
c) roczna stopa przychodu

Task II. Read the sentences and decide if they are correct.
Compare with a partner.
1. Nominal and effective APR are similar.
2. One of the ways of calculating APR is compounding the interest
rate for each year, with fees.
3. In most countries and jurisdictions, lenders such as banks do not
have to disclose the cost of borrowing money.
4. EAR varies depending on the type of fees included, such as
participation fees, loan origination fees or monthly service charges.
5. There can be at least two possible effective APRs when taking
a loan.

Task III. Read the passage and check your answers to Task II.
The term annual percentage rate of charge (APR) describes
the interest rate for a whole year (annualized), rather than just
a monthly fee, as applied on a loan, mortgage loan, credit card, etc.
It is a finance charge expressed as an annual rate.
The nominal APR is the simple-interest rate for a year.
The effective APR is the fee + compound interest rate calculated
across a year.
In some areas, the annual percentage rate (APR) is the simplified
counterpart to the effective interest rate that the borrower will
pay on a loan. In many countries and jurisdictions, lenders
such as banks are required to disclose the “cost” of borrowing in
some standardized way as a form of consumer protection. APR is
 Unit 27. Annual percentage rate page 215
intended to make it easier to compare lenders and loan options.
The nominal APR is calculated as: the rate, for a payment period,
multiplied by the number of payment periods in a year. However,
the exact legal definition of “effective APR”, or EAR, can vary greatly
in each jurisdiction, depending on the type of fees included, such
as participation fees, loan origination fees, monthly service charges,
or late fees. The effective APR has been called the “mathematically-
-true” interest rate for each year. The computation for the effective
APR can also vary depending on whether the up-front fees, such as
origination or participation fees, are added to the entire amount, or
treated as a short-term loan due in the first payment. When start-up
fees are paid as first payment(s), the balance due might accrue more
interest, as being delayed by the extra payment period(s). There are
at least three ways of computing effective annual percentage rate:
by compounding the interest rate for each year, without considering
fees; origination fees are added to the balance due, and the total
amount is treated as the basis for computing compound interest;
the origination fees are amortized as a short-term loan. This loan
is due in the first payment(s), and the unpaid balance is amortized
as a second long-term loan. The extra first payment(s) is dedicated
to primarily paying origination fees and interest charges on that
portion.
For example, consider a $100 loan which must be repaid after one
month, plus 5%, plus a $10 fee. If the fee is not considered, this loan
has an effective APR of approximately 80% (1.0512 = 1.7959, which
is approximately an 80% increase). If the $10 fee were considered,
the monthly interest increases by 10% ($10/$100), and the effective
APR becomes approximately 435% (1.1512 = 5.3503, which equals
a 435% increase). Hence there are at least two possible “effective
APRs”: 80% and 435%.

Task IV. Study the basic equation for calculation of APR. Decide
what the letters below represent.
M N

∑ S (1 + APR /100)
l =1
l
−tl
= ∑ A (1 + APR /100)
k =1
k
−tk

k   Sl   tl   M   tk   Ak   l   N
page 216 Unit 27. Annual percentage rate

1. ______ is the number of cash flows paid by the lender

2. ______ is the sequence number for the cash flows paid by
the lender (draw down)
3. ______ is the cash flow (drawdown) in period l
4. ______ is the total number of cash flows paid by the borrower
5. ______ is the sequence number of the cash flows paid by
the borrower (repayment)
6. ______ is the cash flow (repayment) of period k
7. ___ and ___ is the interval, expressed in years and fractions
of a year between the date of the first cash flow and the date
of cash flow l or k (t1 = 0)

Task V. Read the description of the APR equation and answer

the questions.
1. What is the correlation between the present value of the drawdowns
and the present value of the repayments?
2. What properties do the transactions have?
3. What purposes does this algorithm serve?
In this equation the left side is the present value of the drawdown
made by the lender and the right side is the present value of
the repayments made by the borrower. In both cases the present
value is defined given the APR as the interest rate. So the present
value of the drawdowns is equal to the present value of the
repayments, given the APR as the interest rate. Note that neither
the amounts nor the periods between transactions are necessarily
equal. For the purposes of this calculation, a year is presumed
to have 365 days (366 days for leap years), 52 weeks or 12 equal
months. As per the standard: an equal month is presumed to
have 30.41666 days (i.e. 365/12) regardless of whether or not it is
a leap year. The result is to be expressed to at least one decimal
place. This algorithm for APR is required for some but not all forms
of consumer debt in the EU.
 Unit 27. Annual percentage rate page 217
Task VI. Work in pairs. Student B: Look at the communicative
activities section (p. 294).
Before you start talking to your partner, make sure you can
explain the clues in your part in English. Your partner will
ask you about the clues in your part of the crossword. Explain
each clue in English. Ask your partner about the clues missing
in your part.
1. R E P A Y
2.

3. C H A R G E
4.

5. A S S E T S
6.

7. I N T E R E S T
8.

9. M O R T G A G E
10.
page 218

UNIT 28. RENT-TO-OWN

Task I. Match the words in the box with their definitions. Write
the Polish equivalents of the terms.

incur   outlay   factor into   installment   tangible   obligation
outright layaway proponents contend provision for

1. ______________ (v) to include or consider a particular fact when

you are planning or calculating something
2. ______________ (n) an amount of money that you spend on
something, especially a large amount that is spent on new
equipment or to start a new business activity
3. ______________ (v) to compete in order to win something,
to struggle with the rival
4. ______________ (n) a person who speaks publicly in support
of a particular idea or plan of action
5. ______________ (n) thing that you must do or pay because of a law,
rule, agreement
6. ______________ (adv.) completely or immediately
7. ______________ (v) to be made to lose money or have to pay
a charge
8. ______________ (n) one of a number of parts into which an
amount of money that is owed has been divided
9. ______________ (n) a method of buying goods in which a large
deposit is made so that a store will keep the goods until the
full price can be paid
10. ______________ (v) to make plans for dealing with something that
will or may happen in the future
11. ______________ (adj.) real, existing; able to be shown or
experienced

uwzględnić    wydatek/nakład kosztów    namacalny/istotny

zaciągnąć (długi)/ponosić (straty)    depozyt/odkładać
walczyć    zapewnić/zabezpieczyć    rata
całkowity/gotówkowy    zobowiązanie    zwolennik/wnioskodawca
 Unit 28. Rent-to-own page 219
Task II. Read the passage about rent-to-own and put the missing
sentences A–E into gaps 1–5

1 2 3 4 5

A) Often mentioned alongside most critiques is the question

of whether prices paid for services of this type are adequate
for lower-income individuals who can least afford additional
financial outlays.
B) The industry has contended that the transaction is a lease; while
consumer advocacy groups have advocated for the transaction
to be treated as a credit sale.
C) … is leased in exchange for a weekly or monthly payment,
with the option to purchase at some point during the agreement.
D) Also frequently noted by proponents of the unique nature
of rent-to-own transactions is the point that they are not
obligations to purchase, since the agreement can be terminated
by the lessee at any point in time with the return of the property.
E) In the structure of this type of transaction, the consumer −
at the end of each week or month − can choose either to renew
the lease on a weekly or monthly basis by making renewal
payments, or to terminate the agreement with no further
obligation by returning the tangible property.
Rent-to-own, also known as rental-purchase, is a type of legally
documented transaction under which tangible property, such as
furniture, consumer electronics and home appliances, ___ (1).
A rent-to-own transaction differs from a traditional lease, in that the
lessee can purchase the leased item at any time during the agreement
(in a traditional lease the lessee has no such right), and from
a hire purchase/installment plan, in that the lessee can terminate
the agreement by simply returning the property.
Rent-to-own agreements are based on a weekly or monthly rental
term.___ (2). Though not obligated to do so, the consumer can choose
to continue making interval payments on the merchandise for a pre-
-specified period of time, at which point they would own the good
outright. An alternative purchase option is commonly provisioned
page 220 Unit 28. Rent-to-own

for, allowing the consumer to pay off the remaining balance on

the agreement at any point in time in order to obtain permanent
ownership.
The cost incurred by consumers in rent-to-own transactions
has been the subject of long-term debate and differing opinion.
Historically, consumer advocates, some U.S. state attorneys general
and some academic researchers have expressed concern that
consumers entering into rent-to-own agreements may be unaware
of the potentially high long-term costs of rent-to-own in comparison
to traditional installment or layaway plans. ____ (3). At the same
time, other academic researchers and representatives of industry
associations have contended that rent-to-own transactions are
not comparable to traditional methods of purchasing or financing
consumer goods, in that they include services such as delivery,
assembly, service and repair, all of which are factored into the higher
assessed value and corresponding price charged._____ (4). Research
conducted by the University of Massachusetts Dartmouth in 2003
found that 90% of rent-to-own merchandise is returned with less
than 36% of the scheduled weekly payments made, suggesting that
transactions of this type are more frequently used for short-term
needs rather than as a method of acquisition.
The legal controversy surrounding rent-to-own transactions has
centered primarily on the question of whether the transaction should
be treated as a lease or a credit sale.____ (5). As of 2011, forty-seven
U.S. states, Guam, Puerto Rico, and the District of Columbia have
passed laws characterizing the transaction as a lease. Of the five
U.S. state supreme courts that have addressed the question, three
(Massachusetts, Arkansas and Maine) concluded that the transaction
was a lease. New Jersey and Minnesota concluded it was a credit
sale based upon those states’ credit laws. A federal district court
in Wisconsin also found the transaction to be a credit sale under
Wisconsin state law.
Task III. Read the passage more carefully. As you read,
student A: list the advantages of rent-to-own,
student B: list the disadvantages of rent-to-own.
After you have read the text, work in groups of four (2As and 2Bs)
and discuss the problem, defending your point of view.
 Unit 28. Rent-to-own page 221
Task IV. Work with a partner to solve the problem.
Suppose you can rent-to-own $500 television for 24 monthly
payments of $30. Estimate the annual percentage rate you would be
paying on rent-to-own.
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………

Task V. Read the solution and complete the missing words from
the box. There is ONE extra word you do not need.

nominal   estimate   odd-on   interest   approximately
percentage

The payments total $30x24 = $720. You will be paying

$720 – $500 = $220 as ………………. (1) interest over two years or
$110 per year. The simple interest rate needed for that amount
of …………………. (2) is 110/500 = 0.22 = 22%. Since we do not have
a table that includes the APR for a loan with ……………….. (3) interest
rate of 22% and term of two years, we must make an ………………. (4)
by multiplying the nominal rate by 1.8. So we estimate that the
annual percentage rate is …………….. (5) 1.8x22% which is 40%.
page 222

UNIT 29. AMORTIZATION, ANNUITY, SINKING FUNDS

Task I. Work with a partner. Student B: Look at the

communicative activities section (p. 294).
Talk to a partner and ask about the missing terms and
definitions.

ENGLISH WORD DEFINITION POLISH EQUIVALENT

liability debts wierzytelność

allocate to give something to przydzielić

someone as their share
of a total amount, to use
in a particular way

defer to delay something until odkładać/odraczać

a later time

Task II. Discuss the questions with your partner. Next, read the
passage and check your answers.
1. What is the difference between amortization and depreciation?
2. What applications does amortization have?
3. What are intangible assets?
4. What is the rule governing amortization of assets?
5. Are all assets subject to amortization or depreciation? Why/why
not?
Amortization is the gradual reduction of the value of an asset
or liability by some periodic amount (installment payments).
In the case of an asset, it involves expensing the item over the “life”
of the item—the time period over which it can be used. For a liability,
 Unit 29. Amortization, annuity, sinking funds page 223
the amortization takes place over the time period that the item is
repaid or earned. Amortization is essentially a means to allocate
categories of assets and liabilities to their pertinent time period.
The key difference between depreciation and amortization is the nature
of the items to which the terms apply. The former is generally used
in the context of tangible assets, such as buildings, machinery, and
equipment. The latter is more commonly associated with intangible
assets, such as copyrights, goodwill, patents, and capitalized costs
(e.g. product development costs). On the liability side, amortization
is commonly applied to deferred revenue items such as premium
income or subscription revenue (wherein cash payments are often
received in advance of delivery of goods or services), and therefore
must be recognized as income distributed over some future period
of time.
Amortization is a means by which accountants apply the period
concept in accrual-based financial statements: income and expenses
are recorded in the periods affected, rather than when the cash
actually changes hands. The importance of spreading transactions
across several periods becomes more clear when considering long-
-lived assets of substantial cost. Just as it would be inappropriate
to expense the entire cost of a new facility in the year of its acquisition
since its life would extend over many years, it would be wrong
to fully expense an intangible asset only in the first year. Intangible
assets such as copyrights, patents, and goodwill can be of benefit
to a business for many years, so the cost of accruing such assets
should be spread over the entire time period the company that
the company is likely to use the asset or generate revenue from it.
The periods over which intangible assets are amortized vary widely,
from a few years to as many as 40 years. The costs incurred with
establishing and protecting patent rights, for example, are generally
amortized over 17 years. The general rule is that the asset should
be amortized over its useful life. Small business owners should
realize, however, that not all assets are consumed by their use or
by the passage of time, and thus are not subject to amortization or
depreciation. The value of land, for instance, is generally not degraded
by time or use (indeed, the value of land assets often increases with
time). This applies to intangible assets as well; trademarks can have
indefinite lives and can increase in value over time, and thus are not
subject to amortization.
page 224 Unit 29. Amortization, annuity, sinking funds

The term amortization is also used in connection with loans.

The amortization of a loan is the rate at which the principal balance
will be paid down over time, given the term and interest rate
of the note. Shorter note periods will have higher amounts amortized
with each payment or period.

Task III. Complete the sentences below with the bolded

expressions from the text in the right grammatical
form.
1. The government is …………………. £10 million for health education.
2. Interest will ………………… on the account at a rate of seven
percent.
3. The business has ………………… of £2 million.
4. Chapter One is ………………… to the post-war period.
5. My bank has agreed to ……………….. the repayments on my
loan while I’m still a student.
6. It’s silly to go to the ………………. of buying new clothes when
you don’t really need them.

Task IV. Do you know how amortization schedule is calculated?

Discuss with your partner. Correct the statements
concerning amortization schedule.
1. Amortization schedule specifies some payments on an amortizing
loan, including how much of the money is going towards
the principal balance.
2. Determining the monthly payment to account for interest requires
a formula which includes such values as the monthly payment,
the loan’s initial amount, the annual interest rate, and some
number of payments.
3. The amount of interest can be calculated by subtracting total
cost of the loan from the original loan amount.
Now read the paragraph and check.
Amortization schedule is a table or chart showing each payment on
an amortizing loan, including how much of each payment is interest
and the amount going towards the principal balance. Let’s say you are
purchasing a new home for $280,000 with a $30,000 down payment.
Your bank agrees to provide you with a $250,000 mortgage at a fixed
 Unit 29. Amortization, annuity, sinking funds page 225
interest rate of 5% for 30 years. What is your monthly payment?
How much money are you paying towards interest and principal each
month? You have to make one payment per month for 30 years.
This means you will make 360 payments over the course of the
mortgage (12 × 30 = 360). If there were no interest rate, determining
your monthly rate would be simple: divide the loan amount by the
number of payments ($250,000/360 = $694.44). Obviously the bank
has to make money so the mortgage comes with a 5% interest rate.
It is important to note the 5% is an annual interest rate. Since all
the following calculations are based on a monthly payment schedule,
the annual rate needs to be converted to a monthly rate. The monthly
interest rate would be 0.416% (5%/12 = 0.416%). Determining
the monthly payment to account for interest requires a complicated
i × P × (1 + i )n
formula A = where A is the monthly payment, P is the
(1 + i )n − 1
loan’s initial amount, I is the monthly interest rate, and n is the total
number of payments. Using our numbers (P = 250,000, i = 0.416%
(i.e. 0.00416), n = 360), the formula yields a monthly payment
of $1,342.05.
We can now calculate the total cost of the loan since you will
make 360 payments of $1,342.05. The total cost is approximately
$483,139 (actually $483,139.46 if you don›t round the monthly
payment to two decimals). Subtracting away the original loan amount
($250,000) leaves us with the amount of interest: approximately
$233,139. So even though the interest rate is only 5%, you almost
pay as much in interest as the purchase price!

Task V. Work with a partner. Student B: Look at the

communicative activities section (p. 295).
Read the passage and write questions for the missing details.
Ask your partner for the missing details.

1. _____________________________________________________?
2. _____________________________________________________?
3. _____________________________________________________?
4. _____________________________________________________?
5. _____________________________________________________?
page 226 Unit 29. Amortization, annuity, sinking funds

Annuity is a payment made yearly, as, for example, under

a contract to provide retirement income. The term is also applied
to 1) ……………………………… made at regular, fixed intervals;
the length of the interval is called the annuity period. There are
two main classes of annuities: 2) ………………………….. Under an
annuity certain, the payments are to continue for a specified number
of payments, and calculations are based on the assumption that
3) ………………………………….. With a contingent annuity, each
payment is contingent on the continuance of a given status, as with
a life annuity under which each payment is contingent on the survival
of one or more specified persons. A special case of the annuity certain
is the perpetuity, which is 4) ……………………………. The contingent
annuity used in life insurance and pension plans is based upon
the risk-sharing principle. The price of an annuity paying a given sum
for life is based upon 5) …………………………………………………...
In effect, the annuitant joins with a large number of other persons
of the same age in establishing a fund that is calculated, on the basis
of mortality tables, to be sufficient to pay each person the life income
agreed upon. Some will live longer than others and receive more
in payments than they have put into the fund, whereas others will
not live long enough to receive all that they have put in.

Read the passage and answer B’s questions.

Sinking fund is a fund accumulated and set aside by a corporation or

government agency for the purpose of periodically redeeming bonds,
debentures, and preferred stocks. The fund is accumulated from
earnings, and payments into the fund may be based on either a fixed
percentage of the outstanding debt or a fixed percentage of profits.
Sinking funds are administered separately from the corporation’s
working funds by a trust company or a sinking-fund trustee.
The funds may be used immediately to retire the bonds for which
the fund was established; however, in most cases sinking-
-fund administrators opt to save money by investing the fund
in conservative bonds purchased on the open market. Revenues
from these investments are then added to the fund; for example,
$1,000,000 can be added to the sinking fund at a cost of only
$500,000 if bonds can be purchased at a 50 percent discount to
the face value. The purpose of a sinking fund is to assure investors
that provision has been made for repayment of bonds at maturity.
 Unit 29. Amortization, annuity, sinking funds page 227
Task VI. Decide if the sentences are true or false
1. There are three main classes of annuities: annuities certain,
contingent annuities and bond annuities.
2. The sinking fund is accumulated from payments based on the
outstanding debt or on profits.
3. A special case of the contingent annuity is the perpetuity, which
continues for 30 years.
4. Sinking-fund administrators save money by investing the fund
in conservative bonds purchased on the open market.
5. The price of an annuity paying a given sum for life is based upon
the age of the annuitant at the time the annuity is to begin.
6. The annuitant joins in establishing a fund that is calculated,
on the basis of mortality tables.
7. Revenues from the investments are not added to the fund.
8. A sinking fund does not assure repayment of bonds at maturity.

Task VII. Work in pairs. Student B: Look at the

communicative activities section (p. 296).
Read your sentence beginnings (bolded) to B who will provide
the right endings (italics).
1. Consumer math comprises (practical mathematical techniques
used in commerce and everyday life).
2. Although a loan does not start out as income to the borrower,
(it becomes income to the borrower if the borrower is discharged
of indebtedness).
3. Interest paid represents compensation for the use of the
lender’s money or property (and thus represents profit or an
accession to wealth to the lender).
4. Mortgage loans are generally structured as long-term loans,
(the periodic payments for which are similar to an annuity
and calculated according to the time value of money formulae).
5. The collateral serves as protection for a lender against
a borrower’s default thus, (any borrower failing to pay the principal
and interest under the terms of a loan obligation).
6. Financial institutions closely monitor the market value of
any financial asset held as collateral (and take appropriate
action if the value subsequently declines below the predetermined
maximum loan-to-value ratio).
page 228 Unit 29. Amortization, annuity, sinking funds

Listen to B’s sentence beginning and match it with the ending

A−F.
a) … stockholders have an equity stake in the company
whereas bondholders have a creditor stake in the company.
b) … calculating other parameters that give information on
a company’s value and situation.
c) … to fund growth in the interest of generating a return
through an eventual realization event, such as trade sale
of the company.
d) … selling or repossessing a parcel of real property after
the owner has failed to comply with an agreement between
the lender and borrower.
e) … the income from that asset so banks will try to reduce
liquid assets as far as possible.
f) … by individuals and firms in anticipation of income from
dividends and capital gains, as the value of the stock rises.
 page 229

COMMUNICATIVE ACTIVITIES SECTION – STUDENT B

UNIT 1

Task IV. Listen to A and write down the mathematical symbols.

Study the mathematical symbols below, read them
to A. Ask him/her to write them down.
1. 1. ____
2. 2. ____
3. 3. ____
4. 4. ____
5. 5. ____
6. 6. ____

Task IX. Read your mathematical operations to A who will

write them down. Check your partner’s operations for
mistakes.
1. ....................................................................
1 2
2. =5
2 9
3. .....................................................................
4. |3 + 4i| = 5
5. ....................................................................
6. 3 ≤ 4 and 5 ≤ 5
7. .....................................................................
8. 1+1=2
9. .....................................................................
3 3
10. −  2 +  = −2 −
 4 4
11. .....................................................................
12. xy = x y ∧ x  0, y  0
13. ....................................................................
f (a + h ) − f (a )
14. lim
h →0 h
15. ...................................................................
page 230 Communicative activities section − Student B

Task X. A will ask you about the clues missing in his/her

crossword. Do not read the words, give their definitions.
Take it in turns to complete the crossword.
Example: A: What is 2 across?
B: It is a way of denoting ideas, quantities or relations
between quantities.

1.

2. S Y M B O L
3.

4. Q U O T I E N T
5.

6. S U B T R A H E N D
7.

8. A D D E N D
9.

10. S C A L I N G

UNIT 2
Task IV. Ask A questions about natural numbers and integers.
1. What are the three main functions of natural numbers?
2. Does zero belong to natural numbers?
3. What algebraic properties do natural numbers have?
4. What are integers?
5. What’s the difference between rational integers and algebraic
integers?
Read about numbers and be ready to answer your partner’s
questions concerning your passage. You may refer to the passage
to answer the questions.
A rational number is any number that can be expressed as the
quotient or fraction p/q of two integers, with the denominator
q not equal to zero. Since q may be equal to 1, every integer is
a rational number. The set of all rational numbers is usually denoted
 Communicative activities section − Student B page 231
by a boldface Q, which stands for quotient. The decimal expansion
of a rational number always either terminates after a finite number
of digits or begins to repeat the same finite sequence of digits over
and over. Moreover, any repeating or terminating decimal represents
a rational number. These statements hold true not just for base 10,
but also for binary, hexadecimal, or any other integer base. A real
number that is not rational is called irrational. Irrational numbers
include 2 , π, and e. The decimal expansion of an irrational number
continues forever without repeating. Since the set of rational
numbers is countable, and the set of real numbers is uncountable,
almost all real numbers are irrational. The rational numbers can
be formally defined as the equivalence classes of the quotient set
(Z × (Z∖{0})), where the cartesian product Z × (Z∖{0}) is the set of all
ordered pairs (m,n) where m and n are integers, n is not zero (n ≠ 0),
and “~” is the equivalence relation defined by (m1, n1) ~ (m2, n2)
if, and only if, m1n2 − m2n1 = 0. Zero divided by any other integer
equals zero, therefore zero is a rational number (but division by
zero is undefined).
A real number is a value that represents a quantity along
a continuous line. The real numbers include all the rational
numbers, such as the integer −5 and the fraction 4/3, and all
the irrational numbers such as 2 (1.41421356... the square
root of two, an irrational algebraic number) and π (3.14159265...,
a transcendental number). Real numbers can be thought of as points
on an infinitely long line called the number line or real line, where the
points corresponding to integers are equally spaced. Any real number
can be determined by a possibly infinite decimal representation such
as that of 8.632, where each consecutive digit is measured in units
one tenth the size of the previous one. The real line can be thought of
as a part of the complex plane, and correspondingly, complex numbers
include real numbers as a special case. More formally, real numbers
have the two basic properties of being an ordered field, and having
the least upper bound property. The first says that real numbers
comprise a field, with addition and multiplication as well as division
by nonzero numbers, which can be totally ordered on a number line
in a way compatible with addition and multiplication. The second
says that if a nonempty set of real numbers has an upper bound,
then it has a least upper bound. The second condition distinguishes
the real numbers from the rational numbers: for example, the set
page 232 Communicative activities section − Student B

of rational numbers whose square is less than 2 is a set with an

upper bound (e.g. 1.5) but no least upper bound: hence the rational
numbers do not satisfy the least upper bound property.

Task VIII. Read the questions and answers to A. Ask him/her

to give the right answer A, B, C or D (A: stands for
the correct answer).
1. What is the cube root of ‒64?
A) 4     B) 4i     C) ‒4     D) ‒4i
A: −4 × −4 × −4 = −64 ⇒ 3 −64 = −4
2. If x is an imaginary number, then what are the solutions
of the equation x2 = –9?
A) x = ±3     B) x = 3 or 3i     C) x = ‒3 or ‒3i     D) x = ±3i
A: x2 = –9⇒ x = ± (−9) = ± (9 × −1) = ± 9 × (−1) = ±3i
3. If x is an imaginary number, then what are the imaginary
solutions of the equation x4 = 16?
A) x = ±2     B) x = ±2i     C) x = ±4i     D) x = ±8i
A: x4 = 16⇒ x2 = ± 16 = ±4 Consider each of these in turn:
1. x2 = +4 ⇒ x = ± 4 = ±2 which are real solutions
2. x2 = –4 ⇒ x = ± (−4) = ± (4 × −1) = ± 4 × (−1) = ±2i which are
the imaginary solutions.
4. If x is an imaginary number, then what are the solutions of the
equation x2 + 25 = 0?
A) x = 5 or 5i     B) x = ‒5 or -5i     C) x = ±5     D) x = ±5i
A: x2 + 25 = 0⇒ x2 = –25 ⇒ x = ± (−25) = ± (25 × −1) =
= ± 25 × (−1) = ±5i
     
5. If x is an imaginary number, then which of the following are
possible solutions of equation x3 = 27i?
A) x = ±3i     B) x = ‒3i     C) x = 3i     D) x = ±3
A: x=-3i

Task XIV. Match the English words with their Polish equivalents.
Then listen to A’s sentences and complete them with
the right words.
 Communicative activities section − Student B page 233
subsequent   countable   extended   non-constant   vertical
recurrence    coefficient

przeliczalny niestały współczynnik kolejny rekurencja

pionowy rozszerzony

Read your sentences to A and ask him/her to fill in the missing

words. Do not say the words in italics (answers).
1. The set of transcendental numbers is ............................... infinite.
(uncountably)
2. The number of polynomials with integer coefficients is countable,
and each has a .......................... number of zeroes. (finite)
3. No rational number is transcendental and all real transcendental
numbers are .............................. (irrational)
4. An algebraic function of several variables may ............................
an algebraic number when applied to transcendental numbers
if these numbers are not algebraically independent. (yield)
5. Any Liouville number must have ...................... partial
quotients in its continued fraction expansion. (unbounded)
6. Any non-constant algebraic function of a single ..........................
yields a transcendental value when applied to a transcendental
argument. (variable)

Task XVI. Listen to A. Choose the right definition. Add one

more incorrect definition, read your words to A. Ask
him/her to guess the right meaning A, B or C (bolded).
1. Square root
a) of a number a is a number y such that y2 = a, or, in other
words, a number y whose square (the result of multiplying
the number by itself, or y × y) is a.
b) ....................................................................................
c) of a number a is a number y such that y = a, or, in other words,
a number y whose square (the result of multiplying the number
by itself, or y × y) is a.
2. Cartesian plane
a) is a surface on which a pair of numerical coordinates
(the signed distances from the point to two fixed parallel directed
lines), are measured in the same unit of length.
page 234 Communicative activities section − Student B

b) is a surface on which a pair of numerical coordinates

(the signed distances from the point to two fixed
perpendicular directed lines), are measured in the same
unit of length.
c) ....................................................................................
3. Fern
a) is a plant belonging to the botanical group known as
Pteridophyta which has stems, leaves, and roots like other
vascular plants.
b) ....................................................................................
c) is a type of mathematical operation on numbers.
4. Recurrence relation
a) ....................................................................................
b) is an algorithm that non-recursively defines terms, once one
initial term is given: each further term of the sequence is defined
as a function of the preceding terms.
c) is an equation that recursively defines a sequence, once
one or more initial terms are given: each further term
of the sequence is defined as a function of the preceding
terms.

Task XIX. A will ask you about the clues missing in his/
her crossword. Do not read the words, give
their definitions. Take it in turns to complete
the crossword.
Example: B: What is 2 across?
You: It is the number which ...
1.
2. I N T E G E R
3.
4. M U L T I P L E
5.
6. S O L U T I O N
7.
8. F I B O N A C C I
9.
10. N U M E R A L
 Communicative activities section − Student B page 235
UNIT 3

Task II. Listen to A. Decide if his/her sentences are True

or False.
Read your description of sets and decide if the sentences are
True or False. Tell A about it.
1. Venn diagram is a graphical representation of set.
2. Disjoint sets have one common element.
3. Overlapping sets have a common part.
4. There are two basic types of sets: universal and complement of A.
5. Two sets can form a union of sets.
6. Intersection of sets occurs when there are more than two sets.
7. De Morgan’s laws describe algebraic operations.

Read your sentences to A and ask him/her to decide if they

are True or False.
Although relationships between sets can be investigated in terms
of elements in sets, it is often advantageous to use graphical
representations which are called Venn diagrams. In a Venn diagram,
the universal set is indicated by the inside region of a rectangle
and sets are represented by the inside regions of circles and other
geometric forms. Sets can be divided into disjoint sets which have
no common elements; they are also reffered to as being mutually
exclusive or overlapping sets with a common part. When a set A is
well defined, you are able to tell whether an object in the universal
set belongs to the set A or not. In essence, there are two sets that
are identified. The second set, called the complement of A (written
A' and read ‘A prime’ or ‘A complement’), consists of all elements
of the universal set that are not in A. With the set-builder notation,
we write A' = {x: x ∈ U and x ∉ A}. In some applications, it is often
more productive to consider the elements in the complement of
a set rather than the elements in the set itself. Given any two sets
A and B, we can form another set called the union of A and B (written
A ∪ B ) consisting of all elements of A or B or both. Using the set-
builder notation, we write A ∪ B = {x: x ∈ A or x ∈ B }. The use of or
in this context means that an element is in the union of two sets
if it is at least one of the sets. Another set that can be formed from
two sets is called the intersection of the two sets. The intersection
page 236 Communicative activities section − Student B

of A and B (written A  B ) consists of all elements that are

common to both A and B. In set-builder notation we write that as
A  B = {x: x ∈ A and x ∈ B }. Note that sets A and B are disjoint
whenever A  B = ∅. The set difference of set B with respect to set A,
written AB, is the set of elements in set A that are not in set B. Using
set-builder notation we can write AB = {x: x ∈ A and x ∉ B }. You
can think of AB as all elements remaining in A after any elements
in B have been removed.
The British mathematician and logician August De Morgan
applied algebraic operations to logic and helped put it on
a sound mathematical basis. The operations on sets are known
as De Morgan’s laws. For any set A and B, (A ∪ B )' = A'  B' and
(A  B )' = A'  B'. In words, “The complement of the union is
the intersection of the complements” and “The complement
of the intersection is the union of the complement”.

Task IV. Listen to A and complete his/her sentences with

the words from the box.

corresponding specific integers collection depicting

braces   universal

Read your sentences to A. Ask him/her to give you the right

word for each gap. Write the words if you think the sentence
makes sense.
1. The rectangle forming ........................... of the Venn diagram
represents the universal set.
2. The difference of A and B is shown by ........................... region
of the diagram.
3. The operation of ............................., union and complement
correspond in a natural way to the logical connectives and, or
and not respectively.
4. Each of the laws of logic gives rise to a ........................... law
of sets.
5. There might be a set with one element, and that element can be
................... set.
 Communicative activities section − Student B page 237
Task V. Read your operation on sets to your partners. Ask
them to draw its representation in Venn diagram.

STUDENT B The union of two sets A and B   A ∪ B

Task VI. Write down the symbols that you hear.

1 2 3 4 5 6

Now read the symbols to your partner. Ask him/her to write

them down.
1. A\B    2. (“...”)    3. A ∼ B     4. A′     5. A ⇔ B   6. A = B

Task VIII. Listen to A carefully and answer the questions

in note form.
1. What is the least complicated example of the Cartesian product?
2. What is n-tuple?
3. What is the Cartesian plane?
4. Why is the Cartesian product not commutative?
Now read the text. Focus on the membership function, fuzzy
sets, bivalent sets and kernel.
In classical set theory, the membership of elements in a set is
assessed in binary terms according to a bivalent condition — an
element either belongs or does not belong to the set. By contrast,
fuzzy set theory permits the gradual assessment of the membership
of elements in a set; this is described with the aid of a membership
function valued in the real unit interval. Fuzzy sets generalize
classical sets, since the indicator functions of classical sets are
special cases of the membership functions of fuzzy sets, if the latter
only take values 0 or 1. In fuzzy set theory, classical bivalent sets
are usually called crisp sets. When an individual is searching in vital
records such as birth records for possible ancestors, the researcher
must contend with a number of issues that could be encapsulated
in a membership function. Looking for an ancestor named John
page 238 Communicative activities section − Student B

Henry Pittman, who you think was born in Tennessee circa 1853
(based on statements of his age in later censuses, and a marriage
record in Knoxville), what is the likelihood that a particular birth
record for “John Pittman” is your John Pittman? What about a record
in a different part of Tennessee for “J.H. Pittman” in 1851? To sum
up, a fuzzy set is a pair (U, m) where U is a set and m: U → [0, 1].
For each x ∈ U, the value m(x ) is called the grade of membership of
x in (U, m). For a finite set U = {x1, …, xn}, the fuzzy set (U, m) is often
denoted by {m(x1)|x1, …, m(xn)|xn}. Let x ∈ U. Then x is called not
included in the fuzzy set (U, m) x is called fully included if m(x) = 1,
and x is called a fuzzy member if 0 < m(x ) < 1. The set {x ∈ Um(x) > 0}
is called the support of (U, m) and the set {x ∈ Um(x) = 1} is called its
kernel. The function m is called the membership function of the fuzzy
set (U, m). Sometimes, more general variants of the notion of fuzzy
set are used, with membership functions taking values in a fixed or
variable algebra or structure L of a given kind; usually it is required
that L be at least a poset or lattice. These are usually called L-fuzzy
sets, to distinguish them from those valued over the unit interval.
The usual membership functions with values in [0, 1] are then called
[0, 1]-valued membership functions.

Task IX. Study the endings. Your partner will read the
beginning of a sentence. You have to choose an ending.
a) … in which case the first component of the order pair is
a member of Y and the second component of the ordered pair
is a member of X.
b) … is the Cartesian square, which returns a set from two sets.
c) … an array of n dimensions, where each element is an n-tuple.

Read your sentence beginnings (bolded) to A who will try to

provide the right endings (italics). Do not read the part in italics.
1. The membership of elements in a set is assessed in binary
terms according to a bivalent condition — an element either
belongs or does not belong to the set.
2. Fuzzy set theory permits the gradual assessment of the
membership of elements in a set.
3. The usual membership functions with values in [0, 1] are called
[0, 1]-valued membership functions.
 Communicative activities section − Student B page 239
Task XI. Before you start talking to your partner, make sure
you can explain the clues in your part in English.
Your partner will ask you about the clues in your part
of the crossword. Explain each clue in English. Ask
your partner about the clues missing in your part.
1.

2. O V E R L A P
3.

4. U N I V E R S A L
5.

6. R O S T E R
7.

8. I N T E R S E C T I O N

UNIT 4

Task VI. Read about Riemann zeta function and answer A’s
questions.
Riemann zeta function is useful in number theory for investigating
properties of prime numbers (1). Written as ζ(x ), it was originally
defined as the infinite series (2) ζ(x ) = 1 + 2−x + 3−x + 4−x + ⋯. When
x = 1, this series is called the harmonic series, which increases
without bound—i.e., its sum is infinite. For values of x larger than 1,
the series converges to a finite number (3) as successive terms are
added. If x is less than 1, the sum is again infinite. The zeta function
was known to the Swiss mathematician (4) Leonhard Euler in 1737,
but it was first studied extensively by the German mathematician
Bernhard Riemann. In 1859 Riemann published a paper giving an
explicit formula (5) for the number of primes up to any pre-assigned
limit—a decided improvement over the approximate value given by
the prime number theorem. However, Riemann’s formula depended
on knowing the values at which a generalized version of the zeta
function equals zero (6). (The Riemann zeta function is defined for
all complex numbers—numbers of the form x + iy, where i = (−1)
—except for the line x = 1.)
page 240 Communicative activities section − Student B

Read the passage and write the questions for the missing
details. Ask your partner for the missing details.
Riemann knew that the function equals zero for .............................
........... (1) −2, −4, −6, … (so-called trivial zeros), and that it has an
infinite number of zeros in ......................................... (2) between
the lines x = 0 and x = 1, and he also knew that all ......................
............. (3) are symmetric with respect to the critical line x = 1/2.
Riemann conjectured that all of the nontrivial zeros are on the critical
line, a conjecture that ......................................... (4) as the Riemann
hypothesis. In 1900 the German mathematician David Hilbert called
the Riemann hypothesis one of the most important questions in
all of mathematics, as indicated by ....................................... (5)
of 23 unsolved problems with which he challenged 20th-century
mathematicians. In 1915 the English mathematician Godfrey Hardy
proved that an infinite number of zeros occur on the critical line, and
by 1986 the first 1,500,000.001 nontrivial zeros were all shown to be
on the critical line. Although the hypothesis may yet turn out to be
false, investigations of this difficult problem ................................ (6)
of complex numbers.

1. _________________________________________________
2. _________________________________________________
3. _________________________________________________
4. _________________________________________________
5. _________________________________________________
6. _________________________________________________

Task VII. A will ask you about the clues missing in his/
her crossword. Do not read the words, give their
definitions. Take it in turns to complete the
crossword.
Example: A: What is 1 across?
You: It is the ....
 Communicative activities section − Student B page 241

1.

2. D I S T R I B U T I O N
3.

4. V E R S A T I L E
5.

6. F U N C T I O N
7.

8. P O L Y N O M I A L
9.

10. S E R I E S
11.

12. I N V E R S E

UNIT 5

Task II. Listen to A’s sentences and try to put in the missing
words from the box.

maximum    coefficient    velocity    independent

Read your sentences to A who will try to put in the missing

words. Listen and check if they make sense before you write
them down.
1. The standard deviation determines the amount of ….................
away from the mean.
2. A large standard deviation, compared with the mean produces
a …................. graph.
3. Probabilities can be …................. directly from the corresponding
area—i.e., an area of 0.5 corresponds to a probability of 0.5.
4. Gauss formulated his law of observational error and advanced
the theory of the method of least …................. approximation
page 242 Communicative activities section − Student B

Task IV. Read your phrases and definitions to A and ask

him/her to choose the correct answer a or b (bolded).
1. Banach space
a) is a complete normed vector space with a metric that
allows the computation of vector length and distance
between vectors and is complete in the sense that
a Cauchy sequence of vectors always converges to a well-
-defined limit in the space
b) is a complete normed vector space with a metric that allows
the computation of distance between vectors but is incomplete
in the sense that a Cauchy sequence of vectors never converges
to a well-defined limit in the space
2. The Weierstrass function
a) is an example of a pathological real-valued function on the
real line that is continuous everywhere but differentiable
nowhere
b) is an example of a pathological real-valued function on the real
line that is continuous and differentiable everywhere

Task VI. Read your sentences to A and ask him/her to decide

if they are True or False. Correct the wrong answers.
1. The quotient of two odd functions is an odd function. T/F (even
function)
2. The quotient of an even function and an odd function is an even
function. T/F (odd function)
3. The derivative of an even function is even. T/F (odd)
4. The derivative of an odd function is even. T/F
5. The composition of two even functions is even. T/F
6. The composition of two odd functions is odd. T/F
7. The composition of an even function and an odd function is odd.
T/F (even)
8. The composition of either an odd or an even function with an even
function is even and vice versa. T/F (but not vice versa)
9. The integral of an odd function from –A to +A is zero where A is
finite, and the function has some vertical asymptotes between
–A and A. T/F (no vertical asymptotes)
 Communicative activities section − Student B page 243
Task VII. Study the endings. Your partner will read the
beginning of a sentence. You have to choose an
ending (a–g).
a) … as can be seen in the formula for the area of a triangle.
b) … be closely approximated by a polynomial function.
c) … essential for formulating physical relationships in the
sciences.
d) … functions of the independent variable x, especially when
the nature of the function is unknown or unspecified.
e) … the functions are known as real-valued functions.
f) … trigonometric functions are often used to model behaviour
that repeats, or cycles.
g) … consists of the points with coordinates (x, y) where
y = f(x).

Read your sentence beginnings to A and ask him/her to provide

the right endings. Write the ending if you think the sentence
makes sense.
1. By interchanging the roles of the independent and dependent
variables
______________________________________.
2. The Riemann zeta function is defined for all
______________________________________.
3. Riemann conjectured that all of the nontrivial zeroes
______________________________________.
4. The binomial distribution gives the probabilities that
______________________________________.
5. Normal distribution, also called Gaussian distribution,
________________________________________.
6. The graph of the normal distribution is characterized by
___________________________________________.
7. The probability of a random variable falling within any given range
of values
_____________________________________________________________.
page 244 Communicative activities section − Student B

UNIT 6

Lead-in
Talk to a partner and ask about the missing terms and
definitions. Next, match the English terms with the Polish ones.

ułamek niewłaściwy ułamek złożony mianownik

ułamek dziesiętny ułamek zwykły ułamek równoważny
licznik ułamek właściwy

ENGLISH TERM DEFINITION POLISH

EQUIVALENT
1. common/vulgar
   fraction

2. proper fraction when the numerator

and the denominator are
both positive
3. improper fraction

4. decimal fraction fraction whose

denominator is a power
of ten
5. numerator

6. denominator indicates how many of

the equal parts make
up a whole
7. equivalent fraction

8. compound fraction fraction of a fraction, or

any number of fractions
connected with the
word of, corresponding
to multiplication of
fractions
 Communicative activities section − Student B page 245
Task III. Listen to A and choose the right sentence endings.
a) …i.e. a fraction the numerator and denominator of which have
no common factors.
b) …if both the numerator and the denominator are multiplied by
the same non-zero integer.
c) …by dividing their numerator and denominator by the same
number.
Read your sentence beginnings (bolded) to A who will try to
complete them. Do not read the part of sentence in italics.
Check the logical connections.
In order to add or to subtract fractions with different denominators
they must first be reduced to fractions with a common denominator.
The least common multiple of the numbers b and d is taken as
the common denominator.
Fractions may be represented as ordered pairs of integers (a, b),
b ≠ 0, for which an equivalence relation has been specified.

Task VI. Match the words in the box with their Polish
equivalents. Then listen to A’s sentences and choose
the right word.

top-heavy    precedence    implied    specified

multiplicative inverse   visible

rozumiany widoczny poprzedzanie wyszególniony

odwrotność względem mnożenia ułamek niewłaściwy

Read your sentences to A and ask him/her to fill in the missing

words.
1. A ratio may be typically .......................... to a fraction when it is
expressed as a ratio to the whole.
2. A mixed numeral (often called a mixed number, or mixed fraction) is
the ............................. of a non-zero integer and a proper fraction.
3. Any integer can be written as a fraction with the number
one as denominator, which is sometimes referred to as the
............................... denominator.
page 246 Communicative activities section − Student B

4. A decimal fraction is a fraction whose denominator is not given

....................., but is understood to be an integer power of ten.
5. An Egyptian fraction is the sum of ......................... positive unit
fractions.

Task VIII. Read your text and complete the table with the
missing details. Ask your partners about the other
details.

Name of operation Procedure Examples

Multiplication and division of
equivalent fractions
Comparing fractions

Addition

Subtraction

Multiplication

Division

Converting decimal to
fraction

The first rule of addition is that only like quantities can be added; for
example, various quantities of quarters. Unlike quantities, such as
adding thirds to quarters, must first be converted to like quantities
as described below: Imagine a pocket containing two quarters, and
another pocket containing three quarters; in total, there are five
quarters. Since four quarters is equivalent to one (dollar), this can be
represented as follows:
2 3 5 1
+ = =1 .
4 4 4 4
To add fractions containing unlike quantities (e.g. quarters and
thirds), it is necessary to convert all amounts to like quantities. It is
 Communicative activities section − Student B page 247
easy to work out the chosen type of fraction to convert to; simply
multiply together the two denominators (bottom number) of each
fraction. For adding quarters to thirds, both types of fraction are
1 1 1
converted to × = .
4 3 12
Consider adding the following two quantities:
3 2
+
4 3
3
First, convert into twelfths by multiplying both the numerator and
4
3 3 9 3
denominator by three: × = . Note that is equivalent to 1,
4 3 12 3
3 9
which shows that is equivalent to the resulting .
4 12
2
Secondly, convert into twelfths by multiplying both the numerator
3
2 4 8 4
and denominator by four: × = . Note that is equivalent to 1,
3 4 12 4
2 8
which shows that is equivalent to the resulting . Now it can be
3 12
seen that:
3 2
+ is equivalent to:
4 3
9 8 17 5
+ = =1
12 12 12 12
This method can be expressed algebraically:
a c ad + cb
+ = And for expressions consisting of the addition of
b d bd
three fractions:
a c e a (df ) + c (bf ) + e (bd )
+ + =
b d f bdf
This method always works, but sometimes there is a smaller
denominator that can be used (a least common denominator).
3 5
For example, to add and the denominator 48 can be used
4 12
page 248 Communicative activities section − Student B

(the product of 4 and 12), but the smaller denominator 12 may also
be used, being the least common multiple of 4 and 12.
3 5 9 5 14 7 1
+ = + = = =1
4 12 12 12 12 6 6
The process for subtracting fractions is, in essence, the same as
that of adding them: find a common denominator, and change
each fraction to an equivalent fraction with the chosen common
denominator. The resulting fraction will have that denominator,
and its numerator will be the result of subtracting the numerators
of the original fractions. For instance,
2 1 4 3 1
− = − =
3 2 6 6 6
To multiply fractions, multiply the numerators and multiply
the denominators. Thus:
2 3 6
× =
3 4 12
Using the example of a cake, if three small slices of equal size make
up a quarter, and four quarters make up a whole, twelve of these
small, equal slices make up a whole. Therefore a third of a quarter is
a twelfth. Now consider the numerators. The first fraction, two thirds,
is twice as large as one third. Since one third of a quarter is one
twelfth, two thirds of a quarter is two twelfth. The second fraction,
three quarters, is three times as large as one quarter, so two thirds
of three quarters is three times as large as two thirds of one quarter.
Thus two thirds times three quarters is six twelfths.
A short cut for multiplying fractions is called “cancellation”. In effect,
we reduce the answer to lowest terms during multiplication. For
example:
1 1 1
× =
1 2 2
A two is a common factor in both the numerator of the left fraction
and the denominator of the right and is divided out of both. Three
is a common factor of the left denominator and right numerator
and is divided out of both.
 Communicative activities section − Student B page 249
Task XI. Read the words and definitions to A. Ask him/her to
choose the right definition a, b or c.
1. Rationalization is
a) a process by which surds in the numerator of an irrational
fraction are eliminated.
b) a process by which surds in the denominator of an irrational
fraction are eliminated.
c) a process by which surds in the denominator of a rational
fraction are eliminated.
2. Binomial is
a) a polynomial with three terms ‒ the sum of three monomials ‒
often bound by parenthesis or brackets when operated upon.
It is the simplest kind of polynomial after the monomials.
b) a polynomial with two terms ‒ the sum of two monomials ‒ often
bound by parenthesis or borders when operated upon. It is the
simplest kind of polynomial after the monomials.
c) a polynomial with two terms ‒ the sum of two monomials ‒ often
bound by parenthesis or brackets when operated upon. It is
the simplest kind of polynomial after the monomials.

Task XII. Read your fractions and their decimal expansions

to A. Then listen to your partner and fill in the table.

FRACTION DECIMAL EXPANSION

1.

2. 1/3 0.3333333333...

3.

4. 1/5 0.2

5.

6. 1/7 0.142857

7.

8. 1/9 0.111111111...
page 250 Communicative activities section − Student B

UNIT 7

Task VII. Read the text and answer A’s questions.

Perhaps the most familiar example of subscripts is in chemical
formulas. For example, the formula for glucose is C6H12O6 (meaning
that it is a molecule with 6 carbon atoms, 12 hydrogen atoms
and 6 oxygen atoms). A subscript can also distinguish between
different versions of a subatomic particle. Similarly, subscripts are
used frequently in mathematics to define different versions of the
same variable; for example, in an equation x0 and xf may indicate
the initial and final value of x, while vrocket and vobserver would stand
for the velocities of a rocket and an observer. Commonly, variables
with a zero in the subscript are referred to as the variable name
followed by naught. (e.g. v0 would be read, “v-naught”). Subscripts
are often used to refer to members in a mathematical sequence or
set. For example, in the sequence O = (45, –2, 800), O3 refers to the
third member of sequence O, which is 800. Also in mathematics
and computing, subscript can be applied to represent the radix,
or base, of a written number, especially where multiple bases are
used alongside each other. For example, comparing values in
hexadecimal, denary, and octal one might write Chex = 12dec = 14oct.
Subscripted numbers dropped below the baseline are also used for
the denominators of stacked fractions, like this: 67/68. The only
common use of these subscripts is for the denominators of diagonal
fractions, like 1/2 or the signs for percent %, permille ‰, and basis
point. Certain standard abbreviations are also composed as diagonal
fractions, such as ℅ (care of).

Read the text and write the questions for the missing details.
Ask your partner for the missing details.

(What?) ________________ are sometimes written as superscripts

(1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, rather than 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th), although many English-
language style guides recommend against this use. Other languages
use a similar convention, such as 1er or 2e in French, or 4ª and 4º
in (Which languages?) ______________________. Many abbreviations
use superscripts, especially historically. Examples in English include
Jos and Wm (for Joseph and William). The standard abbreviation for
“number”, “№”, also uses a superscript. Superscripts are used for
(What?) _______________________ for service mark and trademark ™.
 Communicative activities section − Student B page 251
The signs for copyright © and registered trademark ® are also sometimes
superscripted, depending on the use or the typeface. Superscripted
numerals are used for (What?) ___________________________, like 3/4
or the signs for percent %, permille ‰, and basis point. Certain
standard abbreviations are also composed as diagonal fractions, such
as ℅ (care of). In mathematics, high superscripts indicate (What?)
______________________________________________. Thus y4 is y raised
to the fourth power, 2x is 2 raised to the power of x, and the famous
equation E = mc2 includes (What?) ___________________________.
The charges of ions and subatomic particles are also denoted with
superscripts. Cl‒ is a negatively charged chlorine atom, Pb4+ is an
atom of lead with a charge of positive four, e− is an electron, e+ is a
positron, and μ+ is an antimuon. Atomic isotopes are written using
superscripts. The numerators of stacked fractions (such as 34/35)
usually (What/use?) ____________________, although some specially
designed glyphs keep the top of the numerator aligned with the top
of the full-height numerals.
1. _______________________________________________________
2. _______________________________________________________
3. _______________________________________________________
4. _______________________________________________________
5. _______________________________________________________
6. _______________________________________________________
7. _______________________________________________________

Task IX. Listen to A and ask the questions below.

1. What is Euler’s identity?
2. How is triangle connected with exponentiation?
Read the passage about complex powers. Focus on the principal
value and non-rational power. Be ready to answer A’s questions.
Integer powers of nonzero complex numbers are defined by repeated
multiplication or division. If i is the imaginary unit and n is an
integer, then in equals 1, i, −1, or −i, according to whether the
integer n is congruent to 0, 1, 2, or 3 modulo 4. Because of this,
the powers of i are useful for expressing sequences of period 4. These
page 252 Communicative activities section − Student B

are continuous functions. An attempt to extend these functions to

the general case of non-integer powers of complex numbers that are
not positive reals leads to difficulties. Either we define discontinuous
functions or multi-valued functions. Neither of these options is
entirely satisfactory. The rational power of a complex number must
be the solution to an algebraic equation. Therefore it always has
a finite number of possible values. For example, w = z1/2 must be
a solution to the equation w2 = z. But if w is a solution, then so
is −w, because (−1)2 = 1. A unique but somewhat arbitrary solution
called the principal value can be chosen using a general rule which
also applies for non-rational powers. Complex powers and logarithms
are more naturally handled as single valued functions on a Riemann
surface. Single valued versions are defined by choosing a sheet.
The value has a discontinuity along a branch cut. Choosing one out
of many solutions as the principal value leaves us with functions that
are not continuous, and the usual rules for manipulating powers can
lead us astray. Any non-rational power of a complex number has
an infinite number of possible values because of the multi-valued
nature of the complex logarithm. The principal value is a single value
chosen from these by a rule which, amongst its other properties,
ensures powers of complex numbers with a positive real part and
zero imaginary part give the same value as for the corresponding
real numbers. Exponentiating a real number to a complex power is
formally a different operation from that for the corresponding complex
number. However in the common case of a positive real number the
principal value is the same. The powers of negative real numbers
are not always defined and are discontinuous even where defined.
When dealing with complex numbers the complex number operation
is normally used instead.

Task XI. Listen to A and choose the right sentence endings.

a) … the power bz is defined as ez·ln(b), where x = ln(b) is the unique

real solution to the equation ex = b.
b) ... and the definition of the exponential function is the clue
to understanding eix for real x.
c) … when z is a real number, and also when u is an integer.
d) … is the point on the unit circle whose angle from the positive
real axis is x radians.
 Communicative activities section − Student B page 253
Read your sentence beginnings (bolded) to A who will provide
you with the correct endings.
e) Any non-rational power of a complex number has an infinite
number of possible values because of the multi-valued nature
of the complex logarithm.
f) Choosing one out of many solutions as the principal value
leaves us with functions that are not continuous.
g) The powers of negative real numbers are not always defined
and are discontinuous even where defined.
h) The rational power of a complex number must be the solution
to an algebraic equation.

Task XII. Before you start talking to your partner, make sure
you can explain the clues in your part in English.
Your partner will ask you about the clues in your part
of the crossword. Explain each clue in English. Ask
your partner about the clues missing in your part.

1.

2. C O R O L L A R Y
3.

4. D I V E R G E N C E
5.

6. S U R D
7.

8. S E Q U E N C E
9.

10. C O N T I N O U S
11.

12. V A L U E
13.

14. U N I T Y
15.

16. D I S T I N C T
page 254 Communicative activities section − Student B

UNIT 8

Lead-in
Complete the chart and ask your partner for the answers.

VERB ADJECTIVE NOUN

unify unified

circular

------------------------------- principle

imaginary imagination

polarise

exponentiate exponentiation

integral

solve solution

Task VII. Write the missing false definitions. Then read

expressions and definitions to A and ask him/her to
guess the right answer A, B or C.

1. discontinuous function
a) ....................................................................................
b) a function for which, intuitively, “small” changes in the input
result in “small” changes in the output
c) the reverse of a function for which, intuitively, “small”
changes in the input result in “small” changes in the output
2. Riemann surface
a) “deformed version” of the complex plane, locally near every
point it looks like patch of the complex plane
b) ....................................................................................
c) deformed version of the simple plane, locally near every point it
looks like patch of the simple plane
 Communicative activities section − Student B page 255
3. arbitrary solution
a) basic, principal solution
b) intuitive solution
c) ....................................................................................
4. curve
a) is an object similar to a line which is not required to be
straight
b) ....................................................................................
c) is an object similar to a bow which is required to be straight

Task VIII. A will ask you about the clues missing in his/
her crossword. Do not read the words, give their
definitions. Take it in turns to complete the
crossword.
Example: B: What is 1 across?
You: It is the result of subtraction.

1.

2. C O U N T E R E X A M P L E
3.

4. D I S T I N C T
5.

6. P R I N C I P A L V A L U E
7.

8. D E N O T E
9.

10.I N F I N I T E S E R I E S
11.

12.R A D I A N
13.

14.A X I S
15.

16.R E A L R O O T
page 256 Communicative activities section − Student B

UNIT 9

Lead-in
Ask student A for the missing terms in the chart.

ENGLISH TERM POLISH EQUIVALENT

dwusieczna kąta
reflex angle
kąt rozwarty
perigon
kąt ostry
congruent angles
kąt przylegający
conjugate angle
kąt odchylenia
plane angle
kąt dopełniający do 90˚

Task V. Listen to A’s sentences and complete them with words

below. You do not need to use all of the words.
vertex   size   measurement   quotient coordinates
multiple end

Read your sentences to A and ask him/her to fill in the missing

words.
1. One full circle, for which θ = n units, corresponds to an arc equal
in length to the circle’s ………………………...
2. ………………………. are often expressed as a percentage.
3. In rational geometry the spread between two lines is defined at the
square of …………………… of the angle between the lines.
4. There are several ………………….. to measuring the size of an angle
by the corresponding angle of rotation.
5. Angles that have the same ………………….. are said to be congruent.
 Communicative activities section − Student B page 257
UNIT 10

Task II. Read the descriptions of three types of triangles and

identify them in the pictures. Ask your partner to
describe the other triangles.

Triangles can also be classified according to their internal angles,

measured in degrees.
●● A right triangle (or right-angled triangle) has one of its interior
angles measuring 90°. The side opposite to the right angle is
the hypotenuse; it is the longest side of the right triangle. The
other two sides are called the legs or cathets of the triangle.
Right triangles obey the Pythagorean theorem: the sum of the
squares of the lengths of the two legs is equal to the square
of the length of the hypotenuse: a2 + b2 = c2, where a and b are
the lengths of the legs and c is the length of the hypotenuse.
Special right triangles are right triangles with additional
properties that make calculations involving them easier. One
of the two most famous is the 3–4–5 right triangle, where
32 + 42 = 52. In this situation, 3, 4, and 5 are a Pythagorean
triple. The other one is an isosceles triangle that has 2 angles
that each measure 45 degrees.
●● Triangles that do not have an angle that measures 90° are called
oblique triangles.
●● A triangle that has all interior angles measuring less than 90°
is an acute triangle or acute-angled triangle. If the greatest side
length is c, then a2 + b2 > c2.
page 258 Communicative activities section − Student B

●● A triangle that has one interior angle that measures more than
90° is an obtuse triangle or obtuse-angled triangle. If the greatest
side length is c, then a2 + b2 < c2.
A triangle that has two angles with the same measure also has two
sides with the same length, and therefore it is an isosceles triangle.
It follows that in a triangle where all angles have the same measure,
all three sides have the same length, and such a triangle is therefore
equilateral.

Task V. Read about incircle and centroid and match them

with the right representations. Next, ask your partners
about the other pictures.

An angle bisector of a triangle is a straight line through a vertex

which cuts the corresponding angle in half. The three angle bisectors
intersect in a single point, the incenter; the center of the triangle’s
incircle. The incircle is the circle which lies inside the triangle and
touches all three sides. Its radius is called the inradius. There are three
other important circles, the excircles; they lie outside the triangle and
touch one side as well as the extensions of the other two. The centers
of the in- and excircles form an orthocentric system.
A median of a triangle is a straight line through a vertex and the
midpoint of the opposite side. The three medians intersect in a single
point, the triangle’s centroid or geometric barycenter. The centroid of
a rigid triangular object (cut out of a thin sheet of uniform density)
is also its center of mass: the object can be balanced on its centroid
in a uniform gravitational field. The centroid cuts every median in the
ratio 2:1, i.e. the distance between a vertex and the centroid is twice
the distance between the centroid and the midpoint of the opposite
side.
 Communicative activities section − Student B page 259
Task VII. Read your questions and answers to your partner
and ask him/her to choose the right option A, B or C
(bolded).
1. Shoelace formula is
a) a mathematical algorithm to determine the angles of a simple
polygon whose vertices are described by coordinates in the
plane where you cross-multiply corresponding lines to find
the area encompassing the polygon
b) a mathematical algorithm to determine the length of a simple
polygon whose vertices are described by ordered pairs in
the plane
c) a mathematical algorithm to determine the area of
a simple polygon whose vertices are described by ordered
pairs in the plane where you cross-multiply corresponding
coordinates to find the area encompassing the polygon, and
subtract it from the surrounding polygon to find the area
of the polygon within
2. The concept of a Euclidean space encompasses
a) Euclidean plane and the one-dimensional space of Euclidean
geometry
b) Euclidean plane and the three-dimensional space of
Euclidean geometry as spaces of dimensions 2 and
3 respectively
c) Euclidean plane and the two-dimensional space of Euclidean
geometry

UNIT 11

Task II. Ask A about the missing words from your chart.
Complete the missing words.

ENGLISH TERM POLISH EQUIVALENT

secant
tangens
diameter
półokrąg
page 260 Communicative activities section − Student B

passant
cięciwa
circular segment
sektor kołowy
circumference
łuk
centre

Task III. Listen to A’s definitions and match them with the
words from the box.

chord   circular segment   centre   circumference   arc
circular   sector

Read your definitions to A and ask him/her to give you the right
words.
1. …………………. – a line segment whose endpoints lie on the circle
and which passes through the centre; or the length of such a line
segment, which is the largest distance between any two points on
the circle. It is a special case of a chord, namely the longest chord,
and it is twice the radius.
2. ……………….…. – a coplanar straight line that does not touch the
circle.
3. ……………….…. – a line segment joining the centre of the circle
to any point on the circle itself; or the length of such a segment,
which is half a diameter.
4. ……………………. – an extended chord, a coplanar straight line
cutting the circle at two points.
5. ……………………. – a region bounded by a diameter and an
arc lying between the diameter’s endpoints. It is a special case
of a circular segment, namely the largest one.
6. …………………… – a coplanar straight line that touches the circle
at a single point.
 Communicative activities section − Student B page 261
UNIT 12

Task I. Read your sentence beginnings and endings to A who

will try to choose the correct ending a-c (bolded).
1. A Voronoi diagram is
a) dividing space into a number of regions with a set of points,
called seeds, sites, or generators, specified beforehand where
for each seed there is a corresponding region, called Voronoi
cell, consisting of all points further to that seed than to any
other.
b) dividing space into a number of regions with a set of points,
called seeds, sites, or generators, specified beforehand where
for each seed there is a corresponding region, called Voronoi
cell, consisting of all points closer to other seeds.
c) dividing space into a number of regions with a set of points,
called seeds, sites, or generators, specified beforehand
where for each seed there is a corresponding region, called
Voronoi cell, consisting of all points closer to that seed
than to any other.
2. The apothem of a regular polygon is
a) a line segment from the center to the midpoint of one of its
sides. Equivalently, it is the line drawn from the center of the
polygon that is parallel to one of its sides.
b) a line segment from the center to the midpoint of one of
its sides. Equivalently, it is the line drawn from the center
of the polygon that is perpendicular to one of its sides.
c) a line segment from the middle to the end of one of its sides.
Equivalently, it is the line drawn from the center of the polygon
that is perpendicular to one of its sides.

Task III. Listen to A and decide if the sentences are True

or False.
1. The larger axis, which corresponds to the larger distance between
antipodal points on the ellipse, is called the minor axis or
transverse diameter.
2. The semi-major axis denoted by a and the semi-minor axis
denoted by b in the figure, are one half of the major and minor
axes, respectively.
page 262 Communicative activities section − Student B

3. The four points where the axes cross the ellipse are the
intersections marked as a, −a, b, and –b.
4. The points of intersection of the ellipse are in the place where
the curvature of the ellipse is maximum and minimum.
Read about ellipse and be ready to tell about its properties
to your partner.

The two foci of an ellipse are two special points F1 and F2 on the ellipse’s
major axis that are equidistant from the center point. The sum
of the distances from any point P on the ellipse to those two foci is
constant and equal to the major axis (PF1 + PF2 = 2a). The distance
to the focal point from the center of the ellipse is sometimes called
the linear eccentricity, f, of the ellipse. Here it is denoted by f, but it
is often denoted by c. A second equivalent method of constructing
an ellipse using a directrix is shown on the plot as the three blue
lines. The dashed blue line is the directrix of the ellipse shown.
The eccentricity of an ellipse, usually denoted by ε or e, is the ratio
of the distance between the two foci, to the length of the major axis
or e = 2f/2a = f/a. For an ellipse the eccentricity is between 0 and
1 (0 < e < 1). When the eccentricity is 0 the foci coincide with the
center point and the figure is a circle. As the eccentricity tends toward
1, the ellipse gets a more elongated shape. It tends towards a line
segment if the two foci remain a finite distance apart and a parabola
if one focus is kept fixed as the other is allowed to move arbitrarily
far away. The eccentricity is also equal to the ratio of the distance
(such as the (blue) line PF2) from any particular point on an ellipse
to one of the foci to the perpendicular distance to the directrix from
the same point (line PD), e = PF2/PD.
 Communicative activities section − Student B page 263
UNIT 13

Task III. Read about the prism and complete the table. Tell
your partners about the prism.

Name Pyramid Prism Cone Sphere

Definition

Volume

Area

Prism is a polyhedron with an n-sided polygonal base, a translated

copy and n other faces (necessarily all parallelograms) joining
corresponding sides of the two bases. All cross-sections parallel
to the base faces are the same. Prisms are named for their base,
so a prism with a pentagonal base is called a pentagonal prism.
A right prism is a prism in which the joining edges and faces are
perpendicular to the base faces. This applies if the joining faces
are rectangular. If the joining edges and faces are not perpendicular
to the base faces, it is called an oblique prism.
An n-prism, having regular polygon ends and rectangular sides,
approaches a cylindrical solid as n approaches infinity.
Right prisms with regular bases and equal edge lengths form one
of the two infinite series of semiregular polyhedra, the other series
being the antiprisms.
A parallelepiped is a prism of which the base is a parallelogram, or
equivalently a polyhedron with six faces which are all parallelograms.
A right rectangular prism is also called a cuboid, or informally
a rectangular box. A right square prism is simply a square box,
and may also be called a square cuboid. The volume of a prism is
the product of the area of the base and the distance between the two
base faces, or the height. The volume is therefore:
page 264 Communicative activities section − Student B

V = B ⋅h
where B is the base area and h is the height. The volume of
a prism whose base is a regular n-sided polygon with side length s
is therefore:
n 2 π
V = hs cot .
4 n
The surface area of a right prism is 2 · B + P · h, where B is the
area of the base, h the height, and P the base perimeter. The surface
area of a right prism whose base is a regular n-sided polygon
with side length s and height h is therefore:
n 2 π
A= s cot + nsh .
2 n

UNIT 14

Task VII. Read the text and answer A’s questions.

An ordinary differential equation (ODE) is a differential equation
in which the unknown function (also known as the dependent
variable) is a function of a single independent variable. In the simplest
form, the unknown function is a real or complex valued function,
but more generally, it may be vector-valued or matrix-valued:
this corresponds to considering a system of ordinary differential
equations for a single function. Ordinary differential equations are
further classified according to the order of the highest derivative
of the dependent variable with respect to the independent variable
appearing in the equation. The most important cases for applications
are first-order and second-order differential equations. For example,
Bessel’s differential equation (in which y is the dependent variable)
is a second-order differential equation. In the classical literature
also distinction is made between differential equations explicitly
solved with respect to the highest derivative and differential
equations in an implicit form. A partial differential equation
(PDE) is a differential equation in which the unknown function
is a function of multiple independent variables and the equation
involves its partial derivatives. The order is defined similarly to the
case of ordinary differential equations, but further classification
into elliptic, hyperbolic, and parabolic equations, especially for
 Communicative activities section − Student B page 265
second-order linear equations, is of utmost importance. Some partial
differential equations do not fall into any of these categories over the
whole domain of the independent variables and they are said to be
of mixed type.
Read the text and write down questions about the missing
details. Ask A about the missing details.
Both ordinary and partial differential equations are broadly
classified as linear and nonlinear. A differential equation is linear
if ................................................................................. (1) (products
are not allowed) and nonlinear otherwise. The characteristic property
of linear equations is ................................................................ (2),
which results in much more developed theory of linear differential
equations. Homogeneous linear differential equations are .............
......................................... (3) i.e. the sum of any set of solutions
or multiples of solutions is also a solution. The coefficients of the
unknown function and its derivatives in a linear differential equation
are allowed to be known functions of the independent variable or
variables; if these coefficients are constants then one speaks of
a ................................................... (4). There are very few methods
of solving nonlinear differential equations exactly; those that are
known typically depend on the equation having particular symmetries.
Nonlinear differential equations can exhibit very complicated behavior
........................................... (5), characteristic of chaos. Even the
fundamental questions of existence, uniqueness, and extendability
of solutions for nonlinear differential equations, and well-
posedness of initial and boundary value problems for nonlinear
PDEs are hard problems and their ........................................ (6) is
considered to be a significant advance in the mathematical theory.
Linear differential equations frequently appear as approximations
to nonlinear equations. These approximations are only valid ...........
........................... (7). For example, the harmonic oscillator equation
is an approximation to the nonlinear pendulum equation that is
valid for small amplitude oscillations.
1. ______________________________________________________
2. ______________________________________________________
3. ______________________________________________________
4. ______________________________________________________
page 266 Communicative activities section − Student B

5. ______________________________________________________
6. ______________________________________________________
7. ______________________________________________________

Task X. A is going to read a sentence to you. Listen and

complete the sentence with a noun/adjective from
the table in Task IX.
Read your first sentence to A but do not say the word in CAPITALS,
say ‘bleep’. A will complete the sentence with the appropriate
word. Continue taking turns to read your sentences.
1. In the classical literature a bleep is made between differential
equations explicitly solved with respect to the highest derivative
and differential equations in an implicit form. DISTINCTION
2. Only the simplest differential equations are bleep by explicit
formulas. However, some properties of solutions of a given
differential equation may be determined without finding their
exact form. SOLVABLE
3. The solution of a differential algebraic equation involves two steps,
first the search for bleep initial values and second the computation
of a trajectory. CONSISTENT
4. The term bleep in the context of differential equations only means
free of derivatives, and is not related to abstract algebra.
ALGEBRAIC

Task XI. Before you start talking to your partner, make sure
you can explain the clues in your part in English.
Your partner will ask you about the clues in your
part of the crossword. Explain each clue in English.
Ask your partner about the clues missing in your
part.
 Communicative activities section − Student B page 267

2D E R I V A T I V E
3

4F R A C T I O N A L
5

6O R D I N A R Y
7

8P R O M I N E N T
9

10L I N E A R
11

12E X P L I C I T
13

14E Q U A L I T Y
15

16R E L A T I O N
17

18 P A R T I A L
19

20 P O L Y N O M I A L

UNIT 15

Task VII. Listen to A’s sentences and put in the missing words
from the box. There is one extra word you do not need
to use.

addition     termination     solutions     containing

Read your sentences to A and ask him/her to fill in the missing

words.
1. Systems in which the two equations are mathematically
………………….. represent completely overlapping lines, or curves.
page 268 Communicative activities section − Student B

2. The equation x2 + y2 = 0 can be considered a circle whose radius

has shrunk to zero and …………………… a single point.
3. In linear systems one equation is a simple multiple of the other
and the …………………… of like variables in two linear equations
is the same.

Task VIII. Listen to A’s sentence and complete it with one of the
words from the box in the right form.

consist specify solve

Read your first sentence to A but do not say the word in CAPITALS,
say ‘bleep’. A will complete the sentence with the appropriate
word. Continue taking turns to read your sentences.

1. If two equations represent the same set of points one of them is

bleep and can be discarded. REDUNDANT
2. Holomorphy is the property of a complex function of being bleep
at every point of an open and connected subset of 
DIFFERENTIABLE
3. The equations are necessary and bleep conditions for complex
differentiation. SUFFICIENT

UNIT 16

Task VI.
a) Your partner will read the beginning of a sentence. Study
the endings below and choose one for each beginning.

a) …whose elements have both quantity and direction and can

be used to model relations between points in space.
b) …as solution sets of polynomial equations, combining the
concept of quantity and space.
c) …is one of the unsolved problems in number theory.
d) …and encompasses the well-known Pythagorean theorem.
e) …on spaces of functions and applies to quantum mechanics.
 Communicative activities section − Student B page 269
b) Read only the BOLDED parts of your sentences to A and
ask him/her to finish them. Check if his/her guesses are
correct. Do not show your sentences to your partner.
1. Consideration of the natural numbers leads to the transfinite
numbers, which formalise the concept of infinity
2. Chaos theory makes precise the ways in which many dynamical
systems exhibit unpredictable yet still deterministic behaviour
3. Number theory studies properties of the set of integers that can
be expressed in terms of arithmetic operations
4. Trigonometry is the branch of mathematics that deals with
relationships between the sides and the angles of the triangles and
trigonometric functions
5. Topology is considered the greatest growth area in the 20th
century mathematics including point-set, set-theoretic, algebraic
and differential topology

Task VIII. Read your definitions to A who will write them in

his/her table. Your partner will read definitions
missing in your table. Next, together with your
partner choose the Polish equivalents of the words
in the box below.

MATHEMATICAL DEFINITION POLISH EQUIVALENT

TERM
1. fibula

2. calculus branch of mathematics

focused on limits,
functions, derivatives,
integrals, and infinite
series
3. convergence
page 270 Communicative activities section − Student B

4. adjacent situated near or next to

something, close to or
touching something

5. modulus

6. polygon in geometry it is a flat

shape consisting of
straight lines that are
joined to form a closed
chain or circuit
7. diameter

8. hypotenuse the longest side of a

right-angled triangle, the
side opposite the right
angle
9. rod

10. integral area of region in the

xy-plane bounded by
the graph of f, the x-axis,
and the vertical lines
x = a and x = b, such that
area above the x-axis
adds to the total, and
that below the x-axis
subtracts from the total

wielokąt, zbieżność, średnica, rachunek (np. różniczkowy),

pręt, styczny, całka, liczydło, przeciwprostokątna,
moduł liczby zespolonej
 Communicative activities section − Student B page 271
Task IX. Read your questions and answers to A. Ask him/her
to choose the right answer A, B or C (bolded). Do not
show your page to your partner.

1. The Pythagorean theorem states that for any right triangle, the
area of the square whose side is the ....................................
(the side opposite the right angle) is equal to the sum of the areas
of the squares whose sides are the two legs (the two sides that
meet at a right angle).
a) hypotenuse        b) diameter        c) radius
2. ............................... are small bars, typically 3–14 cm long,
used by mathematicians for calculation in China, Japan, Korea,
and Vietnam. They are placed either horizontally or vertically
to represent any number and any fraction.
a) counting blocks   b) counting nodes   c) counting rods
3. Rhind papyrus dated to 1650 BC is an ............................ for
students in arithmetic and geometry. In addition to giving
area formulas and methods for multiplication, division and
working with unit fractions, it also contains evidence of other
mathematical knowledge, including composite and prime
numbers, arithmetics and others.
a) instruction table   b) instruction manual   c) instruction
                                                    grid
4. Infinitesimal calculus is the part of mathematics concerned
with finding .........................., areas under curves, minima and
maxima, and other geometric and analytic problems.
a) slope of cranes   b) slope of curves   c) slope of curveness
5. René Descartes is credited as the father of ..............................,
the bridge between algebra and geometry, crucial to the discovery
of infinitesimal calculus and analysis.
a) analytical geometry   b) algebraic geometry   c) analysis
                                                       geometry
6. Euclid is the author of the .........................., widely considered
the most successful and influential mathematical textbook of all
time.
a) Elementary Mathematics   b) Elements   c) Element
page 272 Communicative activities section − Student B

7. Number theory is a branch of pure mathematics devoted primarily

to the study of the .......................
a) natural numbers   b) integrals   c) integers
8. In mathematics, the trigonometric functions are functions of an
...................... They are used to relate the angles of a triangle to
the lengths of the sides of a triangle.
a) angle   b) triangle   c) number
9. The Bernoulli numbers Bn are a sequence of ..................... with
deep connections to number theory.
a) irrational numbers   b) rational numbers   c) radical
                                                     numbers
10. The ratio of the length of an arc of a circle to the circle’s radius
is called ..............................
a) radian measure   b) ratio   c) rational
11. ......................... is a standard procedure suitable for dividing
simple or complex multidigit numbers which breaks down
a problem into a series of easier steps.
a) complex divison   b) long division   c) short division
12. In mathematics and the arts two quantities are in the
.......................... if the ratio of the sum of the quantities to
the larger quantity is equal to the ratio of the larger quantity
to the smaller one.
a) gold ratio   b) golden rate   c) golden ratio

UNIT 17

Task V. Read the text and answer A’S questions.

The empirical probability, also known as relative frequency, or
experimental probability, is the ratio of the number of outcomes
in which a specified event occurs to the total number of trials,
not in a theoretical sample space but in an actual experiment.
In a more general sense, empirical probability estimates
probabilities from experience and observation. In statistical terms,
the empirical probability is an estimate or estimator of a probability.
In simple cases, where the result of a trial only determines whether
or not the specified event has occurred, modelling using a binomial
 Communicative activities section − Student B page 273
distribution might be appropriate and then the empirical estimate is
the maximum likelihood estimate. It is the Bayesian estimate for the
same case if certain assumptions are made for the prior distribution
of the probability. If a trial yields more information, the empirical
probability can be improved on by adopting further assumptions
in the form of a statistical model: if such a model is fitted, it can be
used to derive an estimate of the probability of the specified event.
An advantage of estimating probabilities using empirical probabilities
is that this procedure is relatively free of assumptions. For example,
consider estimating the probability among a population of men that
they satisfy two conditions: they are over 6 feet in height and they
prefer strawberry jam to raspberry jam. A direct estimate could be
found by counting the number of men who satisfy both conditions
to give the empirical probability of the combined condition.
Read the text and write down questions about the missing
details. Ask for missing details.
1. ____________________________________________________?
2. ____________________________________________________?
3. ____________________________________________________?
4. ____________________________________________________?
5. ____________________________________________________?

An alternative estimate could be found by 1) ……………………………..

in height with the proportion of men who prefer strawberry jam
to raspberry jam, but this estimate relies on the assumption that
2) …………………….... A disadvantage in using empirical probabilities
arises in estimating probabilities which are 3) …………………………….
In these cases very large sample sizes would be needed in order to
estimate such probabilities to a good standard of relative accuracy.
Here statistical models can help, depending on the context, and in
general one can hope that such models would provide improvements
in 4) …………………………, provided that the assumptions involved
actually do hold. For example, consider estimating the probability that
the lowest of the daily-maximum temperatures at a site in February
in any one year is less than zero degrees Celsius. A record of such
temperatures in past years could be used to estimate this probability.
A model-based alternative would be to select a family of probability
page 274 Communicative activities section − Student B

distributions and fit it to the dataset containing past years′ values.

The fitted distribution would provide an alternative estimate of the
desired probability. This alternative method can provide an estimate
of the probability even if 5) ……………………………………...

Task VI. Talk to a partner and ask about the missing terms
and definitions. Next, match the English terms with
the Polish ones.
określony/nazwany krańcowy/marginalny
warunkowy/zależny zachowany przypadkowy odrzucony

English word Definition Polish equivalent

1.
2. contingent depending on something else
in the future to happen
3.
4. dubbed given new meaning

5.
6. retained kept (in mind), to continue
to be used

Task XI. A is going to read a sentence to you. Listen and change

a word from the box below to form noun/adjective
to complete A’s sentence.

assume   distribute   observe   alter   accurate   condition

Read your first sentence to A but do not say the word in CAPITALS,
say ‘bleep’. A will complete the sentence with the appropriate
word. Continue taking turns to read your sentences.
1. The distribution of the bleep variables is obtained by marginalizing
over the distribution of the variables being discarded.
MARGINAL
 Communicative activities section − Student B page 275
2. Several different bleep may be done, each treating a different
subset of variables as the marginal variables. ANALYSES
3. A person is, for example, far more bleep to be hit by a car when
trying to cross while the lights for cross traffic are green than if
they are red. LIKELY
4. Bleep each column in the conditional distribution by the
probability of that column occurring, we find the joint probability
distribution. MULTIPLYING
5. The concept of conditional probability is one of the most bleep
and one of the most important concepts in probability theory.
FUNDAMENTAL
6. Conditional probabilities can be quite bleep and require careful
interpretation SLIPPERY

UNIT 18

Task II. Read the sentences to A and ask him/her to decide

if they are True or False.
1. Two events A and B are independent if their joint probability does
not equal the product of their probabilities.
2. A finite set of events {Ai} is pairwise dependent if every pair of events
is independent.
3. A finite set of events is mutually independent if and only if every
event is independent of any intersection of the other events.
4. For more than two events, a mutually independent set of events
is pairwise independent, and the opposite of it is true.
Read the text carefully. When you finish student A will read
sentences and ask you to decide if they are True or False.
Two random variables X and Y are independent if the elements
of the π-system generated by them are independent; that is to say,
for every a and b, the events {X ≤ a} and {Y ≤ b} are independent
events. That is, X and Y with cumulative distribution functions FX(x)
and FY(y), and probability densities fX(x) and fY(y), are independent
if the combined random variable (X, Y) has a joint cumulative
distribution function FX,Y(x, y) = FX(x) FY(y), or equivalently, a joint
density fX,Y(x, y) = fX(x) fY(y). A set of random variables is pairwise
independent if every pair of random variables is independent. A set
page 276 Communicative activities section − Student B

of random variables is mutually independent if for any finite subset

X1, …, Xn and any finite sequence of numbers a1, …, an, the events
{X1 ≤ a1}, …, {Xn ≤ an} are mutually independent events. The measure-
theoretically inclined may prefer to substitute events {X ∈ A} for events
{X ≤ a} in the above definition, where A is any Borel set. That definition
is exactly equivalent to the one above when the values of the random
variables are real numbers. It has the advantage of working also for
complex-valued random variables or for random variables taking
values in any measurable space which includes topological spaces
endowed by appropriate σ-algebras.

Task III. Listen to A and complete the sentences with the

English equivalents of the words in the box.

osobno związany/nawiązujący oszacowanie

równo/jednakowo   losowy   dziedzina

Read your first sentence to B but do not say the word in CAPITALS,
say ‘bleep’. B will complete the sentence with the appropriate
word. Continue taking turns to read your sentences.

1. Significant application of probability theory in everyday life is

reliability on many consumer products, such as automobiles
and consumer electronics, which use bleep theory in product
design to reduce the probability of failure. RELIABILITY
2. Failure probability may influence a manufacturer’s decisions
on a product’s bleep WARRANTY
3. The cache language model and other bleep language models
that are used in natural language processing are also examples
of applications of probability theory. STATISTICAL
4. The most popular version of objective probability claims that
the probability of a random event bleep the relative frequency
of occurrence of an experiment’s outcome, when repeating
the experiment. DENOTES
5. The most popular version of subjective probability is Bayesian
probability, which includes expert knowledge as well as
experimental bleep to produce probabilities. DATA
 Communicative activities section − Student B page 277
6. The expert knowledge is represented by some subjective prior
probability distribution, in which the data is bleep in a likelihood
function and the product of the prior and the likelihood,
is normalized. INCORPORATED

UNIT 19

Task I. Talk to a partner and ask about the missing terms

and definitions. Next, match the English terms with
the Polish ones.

ENGLISH TERM DEFINITION POLISH TERM

1. DISPERSION

2. MEAN expected value, used to refer

to one measure of the central
tendency either of a probability
distribution or of the random
variable characterized by that
distribution
3. MEDIAN

4. MODE in a list of numbers, it is the

number that occurs most
frequently
5. DEVIATION

6. KURTOSIS (from the Greek word meaning

curved, arching) is any
measure of the “peakedness”
of the probability distribution
of a real-valued random
variable
page 278 Communicative activities section − Student B

7. SKEWNESS

8. CENTRAL is a central value or a

TENDENCY typical value for probability
distribution. It is occasionally
called an average or just the
center of the distribution

odchylenie średnia wskaźnik częstotliwości

główna tendencja środkowa/mediana rozproszenie
skośność kurtoza

Task V. Read about histogram and complete the table. Listen

to Students A, C and D and complete other details.

Bar graph Histogram Correlogram Pie chart

how is it
represented?
what functions
does it have?

A histogram is a graphical representation of the distribution

of data. It is an estimate of the probability distribution of
a continuous variable and was first introduced by Karl Pearson.
A histogram is a representation of tabulated frequencies, shown as
adjacent rectangles, erected over discrete intervals, with an area
equal to the frequency of the observations in the interval. The height
of a rectangle is also equal to the frequency density of the interval,
i.e., the frequency divided by the width of the interval. The total area
of the histogram is equal to the number of data. A histogram may
also be normalized displaying relative frequencies. It then shows
the proportion of cases that fall into each of several categories, with
the total area equaling 1. The categories are usually specified as
consecutive, non-overlapping intervals of a variable. The categories
must be adjacent, and often are chosen to be of the same size.
The rectangles of a histogram are drawn so that they touch each
 Communicative activities section − Student B page 279
other to indicate that the original variable is continuous. Histograms
are used to plot the density of data, and often for density estimation:
estimating the probability density function of the underlying variable.
The total area of a histogram used for probability density is always
normalized to 1. If the lengths of the intervals on the x-axis are all 1,
then a histogram is identical to a relative frequency plot.

Task XI. Study the endings. Your partner will read the beginning
of a sentence. You have to choose an ending.
a) … should be plotted as an outlier with a dot, small circle,
or star.
b) … by making the width of the box proportional to the size
of the group.
c) … and the band inside the box is always the second quartile.
d) … the locations of the marks on the box plot will be equally
spaced.
Read your half sentences to A who will try to finish them. Listen
and check they make sense before you write them down.
1. If the notches of two boxes do not overlap, …
2. The ends of the whiskers can represent …
3. The width of the notches is proportional to the interquartile range
of the sample …
4. A popular convention is to make the box width …

Task XII. Before you start talking to your partner, make sure
you can explain the clues in your part in English.
Your partner will ask you about the clues in your
part of the crossword. Explain each clue in English.
Ask your partner about the clues missing in your part.
1.
2. O U T L I E R
3.
4. D E V I A T I O N
5.
6. D I S P E R S E
7.
8. R E S E M B L E
page 280 Communicative activities section − Student B

UNIT 20

Task IV. Read about interpreting regression results.

Concentrate on:
a) the quality of the regressors
b) the unique effect close to 0 and what it suggests
c) the meaning of the expression held fixed
d) interpretation of the unique effect
Ask student A the following questions about linear regression.
Write notes of what he/she tells you.
●● What are the practical applications of linear regression?
●● What is the difference between least square and linear model?
●● What can fitted linear model be used for?
●● What is unique effect and how does it differ from marginal effect?
Care must be taken when interpreting regression results, as some
of the regressors may not allow for marginal changes (such as dummy
variables, or the intercept term), while others cannot be held fixed.
It is possible that the unique effect can be nearly zero even when the
marginal effect is large. This may imply that some other covariate
captures all the information in xj, so that once that variable is in the
model, there is no contribution of xj to the variation in y. Conversely,
the unique effect of xj can be large while its marginal effect is nearly
zero. This would happen if the other covariates explained a great deal
of the variation of y, but they mainly explain variation in a way that
is complementary to what is captured by xj. In this case, including
the other variables in the model reduces the part of the variability
of y that is unrelated to xj, thereby strengthening the apparent
relationship with xj.
The meaning of the expression “held fixed” may depend on how
the values of the predictor variables arise. If the experimenter directly
sets the values of the predictor variables according to a study design,
the comparisons of interest may literally correspond to comparisons
among units whose predictor variables have been “held fixed” by the
experimenter. Alternatively, the expression “held fixed” can refer to
a selection that takes place in the context of data analysis. In this
case, we “hold a variable fixed” by restricting our attention to the
subsets of the data that happen to have a common value for the given
 Communicative activities section − Student B page 281
predictor variable. This is the only interpretation of “held fixed” that
can be used in an observational study.
The notion of a “unique effect” is appealing when studying
a complex system where multiple interrelated components
influence the response variable. In some cases, it can literally be
interpreted as the causal effect of an intervention that is linked
to the value of a predictor variable. However, it has been argued
that in many cases multiple regression analysis fails to clarify the
relationships between the predictor variables and the response
variable when the predictors are correlated with each other and are
not assigned following a study design.

Task VI. Read your sentence beginning and endings a‒c and
ask your partner to choose the correct ending (bolded).
1. Ridge regression
a) is the most commonly used method of regularization of ill-
-posed problems
b) is the computational process of discovering patterns in large
data sets involving methods at the intersection of artificial
intelligence
c) is the process of estimating, beyond the original observation
interval, the value of a variable on the basis of its relationship
with another variable
2. Least squares
a) describe the process of selecting a sample of elements from a
target population in order to conduct a survey which may refer
to many different types or techniques of observation
b) is a standard approach to the approximate solution of
over determined systems, i.e., sets of equations in which
there are more equations than unknowns. It means that
the overall solution minimizes the sum of the squares
of the errors made in the results of every single equation
c) are the expected value of a real random variable with respect to
a conditional probability distribution
3. Dummy variable
a) is one that takes the value 0 or 1 to indicate the absence or
presence of some categorical effect that may be expected
to shift the outcome, it is used as device to sort data
into mutually exclusive categories
page 282 Communicative activities section − Student B

b) is a statistical model that represents the observed quantities

in terms of explanatory variables that are treated as if the
quantities were non-random
c) if included in a regression as independent variables, may aid
a researcher with accurate response parameter like estimation,
prediction, and goodness of fit
4. Predictor function
a) is a function that satisfies for all arguments x, where n is
a non-negative integer and a0, a1, a2, ..., an are constant
coefficients
b) is a relation between a set of inputs and a set of permissible
outputs with the property that each input is related to exactly
one output
c) is a linear function of a set of coefficients and explanatory
variables whose value is used to predict the outcome
of a dependent variable. Functions of this sort are
standard in linear regression, where the coefficients are
termed regression coefficients

UNIT 21
Task VI. Read the passage and answer A’s questions.
1. A census is the procedure of systematically acquiring and
recording information about the members of a given population.
It is a regularly occurring official count of a particular population.
The term is used mostly in connection with national population
and housing censuses; other common censuses include
agriculture, business, and traffic censuses. The United Nations
defines the essential features of population and housing censuses
as “individual enumeration, universality within a defined territory,
simultaneity and defined periodicity”, and recommends that
population censuses be taken at least every 10 years. United
Nations recommendations also cover census topics to be collected,
official definitions, classifications and other useful information
to coordinate international practice.
Census is essential to international comparisons of any kind of
statistics and censuses collect data on many attributes of the
population, not just how many people there are, although
population estimates remain an important function of the census.
 Communicative activities section − Student B page 283
Census data are commonly used for research, business marketing,
and planning, as well as a baseline for sampling surveys. Census
counts are necessary to adjust samples to be representative
of a population by weighting them as is common in opinion
polling. Similarly, stratification requires knowledge of the relative
sizes of different population strata which are derived from census
enumerations. In some countries, census data are used to
apportion electoral representation.
Read the text and write questions for the missing details. Ask
your partner for the missing details.
2. A census is often construed as ______________________________ (1)
rather than a fraction. However, population census relies on
_____________________________ (2). This is the only way to be sure
that everyone has been included as otherwise those not responding
would not be followed up and individuals could be missed. The
fundamental premise of a census is _________________________ (3).
The use of a sampling frame is counterintuitive as it suggests
that the population size is already known. However, a census is
also used _________________________________ (4). This process of
sampling marks the difference between historical census, which
was a house to house process or the product of an imperial decree,
and the modern statistical project. The sampling frame used by
census is _______________________ (5). Thus it is not known if
there is anyone resident or how many people there are in each
household. Depending on the mode of enumeration, a form
______________________________ (6) or administrative records for the
dwelling are accessed. As a preliminary to the dispatch of forms,
census workers will check any address problems on the ground.
While it may seem straightforward to use the postal service file for
this purpose, this can be out of date and some dwellings may contain
a number of independent households. A particular problem is
_______________________ (7), religious orders, homes for the elderly
etc. As these are not easily enumerated by a single householder,
they are often treated differently and visited by special teams
of census workers to make sure _________________________ (8).
1. ____________________________________________________
2. ____________________________________________________
3. ____________________________________________________
page 284 Communicative activities section − Student B

4. ____________________________________________________
5. ____________________________________________________
6. ____________________________________________________
7. ____________________________________________________
8. ____________________________________________________

Task IX. Read the clues to A and ask him/her to fill the words
in the crossword.

Across
4. a point or position in a system that is used to compare values
8. describing something, especially in a detailed, interesting way
9. a calculation or guess about the future based on information that
you have
10. information, especially facts or numbers, collected to be examined
and considered and used to help decision-making
 Communicative activities section − Student B page 285
Down
1. the separation of light into different colours
2. one of four equal parts that a set of figures is divided into, in order
of size, amount, value,
3. to send something, especially goods or a message, somewhere for
a particular purpose
5. to express or represent something such as an idea, thought, or
fact
6. based on chance rather than being planned or based on reason
7. a drawing that explains how a system, machine, process, plan
operates or is organized

UNIT 22

Lead-in
Complete the chart and check with a partner.

POLISH VERB ADJECTIVE NOUN

próbkować sampled
stratify stratum/stratification
implement implemented
rozróżniać distinguish
exclude exclusion
badać surveyed
determine determination
gromadzić collection

Task X. Listen to A’s sentences and complete them with

words from the box.

statistical   probability   non-probability   acceptance   weights

Read your sentences to A who will try to give you the right word
for each gap. Write the words and check if the sentence makes
sense.
1. ………………….. sampling relies on arranging the study population
according to some ordering scheme.
page 286 Communicative activities section − Student B

2. If ……………………. is present and the period is a multiple or factor

of the interval used, the sample is likely to be unrepresentative.
3. Selecting every 10th street number along the street ensures that
the sample is …………………….. evenly along the length of the
street.
4. A drawback of systematic sampling is that its theoretical properties
make it difficult to …………………… the accuracy.
5. Systematic sampling is an EPS method, because all elements have
the same …………………. of selection.

UNIT 23

Task II. Listen to A and write notes about the benefits

of stratified sampling.
Read the passage and complete the table. Next, tell A about the
drawbacks of stratified sampling.

Benefits of stratified sampling Drawbacks of stratified sampling

There are, however, some potential drawbacks to using stratified

sampling. First, identifying strata and implementing such an
approach can increase the cost and complexity of sample selection,
as well as leading to increased complexity of population estimates.
Second, when examining multiple criteria, stratifying variables may
be related to some, but not to others, further complicating the design,
and potentially reducing the utility of the strata. Finally, in some
cases (such as designs with a large number of strata, or those with
a specified minimum sample size per group), stratified sampling
can potentially require a larger sample than would other methods
although in most cases, the required sample size would be no larger
than would be required for simple random sampling.
 Communicative activities section − Student B page 287
Task VI. Read your text and complete the table with the
information about quota sampling. Next, work with
students A, C and D to complete the whole table.

sampling cluster quota accidental panel

Example attempts to …
reflects the
universe …
based on …
Advantage/ cannot reveal …
drawbacks it is impossible …
easy to …
takes less time …

The quota sample attempts to match the characteristics of the

sample with those of the universe, thereby achieving a small replica
of the universe. For example, if one knows, possibly on the basis of
a recent census, that there are 51 women to every 49 men in the
universe, then the sample should reflect these proportions. The same
principle should be applied with respect to age, income, education,
occupation, religion, national origin, area of residence, and indeed
any characteristic that might be relevant to the range of opinions
being studied. Each interviewer is instructed to locate and interview
people who fulfill the characteristics targeted for the quota sample.
The quota sampling technique has drawbacks, however. In many
countries, census data are poor or nonexistent. Even the most
reliable census information cannot reveal all the characteristics
that may affect the opinions being studied. For most populations,
for example, it is not known how many people are vegetarians or
how many are extraverts or introverts. Yet these characteristics
may be related to opinions on certain subjects. Statisticians point
out that in a quota sample it is impossible to give each member
of the universe a known chance of being selected, and one cannot
therefore calculate the range of error in the results that could be
due to chance. Furthermore, in this type of sample, interviewers
have to use their judgment in selecting respondents. Because their
standards in choosing respondents may vary, it is possible for the
outcomes to be biased; it is often the case that interviewers will
choose to work with respondents who are most like them. The great
page 288 Communicative activities section − Student B

advantage of a quota sampling is that it is relatively easy to design and

prosecute once the target universe is defined. Quota sampling also
takes less time in the field, as callbacks are not necessary. In contrast,
defining a universe and then randomly selecting and interviewing
a probability sample from a large population can be time-consuming
and expensive. Even in cases in which telephone interviewing would
be appropriate, as for a population with a high incidence of telephone
ownership, its effectiveness can be hindered by unlisted numbers
or by telephone screening devices that filter out unwanted callers.
In such cases, researchers usually employ weighting procedures
to adjust for these types of errors. This has been a common practice
in Web-based surveys, which have tended to be skewed toward more-
-affluent, better-educated, and middle-aged households.

Task VII. Read your first sentence to A but do not say the word
in CAPITALS, say bleep. A will complete the sentence
with the appropriate word.

1. Bleep point out that in a quota sample it is impossible to give each

member of the universe a known chance of being selected.
STATISTICIANS
2. Interviewers have to use their bleep in selecting samples.
JUDGEMENT
3. Defining a universe and then bleep selecting and interviewing
a probability sample from a large population can be time-
-consuming and expensive. RANDOMLY
4. The researcher using a sample cannot bleep make generalizations
about the total population from this sample. SCIENTIFICALLY
5. Some bleep of snowball sampling allow calculation of selection
probabilities. VARIANTS
6. The bleep sampling-method allows estimates of changes
in the population, with regard to chronic illness or weekly food
expenditures. LONGITUDINAL
7. Telephone interviewing would be appropriate for a population
with a high bleep of telephone ownership. INCIDENCE
 Communicative activities section − Student B page 289
A is going to read a sentence to you. Listen and change a word
from the box below to form a noun/adjective to complete A’s
sentence.

add exist character respond administer

implement initiate

Task VIII. A will ask you about the clues missing in his/
her crossword. Do not read the words, give their
definitions. Take it in turns to complete the
crossword.
Example: A: What is 1 across?
You: It is the result of subtraction

1.

2.B I A S

3.

4.P E R I O D I C I T Y

5.

6.E S T I M A T I O N

7.

8.S A M P L E

9.

10.R E P R E S E N T A T I V E

11.

12.A P P L I C A T I O N

13.

14.A G G R E G A T E
page 290 Communicative activities section − Student B

UNIT 24

Task X. Complete the chart and ask your partner for the
answer.
POLISH TERM NOUN VERB
założenie assume
emphasis
wnioskowanie infer
vary
zmienna covariate

Task XIII. Listen to A and complete the sentences with words

from the box.

obtained propositions estimations conclusions

Read your sentences to A and ask him/her to fill in the missing

words.
1. A statistical model is a set of ……………………. concerning the
generation of the observed data.
2. Descriptive statistics are typically used as a preliminary step before
more formal ………………….. are drawn.
3. Every continuous probability distribution has a median, which
may be …………………… using the sample median.
4. Semi-parametric models can often be separated into structural
and random ………………… components.

UNIT 25
Task VI. Your partner will read the beginning of a sentence.
Study the endings below and choose one for each
beginning.
a) … because all elements have the same probability of selection.
b) … where element size varies greatly and auxiliary information
is often available.
 Communicative activities section − Student B page 291
c) … the sample is especially likely to be unrepresentative
of the overall population.
d) … the cost is lower and data collection is faster than measuring
the entire population.
e) … before more formal inferences are drawn.
f) … this is known as an ‘equal probability of selection’ design.
Read only the BOLDED parts of your sentences to A and ask
him/her to finish them. Check if his/her guesses are correct.
Do not show your sentences to your partner.
1. Cluster sampling generally increases the variability of sample
estimates above that of simple random sampling, (depending
on how the clusters differ between themselves, as compared with
the within-cluster variation).
2. Statisticians point out that in a quota sample it is impossible
to give each member of the universe a known chance of being
selected, (and one cannot therefore calculate the range of error
in the results that could be due to chance).
3. There have been several proposed methods of analyzing panel
data, (including MANOVA, growth curves, and structural equation
modeling with lagged effects).
4. Descriptive statistics are typically used as a preliminary step
(before more formal inferences are drawn).
5. Some hypotheses cannot be tested using objective statistical
models, (which accurately describe randomized experiments or
random samples).
6. In survey sampling, use of sampling without replacement
ensures (the exchangeability of the sample with the population).

UNIT 26

Lead-in
Listen to A and correct the sentences.
1. Charles Dow was a mathematician who believed that the stock
market could be understood using physical principles.
2. Dow invented the Dow Theory of selling stocks, which is based
entirely on market information.
page 292 Communicative activities section − Student B

Read the paragraph about Ralph Elliott to A who will correct

some sentences.
Another person who tried to understand the stock market using
mathematical principles was Ralph Elliott, an engineer by profession.
In the 1930s, he studied the Great Pyramid at Giza and concluded
that the design for the structure was based on the Fibonacci
numbers, which included, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34. He decided that this
progression of numbers held the secret to predicting the ups and
downs of the stock market. He developed a theory on price movements
known as the Elliott Wave Theory. Professional practitioners of this
method often come up with different predictions based on the same
information.

Task III. Read your definitions to A who will write them in their
table. Your partner will dictate to you the definitions
missing in your table. Next, together with your partner
choose the Polish equivalents of the words.

aktywa depozyt/zastaw dzierżawa odsetki/udział

zrzekający się odszkodowanie kapitał zakup
przywilej szansa

ENGLISH TERM DEFINITION POLISH EQUIVALENT

1.

2. opportunity the possibility of doing

something

3.

4.forgoing not having or doing

something enjoyable

5.
 Communicative activities section − Student B page 293

6. principal an amount of money

invested in a bank or lent
to a person or organization
so that they will receive
interest on it from the bank,
person, or organization

7.

8. interest money that you earn from

keeping your money in an
account in a bank or other
financial organization

9.

10. lease a legal agreement in which

you pay money in order
to use a building, piece
of land, vehicle

Task VII. Listen to A’s definitions and complete the missing

words from the box. There is one extra word you
do not need.

mortgage   secured   annual   demand

Read your definitions to A who will complete them with the

missing words.
1. ______________ loans are monetary loans that are not protected
against the borrower’s assets. These may be available from
financial institutions under many different guises or marketing
packages (unsecured)
2. ______________ loan is a loan on which the interest is reduced by
an explicit or hidden subsidy (subsidized)
3. ______________ loan is granted on terms substantially more
generous than market loans either through below-market interest
page 294 Communicative activities section − Student B

rates, by grace periods or a combination of both. Such loans may

be made by foreign governments to poor countries or may be
offered to employees of lending institutions as an employee benefit
(concessional)

UNIT 27

Task VI. Before you start talking to your partner, make sure
you can explain the clues in your part in English.
Your partner will ask you about the clues in your
part of the crossword. Explain each clue in English.
Ask your partner about the clues missing in your part.

1.
2. L E N D E R
3.
4. S E C U R E D
5.
6. C O N S U M E R
7.
8. D R A W D O W N
9.
10. D E B T

UNIT 29

Task I. Talk to a partner and ask about the missing terms and
definitions.

ENGLISH WORD DEFINITION POLISH EQUIVALENT

expense the money spent on koszt/wydatek

something
 Communicative activities section − Student B page 295

pertinent relating directly to the subject stosowny/właściwy

being considered

accrue to increase in number or wzrastać

amount over a period of time

Task V. Read the passage and answer A’s questions.

Annuity is a payment made yearly, as, for example, under a contract
to provide retirement income. The term is also applied to any series
of periodic payments made at regular, fixed intervals; the length
of the interval is called the annuity period. There are two main
classes of annuities: annuities certain and contingent annuities.
Under an annuity certain, the payments are to continue for a specified
number of payments, and calculations are based on the assumption
that each payment is certain to be made when due. With a contingent
annuity, each payment is contingent on the continuance of a given
status, as with a life annuity under which each payment is contingent
on the survival of one or more specified persons. A special case of the
annuity certain is the perpetuity, which is an annuity that continues
forever. The contingent annuity used in life insurance and pension
plans is based upon the risk-sharing principle. The price of an
annuity paying a given sum for life is based upon the life expectancy
of the annuitant at the time the annuity is to begin. In effect, the
annuitant joins with a large number of other persons of the same
age in establishing a fund that is calculated, on the basis of mortality
tables, to be sufficient to pay each person the life income agreed upon.
Some will live longer than others and receive more in payments than
they have put into the fund, whereas others will not live long enough
to receive all that they have put in.
Read the passage and write questions for the missing details.
Ask your partner for the missing details.

1. _____________________________________________________?
2. _____________________________________________________?
3. _____________________________________________________?
page 296 Communicative activities section − Student B

4. _____________________________________________________?
5 _____________________________________________________?
Sinking fund is 1) ………………………… by a corporation or
government agency for the purpose of periodically redeeming
bonds, debentures, and preferred stocks. The fund is accumulated
from earnings, and payments into the fund may be based on either
2) ……………………….. or a fixed percentage of profits. Sinking funds
are administered separately from the corporation’s working funds by
3) ………………………………………….
The funds may be used immediately to retire the bonds for which
the fund was established; however, in most cases sinking-fund
administrators opt to save money by 4) ……………………………..
purchased on the open market. Revenues from these investments
are then added to the fund; for example, $1,000,000 can be added
to the sinking fund at a cost of only $500,000 if bonds can be
purchased at a 50 percent discount to the face value. The purpose
of a sinking fund is 5) …………………………….. for repayment
of bonds at maturity.

Task VII. Listen to A’s sentence beginning and match it with

the ending A–F.
a) … it becomes income to the borrower if the borrower is
discharged of indebtedness.
b) … and take appropriate action if the value subsequently
declines below the predetermined maximum loan-to-value
ratio.
c) … the periodic payments for which are similar to an
annuity and calculated according to the time value of money
formulae.
d) … and thus represents profit or an accession to wealth to
the lender.
e) … any borrower failing to pay the principal and interest
under the terms of a loan obligation.
f) … practical mathematical techniques used in commerce
and everyday life.
Read your sentence beginnings (bolded) to A who will provide
the right endings (italics).
 Communicative activities section − Student B page 297
1. The foreclosure process as applied to residential mortgage
loans is a bank or other secured creditor (selling or repossessing
a parcel of real property after the owner has failed to comply with
an agreement between the lender and borrower).
2. Measurement of cash flow can be used for (calculating other
parameters that give information on a company’s value and
situation).
3. Holding assets in a highly liquid form tends to reduce
(the income from that asset so banks will try to reduce liquid
assets as far as possible).
4. Bonds and stocks are both securities, but the major difference
between the two is that (stockholders have an equity stake
in the company whereas bondholders have a creditor stake
in the company).
5. An equity investment generally refers to the buying and
holding of shares of stock on a stock market (by individuals
and firms in anticipation of income from dividends and capital
gains, as the value of the stock rises).
6. The typical venture capital investment occurs after the seed
funding round as the first round of institutional capital (to fund
growth in the interest of generating a return through an eventual
realization event, such as trade sale of the company).
page 298

COMMUNICATIVE ACTIVITIES SECTION – STUDENT C

UNIT 3

Task V. Read your operation on sets to your partners. Ask them

to draw its representation in Venn diagram.

STUDENT C The difference of A and B   A – B

UNIT 6

Task VIII. Read your text and complete the table with the
missing details. Ask your partners about the other
details.

Name of mathematical Procedure Examples

operation
Multiplication and division
of equivalent fractions
Comparing fractions

Addition

Subtraction

Multiplication

Division

Converting decimal to
fraction

Place the whole number over one and multiply. This method works
because the fraction 6/1 means six equal parts, each one of which
is a whole. When multiplying mixed numbers, it’s best to convert
the mixed number into an improper fraction. For example:
 Communicative activities section − Student C page 299

3 8 3 11 33 1
3×2 = 3× +  = 3× = =8
4 4 4 4 4 4
3 8 3
In other words, 2 is the same as + , making 11 quarters
4 4 4
in total (because 2 cakes, each split into quarters makes 8 quarters
1
total) and 33 quarters is 8 , since 8 cakes, each made of quarters,
4
is 32 quarters in total. To divide a fraction by a whole number, you
may either divide the numerator by the number, if it goes evenly
into the numerator, or multiply the denominator by the number.
10 2 10 10
For example, 5 equals and also equals = , which
3 3 3 ⋅ 5 15
2
reduces to . To divide a number by a fraction, multiply that number
3
1 3 1 4 1⋅ 4 2
by the reciprocal of that fraction. Thus, ÷ = × = = .
2 4 2 3 2⋅3 3
To change a common fraction to a decimal, divide the denominator
into the numerator. Round the answer to the desired accuracy. For
example, to change 1/4 to a decimal, divide 4 into 1.00, to obtain
0.25. To change 1/3 to a decimal, divide 3 into 1.0000..., and stop
when the desired accuracy is obtained. Note that 1/4 can be written
exactly with two decimal digits, while 1/3 cannot be written exactly
with any finite number of decimal digits.
To change a decimal to a fraction, write in the denominator
a 1 followed by as many zeroes as there are digits to the right of the
decimal point, and write in the numerator all the digits in the original
decimal, omitting the decimal point. Thus 12.3456 = 123456/10000.
Decimal numbers, while arguably more useful to work with when
performing calculations, sometimes lack the precision that common
fractions have. Sometimes an infinite number of repeating decimals
is required to convey the same kind of precision. Thus, it is often
useful to convert repeating decimals into fractions.
The preferred way to indicate a repeating decimal is to place a bar
over the digits that repeat, for example 0.789 = 0.789789789… For
repeating patterns where the repeating pattern begins immediately
after the decimal point, a simple division of the pattern by the
page 300 Communicative activities section − Student C

same number of nines as numbers it has will suffice. For example:

0.(5) = 5/9. In case leading zeros precede the pattern, the nines are
suffixed by the same number of trailing zeros: 0.0(5) = 5/90. In case
a non-repeating set of decimals precede the pattern we can write it
as the sum of the non-repeating and repeating parts, respectively:
0.1523 + 0.0000987. Then, convert the repeating part to a fraction:
0.1523 + 987/9990000.
In addition to being of great practical importance, fractions are also
studied by mathematicians, who check that the rules for fractions
are consistent and reliable. Mathematicians define a fraction as an
ordered pair (a, b) of integers a and b ≠ 0, for which the operations
addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division are defined as
follows:
(a, b) + (c, d) = (ad + bc, bd)
(a, b) – (c, d) = (ad – bc, bd)
(a, b) · (c, d) = (ac, bd)
(a, b) ÷ (c, d) = (ad, bc)   (when c ≠ 0)
In addition, an equivalence relation is specified as follows: (a, b) ∼ (c, d)
if and only if ad = bc. More generally, a and b may be elements of any
integral domain R, in which case a fraction is an element of the field
of fractions of R. For example, when a and b are polynomials in one
indeterminate, the field of fractions is the field of rational fractions
(also known as the field of rational functions). When a and b are
integers, the field of fractions is the field of rational numbers.

UNIT 10

Task V. Read about nine-point circle and Euler’s line match

them with the right representations. Next, ask your
partners about the other pictures.
 Communicative activities section − Student C page 301
The midpoints of the three sides and the feet of the three altitudes all
lie on a single circle, the triangle’s nine-point circle. The remaining
three points for which it is named are the midpoints of the portion
of altitude between the vertices and the orthocenter. The radius
of the nine-point circle is half that of the circumcircle. It touches
the incircle and the three excircles.
The centroid (yellow), orthocenter (blue), circumcenter (green) and
center of the nine-point circle (red point) all lie on a single line, known
as Euler’s line (red line). The center of the nine-point circle lies at
the midpoint between the orthocenter and the circumcenter, and
the distance between the centroid and the circumcenter is half that
between the centroid and the orthocenter. The center of the incircle
is not in general located on Euler’s line. If one reflects a median
in the angle bisector that passes through the same vertex, one
obtains a symmedian. The three symmedians intersect in a single
point, the symmedian point of the triangle.

UNIT 13

Task III. Read about the cone and complete the table. Tell your
partners about the cone.

Name Pyramid Prism Cone Sphere

Definition

Volume

Area

Cone is a three-dimensional geometric shape that tapers smoothly

from a flat base to a point called the apex or vertex.
More precisely, it is the solid figure bounded by a base in a plane
and by a surface (called the lateral surface) formed by the locus of all
straight line segments joining the apex to the perimeter of the base.
The term “cone” sometimes refers just to the surface of this solid
figure, or just to the lateral surface. The axis of a cone is the straight
page 302 Communicative activities section − Student C

line passing through the apex, about which the base has a rotational
symmetry.
In common usage in elementary geometry, cones are assumed to be
right circular, where circular means that the base is a circle and right
means that the axis passes through the centre of the base at right
angles to its plane. Contrasted with right cones are oblique cones,
in which the axis does not pass perpendicularly through the centre
of the base. In general, however, the base may be any shape and
the apex may lie anywhere, though it is usually assumed that the
base is bounded and therefore has finite area, and that the apex lies
outside the plane of the base.
The lateral surface area of a right circular cone is LSA = πrl where r
is the radius of the circle at the bottom of the cone and l is the lateral
height of the cone (given by the Pythagorean theorem l = r 2 + h 2
where h is the height of the cone). The surface area of the bottom
circle of a cone is the same as for any circle, πr2. Thus the total surface
area of a right circular cone is:
SA = πr2 + πrl    or   SA = πr (r + l )
The volume V of any conic solid is one third of the product of the area
of the base A and the height H (the perpendicular distance from the
base to the apex).
1
V = AH
3
In modern mathematics, this formula can easily be computed using
1
∫
calculus – it is, up to scaling, the integral x 2dx = x 3 . Without
3
using calculus, the formula can be proven by comparing the cone to
a pyramid and applying Cavalieri’s principle – specifically, comparing
the cone to a vertically scale right square pyramid, which forms one
third of a cube.
 Communicative activities section − Student C page 303
UNIT 19

Task V. Read about correlogram and complete the table. Listen

to Students A, B and D and complete other details.

Bar graph Histogram Correlogram Pie chart

how is it
represented?
what functions
does it have?

In the analysis of data, a correlogram is an image of correlation

statistics. For example, in time series analysis, a correlogram,
also known as an autocorrelation plot, is a plot of the sample
autocorrelations rh versus h (the time lags). If cross-correlation is
used, the result is called a cross-correlogram. The correlogram is
a commonly used tool for checking randomness in a data set. This
randomness is ascertained by computing autocorrelations for data
values at varying time lags. If random, such autocorrelations should
be near zero for any and all time-lag separations. If non-random, then
one or more of the autocorrelations will be significantly non-zero.
In addition, correlograms are used in the model identification stage
for Box–Jenkins autoregressive moving average time series models.
Autocorrelations should be near-zero for randomness; if the analyst
does not check for randomness, the validity of many of the statistical
conclusions becomes suspect. The correlogram is an excellent way
of checking for such randomness. Sometimes, correlograms, colour-
mapped matrices of correlation strengths in multivariate analysis,
are also called correlograms.
page 304 Communicative activities section − Student C

UNIT 23

Task VI. Read your text and complete the table with the
information about accidental sampling. Next, work
with students A, B and D to complete the whole table.

sampling cluster quota accidental panel

Example involves …
population is
selected …
Advantages/ cannot make
drawbacks generalizations …
most useful for …

Accidental sampling (sometimes known as convenience or

opportunity sampling) is a type of non-probability sampling which
involves the sample being drawn from that part of the population
which is close to hand. That is, a population is selected because it
is readily available and convenient. It may be through meeting the
person or including a person in the sample when one meets them
or chosen by finding them through technological means such as
the internet or through phone. The researcher using such a sample
cannot scientifically make generalizations about the total population
from this sample because it would not be representative enough.
For example, if the interviewer were to conduct such a survey at
a shopping center early in the morning on a given day, the people
that he/she could interview would be limited to those given there
at that given time, which would not represent the views of other
members of society in such an area, if the survey were to be
conducted at different times of day and several times per week. This
type of sampling is most useful for pilot testing.
In social science research, snowball sampling is a similar
technique, where existing study subjects are used to recruit more
subjects into the sample. Some variants of snowball sampling,
such as respondent driven sampling, allow calculation of selection
probabilities and are probability sampling methods under certain
conditions.
 page 305

COMMUNICATIVE ACTIVITIES SECTION – STUDENT D

UNIT 13

Task III. Read about the sphere and complete the table. Tell
your partners about the sphere.

Name Pyramid Prism Cone Sphere

Definition

Volume

Area

In mathematics, a distinction is made between the sphere and the

ball which is a three-dimensional shape that includes the interior
of a sphere. Pairs of points on a sphere that lie on a straight line
through the sphere’s center are called antipodal points. A great circle
is a circle on the sphere that has the same center and radius as the
sphere and consequently divides it into two equal parts. The shortest
distance along the surface between two distinct non-antipodal points
on the surface is on the unique great circle that includes the two
points. Equipped with the great-circle distance, a great circle becomes
the Riemannian circle.
If a particular point on a sphere is designated as its north pole, then
the corresponding antipodal point is called the south pole, and the
equator is the great circle that is equidistant to them. Great circles
through the two poles are called lines or meridians of longitude,
and the line connecting the two poles is called the axis of rotation.
Circles on the sphere that are parallel to the equator are lines
of latitude. The surface area of a sphere is:
A = 4πr2.
Archimedes first derived this formula from the fact that the projection
to the lateral surface of a circumscribed cylinder is area-preserving;
page 306 Communicative activities section − Student D

it equals the derivative of the formula for the volume with respect
to r because the total volume inside a sphere of radius r can be
thought of as the summation of the surface area of an infinite
number of spherical shells of infinitesimal thickness concentrically
stacked inside one another from radius 0 to radius r. At infinitesimal
thickness the discrepancy between the inner and outer surface
area of any given shell is infinitesimal, and the elemental volume
at radius r is simply the product of the surface area at radius r and
the infinitesimal thickness.
At any given radius r, the incremental volume (δV) equals the
product of the surface area at radius r (A(r )) and the thickness
of a shell (δr ):
δV » A(r ) ⋅ δr .
The total volume is the summation of all shell volumes:
V » ∑ A(r ) ⋅ δr .
In the limit as δr approaches zero this equation becomes:
r
V = ∫ 0
A(r )dr .

In 3 dimensions, the volume inside a sphere is derived to be

4 3
V = πr
3
where r is the radius of the sphere and π is the constant pi. Archimedes
first derived this formula, which shows that the volume inside
a sphere is 2/3 that of a circumscribed cylinder. (This assertion
follows from Cavalieri’s principle). In modern mathematics, this
formula can be derived using integral calculus, i.e. disk integration
to sum the volumes of an infinite number of circular disks of
infinitesimally small thickness stacked centered side by side along
the x axis from x = 0 where the disk has radius r (i.e. y = r) to x = r
where the disk has radius 0 (i.e. y = 0).
 Communicative activities section − Student D page 307
UNIT 19

Task V. Read about pie chart and complete the table. Listen
to Students A, B and C and complete other details.

Bar graph Histogram Correlogram Pie chart

how is it
represented?
what functions
does it have?

A pie chart (or a circle graph) is a circular chart divided into sectors,
illustrating numerical proportion. In a pie chart, the arc length of each
sector and consequently its central angle and area, is proportional
to the quantity it represents. While it is named for its resemblance
to a pie which has been sliced, there are variations on the way it can
be presented. The earliest known pie chart is generally credited to
William Play fair’s Statistical Breviary of 1801. Pie charts are very
widely used in the business world and the mass media. However,
they have been criticized, and many experts recommend avoiding
them, pointing out that research has shown it is difficult to compare
different sections of a given pie chart, or to compare data across
different pie charts. Pie charts can be replaced in most cases by other
plots such as the bar chart. An obvious flaw exhibited by pie charts is
that they cannot show more than a few values without separating the
visual encoding from the data they represent (typically percentages).
When slices become too small, pie charts have to rely on colours,
textures or arrows so the reader can understand them. This makes
them unsuitable for use with larger amounts of data. Pie charts also
take up a larger amount of space on the page compared to the more
flexible alternative of bar charts, which do not need to have separate
legends, and can also display other values such as averages or targets
at the same time.
page 308 Communicative activities section − Student D

UNIT 23

Task VI. Read the text and complete the table with the
information about panel sampling. Next, work with
students A, B and C to complete the whole table.
sampling cluster quota accidental panel
Example method of selecting …

Advantages/ allows …
drawbacks can be used to …

Panel sampling is the method of first selecting a group of

participants through a random sampling method and then asking
that group for potentially the same information several times over
a period of time. Therefore, each participant is interviewed at two or
more time points; each period of data collection is called a “wave”.
The method was developed by sociologist Paul Lazarsfeld in 1938
as a means of studying political campaigns. This longitudinal
sampling-method allows estimates of changes in the population,
for example with regard to chronic illness to job stress to weekly
food expenditures. Panel sampling can also be used to inform
researchers about within-person health changes due to age or to
help explain changes in continuous dependent variables such as
spousal interaction. There have been several proposed methods
of analyzing panel data, including MANOVA, growth curves, and
structural equation modeling with lagged effects.
 Communicative activities section − Student D page 309

SNOWBALL ACTIVITY BANK

UNIT 2
NUMERAL CYFRA
INTEGER LICZBA CAŁKOWITA
COMPLEX NUMBER LICZNA ZESPOLONA
COMPOSITE NUMBER LICZBA ZŁOŻONA
CONJUGATE NUMBER LICZBA SPRZĘŻONA
EVEN NUMBER LICZBA PARZYSTA
ODD NUMBER LICZBA NIEPARZYSTA
IMAGINARY NUMBER LICZBA UROJONA
INVERSE NUMBER LICZBA ODWROTNA
RATIONAL NUMBER LICZBA WYMIERNA
IRRATIONAL NUMBER LICZBA NIEWYMIERNA
NATURAL NUMBER LICZBA NATURALNA
PRIME NUMBER LICZBA PIERWSZA
REAL NUMBER LICZBA RZECZYWISTA
ORDINAL NUMBER LICZBA PORZĄDKOWA
TRANSCENDENTAL NUMBER LICZBA PRZESTĘPNA
ADDITIVE INVERSE ELEMENT ODWROTNY DLA
DODAWANIA
MAGNITUDE WARTOŚĆ BEZWZGLĘDNA/
DŁUGOSĆ WEKTORA
FACTORIZATION ROZKŁAD NA CZYNNIKI
PIERWSZE
FRACTION UŁAMEK
LEAST UPPER BOUND KRES GÓRNY
GREATEST LOWER BOUND KRES DOLNY
ENTITY POJĘCIE
UNION OF SETS SUMA ZBIORÓW
EQUATION RÓWNANIE
MULTIPLE WIELOKROTNOŚĆ
page 310 Communicative activities section − Student D

UNIT 3

SET ZBIÓR

MEMBERS/ELEMENTS
ELEMENTY ZBIORU
OF THE SET

ROSTER LISTA

SET-BUILDER NOTATION ZAPIS TWORZĄCY ZBIÓR

ELLIPSIS WIELOKROPEK

EMPTY/NULL SET ZBIÓR PUSTY

ZBIÓR UNIWERSALNY/
UNIVERSAL SET
UNIWERSUM

SUBSET PODZBIÓR

DISJOINT SETS ZBIORY ROZŁĄCZNE

COMPLEMENT OF A SET DOPEŁNIENIE ZBIORU

UNION OF SETS SUMA ZBIORÓW

INTERSECTION OF SETS PRZECIĘCIE ZBIORÓW

OVERLAPPING SETS ZBIORY ZACHODZĄCE NA SIEBIE

ONE-TO-ONE ODPOWIEDNIOŚĆ WZAJEMNIE

CORRESPONDENCE JEDNOZNACZNA

VENN DIAGRAM DIAGRAM VENNA

SET DIFFERENCE RÓŻNICA ZBIORÓW

ONE-TO-ONE FUNCTION FUNKCJA RÓŻNOWARTOŚCIOWA

 Communicative activities section − Student D page 311
UNIT 7

EXPONENT WYKŁADNIK

SUPERSCRIPT INDEKS GÓRNY

SUBSCRIPT INDEKS DOLNY

WYRAŻENIE
RADICAND
PODPIERWIASTKOWE

ROOT PIERWIASTEK

PRINCIPAL ROOT PIERWIASTEK ARYTMETYCZNY

RATIONAL POWER POTĘGA WYMIERNA

TO EXTRACT A ROOT WYCIĄGNĄĆ PIERWIASTEK

RAISE TO A POWER PODNIEŚĆ DO POTĘGI

SURD LICZBA NIEWYMIERNA

VARIABLE ZMIENNA

SQUARE ROOT PIERWIASTEK KWADRATOWY

CUBE ROOT PIERWIASTEK SZEŚCIENNY

THEOREM TWIERDZENIE
page 312 Communicative activities section − Student D

UNIT 9
VOCABULARY DOMINO

START → DWUSIECZNA KĄTA

BISECTOR WIERZCHOŁEK
VERTEX PROSTOPADŁY
PERPENDICULAR KĄT WKLĘSŁY
REFLEX ANGLE KĄT ROZWARTY
OBTUSE ANGLE KĄT OSTRY
ACUTE ANGLE WSPÓŁPŁASZCZYZNOWY
COPLANAR JEDNAKOWO ODLEGŁY
EQUIDISTANT KĄTY PRZYSTAJĄCE
CONGRUENT ANGLES KĄTY NAPRZEMIANLEGŁE
ALTERNATE ANGLES KĄT ODCHYLENIA
ANGLE OF DEPRESSION KĄT PÓŁPEŁNY
STRAIGHT ANGLE KĄT PEŁNY
PERIGON KĄT PROSTY
RIGHT ANGLE KRZYWA
CURVE PÓŁPROSTA
RAY PRZESTRZEŃ PŁASKA
FLAT SURFACE PUNKTY WSPÓŁLINIOWE
COLLINEAR POINTS ODCINEK
LINE SEGMENT KĄT PŁASKI
PLANE ANGLE KĄT SKOŚNY
OBLIQUE ANGLE KĄT PRZYLEGAJĄCY
ADJACENT ANGLE KĄT DOPEŁNIAJĄCY DO 180˚
SUPPLEMENTARY ANGLE KAT DOPEŁNIAJACY DO 90˚
COMPLEMENTARY ANGLE KĄT DOPEŁNIAJĄCY DO 360˚
EXPLEMENTARY/CONJUGATE
→    FINISH
ANGLE
 page 313

AUDIOSCRIPT

UNIT 2

Track_1
1. The imaginary number i is defined solely by the property that
its square is −1. With i defined this way, it follows directly from
algebra that i and −i are both square roots of −1. Although
the construction is called “imaginary”, and although the concept
of an imaginary number may be intuitively more difficult to grasp
than that of a real number, the construction is perfectly valid
from a mathematical standpoint. Real number operations can be
extended to imaginary and complex numbers by treating i as an
unknown quantity while manipulating an expression, and then
using the definition to replace any occurrence of i 2 with −1. Higher
integral powers of i can also be replaced with −i, 1, i, or −1.

i in the complex or Cartesian plane; real numbers fall on the

horizontal axis, and imaginary numbers fall on the vertical axis.
2. Fibonacci numbers or Fibonacci series or Fibonacci sequence, are
the numbers in the following integer sequence:
0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, …
By definition, the first two numbers in the Fibonacci sequence are
0 and 1, and each subsequent number is the sum of the previous
two.
In mathematical terms, the sequence Fn of Fibonacci numbers is
defined by the recurrence relation
Fn = Fn −1 + Fn −2 , with seed values
=F0 0=
, F1 1.
page 314 Audioscript

Fibonacci numbers are closely related to Lucas numbers in that they

are a complementary pair of Lucas sequences. They are intimately
connected with the golden ratio, for example the closest rational
approximations to the ratio are 2/1, 3/2, 5/3, 8/5, ... . Applications
include computer algorithms such as the Fibonacci search technique
and the Fibonacci heap data structure, and graphs called Fibonacci
cubes used for interconnecting parallel and distributed systems.
They also appear in biological settings, such as branching in trees,
phyllotaxis (the arrangement of leaves on a stem), the fruit spouts
of a pineapple, the flowering of artichoke an uncurling fern and the
arrangement of a pine cone.
3. Transcendental number is a number that is not algebraic,
which means that it is not a root of a non-constant polynomial
equation with rational coefficients. The most prominent examples
of transcendental numbers are π and e. Though only a few
classes of transcendental numbers are known, transcendental
numbers are not rare. Indeed, almost all real and complex
numbers are transcendental, since the algebraic numbers are
countable while the sets of real and complex numbers are both
uncountable. Not all irrational numbers are transcendental,
e.g. the square root of 2 is irrational but not a transcendental
number, since it is a solution of the polynomial equation
x2 – 2 = 0. The set of transcendental numbers is uncountably
infinite. Since the polynomials with integer coefficients are
countable, and since each such polynomial has a finite number
of zeroes, the algebraic numbers must also be countable. But
Cantor’s diagonal argument proves that the real numbers are
uncountable; so the set of all transcendental numbers must also
be uncountable.
No rational number is transcendental and all real transcendental
numbers are irrational. A rational number can be written as p / q,
where p and q are integers. Thus, p / q is the root of qx − p = 0.
However, some irrational numbers are not transcendental.
For example, the square root of 2 is irrational and not
transcendental (because it is a solution of the polynomial equation
x2 − 2 = 0). The same is true for the square root of other non-
-perfect squares.
Any non-constant algebraic function of a single variable yields
a transcendental value when applied to a transcendental
 Audioscript page 315
argument. For example, from knowing that π is transcendental,
we can immediately deduce that numbers such as 5π, (π − 3)/ 2,
( π − 3 )8 and (π5 + 7)1/7 are transcendental as well.
However, an algebraic function of several variables may yield an
algebraic number when applied to transcendental numbers if
these numbers are not algebraically independent. For example,
π and 1 − π are both transcendental, but π + (1 − π) = 1 is obviously
not. It is unknown whether π + e, for example, is transcendental,
though at least one of π + e and πe must be transcendental.
More generally, for any two transcendental numbers a and b, at
least one of a + b and ab must be transcendental. To see this,
consider the polynomial (x − a)(x − b) = x2 − (a + b)x + ab. If (a + b)
and ab were both algebraic, then this would be a polynomial
with algebraic coefficients. Because algebraic numbers form an
algebraically closed field, this would imply that the roots of the
polynomial, a and b, must be algebraic. But this is a contradiction,
and thus it must be the case that at least one of the coefficients is
transcendental. All Liouville numbers are transcendental, but not
vice versa. Any Liouville number must have unbounded partial
quotients in its continued fraction expansion. Using a counting
argument one can show that there exist transcendental numbers
which have bounded partial quotients and hence are not Liouville
numbers.

UNIT 8
Track 1
It is often easier to compute complex powers by writing the number
to be exponentiated in polar form. Every complex number z can be
written in the polar form
z = re i θ = e ln(r )+i θ
where r is a nonnegative real number and θ is the real argument
of z. The polar form has a simple geometric interpretation:
if a complex number u + iv is thought of as representing a point
(u, v) in the complex plane using Cartesian coordinates, then (r, θ)
is the same point in polar coordinates. That is, r is the “radius”
r2 = u2 + v2 and θ is the “angle” θ = atan2 (v, u). The polar angle θ
is ambiguous since any multiple of 2π could be added to θ without
page 316 Audioscript

changing the location of the point. Each choice of θ gives in general

a different possible value of the power. A branch cut can be used to
choose a specific value. The principal value corresponds to θ chosen
in the interval (−π, π]. For complex numbers with a positive real part
and zero imaginary part using the principal value gives the same
result as using the corresponding real number.
In order to compute the complex power wz, write w in polar form:
w = re i θ . Then
ln w = ln r + i θ and thus
w z = e z ln w = e z (ln r +i θ )
If z is decomposed as c + di, then the formula for wz can be written
more explicitly as
(r c e −d θ )e i (d ln r +c θ ) = (r c e −d θ )[cos(d ln r + c θ) + i sin(d ln r + c θ)]
This final formula allows complex powers to be computed easily from
decompositions of the base into polar form and the exponent into
Cartesian form. It is shown here both in polar form and in Cartesian
form via Euler’s identity.
The following examples use the principal value, the branch cut which
causes θ to be in the interval (−π, π]. To compute ii, write i in polar
and Cartesian forms:
1iπ
i = 1⋅ e 2
i = 0 + 1i
Then the formula above, with r = 1, θ = π/2, c = 0, and d = 1, yields:

(
i i = 10 e
− 12 π
)e i 1⋅ln1+ 0⋅ 12 π 
=e
− 12 π
» 0.2079
Similarly, to find (−2)3 + 4i, compute the polar form of −2,
−2 = 2e iπ
and use the formula above to compute
(−2)3+ 4i = (23 e −4 π )e i [ 4 ln(2)+3 π] » (2.602 − 1.006i ) ⋅ 10−5
The value of a complex power depends on the branch used. For
example, if the polar form i = 1e i (5 π/2) is used to compute ii, the power
is found to be e −5 π/2 ; the principal value of ii, computed above, is
e −π/2 . The set of all possible values for ii is given by:
 Audioscript page 317
1 i π +i 2 πk
i = 1⋅ e 2 k ∈
i ( 12 i π +i 2 πk ) −( 12 π + 2 πk )
ii = e =e
So there is infinity of values which are possible candidates for the
value of ii, one for each integer k. All of them have a zero imaginary
part so one can say ii has infinity of valid real values.

UNIT 12

Track 1
Pins-and-string method is a method, in which you draw an ellipse
using two drawing pins, a length of string, and a pencil. The pins
are pushed into the paper at two points which become the ellipse’s
foci. A string tied at each end to the two pins and the tip of a pen
is used to pull the loop taut so as to form a triangle. The tip of the
pen will then trace an ellipse if it is moved while keeping the string
taut. Using two pegs and a rope, this procedure is traditionally used
by gardeners to outline an elliptical flower bed; thus it is called
the gardener’s ellipse. In Trammel method ellipse can be drawn using
a ruler, a set square, and a pencil. Draw two perpendicular lines M, N
on the paper; these will be the major (M) and minor (N) axes of the
ellipse. Mark three points A, B, C on the ruler. A –> C is the length
of the semi-major axis and B –> C the length of the semi-minor axis.
With one hand, move the ruler on the paper, turning and sliding it so
as to keep point A always on line N, and B on line M. With the other
hand, keep the pencil’s tip on the paper, following point C of the
ruler. The tip will trace out an ellipse. The trammel of Archimedes, or
ellipsograph, is a mechanical device that implements this principle.
The ruler is replaced by a rod with a pencil holder (point C) at one
end, and two adjustable side pins (points A and B) that slide into two
perpendicular slots cut into a metal plate. The mechanism can be
used with a router to cut ellipses from board material.
In the parallelogram method, an ellipse is constructed point by point
using equally spaced points on two horizontal lines and equally
spaced points on two vertical lines. It is based on Steiner’s theorem
on the generation of conic sections.
page 318 Audioscript

UNIT 15
Track 1
Differential algebraic equations (DAEs) are a general form of
systems of differential equations for vector–valued functions x in
one independent variable t, F (x (t ), x (t ), t ) = 0 where x : [a ,b ] → n
is a vector of dependent variables x (t ) = (x1(t ), , xn (t )) and the
system has as many equations, F = (F1, , Fn ) :  2n +1 → n . They are
distinct from ordinary differential equation (ODE) in that a DAE is
not completely solvable for the derivatives of all components of the
function x. This difference is more clearly visible if the system may
be rewritten so that instead of x we consider a pair (x, y ) of vectors
of dependent variables and the DAE has the form
x (t ) = f (x (t ), y(t ), t ),
0 = g (x (t ), y(t ), t )

where x (t ) ∈ n , y(t ) ∈ m , f : n +m +1 → n and g : n +m +1 → m .

Every solution of the second half g of the equation defines
a unique direction for x via the first half f of the equations, while
the direction for y is arbitrary. But not every point (x, y, t ) is
a solution of g. The variables in x and the first half f of the equations
get the attribute differential. The components of y and the second
half g of the equations are called the algebraic variables or equations
of the system. The term algebraic in the context of DAEs only means
free of derivatives and is not related to abstract algebra. The solution
of a DAE consists of two parts, first the search for consistent initial
values and second the computation of a trajectory. To find consistent
initial values it is often necessary to consider the derivatives of
some of the component functions of the DAE. The highest order
of a derivative that is necessary in this process is called the
differentiation index. The equations derived in computing the index
and consistent initial values may also be of use in the computation
of the trajectory.
Track 2
Holomorphy is the property of a complex function of being
differentiable at every point of an open and connected subset of 
(this is called a domain in ). Consequently, we can assert that
 Audioscript page 319
a complex function f, whose real and imaginary parts u and v are
real-differentiable functions, is holomorphic if and only if, equations
(1a) and (1b) are satisfied throughout the domain we are dealing with.
The reason why Euler and some other authors relate the Cauchy-
-Riemann equations with analyticity is that a major theorem in
complex analysis says that holomorphic functions are analytic and
vice versa. This means that, in complex analysis, a function that
is complex-differentiable in a whole domain (holomorphic) is the
same as an analytic function. This is not true for real differentiable
functions.

UNIT 23

Track 1
In some cases the sample designer has access to an “auxiliary
variable” or “size measure”, believed to be correlated to the variable
of interest, for each element in the population. These data can be
used to improve accuracy in sample design. One option is to use the
auxiliary variable as a basis for stratification.
Another option is probability proportional to size (‘PPS’) sampling, in
which the selection probability for each element is set to be proportional
to its size measure, up to a maximum of 1. In a simple PPS design,
these selection probabilities can then be used as the basis for Poisson
sampling. However, this has the drawback of variable sample size,
and different portions of the population may still be over- or under-
represented due to chance variation in selections.
Systematic sampling theory can be used to create a probability
proportionate to size sample. This is done by treating each count
within the size variable as a single sampling unit. Samples are then
identified by selecting at even intervals among these counts within
the size variable. This method is sometimes called PPS-sequential or
monetary unit sampling in the case of audits or forensic sampling.
Example: Suppose we have six schools with populations of 150, 180,
200, 220, 260, and 490 students respectively (total 1500 students),
and we want to use student population as the basis for a PPS sample
of size three. To do this, we could allocate the first school numbers
1 to 150, the second school 151 to 330 = 150 + 180, the third school
331 to 530, and so on to the last school 1011 to 1500. We then
page 320 Audioscript

generate a random start between 1 and 500 (equal to 1500/3) and

count through the school populations by multiples of 500. If our random
start was 137, we would select the schools which have been allocated
numbers 137, 637, and 1137, i.e. the first, fourth, and sixth schools.
The PPS approach can improve accuracy for a given sample size
by concentrating sample on large elements that have the greatest
impact on population estimates. PPS sampling is commonly used for
surveys of businesses, where element size varies greatly and auxiliary
information is often available – for instance, a survey attempting
to measure the number of guest-nights spent in hotels might use
each hotel’s number of rooms as an auxiliary variable. In some
cases, an older measurement of the variable of interest can be used
as an auxiliary variable when attempting to produce more current
estimates.

UNIT 24
Track 1
In statistics, statistical inference is the process of drawing
conclusions from data that are subject to random variation,
for example, observational errors or sampling variation. More
substantially, the terms statistical inference, statistical induction
and inferential statistics are used to describe systems of procedures
that can be used to draw conclusions from datasets arising from
systems affected by random variation, such as observational errors,
random sampling, or random experimentation. Initial requirements
of such a system of procedures for inference and induction are that
the system should produce reasonable answers when applied to well-
-defined situations and that it should be general enough to be applied
across a range of situations. Inferential statistics are used to test
hypotheses and make estimations using sample data. The outcome
of statistical inference may be an answer to the question “what
should be done next?”, where this might be a decision about making
further experiments or surveys, or about drawing a conclusion before
implementing some organizational or governmental policy.
For the most part, statistical inference makes propositions about
populations, using data drawn from the population of interest via
some form of random sampling. More generally, data about a random
process is obtained from its observed behavior during a finite period
 Audioscript page 321
of time. Given a parameter or hypothesis about which one wishes
to make inference, statistical inference most often uses: a statistical
model of the random process that is supposed to generate the data,
which is known when randomization has been used, and a particular
realization of the random process; i.e., a set of data. The conclusion
of a statistical inference is a statistical proposition.

Track 2
Any statistical inference requires assumptions. A statistical model
is a set of assumptions concerning the generation of the observed
data and similar data. Descriptions of statistical models usually
emphasize the role of population quantities of interest, about
which we wish to draw inference. Descriptive statistics are typically
used as a preliminary step before more formal inferences are
drawn. Statisticians distinguish between three levels of modeling
assumptions:
Fully parametric: The probability distributions describing the
data-generation process are assumed to be fully described by
a family of probability distributions involving only a finite number
of unknown parameters. For example, one may assume that the
distribution of population values is truly normal, with unknown
mean and variance, and that datasets are generated by ‘simple’
random sampling. The family of generalized linear models is a widely
used and flexible class of parametric models.
Non-parametric: The assumptions made about the process
generating the data are much less than in parametric statistics
and may be minimal. For example, every continuous probability
distribution has a median, which may be estimated using the
sample median or the Hodges–Lehmann–Sen estimator, which has
good properties when the data arise from simple random sampling.
Semi-parametric: This term typically implies assumptions ‘in between’
fully and non-parametric approaches. For example, one may assume
that a population distribution has a finite mean. Furthermore, one
may assume that the mean response level in the population depends
in a truly linear manner on some covariate (a parametric assumption)
but not make any parametric assumption describing the variance
around that mean (i.e. about the presence or possible form of any
heteroscedasticity). More generally, semi-parametric models can often
page 322 Audioscript

be separated into ‘structural’ and ‘random variation’ components.

One component is treated parametrically and the other non-
-parametrically. The well-known Cox model is a set of semi-parametric
assumptions.

UNIT 25
Track 1
Incorrect assumptions of simple random sampling can invalidate
statistical inference. More complex semi- and fully parametric
assumptions are also cause for concern. For example, incorrectly
assuming the Cox model can in some cases lead to faulty
conclusions. Incorrect assumptions of Normality in the population
also invalidate some forms of regression-based inference. The use
of any parametric model is viewed skeptically by most experts in
sampling human populations: most sampling statisticians, when they
deal with confidence intervals at all, limit themselves to statements
about estimators based on very large samples, where the central
limit theorem ensures that these estimators will have distributions
that are nearly normal. In particular, a normal distribution would be
a totally unrealistic and catastrophically unwise assumption to make
if we were dealing with any kind of economic population. Here, the
central limit theorem states that the distribution of the sample mean
for very large samples is approximately normally distributed, if the
distribution is not heavy tailed.
Given the difficulty in specifying exact distributions of sample
statistics, many methods have been developed for approximating
these.
With finite samples, approximation results measure how close
a imiting distribution approaches the statistic’s sample distribution.
For example, with 10,000 independent samples the normal
distribution approximates (to two digits of accuracy) the distribution
of the sample mean for many population distributions, by the
Berry–Essen theorem. Yet for many practical purposes, the normal
approximation provides a good approximation to the sample-mean’s
distribution when there are 10 (or more) independent samples,
according to simulation studies and statisticians’ experience.
Following Kolmogorov’s work in the 1950s, advanced statistics
uses approximation theory and functional analysis to quantify the
 Audioscript page 323
error of approximation. In this approach, the metric geometry of
probability distributions is studied and it quantifies approximation
error with, for example, the Kullback–Leibler distance, Bregman
divergence, and the Hellinger distance.
With indefinitely large samples, limiting results like the central
limit theorem describe the sample statistic’s limiting distribution,
if one exists. Limiting results are not statements about finite
samples, and indeed are irrelevant to finite samples. However,
the asymptotic theory of limiting distributions is often invoked for
work with finite samples. For example, limiting results often justify
the generalized method of moments and the use of generalized
estimating equations, which are popular in econometrics and
biostatistics. The magnitude of the difference between the limiting
distribution and the true distribution (formally, the ‘error’ of the
approximation) can be assessed using simulation. The heuristic
application of limiting results to finite samples is common practice
in many applications, especially with low-dimensional models with
log-concave likelihoods such as one-parameter exponential families.
page 324

ANSWER KEY

UNIT 1: Mathematical symbols and operations

Lead-in:
2, 1, 3
Task I:
structure constant, symmetrisation, Coxeter-Dynkin diagram
Task III:
1. d, 2. g, 3. j, 4. l, 5. h, 6. n, 7. p, 8. a, 9. k, 10. f, 11. q, 12. i, 13. m, 14. e,
15. o, 16. b
Task IV:
Student A: 1. square root of, 2. absolute value, 4. factorial, 5. is greater
than or equal to, 6. sum
Student B: 1. infinity, 2. approximately equal to, 3. natural number,
4. plus-minus, 5. norm of/length of, 6. multiplication
Task V:
1. Multiplication- mnożenie, 2. Subtraction – odejmowanie, 3. Addition –
dodawanie, 4. Division – dzielenie, 5. Quotient – iloraz, 6. Addend – składnik
sumy, 7. Numerator – licznik, 8. Minuend – odjemna
Task VI:
1. C, 2. A, 3. D, 4. B
Task VII:
SYMBOL OPERATION NAME OF COMPONENTS RESULT OF
OPERATION THE PROCESS
a+b=c the sum of a and addition addends, sum
b is c the total of a summands
and b is c/a plus b
equals c/a increased
by b equals c
a–b=c a minus b equals subtraction Minuend, difference
c/b subtracted from subtrahend
a is c/subtraction of
a and b gives c
a×b=c a times b equals c/a multiplication factors product
multiplied by b is c/
multiplication of a
and b gives c
a:b=c a divided by b division Dividend/ quotient
equals c/division numerator,
of a and b is c divisor/
denominator
 Answer key page 325
Task VIII:
A N O T A T I O N B V N J I T
A B C V G H J K Q W E R H R H
I S C O N G R U E N C E H E D
N U F G H A Z X S L K O P M I
E M P N U M E R A T O R A A A
Q M R A M H D I V I S O R I G
U G O P I O Y W Q R T U S N R
A D D E N D A S D F G T D D A
L U U S U J T Q F D H E I E M
I F C D E K E W Y O J R V R B
T G T X N L N S U H K G I K C
Y N B Z D V S U M M A N D A D
T B Q V B H O D R E T P E Q F
S V S U B T R A H E N D N E G
D E N O M I N A T O R L D V H
1. Notation, 2. Diagram, 3. Congruence, 4. Numerator, 5. Dividend,
6. Inequality, 7. Sum, 8. Minuend, 9. Summand, 10. Denominator,
11. Subtrahend, 12. Numerator

UNIT 2: Numbers

Task I:
1500
Task II:
a) Number is a mathematical object and numeral is notational symbol
representing number.
b) Counting, measuring, labelling, ordering, coding.
c) They take two input numbers and produce a single output number.
d) Integers are represented with capital letter Z.
Task IV:
Real and rational numbers.
1. Every integer is a rational number.
2. The decimal expansion is either repeating or terminating.
3. Irrational numbers cannot be expressed as fractions, their decimal
expansion continues forever without repeating.
4. Because it encompasses all rational numbers, irrational numbers
and transcendental number.
5. They constitute an ordered field and have the least upper bound
property.
page 326 Answer key

Natural numbers and integers.

1. Counting, ordering and naming.
2. There is no universal agreement about whether to include zero in the set
of natural numbers, some define them as positive integers (without zero),
others call them non-negative integers (with zero).
3. Closure under addition and multiplication, associativity, commutativity
and distributivity, never use zero divisors.
4. All natural numbers together with non-negatives of the non-zero
natural numbers, subset of real numbers with no fractional or decimal
component.
5. Rational integers are embedded in the field of rational numbers, algebraic
integers are broader term referring to all integers.
Task V:
1. distinguish – odróznić, 2. compatible with – zgodny, 3. respectively –
odpowiednio, 4. comprise – zawierać, 5. designate – określić, 6. terminate
– zakończyć, 7. corresponding – odpowiadający, 8. embedded – osadzony,
9. exclude – wykluczyć, 10. consecutive – kolejny
Task VI:
1. compatible, 2. distinguish, 3. respectively, 4. terminate, 5. corresponding,
6. designated, 7. excluded, 8. consecutive, 9. comprises, 10. embedded
Task VII;
1. B, 2. A, 3. B, 4. A, 5. C
Task IX:
1. transcendental – przestępna, 2. imaginary – urojona, 3. Fibonacci –
Fibonacciego, 4. complex – zespolona, 5. recurrence – rekurencja, 6. diagonal
– przekątna
Task X:
1. F, 2. T, 3. F, 4. T, 5. T, 6. F, 7. F, 8. T
Task XI:
1. by the property/square roots, 2. search technique/cubes, 3. diagonal/
uncountable, 4. bounded partial, 5. non-constant algebraic, 6. yield/
independent
Task XII:
Positive adjective Negative adjective
constant non-constant
rational irrational
finite infinite
countable uncountable
 Answer key page 327

transcendental non-transcendental
imaginary non-imaginary
perfect imperfect
curling uncurling
bounded unbounded
partial impartial

Task XIII:
1. non-constant, 2. curling, 3. non-transcendental, 4. irrational,
5. unbounded, 6. infinitely
Task XV:
R A T I O N A L U J K S A Q
E C S N D U T O R D I N A L
A O L T D M F E U J K H Q R
L N U E E E R D Y Y Y S A G
A J H G A R I T H M E T I C
F U Y E D A M A R T T G G O
I G R R E L A D T R H F T M
B A I F A K G S F I F D F P
O T N G W O I X D D D S D L
N E V E N P N Z S S S E S E
A H E H Q J A J W E V S X X
C R R J R P R I M E D X S B
C E S K T D Y P Q I S C Z N
I C E I R R A T I O N A L M

1. Real, 2. Fibonacci, 3. Complex, 4. Arithmetic, 5. Rational, 6. Integers,

7. Inverse, 8. Even, 9. Numeral, 10. Imaginary, 11. Ordinals, 12. Prime,
13. Irrational
Task XVII:
1. parity, 2. entity, 3. multiplicand, 4. one, 5. compile, 6. embedded,
7. polynomial, 8. different

UNIT 3: Sets

English term Polish equivalent

roster lista
union of sets suma zbiorów
ellipsis wielokropek
subset podzbiór
overlapping set zbiory łączne
page 328 Answer key

disjoint sets zbiory rozłączne

sets intersection przecięcie zbiorów
one-to-one correspondence odpowiedniość wzajemnie jednoznaczna
set-builder notation zapis tworzący zbiór

Task I:
1. C, 2. B, 3. D, 4. A, 5. A, 6. B, 7. A, 8. B, 9. C, 1O. A
Task II:
Student A Student B
1. F 1. T
2. T 2. F
3. F 3. T
4. T 4. T
5. F 5. T
6. F 6. F
7. F 7. T
Task III:
a) members, b) set, c) empty set/null set, d) equal, e) universal set,
f) subset, g) disjoint, h) Venn diagrams, i) complement, j) well-defined,
k) equivalent/one-to-one correspondence
Task IV:
A
1. collection
2. integers
3. braces
4. specific
5. depicting
B
1. boundary
2. shaded
3. intersection
4. corresponding
5. null
Task VII:
scrambled word unscrambled word Polish equivalent
lelc cell komórka
enoisdinm dimension wymiar
ixsa axis oś
yrara array szereg
tvibalne bivalent dwuwartościowy
 Answer key page 329

nrelke kernel jądro

uzyzf fuzzy rozmyty
npela plane płaszczyzna
rilavtne interval przedział
nidmoa domain dziedzina
ctlaepnsaue encapsulate zamknąć

Task X:
1. boundary, 2. overlap, 3. intersection, 4. Venn, 5. null, 6. notation,
7. ordered pair, 8. fuzzy, 9. array, 10. null sets
Task XIII:
1. union, 2. participated, 3. therefore, 4. duplications, 5. substituting

UNIT 4: Functions

Lead-in:
P O L Y N O M I A L H U O
C D F E W Q A N V C N Y R
O Z X C V B N V M L K H J
S D E X P O N E N T I A L
I P R G D S A R A S C V N
N Q W E R T Y S U I O K M
E A S D F G H E J K L M N
T R I G O N O M E T R I C
Z X C V B N M L K J H G F
Q F U N C T I O N Z D G Y

Function – funkcja, exponential – wykładnicza, polynomial – wielomianowa,

inverse – odwrotna, cosine – kosinus, trigonometric – trygonometryczna
Task II:
1) B, 2) B, 3) B, 4) A
Task IV:
1. When the independent variables are allowed to take on negative values—
thus, any real numbers—the functions are known as real-valued
functions.
2. When the powers of x can be any real number, the result is known as
an algebraic function.
3. Geometric representation.
4. Non-algebraic, exponential, trigonometric.
5. Expressing function in terms of sines and cosines.
page 330 Answer key

Task V:
1) Extensive, 2) Constraints, 3) Convenient, 4) Versatility
Task VI:
A B
1) Prime numbers 1) All negative even integers
2) The infinite series 2) The critical strip of complex numbers
3) Converges to a finite numer 3) Nontrivial zeros
4) The Swiss mathematician 4) Subsequently became known
5) Giving an explicit formula 5) Its inclusion in his influential list
6) Equals zero 6) Have enriched the understanding

UNIT 5: Types of functions

Task I:
1) True
2) False
3) False
4) True
5) True
6) False
7) False
8) False
Task II:
A B
1) Velocity 1) Dispersion
2) Independent 2) Flat
3) Maximum 3) Obtained
4) Coefficient 4) Squares
Task III:
English term Polish term
Curve Krzywa
Differentiable function Funkcja różniczkowalna
Real value Wartość rzeczywista
Cusp Szpic/wierzchołek
Converge Zbiegać/skupiać
Meagre set Niewielki zbiór
Linear function Funkcja liniowa
Diffeomorphic Różnorodny
 Answer key page 331
Task IV:
A B
1) B 1) B
2) B 2) B
Task V:
1) C
2) A
3) B
Task VI:
even
A: B:
1) False 1) False
2) False 2) False
3) True 3) False
4) True 4) False
5) False 5) True
6) False 6) True
7) True 7) False
8) True 8) False
9) True 9) False
Task VII:
A: B:
1) C 1) G
2) D 2) D
3) A 3) E
4) E 4) C
5) B 5) A
6) G 6) F
7) F 7) B
Task VIII:
1) Maximum
2) Composition
3) Ubiquitous
4) Trigonometric
5) Coefficient
6) Derivative
7) Distribution
8) Differentiable
9) Function
page 332 Answer key

Task X:
1) C
2) B
3) A

UNIT 6: Fractions

Lead-in:

1. ułamek zwykły, 2. ułamek właściwy, 3. ułamek niewłaściwy, 4. ułamek

dziesiętny, 5. licznik, 6. mianownik, 7. ułamek równoważny, 8. ułamek
złożony
Task I:
1. T, 2. T, 3. F, 4. T, 5. T
Task IV:
1. F, 2. C, 3. H, 4. A, 5. I, 6. E, 7. J, 8. B, 9. D
Task V:
1. Solidus/forward slash
2. Special fractions
3. Ratio is the relationship between two or more numbers that can be
sometimes expressed as a fraction.
4. An improper fraction whose absolute value is greater than or equal
to 1
5. A mixed number can be converted to an improper fraction as follows:
3 3
write the mixed number 2 as a sum 2 + , convert the whole number
4 4
to an improper fraction with the same denominator as the fractional
8 3
part, + , add the fractions. The resulting sum is the improper
4 4
fraction
6. 17/1 where 1 is the invisible denominator
7. A decimal separator (e.g., a period, a raised period (•), a comma)
separates numerator from denominator
8. Its implied denominator is always 100
9. Unit fraction, Egyptian fraction and dyadic fraction
10. Dyadic fraction
Task VI:
Student A: 1. Specified, 2. Top-heavy, 3. Inverse, 4. Precedence, 5. Implied
Student B: 1. Converted, 2. Sum, 3. Invisible, 4. Explicitly, 5. Distinct
 Answer key page 333
Task VII:
K W E G F A N B B T Y U
C O M M U T A T I V E N
S A S E W R T Y U I O P
R K J H G D S A Z X E Q
D I S T R I B U T I V E
T A X C H Y U K Y O K L
A S S O C I A T I V E M

Commutative – przemienności, distributive – rozdzielności, associative –

łączności
Task IX:
1. to give the answer
2. to break the denominator into primes
3. to find the common denominator
4. to position the decimal in product
5. to cancel a fraction
6. to simplify a complex fraction
7. to reduce reciprocal of a fraction
Task X:
1. b, 2. c, 3. b, 4. a, 5. b, 6 a

UNIT 7: Roots

Task I:
raised /equals/is called/using/written/containing
Task II:
1. C, 2. D, 3. E, 4. B
Task III:
1. C
Task IV:
1. F, 2. F, 3. T, 4. F, 5. T, 6. F
Task V:
1. a) szereg nieskończony, 2. a) szereg zbieżny, 3. b) szereg rozbieżny,
4. b) jedność, 5. a) okrąg, 6. b) wniosek/następstwo
Task VI:
1. base, 2. index, 3. power, 4. raised, 5. integer, 6. extension, 7. function,
8. matrix, 9. equations
page 334 Answer key

Task VIII:
1. F, 2. T, 3. F, 4. F, 5. T, 6. F, 7. T, 8. F, 9. F, 10. T, 11. F, 12. T
Task IX:
A
1. The computation of (1 + i π/N)N is displayed as the combined effect of N
repeated multiplications in the complex plane, with the final point
being the actual value of (1 + i π/N)N. It can be seen that as N gets larger
(1 + i π/N)N approaches a limit of −1. Therefore, eiπ = −1, which is known
as Euler’s identity.
2. Consider the right triangle (0, 1, 1 + ix/n). For big values of n the triangle
is almost a circular sector with a small central angle equal to x/n radians.
The triangles (0, (1 + ix/n)k, (1 + ix/n)k+1) are mutually similar for all values
of k. So for large values of n the limiting point of (1 + ix/n)n is the point
on the unit circle whose angle from the positive real axis is x radians.
The polar coordinates of this point are (r, θ) = (1, x), and the Cartesian
coordinates are (cos x, sin x).
B
1. The principal value is a single value chosen from infinite number
of values by a rule which, amongst its other properties, ensures powers
of complex numbers with a positive real part and zero imaginary part
give the same value as for the corresponding real numbers.
2. Any non-rational power of a complex number has an infinite number
of possible values because of the multi-valued nature of the complex
logarithm.
Task X:
1. repeated, 2. to understanding, 3. periodic, 4. congruent, 5. solution,
6. handled, 7. identifies, 8. defined

UNIT 8: Complex powers

Task I:
1. B, 2. B, 3. B, 4. A, 5. A
Task II:
1. B, 2. C, 3. A
Task III:
1. conjugate number, 2. geometric interpretation, 3. polar form, 4. principal
value, 5. complex power, 6. imaginary part
Task IV:
1. T, 2. F (complex), 3. F (ambiguous), 4. F (different), 5. T, 6. F (polar/
Cartesian)
 Answer key page 335
Task V:
unity, radian, divergence, radicand, exponentiation, identity, index, disc,
variable, logarithm, convergence, formula, empty tuple

UNIT 9: Basic concepts in geometry

Task I:
Combination, endpoint, vertex, generated, varies, about, magnitude, swept,
order, directed
Task III:
1. F, 2. T, 3. F, 4. T, 5. T, 6. F, 7. T, 8. T
Task IV:
1. Angles that differ by an exact multiple of a full circle are equivalent.
2. In order to measure an angle θ, a circular arc centred at the vertex
of the angle is drawn, e.g. with a pair of compasses. The length of the
arc s is then divided by the radius of the circle r, and possibly multiplied
by a scaling constant k which depends on the units of measurement
s
that are chosen: θ = k .
r
3. Degree and radian.
4. In rational geometry the spread between two lines is defined at the square
of sine of the angle between the lines.
Task V:
Student A:
1. Multiple, 2. Vertex, 3. Measurement, 4. Size, 5. Coordinates
Student B:
1. Circumference, 2. Gradients, 3. Sine, 4. Alternatives, 5. Magnitude
Task VI:
1. C, 2. B, 3. A

UNIT 10: Triangles

Task III:
1. F (regular.60°), 2. F (side opposite to the right…, right triangle), 3. F (two
sides/same length), 4. F (90°), 5. F (unequal/unequal), 6. F (all angles)
Task IV:

1. b, 2. a
page 336 Answer key

Task VI:
1F (three bisectors), 2F (acute), 3F (base/foot), 4F (acute), 5F (three sides),
6F (one side/extensions of the other two), 7F (mass), 8F (twice), 9F (radius/
three), 10F (at the midpoint/half that between the centroid…), 11F (vertex)

UNIT 11: Circles

Lead-in:
R L O C U S T Y I R
A S C U R V E S D E
D E L L I P S E I G
I C A L C U L U S I
U F O C U S A Q K O
S B O U N D A R Y N
E N C L O S E W F K
T R A C E O U T Y K

Radius – promień, locus – położenie, region – obszar, ellipse – krzywa, focus

– ognisko, boundary – granica, calculus – rachunek, enclose – otaczać/
zawierać
Task I:
1. shape, 2. points, 3. centre, 4. radius, 5. locus, 6. equidistant
1. curve, 2. regions, 3. interchangeably, 4. boundary, 5. including, 6. disk
1. traced out, 2. moves, 3. distance, 4. constant
1. ellipse, 2. foci, 3. coincident, 4. enclosing, 5. perimeter, 6. calculus
Task III:
Student A
1. arc, 2. centre, 3. chord, 4. circular sector, 5. circular segment,
6. circumference
Student B
1. diameter, 2. passant, 3. radius, 4. secant, 5. semicircle, 6. tangent
Task IV:
1. incorrect (the midpoint of a chord), 2. incorrect (tangent to two sides
of the triangle)

UNIT 12: Hexagon and ellipse

Task I:
Student A: 1. A, 2. B
Student B: 1. C, 2. B
 Answer key page 337
Task II:
1. reflection, 2. diagonals, 3. vertices, 4. equilateral, 5. tile, 6. efficient, 7.
formula, 8. height, 9. perimeter, 10. circumscribing
Task III:
Student A: 1. F, 2. T, 3. T, 4. F
Student B: 1. F, 2. T, 3. F, 4. T
Task IV:
Name of method Pins-and-string Trammel method Parallelogram
method
Equipment drawing pins, string, Ruler, a set square, pencil points, horizontal
required pencil lines
Description The pins are pushed Draw two perpendicular lines An ellipse is
into the paper at two M, N on the paper; these will constructed point
points, ellipse’s foci. be the major (M) and minor (N) by point using
A string tied at each axes of the ellipse. Mark three equally spaced
end to the two pins points A, B, C on the ruler. points on two
and the tip of a pen A->C is the length of the semi- horizontal lines
is used to pull the major axis and B->C the length and equally spaced
loop taut so as to of the semi-minor axis. With points on two
form a triangle. one hand, move the ruler on vertical lines.
The tip of the pen the paper, turning and sliding
will then trace an it so as to keep point A always
ellipse if it is moved on line N, and B on line M.
while keeping the With the other hand, keep
string taut the pencil’s tip on the paper,
following point C of the ruler.
The tip will trace out an ellipse

UNIT 13: Solid figures

Task I:
a) tetrahedron-czworościan, b) hexahedron-sześcian, c) octahedron
-ośmiościan, d) dodecahedron-dwunastościan, e) icosahedron-dwudziesto­
ścian
Task II:
Cone – stożek, prism – graniastosłup, sphere – kula, pyramid – ostrosłup
Task IV:
1. tangent, 2. perpendicularly, 3. polyhedron, 4. square, 5. radius,
6. meridians, 7. axis, 8. solid
Task V:
conjugate, equidistant, bisector, perigon, circumference, gradient, obtuse,
orthocentric, incircle, dodecahedron, octahedron, ellipse, sphere, directrix,
hexagon
page 338 Answer key

Task VI:
Down: 1. concentrical, 2. spherical, 3. curve, 4. antipodal, 6. region,
7. infinitesimal, 10. elongate
Across: 2. symmetrical, 5. tetrahedron, 8. rotation, 9. volume

UNIT 14: Equations

Lead-in:
1. linear – liniowe, 2. quadratic – kwadratowe, 3. cubic – sześcienne,
4. exponential – wykładnicze, 5. fractional – ułamkowe, 6. simultaneous –
jednoczesne, 7. logarithmic – logarytmiczne, 8. equivalent – równoważne,
9. polynomial – wielomianowe, 10. differential - różniczkowe
Task I:
Mathematical theorem, assumes, parallel, knowns, unknowns, solution,
ascribing
Task II:
1. Free variable is an unknown for which value is sought.
2. The equation becomes an identity when expressions that satisfy
the equation are assigned to the unknowns.
3. Optimisation is finding a set of solutions that satisfy the equation.
Task III:
A C C E L E R A T I O N
C G A T Y U R P O W V E
C R V E L O C I T Y A X
U A S D F G H E N M R P
R V A Z X C V B N J I L
A I K H G R D S A Q A I
C T W E R T Y U I O B C
Y Y A S D F G H J K L I
P R O M I N E N T E E T
S R E S I S T A N C E Q
A S D E R I V A T I V E
Q U A L I T A T I V E N

acceleration – przyspieszenie, velocity – prędkość, prominent – istotny,

resistance – opór, qualitative – jakościowy, accuracy – dokładność/
precyzyjność, gravity – grawitacja, explicit – wyraźny, variable – zmienna,
derivative – pochodna
 Answer key page 339
Task IV:
1. F, 2. T, 3. F, 4. T
Task VI:
1. prominent, 2. velocity, 3. qualitative, 4. explicitly, 5. acceleration,
6. differential
Task VIII:
a) homogenous, b) significant, c) pendulum, d) extendability, e) affine,
f) implicit
Task IX
NOUN ADJECTIVE
distinction distinctive
solution solvable
vision visible
differentiation differential
algebra algebraic
consistence consistent
ellipsis elliptic
line linear
significance significant
homogeneity homogenous

UNIT 15: Systems of equations

Lead-in:
Differential algebraic equation, ordinary differential equation
Task I:
1. C, 2. E, 3. A, 4. D, 5. B
Task II:
1. C, 2. A, 3. B, 4. A, 5. C, 6. B, 7. B, 8. C, 9. A
Task III:
1. Holomorphy is the property of a complex function of being differentiable
at every point of an open and connected subset of  (this is called
a domain in ).
2. A complex function f, whose real and imaginary parts u and v are real-
-differentiable functions, is holomorphic if and only if, equations (1a)
and (1b) are satisfied throughout the domain we are dealing with.
3. YES.
page 340 Answer key

Task IV.
1. inconsistent, 2. assignment, 3. quadrant, 4. solvable, 5. simultaneously,
6. curves
Task V.
1. F, 2. T, 3. F, 4. F, 5. F, 6. T, 7. F, 8. T
Task VII:
Student A Student B
1. containing 1. equivalent
2. termination 2. represents
3. solutions 3. ratio
Task X:
1. quantities, 2. purchase, 3. equation, 4. linear, 5. elimination, 6. substitute,
7. variable, 8. equivalent, 9. graph, 10. intersection, 11. approximation

UNIT 16: Fields of mathematics

Task I:
1. encompassing, 2. patterns, 3. conjectures, 4. solve, 5. inquiry, 6. research,
7. deduction, 8. reasoning
Task II:
Engineering, architecture, mechanics, biotechnology, graphics, chemistry.
Task III:
1. D, 2. H, 3. B, 4. G, 5. A, 6. I, 7. C, 8. F, 9. J, 10. E, 11. L, 12. K
Task IV:
A) Quantity, B) Change, C) Structure, D) Space
Task V:
1. F, 2. T, 3. F, 4. F, 5. T, 6. F, 7. F, 8. F
 Answer key page 341
Task VII.
Q E F H J B M Z A D G H U P W T
D A A B D G F R E T M J Z S C K
S D L H A C E B J K N L I P A B
U J G E O M E T R Y U F Z X L V
A E E B N A R I T H M E T I C P
B G B A D G W G H D B E O O U T
Z C R V T E R P O B E N P O L M
H N A Y S E T S T O R P O N U A
A S D F G H J K L O T M L B S T
S A N A L Y S I S Y H L O W Q R
Q V W E R T Y U I O E P G L K I
L E J H G F D S A Z O X Y C V X
M C O M B I N A T O R I C S G S
H T Y U I O P L M N Y S A W Q B
X O M C B B N J I L K G H F D R
Z R V B L O G I C S A G T E W Y

Task VIII:
1. liczydło, 2. rachunek, 3. zbieżność, 4. styczny, 5. moduł liczby zespolonej,
6. wielokat, 7. średnica, 8. przeciwprostokątna, 9. pręt, 10. całka

UNIT 17: Basic concepts of probability

Lead-in:
1. receives, 2. respective, 3. combinations, 4. belongs, 5. outcomes,
6. conclude
Task I:
scrambled word unscrambled word Polish equivalent
vnete event zdarzenie losowe
mlaspe sample próbka/wzorzec
ritpoabliyb probability prawdopodobieństwo
pirmenxtee experiment doświadczenie
tmocueo outcome wynik
tmieseta estimate szacować

Task III:
1. mathematics of chance, 2. frequency, 3. probability, 4. decimal/percent,
5. more likely
page 342 Answer key

Task IV:
Experiment is making an observation or taking a measurement.
Outcome is one of the possible results of an experiment.
Sample space is the set of all possible outcomes.
Event is a collection of possible outcomes, a subset of sample space.

Task V:
Student A: 1. T, 2. F, 3. T
Student B: 1. T, 2. F, 3. T

Task VI:
1. przypadkowy, 2. warunkowy/zależny, 3. odrzucony, 4. określony/naz-
wany, 5. krańcowy/marginalny, 6. zachowany

Task VII:
1. The marginal distribution of a subset of a collection of random variables
is the probability distribution of the variables contained in the subset.
It gives the probabilities of various values of the variables in the subset
without reference to the values of the other variables.
2. The distribution of the marginal variables is obtained by marginalizing
over the distribution of the variables being discarded, and the discarded
variables are said to have been marginalized out.
3. The answer for the marginal probability can be found by summing
P (H, L) for all possible values of L, with each value of L weighted by its
probability of occurring.
4. To find the joint probability distribution, we need more data. Let’s say that
P (L = red) = 0.2, P (L = yellow) = 0.1, and P (L = green) = 0.7. Multiplying
each column in the conditional distribution by the probability of that
column occurring, we find the joint probability distribution of H and L,
given in the central 2 × 3 block of entries.
5. The marginal probability P (H = Hit) is the sum along the H = Hit row
of this joint distribution table, as this is the probability of being hit when
the lights are red OR yellow OR green.

Task VIII:
A) 1, B) 3, C) 2

Task IX:
4, 2, 3, 5, 1, 6, 7

Task X:
1. It measures the probability of an event given that (by assumption,
presumption, assertion or evidence) another event has occurred.
 Answer key page 343
2. The conditional probability is an update of the probability of an event
based on new information.
3. The conditioning event is interpreted as evidence for the conditioned
event.

UNIT 18: Events

Task I:
1. Denoted, 2. Satisfies, 3. Define, 4. Occurs, 5. Be measured
Task II:
Student A: 1. F, 2. F, 3. T, 4. F
Student B: 1. F, 2. T, 3. F, 4. T
Task IV:
1. Sufficiently, 2. Occurrence, 3. Yield, 4. Purported, 5. Invoked,
6. Assign, 7. Uncertainty, 8. Outcomes, 9. Trials, 10. Probabilities, 11. Dice,
12. Sequence
Task V:
Assumption, axiom, conditional, distribution, empirical, estimator,
frequency, independence, marginal, presumption, probability, random,
sample, variable
1. Presumption, 2. Axioms, 3. Conditional, 4. Estimator, 5. Variable,
6. Distribution, 7. Frequency, 8. Independence, 9. Marginal, 10. Assumption,
11. Probability, 12. Empirical, 13. Sample, 14. Random
Task VI:
Across: 6. Accuracy, 7. Analytic, 10. Experiment, 12. Purport, 13. Overlook,
14. Relate, 16. Discrete
Down: 1. Outcome, 2. Inclined, 3. Respective, 4. Symmetry, 5. Posit,
8. Column, 9. Fluster, 11. Inference, 15. Event
Task VII:
One way to find the probability of event e is to make many repetitions of the
experiment and determine the frequency with which e occurs.

UNIT 19: Statistics

Lead-in
1. Scatter plot, 2. Probability theory, 3. Sample size, 4. Central tendency,
5. Maximum value, 6. Random variable, 7. Data distribution, 8. Inferential
statistics
page 344 Answer key

Task I:
1. rozproszenie, 2. średnia, 3. środkowa/mediana, 4. wskaźnik częstotliwości,
5. odchylenie, 6. kurtoza, 7. skośność, 8. główna tendencja

Task II:
1. discipline, 2. distinguished, 3. represent, 4. summarise, 5. unlike,
6. conclusions, 7. overall, 8. number, 9. dispersion, 10. median, 11. deviation

Task III:
1. Descriptive statistics aim to represent a sample, rather than use the
data to learn about the population that the sample of data is thought
to summarize. This generally means that descriptive statistics, unlike
inferential statistics, are not developed on the basis of probability theory.
2. Sample size in important subgroups (e.g., for each treatment or exposure
group), and demographic or clinical characteristics such as the average
age, the number of subjects of each sex, and the proportion of subjects.

Task VI:
1. F (discrete value), 2. F (adjacent rectangles), 3. T, 4. T, 5. F (density
estimation), 6. F (charts are not suited), 7. F (cannot show), 8. T

Task VII:
NOUN ADJECTIVE
graphics graphical
adjacency adjacent
density dense
randomness random
validity valid
flexibility flexible
resemblance resembling
continuity continuous
probability probable
preference preferable

Task VIII:
1. randomness, 2. preferable, 3. continuity, 4. probability, 5. resemblance

Task IX:
a) Lines extending vertically from the boxes of box plots
b) Box plots display differences between populations without making
any assumptions of the underlying statistical distribution
 Answer key page 345
c) Boxplots indicate the degree of dispersion and skewness in the data,
and identify outliers. In addition to the points themselves, they allow
one to visually estimate various L-estimators, notably the interquartile
range, midhinge range, mid-range, and trimean
Task X:
1. multiplier, 2. quartiles, 3. notch, 4. outlier, 5. cross-hatch
Task XI:
Student A: 1. C, 2. A, 3. D, 4. B
Student B: 1. C, 2. D, 3. A, 4. B

UNIT 20: Data representation

Task I:
1. best-fit procedure, 2. vertical axis, 3. quality control, 4. arbitrary
relationships, 5. scatter diagram, 6. superimposed patterns, 7. dependent
variable
Task II:
1. g, 2. b, 3. d, 4. f, 5. e, 6. a, 7. c
Task III:
1. In simple linear regression there is one explanatory variable. For more
than one explanatory variable, it is called multiple linear regression.
2. In linear models data are modeled using linear predictor functions,
and unknown model parameters are estimated from the data.
3. Because models which depend linearly on their unknown parameters
are easier to fit than models which are non-linearly related to their
parameters and because the statistical properties of the resulting
estimators are easier to determine.
Task IV:
Student A
1. Linear regression can be used to fit a predictive model to an observed
data set of y and X values. It can also be applied to quantify the strength
of the relationship between y and the Xj, to assess which Xj may have no
relationship with y at all, and to identify which subsets of the Xj contain
redundant information about y.
2. Linear regression models are fitted using the least squares approach,
whereas the least squares approach can be used to fit models that are
not linear.
3. It can be used to identify the relationship between a single predictor
variable xj and the response variable y when all the other predictor
variables in the model are “held fixed”.
page 346 Answer key

4. The interpretation of βj is the expected change in y for a one-unit change

in xj when the other covariates are held fixed—that is, the expected value
of the partial derivative of y with respect to xj. This is sometimes called
the unique effect of xj on y. In contrast, the marginal effect of xj on y
can be assessed using a correlation coefficient or simple linear regression
model relating xj to y; this effect is the total derivative of y with respect
to xj.
Student B
1. Some of them may not allow for marginal changes, while others cannot
be held fixed.
2. The unique effect of xj can be large while its marginal effect is nearly
zero.
3. The expression “held fixed” can refer to a selection that takes place in the
context of data analysis.
4. It can literally be interpreted as the causal effect of an intervention that
is linked to the value of a predictor variable.
Task V:
1. T, 2. T, 3. F (can identify), 4. F (minimizing), 5. F (near to zero), 6. F (can),
7. T, 8. T, 9. T, 10. T

UNIT 21: Census

Task II:
1. sample, 2. assign, 3. digits, 4. less, 5. numbers
Task IV:
1. demography-demografia, 2. mortality rates-współczynnik umieralności,
3. census-spis ludności, 4. overcount-przeszacowanie, 5. estimates-
-szacunki, 6. migration-migracja, 7.demarcation-demarkacja
Task V:
1. They are generated by conducting a census.
2. Information concerning where a person usually lives, whether they are
resident or visitor, or also live somewhere else.
3. To forecast the size of future populations.
4. If census misses counting everyone, it results in undercount. On the
other hand, some people counted in the census may be recorded in
a different place than where they usually live, it may lead to over-count.
 Answer key page 347
Task VII:
N C E N S U S M Z X C V D G B
O Q F S U A T B A Q W E R F G
I E Y R R S R V F G J U I P O
T T O F V W A N Q P T P E J N
A F P Y E Q T N U O C R E V O
L C K G Y Y A K M L S E D H M
U S H Q D E D L S L W M A F J
P H D A A D A T A I D I A M H
O J S Z R I S P Z N S S A G C
P I A E Y J D O F G E E N A T
R E N U M E R A T I O N M O A
G L C N I K F R W Q R E C B P
S I M U L T A N E I T Y N T S
D K V L C G G E Z X C V B N I
N O I T A C I F I T A R T S D

Task VIII:
1. population/data, 2. census, 3. over-count, 4. strata, 5. surveys/
dispatched, 6. simultaneity

UNIT 22: Sampling

Lead-in:
method, survey, collection, data, stratified, frame, plan
Task I:
1. The selection of a subset of individuals from within a statistical
population to estimate characteristics of the whole population.
2. Two advantages of sampling are that the cost is lower and data
collection is faster than measuring the entire population.
3. Defining the population of concern, specifying a sampling frame, a set
of items or events possible to measure, specifying a sampling method
for selecting items or events from the frame, determining the sample size,
implementing the sampling plan, sampling and data collecting.
Task II:
Example 1 – non-probability sampling
Example 2 – probability sampling
Task IV:
PS 1, 3, 6
NPS 2, 4, 5
page 348 Answer key

Task V:
R E P R E S E N T A T I V E
A S A C C U R A C Y F S E I
W E Q T Y B G V C B M E D N
A Z X C G G O P L J H L I D
V U L N E R A B L E O E O I
A S D E F O G J K O P C U C
C V B Q R U T R I A L T S A
Z X C U B P N J K Y T I R T
Q W E A T Y H J B N M O E O
A P P L I C A B L E Q N O R
representative-reprezentatywny, equal-równy, accuracy-dokładność/traf-
ność, trial-próba, applicable-stosowalny, tedious-żmudny, subgrup-pod-
zespół/podgrupa, indicator-wskaźnik, selection-wybieranie/dobieranie,
vulnerable-wrażliwy
Task VI:
1. equal, 2. selection, 3. indicator, 4. accuracy, 5. vulnerable, 6. trial,
7. representative, 8. tedious, 9. subgroups, 10. applicable
Task VII:
1. It is important that the starting point is not automatically the first
in the list, but is instead randomly chosen from within the first to
the kth element in the list.
2. As long as the starting point is randomized, systematic sampling is
a type of probability sampling.
3. Systematic sampling is especially vulnerable to periodicities in the list.
4. If periodicity is present and the period is a multiple or factor of the
interval used, the sample is especially likely to be unrepresentative
of the overall population.
5. Systematic sampling is an EPS method, because all elements have
the same probability of selection.
Task IX:
1. It relies on arranging the study population according to some ordering
scheme and then selecting elements at regular intervals through that
ordered list.
2. It involves a random start and then proceeds with the selection
of every kth element from then onwards.
3. A: Suppose we wish to sample people from a long street that starts
in a poor area (house No. 1) and ends in an expensive district (house
No. 1000). A simple random selection of addresses from this street could
easily end up with too many from the high end and too few from the
low end (or vice versa), leading to an unrepresentative sample. Selecting
 Answer key page 349
(e.g.) every 10th street number along the street ensures that the sample
is spread evenly along the length of the street, representing all of these
districts.
B: Consider a street where the odd-numbered houses are all on the
north (expensive) side of the road, and the even-numbered houses are
all on the south (cheap) side. Under the sampling scheme given above, it
is impossible to get a representative sample; either the houses sampled
will all be from the odd-numbered, expensive side, or they will all be from
the even-numbered, cheap side.
4. If periodicity is present and the period is a multiple or factor of the interval
used, the sample is likely to be unrepresentative of the overall population,
making the scheme less accurate than simple random sampling.
5. Systematic sampling is an EPS method, because all elements have
the same probability of selection.
Task X:
Student A:
1. acceptance, 2. weights, 3. statistical, 4. non-probability, 5. probability
Student B:
1. systematic, 2. periodicity, 3. spread, 4. quantify, 5. probability

UNIT 23: Types of sampling

Task I:
1. F, 2. F, 3. T, 4. T, 5. F, 6. T, 7. F
Task II:
Benefits: 1. dividing the population into distinct, independent strata can
enable researchers to draw inferences about specific subgroups that may be
lost in a more generalized random sample, 2. utilizing a stratified sampling
method can lead to more efficient statistical estimates provided that strata
are selected based upon relevance to the criterion in question, instead of
availability of the samples, 3. it is sometimes the case that data are more
readily available for individual, pre-existing strata within a population
than for the overall population; in such cases, using a stratified sampling
approach may be more convenient than aggregating data across groups
Drawbacks: 1. identifying strata and implementing such an approach can
increase the cost and complexity of sample selection, as well as leading to
increased complexity of population estimates, 2. when examining multiple
criteria, stratifying variables may be related to some, but not to others,
further complicating the design, and potentially reducing the utility of the
strata, 3. stratified sampling can potentially require a larger sample than
would other methods
page 350 Answer key

Task III:
1. B, 2. A, 3. B, 4. A, 5. B
Task V:
1. accidental-przypadkowy, 2. panel-panelowy, 3. quota- normatywny/
częściowy, 4. cluster-grupowy
Task X:
to take, to identify, being sampled, hiring, is, to try, are

UNIT 24: Mean, median, mode

Lead-in
N O I T U B I R T S I D *GEOMETRIC
V N O I T A L U P O P I *AVERAGE INCOME
C I T E M H T I R A L S *NORMAL
G M O E D O M O H B V E *UNIMODAL DISTRIBUTION
A M G N N M E D I A N X *STATISTICAL
N A E M V M Z E O B T Q *SAMPLE
S Y M M E T R I C C G U *OF DATA
R I N F E R E N C E P R *PROBABILITY

1. arithmetic average income, 2. normal distribution, 3. statistical sample,

4. inference of data, 5. population mean, 6. probability distribution,
7. geometric median, 8. symmetric unimodal distribution
Task I:
1. c, 2. d, 3. a, 4. e, 5. b
Task II:
1. Arithmetic mean, geometric mean and harmonic mean.
2. In addition to mathematics and statistics, the arithmetic mean is used
frequently in fields such as economics, sociology, and history, and it is
used in almost every academic field to some extent. For example, per
capita income is the arithmetic average income of a nation’s population.
3. The arithmetic mean is not a robust statistic, meaning that it is greatly
influenced by outliers. Notably, for skewed distributions, such as the
distribution of income for which a few people’s incomes are substantially
greater than most people’s, the arithmetic mean may not accord with
one’s notion of “middle”.
 Answer key page 351
4. If the data set is a statistical population (i.e., consists of every possible
observation and not just a subset of them), then the mean of that
population is called the population mean.
5. The mean is the only single number for which the_residuals (deviations
from the estimate) sum to zero. It is also the best single predictor in the
sense of having the lowest_root mean squared error. If the arithmetic
mean of a population of numbers is desired, then the estimate of it that
is unbiased is the arithmetic mean of a sample drawn from the population.
Task III:
1. numerical – numeryczny, 2. arranging – ułożenie/uszeregowanie,
3. single – pojedynczy, 4. importance – znaczenie, 5. arbitrarily – dowolnie,
6. dimensions – wymiary, 7. uniquely – jednoznacznie, 8. measure – miara
Task IV:
1. T, 2. T, 3. F, 4. F, 5. T, 6. T
Task V:
1. discrete – dyskretny, 2. informally – nieformalnie, 3. mean – średni,
4. equally – równo, 5. unusable – bezużyteczny, 6. intervals – przedziały,
7. fraction – ułamek, 8. blurs – zamazać
Task VI:
1. F (random variation), 2. T, 3. T, 4. F (random sampling), 5. T
Task VIII:
a) parameter – parameter, b) dataset – zbiór danych, c) posterior – późniejszy,
d) hypothesis – hipoteza, e) clustering – gromadzenie/grupowanie
Task XI:
1. A set of assumptions concerning the generation of the observed data
and similar data.
2. The probability distributions describing the data-generation process are
assumed to be fully described by a family of probability distributions
involving only a finite number of unknown parameters.
3. Semi-parametric models can often be separated into ‘structural’ and
‘random variation’ components. One component is treated parametrically
and the other non-parametrically.
4. It estimates the median of the continuous probability distribution.
Task XII:
1. a, 2. b, 3. a
Task XIII:
Student A: 1. conclusions, 2. estimations, 3. obtained, 4. propositions
Student B: 1. assumptions, 2. inferences, 3. estimated, 4. variation
page 352 Answer key

UNIT 25: Statistical inference

Task I:
A
Task II:
SCRAMBLED WORD UNSCRAMBLED WORD POLISH EQUIVALENT
VEDATILANI INVALIDATE UNIEWAŻNIĆ
LYFTUA FAULTY NIEPRAWIDŁOWY
GESRINOSRE REGRESSION REGRESJA
SRNUEE ENSURE ZAPEWNIĆ
XPAMRAETSPOI APPROXIMATION PRZYBLIŻENIE
UNFQATYI QUANTIFY OKRESLIĆ ILOŚCIOWO
IGENEDRVCE DIVERGENCE ROZBIEŻNOŚĆ
CSMEOTONRCIE ECONOMETRICS EKONOMETRIA
UTHIERSCI HEURISTIC HEURYSTYCZNY
LENITREAVR IRRELEVANT NIEISTOTNY

Task III:
1. F (invalidate), 2. F (is viewed sceptically), 3. F (catastrophic assumption),
4. F (large samples/is normally distributed), 5. F (finite), 6. F (10 or more
independent), 7. F (uses approximation), 8. F (are not statements), 9. F (can
be assessed)
Task V:
1. confidence intervals/these estimators, 2. two digits of accuracy, 3. often
justify/biostatistics

UNIT 26: Consumer mathematics: simple and compound interest

Lead-in:
Student A:
1. engineer/Fibonacci, 2. price movements/Wave Theory
Student B:
1. financial journalist/mathematical principles, 2. buying stocks/numerical
market information
Task I:
Hint 2
Task III:
1. zakup, 2. szansa, 3. aktywa, 4. zrzekający się, 5. odszkodowanie,
6. kapitał, 7. zastwa/depozyt, 8. odsetki, 9. przywilej, 10. dzierżawa
 Answer key page 353
Task IV:
1. assets, 2. compensation, 3. deposited, 4. principal, 5. interest, 6. perchase,
7. lease, 8. forgoing, 9. opportunity, 10. privilege
Task V:
A D V A N C E S O U B D
S Q W D E R T Y U I A I
S Z X D C V B E N M L S
I Q W E R T Y F U I A C
S A S D F G H F J K N L
T L Z X C V B E N M C O
O B T A I N F C D S E S
Z A S E R G N T M K L E
C O N V E R T I N G O D
A B U Y T R E V W O P M
E Q U I V A L E N T J U
Z C O M P O U N D I N G
1. added – dodany, 2. compounding – złożony, 3. balance – saldo/rachunek,
4. disclosed – ujawniony, 5. equivalent – równoważny/odpowiadający,
6. advances – 7. effective – skuteczny, 8. obtain – uzyskać, 9. converting –
przekształcenie/zamiana, 10. assist – wspomagać/asystować
Task VII:
Student A: 1. secured, 2. mortgage, 3. demand
Student B: 1. unsecured, 2. subsidized, 3. concessional

UNIT 27: Annual Percentage Rate

Task I:
B: annual percentage rate
Task II:
1. F, 2. F, 3. F, 4. F, 5. T
Task IV:
1. M, 2. l, 3. Sl, 4. N, 5. k, 6. Ak, 7. tl/tk
Task V:
1. The present value of the drawdowns is equal to the present value of the
repayments, given the APR as the interest rate.
2. The amounts and the periods between transactions are not necessarily
equal.
3. This algorithm for APR is required for some but not all forms of consumer
debt in the EU.
page 354 Answer key

UNIT 28: Rent-to-own

Task I:
1. factor into – uwzględnić, 2. outlay – wydatek/nakład kosztów, 3. contend
– walczyć, 4. proponent – zwolennik/wnioskodawca, 5. obligation – zobowią­
zanie, 6. outright – całkowity/gotówkowy, 7. incurr – zaciągnąć (długi)/po-
nosić (straty), 8. installment – rata, 9. layaway – depozyt/odkładać,
10. provision for – zapewnić/zabezpieczyć, 11. tangible – namacalny/istot-
ny
Task II:
1. C, 2. E, 3. A, 4. D, 5. B
Task V:
1. odd-on, 2. interest, 3. nominal, 4. estimate, 5. approximately

UNIT 29: Amortization, annuity, sinking funds

Task II:
1. The difference between depreciation and amortization is the nature
of the items to which the terms apply. The former is generally used in the
context of tangible assets, such as buildings, machinery, and equipment.
The latter is more commonly associated with intangible assets, such as
copyrights, goodwill, patents, and capitalized costs.
2. On the liability side, amortization is commonly applied to deferred
revenue items such as premium income or subscription revenue and
therefore must be recognized as income distributed over some future
period of time. It is also a means by which accountants apply the period
concept in accrual-based financial statements: income and expenses
are recorded in the periods affected, rather than when the cash actually
changes hands.
3. Copyrights, goodwill, patents, capitalized costs.
4. The general rule is that the asset should be amortized over its useful
life.
5. Not all assets are consumed by their use or by the passage of time,
and thus are not subject to amortization or depreciation. The value
of land, for instance, is generally not degraded by time or use. This
applies to intangible assets as well; trademarks can have indefinite
lives and can increase in value over time, and thus are not subject
to amortization.
Task III:
1. allocating, 2. accrue, 3. liability, 4. pertinent, 5. defer, 6. expensing
 Answer key page 355
Task IV:
1. each payment on amortization loan/each payment is interest
2. the monthly interest rate/the total number of payments
3. subtracting the original loan amount from the total cost of the loan
Task VI:
1. F, 2. F, 3. F, 4. T, 5. F, 6. T, 7. F, 8. F
page 356

ENGLISH-POLISH GLOSSARY

A
accrue – wzrastać
acute angle – kąt ostry
acute triangle – trójkąt ostrokątny
add – dodawać
addend – składnik sumy
addition – dodawanie
additive inverse – element odwrotny (w dodawaniu)
adjacent – przyległy
algebraic equation – równanie algebraiczne
allocate – przydzielić
alternate angles – kąty naprzemianległe
altitude – wysokość
amortization – amortyzacja
angle of depression – kąt odchylenia
angle of inclination – kąt nachylenia
angle of intersection – kąt przecięcia
angle of rotation – kąt obrotu
annuity – renta
apothem – apotema
approximate – podać w przybliżeniu
area – powierzchnia
assets – aktywa
associative property/law – prawo łączności
assume – zakładać
assumption – założenie
axiom – aksjomat
axis – oś

B
base – podstawa
base-ten system – system dziesiątkowy
binary system – system dwójkowy
binomial – dwumian
bisector – dwusieczna kąta
bound – kres, ograniczenie
boundary – brzeg
brace – klamra
bracket – nawias
 Glossary page 357
C
calculus (pl calculi or calculuses) – rachunek
census – spis ludności
centre of gravity – środek ciężkości figury geometrycznej
centroid – środek ciężkości figury geometrycznej
chord – cięciwa
circle – okrąg/koło
circumcentre – środek przecięcia prostopadłych dwusiecznych boków
trójkąta
circumcircle – okrąg opisany
circumference – obwód koła
circumscribe about – opisać na
coefficient – współczynnik
collinear – współliniowy
corollary – wniosek, następstwo, wynik
cosine – kosinus
common fraction – ułamek zwykły
commutative property/law – prawo przemienności
compass – cyrkiel
complementary angle – kat dopełniający do 90°
complex number – liczba zespolona
composite number – liczba złożona
compound fraction – ułamek złożony
comprise – zawierać
compute – obliczyć
computation – obliczenie
concave – wklęsły
concentric circles – okręgi współśrodkowe
cone – stożek
congruence – przystawalność, zbieżność
congruent – przystający, zbieżny
conic section- krzywa stożkowa
conjecture – przypuszczenie
conjugate number – liczba sprzężona
consecutive – kolejny, następny
contend – twierdzić, argumentować
convergent series – szereg zbieżny
convert – przekształcać
convex – wypukły
coordinate – współrzędna
coplanar – współpłaszczyznowy
page 358 Glossary

corresponding angles – kąty odpowiadające

countable – policzalny
cube – sześcian
cubic equation – równanie trzeciego stopnia
curve – krzywa
cylinder – walec

D
decimal fraction –ułamek dziesiętny
decimal point – przecinek (w ułamku dziesiętnym)
decimal system – system dziesiętny
defer – odkładać, odraczać
denote – oznaczać
derivative – pochodna
designate – określić
determinant – wyznacznik
diagonal – przekątna
diameter – średnica
difference – różnica
differentiable function – funkcja różniczkowalna
differentiation – różniczkowanie
digit – cyfra
disc/disk – koło
distinct – różny, odmienny
distribution – dystrybucja, rozkład
distribution function – dystrybuanta
distributive property /law – prawo rozdzielności
divergent series – szereg rozbieżny
dividend – dzielna
division – dzielenie
divisor – dzielnik
domain of a function – dziedzina funkcji
domain of the variable – dziedzina zmiennej
drawdown – spadek wartości
E
edge – krawędź
ellipse – elipsa
encompass – obejmować
endowed with – wyposażony w, przypisany
entity – pojęcie
enumerate – wyliczyć, policzyć
 Glossary page 359
equation – równanie
equidistant – jednakowo odległy
equilateral triangle – trójkąt równoboczny
equivalent equations – równania równoważne
even number – liczba parzysta
exponent – wykładnik
exponential equation – równanie wykładnicze
extract a root – wyciągnąć pierwiastek
F
factor – czynnik
factorial – silnia
factorization – rozkład na czynniki
flat space – przestrzeń płaska
focus (pl focuses or foci) – ogniska
formula – wzór
fraction – ułamek
fractional equation – równanie ułamkowe
full angle – kąt pełny
G
gradient – nachylenie, stopień nachylenia
H
height – wysokość
heptagon – siedmiokąt
hexagon – sześciokąt
horizontal – poziomy
hypotenuse – przeciwprostokątna
I
identity – tożsamość
imaginary number – liczba urojona
imaginary part – część urojona
imaginary unit – jednostka urojona
improper fraction – ułamek niewłaściwy
incentre – środek przecięcia dwusiecznych kątów trójkąt
incircle – okrąg wpisany
increment – przyrost
incur – ponieść, zaciągnąć (dług)
index – wykładnik
inequality – nierówność
infinite – nieskończony
infinite series – szereg nieskończony
page 360 Glossary

inquiry – zapytanie, badanie

inscribe in – wpisać w
installment – rata (kredytu)
integer – liczba całkowita
integral – całka
intercept – punkt przecięcia prostej z osią współrzędnych
intercept – wyznaczyć odcinek na prostej
interior angle – kąt wewnętrzny
interval – przedział
invalid fraction – ułamek niewłaściwy
inverse number – liczba odwrotna
irrational number – liczba niewymierna
isosceles triangle – trójkąt równoramienny
L
lattice – krata
layaway – depozyt, zastaw
liability – wierzytelność
line – linia
line segment – odcinek
linear equation – równanie liniowe
logarithmic equation – równanie logarytmiczne
M
mean – średni
median – środkowa (trójkąta)
midpoint – punkt środkowy
minuend – odjemna
modulus – moduł
monomial – jednomian
multiple – wielokrotność
multiplicand – mnożna
multiplication – mnożenie
multiplication table – tabliczka mnożenia
multiplier – mnożnik
multiply – mnożyć
N
natural number – liczba naturalna
negative number – liczba ujemna
number – liczba
numeral – cyfra
numerator – licznik
 Glossary page 361
O
oblique – ukośny (o bryle)
oblique angle – kat różny od prostego
obtuse angle – kąt rozwarty
octagon – ośmiokąt
odd number – liczba nieparzysta
operation – działanie
opposite number – liczba przeciwna
ordinal number – liczba porządkowa
orthocentre – punkt przecięcia wysokości trójkąta
orthogonal – prostopadły

P
parallel – równoległy
parallelogram – równoległobok
parenthesis (pl parentheses) – nawias
pentagon – pięciokąt
perimetre – obwód
perpendicular – prostopadły, wysokość (np. trójkąta)
pertinent – właściwy, odpowiedni
plane figure – figura płaska
plane – płaszczyzna
polar coordinates – współrzędne biegunowe
polygon – wielobok
polyhedron (pl polyhedrons, polyhedra) – wielościan
positive number – liczba dodatnia
premise – przesłanka
present value – wartość bieżąca
prime number – liczba pierwsza
principal root – pierwiastek arytmetyczny
principal value – wartość arytmetyczna
prism – graniastosłup
probability – prawdopodobieństwo
product – iloczyn
proper fraction – ułamek właściwy
pyramid – ostrosłup
Q
quadrant – ćwiartka (np. płaszczyzny)
quadratic equation – równanie kwadratowe
quadrilateral – czworobok
quotient – iloraz
page 362 Glossary

R
radical sign – symbol pierwiastka
radicand – wyrażenie podpierwiastkowe
radius – promień
raise to the power – podnieść do potęgi
ramification – rozgałęzienie, rozwidlenie
rational fraction – ułamek wymierny
rational number – liczba wymierna
rational power – potęga ułamkowa
real number – liczba rzeczywista
real part of a complex number – cześć rzeczywista liczy zespolonej
reciprocal – odwrotny, wielkość odwrotna
rectangle – prostokąt
recurrence – powtarzalność, rekurencja
reflection – odbicie
reflex angle – kąt wklęsły
region – obszar
remainder – reszta
right angle – kąt prosty
root – pierwiastek
rotation – obrót
S
sample – próbka, próbkować
scalene triangle – trójkąt nierównoboczny
secant – sieczna
sector – wycinek koła
segment – segment
side – bok
similar – podobny
similarity – podobieństwo
sine – sinus
sketch a graph – narysować wykres
solid – bryła
solution – rozwiązanie
solve an equation – rozwiązać równanie
sphere – sfera, kula, brzeg kuli
square – kwadrat, kwadratowy, podnieść do kwadratu
square root – pierwiastek kwadratowy
straight angle – kat półpełny
subscript – indeks dolny
subsequent – kolejny
 Glossary page 363
subset – podzbiór
substitution – podstawienie
subtract – odejmować
subtraction – odejmowanie
subtrahend – odjemnik
sum – suma
summation – sumowanie
superscript – indeks górny, wykładnik
surface area – powierzchnia figury przestrzennej
T
take a root – wyciągnąć pierwiastek
tangent – tangens
tangent to – styczna z
tangent – styczna
tangible – rzeczywisty, namacalny
tangible assets – rzeczowe aktywa trwałe
term – składnik
tetrahedron – czworościan
theorem – twierdzenie
topology – topologia
transcendental number – liczba przestępna
U
union of sets – suma zbiorów
unity – liczba jeden
unknown – niewiadoma
V
variable – zmienna
vertex – (pl vertices, vertexes) – wierzchołek
vertical – pionowy
volume – objętość
vulgar fraction – ułamek zwykły
Y
yield – produkować, wynikać, wnioskować
page 364

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