Debre Tabor University

Gafat Institute of Technology

Department of Hydraulic and Water Resources Engineering

GIS and Remote Sensing, HWRE 5192

By
Berihun D. Mersha, PhD
COURSE OBJECTIVES

The overall objective of the course is to give the students a

comprehensive theoretical and practical background of GIS and remote
sensing.

The specific objectives are:

 To familiarize the students with the principles of GIS and remote

sensing and

 To acquaint the students with the basic skills of applying GIS and
remote sensing technologies to address water resources problems.

2
 COURSE CONTENT
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Why GIS and RS?
1.2. Components of GIS
1.3. GIS and its Subsystems
1.4. Capabilities of GIS
2. GEOSPATIAL DATABASES
2.1. Database Concepts
2.2. GIS Versus Database Management Systems
2.3. Creation of a GIS Database
3. COORDINATE SYSTEMS & MAP PROJECTIONS
3.1. Coordinate Systems
3.2. Projection types and characteristics
4. GIS DATA STRUCTURE & SOURCES
4.1. GIS Data Structure
4.2. GIS Data Sources
4.3. Metadata
5. SPATIAL DATA ANALYSIS IN A GIS ENVIRONMENT
5.1. Vector Data Analysis
5.2. Raster Data Analysis
5.3. Applications in Water Resources
6. REMOTE SENSING
6.1. Basic Concepts
6.2. RS Components
6.3. RS Methods
6.4. Sensors
6.5. Image Processing
6.6. RS Applications in Water Resources 3
4
5
CHAPTER 1
1. INTRODUCTION

The limited availability of information at the right time and at the right
place is a key limiting factor for making adequate decisions.

In effect, the progresses of mankind on social wellbeing, sustainable

development, and protection of the environment have been hampered.

A major aspect of addressing this problem is having access to reliable,

detailed, timely, and affordable geospatial data.

Geospatial (georeferenced) data are data that contain spatial values to

identify the geographic location and characteristics of natural features,
man-made features, or boundaries on Earth.

7
1. INTRODUCTION (Cont’d)
Geographic Information System (GIS) and Remote Sensing (RS)
technologies have been designed for the acquisition and generation
of geospatial data and information.

GIS is a system of hardware, software and procedures designed for

the manipulation and management of digital geospatial and related
attribute data.

 G – Geographic – refers to spatial data

 I – Information – refers to data with added knowledge

 S – System – refers to the integration of user and machine for

the analysis of geospatial data and for displaying results to
provide information to support operations, management, and
decision making. 8
 1. INTRODUCTION (Cont’d)
 GIS relies on data obtained from different sources, of which
RS is the major one.

 RS is the art, science, and technology of obtaining

information about objects on the earth's surface by the
analysis of data received from a remote platform.

 In RS. a sensor located on a suborbital (e.g., aircraft) or

orbital (satellite) platform collects information about an
object or phenomenon without being in direct physical contact
with it.

 Overall, the acquisition of geospatial data largely relies on

RS while their analysis and interpretation involve the
application of GIS. 9
1.1. Why GIS and RS?

We might want to answer questions like:

 Which areas in a river basin are of high flood risk?
 Why is the water quality of a lake so much different from that of a
decade ago?
 Which localities in an area are best for constructing buildings?
 What is the overall agricultural production of an area, etc.?

To answer such questions, one needs to work with geospatial data whose
acquisition and analysis rely on the application of GIS and RS
technologies.

10
 1.2. Components of a GIS
 For a GIS to be operational, it requires the integration of 5
key components:

 Hardware (centralized computer servers or desktop

computers) in stand-alone or networked
configurations;

 Software to provide functions and tools to store,

analyze and display geographic information;

 Data, including geographic data and related tabular

data;

 People (technical specialists who design and maintain

the system or those who use it for their everyday
work);

 Procedures (models and operating practices unique to

11
1.3. GIS & its Subsystems

A GIS has four main functional subsystems:

 A data input subsystem to capture, collect, and transform spatial

and thematic data into digital form,

 A data storage and retrieval subsystem to allow quick data

retrieval for analysis and database updates

 A data manipulation and analysis subsystem for defining and

executing spatial and attribute procedures to generate (or derive)
information

 A data output and display subsystem to generate graphic displays

and tabular reports representing the derived information.

12
1.4. Capabilities of GIS

Due to its various subsystems, GIS is a powerful tool with enormous

capabilities that enable:

 Data input and verification,

 Data storage and database management with reference to their

geographic position (latitude, longitude)

 Data output and presentation in the form of visual displays,

prints, plots, etc.

 Visualized data processing and data analysis, enabling the

maintenance of data matching, updating, analysis and
manipulation in order to extract desired information

 Interaction with the user, so the user is always informed about

13
CHAPTER 2
2. GEOSPATIAL DATABASES

A database is a large computerized collection of structured data.

In setting up a database, one has to consider carefully what the purpose
of the database is and who the users will be.

Then one needs to identify the available data sources and define the
format in which the data will be organized within the database, which is
referred to as database structure.

 A software package called a database management system (DBMS)

allows the user to set up, use and maintain a database.

15
 2.1. GIS versus DBMSs

 Both GIS and DBMSs store data and allow the user to manipulate the data.

DBMSs have a long tradition of handling attribute (i.e., non-spatial, tabular)

data.

By contrast, GIS integrates geospatial data and non-spatial (attribute) data
and includes operations which support spatial analysis.

Overall, the strength of GIS applications lies in the built-in spatial

functionality, namely:

 Spatial data structure for storage,

 Spatial data analysis, and

 Map production. 16
2..2. Creation of a GIS Database

 The first step of using a GIS is to provide it with data.

The quality of the data entered into the system determines much of the
success of a GIS project.

Thus, this phase of a GIS project is critical and must be taken seriously.

The creation of a GIS database involves the collection and input of

spatial data obtained from various sources:

 field observations,

 existing maps (via digitization and scanning), and

 satellite sensors.

17
CHAPTER 3. COORDINATE SYSTEMS
AND MAP PROJECTIONS
3.1. Coordinate Systems

 A coordinate system is a reference system that provides a framework

for defining real-world locations.

The concept of the spheroid is widely applied to best represent locations

on the earth's surface.

In studying the shape of the earth (geodesy), it was primarily assumed
that the earth was flat.

Later the assumption was revised, and the earth was assumed to be a
perfect sphere.

Since the 18th century, however, people have began to realize that the
earth was not perfectly round.
19
3.1. Coordinate Systems (Cont’d)

This led to the concept of the spheroid.

A sphere is based on a circle, while a

spheroid is based on an ellipse.

A spheroid is defined by its two radii,

namely the semi-major (longer) axis
and semi-minor (shorter) axis.

For the earth, the semi-major axis is

the radius from the center of the earth
to the equator, while the semi-minor
axis is the radius from the center of the
earth to the poles.
20
3.1. Coordinate Systems (Cont’d)

One particular spheroid is distinguished from another by either its semi-

major axis and semi-minor axis or by its semi-major axis and
flattening.

The flattening, f, is:

Where,

a = the semi-major axis and

b = the semi-minor axis.

The flattening ranges from 0 to 1.

21
3.1. Coordinate Systems (Cont’d)

A flattening value of 0 means the two axes are equal, resulting in a

sphere.

The flattening of the earth is approximately 0.003353.

While the shape of the earth is best approximated by a spheroid, a

datum is required to define the position of the spheroid relative to the
center of the earth.

The datum defines the origin and orientation of latitude and longitude
lines, and hence provides a frame of reference for measuring locations
on the surface of the earth.

22
3.1. Coordinate Systems (Cont’d)

Several useful datums have been developed.

For instance, the most commonly used dataums in North America are:

 North American Datam 1927 (NAD 1927 or NAD27)

 NAD 1983 (or NAD83)

 World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS 1984 or WGS84)

Each of them are different in their spheroid parameters.

For instance, the spheroid parameters for WGS 1984 are:

23
3.1. Coordinate Systems (Cont’d)

WGS 1984 is the most famous and widely used datum for locational
measurement worldwide.

The coordinates for a location will vary depending on the datum and
spheroid on which those coordinates are based.

Hence, whenever you change the datum, the coordinate values of your
data will change.

For instance, below is how the geographic coordinates for the city of
Bellingham, Washington, vary based on the three different datums:

24
 3.2. Types of Coordinate Systems
There are two common types of
coordinate systems:
Geographic coordinate systems and
Projected coordinate systems.

3.2.1. Geographic coordinate systems (GCSs)

A GCS uses a three-dimensional spherical surface to define locations on
the earth.

A GCS includes an angular unit of measure, a prime meridian, and a

datum (based on a spheroid).

A point on the earth's surface is referenced by its longitude and latitude

25
values, which are angles measured from the earth's center to the point.
3.2.1. Geographic coordinate systems (GCSs) (Cont’d)

In the spherical system, horizontal

lines, or east–west lines, are lines of
equal latitude, or parallels.

Vertical lines, or north–south lines, are

lines of equal longitude, or meridians.

These lines encompass the globe and

form a gridded network called a
graticule.

26
3.2.1. Geographic coordinate systems (GCSs) (Cont’d)

The line of zero latitude is called the equator, which is midway

between the poles.

The line of zero longitude is called the prime meridian.

For most geographic coordinate systems, the prime meridian is the

longitude that passes through Greenwich, England.

Some countries use longitude lines that pass through Bern, Bogota, and
Paris as prime meridians.

Hence, the origin of the graticule (0, 0) is defined by where the

equator and prime meridian intersect.

27
3.2.1. Geographic coordinate systems (GCSs) (Cont’d)

Latitude and longitude values are traditionally measured either in

decimal degrees (DD) or in degrees, minutes, and seconds (DMS).

Latitude values are measured relative to the equator and range from -90°
at the South Pole to +90° at the North Pole.

Longitude values are measured relative to the prime meridian, ranging

from -180° when traveling west to 180° when traveling east.

28
 3.2.2. Projected coordinate systems

In order to represent the earth in two dimensions

on a map, one must be able to make the world flat.

Hence, one needs to use a mathematical

transformation, which is commonly referred to as
map projection.

The term projection comes from the notion of

placing a light source inside a transparent globe
and projecting shadows of the meridians
(longitude), parallels (latitude), and other
geographic features onto a flat paper map or a
computer screen.
29
3.2.2. Projected coordinate systems (cont’d)

Hence, a projected coordinate system is defined on a flat, two-

dimensional surface, and is always based on a geographic coordinate
system that is based on a sphere or spheroid.

Projected coordinates have the advantage that they reflect the metric
system and allow us to measure distance between points.

30
3.2.2.1. Projection Types and characteristics

Representing the earth's surface in two dimensions causes distortion in

the shape, area, distance, or direction of the data.

A map projection uses mathematical formulas to relate spherical

coordinates on the globe to flat, planar coordinates.

 Map projections are designed for specific purposes.

One map projection might be used for large-scale data in a limited

area, while another is used for a small-scale map of the world.

Map projections designed for small-scale data are usually based on

spherical rather than spheroidal geographic coordinate systems.

31
 3.2.2.1. Projection Types and characteristics (cont’d)

Different projections cause different types of distortions.

A projection could maintain the area of a feature but alter its shape.

 Some projections are designed to minimize the distortion of one or two of

the data's characteristics.

For instance:

 Conformal projections preserve local shape.

 Equal area projections preserve the area of displayed features.

 Equidistant projections preserve the distances between certain points.

32
 3.2.2.1. Projection Types and characteristics (cont’d)

Map projections can be described in three projection forms:

 Cylindrical,

 Conical, and

 Azimuthal (plane).

33
 3.2.2.2. The UTM Coordinate System

The most commonly used approach to project

coordinates is the Universal Transverse
Mercator (UTM) system.

This projection results from wrapping a

cylinder around the poles instead of around the
equator.

The UTM coordinate system subdivides the earth into 60 north and south
zones, each spanning 6° of longitude.
The limits of each zone are 84° N and 80° S, with the division between
north and south zones occurring at the equator.

34
3.2.2.2. The UTM Coordinate System (Cont’d)

35
CHAPTER 4:GIS DATA STRUCTURE
AND SOURCES
4.1. GIS Data Structure
Three basic types of spatial data models have
evolved for storing geographic data digitally:

 Vector data, which implies the

representation of geographic features using
vector (directional lines);

 Raster data, which involves a division of

spatial data into regularly spaced grid cells,
where each cell is of the same size and
shape;

 Image data, which is used to store remotely

sensed imagery and differs significantly
from raster data.
37
4.1. GIS Data Structure (Cont’d)

 Typically, image data must be

converted into a raster format (and
perhaps vector) to be used analytically
in a GIS environment.

 Remote sensing software makes use of

image data for image classification and
processing.

38
4.2. GIS Data Sources
Two types of data are input into a GIS: spatial data and attribute data.

The most common sources for spatial data are:

 Hard copy maps,

 Aerial photographs,

 Satellite imagery,

 Point data samples from field observation, and

 Existing digital data files.

For attribute data, an even wider variety of data sources exist,

including any textual or tabular data that can be referenced to a
geographic feature (e.g., a point, line, or area).
39
4.3. Metadata
Metadata is information about data.

Metadata includes information on:

 where the data came from,

 what the accuracy and precision are,

 who created or modified the data,

 year of collection,

 who is allowed to make use of it,

 what the units of numeric data are, etc.

Metadata is the most important information when data is transferred.

40
CHAPTER 5
5. SPATIAL DATA ANALYSIS IN A GIS
ENVIRONMENT
Spatial analysis is the study of geographic features and the relationships
between them, and involves the process of extracting or creating new
information about a set of geographic features.

Spatial analysis works on both vector and raster data.

Spatial analysis involves data queries performed on georeferenced

information to answer complex questions, such as:

 How many people live within one mile of a hazardous waste site?

 Where is land zoned for industrial use?

 Where are all the sites suitable for building houses?

 How many houses lie within 100m of a water main? etc. 42

5.1. Vector Data Analysis
Measurement
Measurements on vector data are more advanced and complex than
those on raster data.

Geometric measurements related to vector data include:

 Location, which is always stored in by the GIS.

 Length, which can obviously be computed by the GIS, but quite

often stored with the polyline.

 Distance, which can be measured between two points, or one of

the features is not a point, or both features are not points.

 Area size, which is associated with polygon features and can

obviously be computed by the GIS, but quite often stored with the
43
5.1. Vector Data Analysis (Cont’d)
Clip
Clip is used when we want to cut out a piece of one layer using one or
more of the polygons in another layer in order to work with only the
data for an area of interest.

For example, when you work within a given study area, data that is
external to the boundary of the study area can be removed with the clip
function.

44
5.1. Vector Data Analysis (Cont’d)
Dissolve
Dissolve is another tool used to trim away unnecessary detail that is not
relevant to the scope of the project.

Data can be simplified by dissolving several features in a layer into one.

We use the Dissolve function when we want to aggregate features based
on a specified attribute.

45
 5.1. Vector Data Analysis (Cont’d)
Overlay function
Overlays allow you to identify areas where
features in two layers overlap.

A new dataset may be created based on

these overlaps.

We can have:

 Union overlay, which produces a new

layer combining the features and
attributes of two polygon layers, or

 Intersect overlay, which has the combined attribute data of the features
from the two inputs, and only contains features that fall within the spatial
46
extent of the overlay polygon.
 5.2. Raster Data Analysis

As raster is a regular arrangement of

cells.

The fundamental unit of analysis in

raster data is the "Cell".

A cell represents a location in space.

The condition of a given cell is

recorded as a numeric value for each
cell, which can be an integer or a
floating point (decimal).

47
5.2. Raster Data Analysis (Cont’d)

Measurement
Measurements on raster data layers are simpler because of the regularity
of the cells.

The area size of a cell is constant, and is determined by the cell

resolution.

Together with the location of a so-called anchor point, which is the only
geometric information stored with the raster data, all the other
measurements by the GIS are computed.

The anchor point is fixed by convention to be the lower left (or

sometimes upper left) location of the raster.
48
5.2. Raster Data Analysis (Cont’d)

 Location of an individual cell derives from the raster's anchor

point, the cell resolution, and the position of the cell in the raster.

 Area size of a selected part of the raster (a group of cells) is

calculated as the number of cells multiplied with the cell area size.

 Distance between two raster cells is the standard distance function

applied to the location of their respective mid-points, obviously
taking into account the cell resolution.

49
 5.2. Raster Data Analysis (Cont’d)

Clip
This GIS tool cuts out a portion of a raster
dataset.

It can be used to extract a portion of a raster

dataset based on:

 a template extent,

 a rectangular envelope using minimum

and maximum x- and y-coordinates or
an output extent file, or

 an existing raster or vector layer as the

50
clip extent.
5.2. Raster Data Analysis (Cont’d)
Hydrologic analysis
The hydrologic analysis tools in a GIS provide methods for describing
the physical components of a surface.

Using a DEM as input, it is possible to automatically delineate a

drainage system and quantify the characteristics of the system:

 identify and fill sinks,

 determine flow direction,

 calculate flow accumulation,

 delineate watersheds, and

 create stream networks.

51
5.2. Raster Data Analysis (Cont’d)
Hydrologic analysis (Identifying and filling sinks)
Sinks (and peaks) in a DEM are often errors due to the resolution of
the data or rounding of elevations to the nearest integer value.

A sink is usually an incorrect value in a DEM lower than the values of

its surroundings.

It is problematic because any water that flows into it cannot flow out.

To ensure proper delineation of basins and streams, such depressions in

a DEM should be filled.

There also is a need to remove peaks, which are spurious cells with
elevation greater than would be expected given the trend of the
surrounding surface. 52
53
 5.2. Raster Data Analysis (Cont’d)
Hydrologic analysis (Determination of flow direction)
One of the keys to deriving hydrologic
characteristics of a surface is the ability to
determine the direction of flow from every cell
in the raster.

Using a DEM whose depressions have been

filled as an input, GIS can determine the
direction in which water would flow out of
each cell.

There are eight valid output directions relating

to the eight adjacent cells into which flow could
54
travel.
 5.2. Raster Data Analysis (Cont’d)

Hydrologic analysis (Calculating flow accumulation)

This refers to calculating the

number of upslope cells draining
into a location.

The raster output from a flow

direction analysis is used as an
input.

The value of cells in the output

raster is the number of cells that
flow into each cell.

55
 5.2. Raster Data Analysis (Cont’d)

Hydrologic analysis (Delineating a watershed)

Watersheds can be delineated from a DEM by computing the flow direction.

To determine the contributing area, a raster representing the direction of flow
must first be created.

You will then need to provide the locations you wish to determine the
catchment area for, such as dams or stream gauges.

You can also use a flow accumulation threshold to define a watershed.

Therefore, a flow accumulation raster must be specified as well as the

minimum number of cells that constitute a stream (the threshold value).

56
57
 5.2. Raster Data Analysis (Cont’d)

Hydrologic analysis (Creating stream networks)

Stream networks can be delineated
using the Flow Accumulation output
raster of a digital elevation model
(DEM).

A stream network can be delineated by

applying a threshold value to the Flow
Accumulation output raster, such as by
assigning a value of 1 to all cells with
more than 1000 cells draining into
them.
58
 5.2. Raster Data Analysis (Cont’d)
Surface analysis
Surface analysis refers to quantifying and visualizing a terrain landform
represented by a DEM.

Starting with a raster elevation surface as input, you can gain

information by producing a new dataset that identifies a specific pattern
within an original dataset that were not readily apparent in the original
surface, such as:

 contours,

 angle of slope, and

 shaded relief (hillshade).

59
 5.2. Raster Data Analysis (Cont’d)
Surface analysis (Creating contours)
Contours are lines that connect locations of equal value in a raster
dataset that represents continuous phenomena such as elevation,
temperature, precipitation, pollution, or atmospheric pressure.

The line features connect cells of a constant value in the input.

The distribution of the contour lines shows how values change across a
surface.

Where there is little change in a value, the lines are spaced farther apart.

 Where the values rise or fall rapidly, the lines are closer together.

60
61
 5.2. Raster Data Analysis (Cont’d)

Surface analysis (Slope)

Slope is the maximum rate of change in value from that cell to its neighbors.

The output slope raster can be calculated in two types of units, degrees or percent.

62
 5.2. Raster Data Analysis (Cont’d)

Surface analysis (Creating hillshades)

Hillshade analysis helps to obtain the hypothetical illumination of a
surface by determining illumination values for each cell in a raster.

It does this by setting a position for a hypothetical light source and
calculating the illumination values of each cell in relation to
neighboring cells.

It can greatly enhance the visualization of a surface for analysis or

graphical display, especially when using transparency.

When creating a hillshade, it is important to consider two key

parameters, namely azimuth and altitude.
63
 5.2. Raster Data Analysis (Cont’d)

Surface analysis (Creating hillshades)

The primary factor when creating a hillshade
map for any particular location is the
location of the sun in the sky.

Azimuth is the angular direction of the sun,

measured from north in clockwise degrees
from 0 to 360.

An azimuth of 90 degrees is east.

The default azimuth is 315 degrees (NW).

64
 5.2. Raster Data Analysis (Cont’d)

Surface analysis (Creating

hillshades)
The altitude is the slope or angle of the
illumination source above the horizon.

The units are in degrees, from 0 (on

the horizon) to 90 (overhead).

The default is 45 degrees.

The hillshade example has an azimuth

of 315 degrees and an altitude of 45
degrees.
65
CHAPTER 6. REMOTE SENSING
6.1. Basic RS Concepts

As humans, we are intimately familiar with remote sensing in that

we rely on visual perception to provide us with much of the
information about our surroundings.

As sensors, however, our eyes are greatly limited by:

 sensitivity to only the visible range of electromagnetic

energy;

 viewing perspectives dictated by the location of our bodies;

 the inability to form a lasting record of what we view.

These limitations led to the development of the technological means to

increase our ability to see and record the physical properties of our 67
 6.1. Basic RS Concepts (cont’d)

RS can be broadly defined as the collection and interpretation of

information about an object, area, or event without being in physical
contact with the object.

Aircraft and satellites are the common platforms for remote sensing of
the earth and its natural resources.

However, since the past few decades, remote sensing technology

has advanced from aircraft to satellite platforms.

Hence, satellite remote sensing is the use of satellite-borne

sensors to observe, measure, and record the electromagnetic
radiation reflected or emitted by the Earth and its environment for
subsequent analysis and extraction of information. 68
6.1. Basic RS Concepts (cont’d)

Thermonuclear fusion on the surface of the Sun yields a continuous

spectrum of electromagnetic energy.

The 6,000 K temperature of this process produces a large amount of short

wavelength energy (from 0.4 - 0.7 µm; blue, green, and red light) that
travels through the vacuum of space at the speed of light.

Some energy is intercepted by the Earth where it interacts with the

atmosphere and surface materials.

The Earth may reflect some of the energy directly back out to space or it
may absorb the short wavelength energy and then re-emit it at a longer
wavelength.
69
70
71
6.2. Components of RS

A RS system consists of the following components:

 Sensor and

 Platform

The sensor is in charge of recognizing and capturing the energy

that the target has either emitted or reflected.

The sensor needs to be located on Platforms, which are stable

surfaces, in order to capture the energy.

The major platform types in RS are aircraft and satellites.

72
6.3. RS Methods

Based on the source of energy, there are two types of RS, namely:

 Active remote sensing and

 Passive remote sensing.

RS systems usually involve both active and passive sensors.

 In active RS, the sensors supply their own electromagnetic radiation

source to illuminate the target item (phenomena or object).

 When that radiation is reflected or backscattered from the target, it would

be detected and recorded.

 A typical example of active remote sensors is Radar technology.

73
6.4. Satellites & Sensors
Satellites
 In order for a sensor to collect and record energy reflected or emitted from a
target or surface, it must reside on a stable platform removed from the target or
surface being observed.

 In orbital RS, space shuttles or, more commonly, satellites, which revolve around
the earth, are used to collect RS data.

 Satellites are launched for:

 remote sensing,

 Communication, and

 telemetry (location and navigation) purposes.

 Because of their orbits (paths), satellites permit repetitive coverage of the Earth's
surface on a continuing basis. 74
6.4. Satellites & Sensors (Cont’d)

Satellites
We can calculate the height of a satellite above the Earth, using the
following laws:

75
Satellite orbits are matched to the capability and objective of the
6.4. Satellites & Sensors (Cont’d)

Satellites
Many RS satellites are designed to follow an orbit
(basically north-south) which, in conjunction with the
Earth's rotation (west-east), allows them to cover most of
the Earth's surface over a certain period of time.

Many of these satellite orbits are also sun-synchronous

such that they cover each area of the world at a constant
local time of day called local sun time.

At any given latitude, the position of the sun in the sky as
the satellite passes overhead will be the same within the
76
same season.
6.4. Satellites & Sensors (Cont’d)

Sensors

Sensors could be passive or active based on the energy source they use.

A passive sensor picks up solar radiation that is reflected or given

off by anything on Earth's surface.

While certain passive optical sensors may record nocturnal lights,

clouds, as well as energy discharged from the Earth's surface,
most passive optical sensors are constrained by the fact that they
need daylight to function.

Since these sensors work in the visible and infrared spectrum, the
weather and cloud cover have a negative effect on their
performance. 77
6.4. Satellites & Sensors (Cont’d)

Sensors
The passive remote sensors include:

 Accelerometer,

 Hyperspectral radiometer,

 Spectrometer,

 Imaging radiometer,

 Sounder,

 Spectroradiometer,

 Radiometer, etc.
78
6.4. Satellites & Sensors (Cont’d)
Sensors

On the other hand, active sensors supply their own electromagnetic
radiation source to illuminate the target.

The sensor itself emits radiation in the direction of the phenomena

or object of interest, and when that radiation is reflected or
backscattered from the target, it is once more detected and
recorded.

Active remote sensors include:

 LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging),

Radar,

Scatter meter, 79
6.5. RS applications in Water Resources

With the introduction of the earth observing satellites, remote

sensing has become an important tool in analyzing the Earth’s
surface characteristics, and hence in supplying valuable
information necessary for hydrologic analysis.

Due to their capability to capture the spatial variations in the

hydro-meteorological variables and frequent temporal resolution
sufficient to represent the dynamics of the hydrologic processes,
remote sensing techniques have significantly changed the water
resources assessment and management methodologies.

 Remote sensing techniques have been widely used to delineate the

surface water bodies, estimate meteorological variables like temperature
80
and precipitation, estimate hydrological state variables like soil moisture
6.5. RS applications in Water Resources (cont’d)

 Remote sensing techniques have been widely used to:

 Water resources mapping,

 Estimation of meteorological variables like temperature and

precipitation,

 Soil moisture estimation,

 Flood forecasting,

 Drought monitoring,

 Rainfall-runoff studies,

 Water quality monitoring,

 Watershed planning and management,

81
 Irrigation management, etc.
The end

82