PRENTICE HALL

~ The High Schoo! Pt

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sics Program
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 oe

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 CONCEPTUAL
PHYSICS
The High School Physics Program

Written and illustrated by

FRu G. thes
~

PEARSON

Prentice
Hall

Needham, Massachusetts
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey
About the Author

Paul G. Hewitt’s ability to communicate the concepts of physics through simple

language, cartoonlike sketches, and thought-provoking demonstrations has made
his courses at City College of San Francisco extremely popular. The American
Association of Physics Teachers honored Professor Hewitt in 1982 with its Millikan
award for outstanding teaching.
Before becoming a physicist, Paul Hewitt was a commercial artist. He entered
college at 27 and received a bachelor’s degree in physics from Lowell Technological
Institute. He earned a double master’s degree in physics and science education from
Utah State University. He has taught at City College of San Francisco and also at the
Exploratorium (San Francisco's innovative science museum).

Cover photograph: Motor Press Agent/Superstock, Inc.

Copyright © 2006 by Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Prentice

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PEARSON
~ Prentice e
Hall ISBN 0-13-166301-1
3.4.5.6) 7,849) 10 08 07 06 05
To my mentor Kenneth W. Ford
and my protégés
Dean Baird and Phillip R. Wolf
Contributors Consultants and Reviewers

Dean Baird Clarence Bakken

Rio Americano High School Gunn High School
Sacramento, California Palo Alto, California

Marshall Ellenstein Art Farmer

Maine West High School Gunn High School
Des Plaines, Illinois Palo Alto, California

Paul Robinson Kenneth W. Ford

San Mateo High School American Institute of Physics (retired),
San Mateo, California Germantown Academy
Fort Washington, Pennsylvania
Nancy T: Watson
Burris Laboratory School Robert C. Menius
Muncie, Indiana Langham Creek High School (retired)
Houston, Texas
Phillip R. Wolf
Mt. San Antonio College Sheron Snyder
Walnut, California Mason High School
Mason, Michigan
 To the Student Sis eae ep ein xix

el About Science

1.1 The Basic Science—Physics ............ it

1.2 Mathematics—The Language
DE COU MINE htc e ee et Se oy es 1
Pes OCIETINC IE TNOLIS™ SCE Sher...) ts. oe2
Peay Pe SCIeNMNOCAIMINGE 0... cee re ke 2
1.5 Scientific Hypotheses
PiSSe LSMtaOMee .6 .ese ed BN4
1.6 Science, Technology, and Society........ 5
Pee, omencevArG and Religion: .....60..04.46 6
Projectile Motion 28
Pror HEP CISPECIVET (623 giz seed es aePheT. €
3.1 Vector and Scalar Quantities .......... 28
3.2 Velocity Véctorsesee ta eemoaeeere ame... 29
3.3 Components of Veetorsitigea rs. sere... al
Unit I 3.4 Projectile Motione wae eitaeen eee. . 2: 35
Mechanics 9 3.5 Upwardly Launched Projectiles ........ 35
3.6 Fast-Moving Projectiles—Satellites ..... og

a Linear Motion 10

SES ES) BS 10
2 SOG coe ae rr 11
Bj WG) a Ae 13
tag NewS Ge 0h) 2 15
Breet Tee Pall HOW FaStGe.. «2.2.6.2 6226-0 17 Newton's First
Pam ee PalIOW Fal sees cee een iaes Ig Law of Motion—Inertia 43
CeO IGINIOHONIE «2s senses esos ok
2.8 Air Resistance and Falling Objects ..... 24 4.1 ATIStoucsonmMOTION sues.
0 ss cs cae te 43
2.9 How Fast, How Far, How Quickly 4.2 Copernicus and the Moving Earth...... oo
How Past Goanees . 2 a. . eee oa 24 4.3 Galileorom Motion 4)... ««sesieeecreete44
4.4 Newtonsiaw-ot Inertiay..... 28s... 46
4.5 Mass—A Measure of Inertia ........... 48
4.6 ING TEOECCMM ees ONS whe ccs see ee 51
4.7 Equilibrium—When Net Force
[EGLLRNWAG TO. Be tear Aca peer eats Paes 51
4.8 Vector Addition of Forces ............. 53
4.9 MieIMOVING PallinAGall onu.e ae «a. ele55
 Mobil thea

RIELD s0-0"
aNYo" ~

5B Newton’s Second Law Momentum 86

of Motion—Force
and Acceleration 59 7.1 Momentum 2.5.0. .0ssec08 en eee 86
toe Impulse Changes Momentum ......... 87
Force Causes Acceleration ............ 59 7.3 BOUNCING as oso ccd «ae 91
Mass Resists Acceleration ............. 60 7.4 Conservation of Momentum .......... Ps
Newton's Second Law. <63..cs5.c0c.<+s60 7.9 Collisions tay... «.ghuatiedd-ah aebaee 94
PCO Ire ee ee eer ee PP eee 63 7.6 Momentum Vectorsats 4..Rrcreiehate. -98
Applying Force—Pressureé ...36.0...6.. 64
Propo Explained”. oe0c./..5ss200ees 66
Falling and Air Resistance ... 2. ...<6<s, 68 Energy 103

WOIK.. 2. 36052452081, eee 103

Newton’s Third Law POWER cs ste vaca teers aes eee 104
of Motion—Action Mechanical Energy :....10 ese oe 105
Potential ENE€rey >. -eeay nee eee 106
and Reaction 74 Kinetic Enerey cues t as Senee 108
Conservation of Energy .. e.g... 109
Forces'and interactions >... 2.040. .474
MaChInGS 26. watcha c= cae one 111
Newtons Phirdtawitits aytvelomel..é 75
EMMCCNCy nae os aa coe ee ee eeteee 114
Identifying Action and Reaction ....... fs
Energy for Liles 5. ncn roe ere eee ee Liz
Action and Reaction
BMMOINCTERIENIASSES .. 260.5occ e ce ee ta
Do Action and
Reaction Forces Cancel? ............. 78
The Horse-Cart Problem .............. 80
McChON HOualsReaction ........hascs... 82

Circular Motion 122

9.1 Rotation and Revolution ............. 123
9.2 Rotational Sneed Geaoe ee ..e
se) ce 123
9.3 SIvetIpepal. POLCes teers. coe ee 126
9.4 Centripetal and Centrifugal Forces ... .127
9.5 Centrifugal Force ina
Rotating Reference Frame........... 129
9.6 simulated Gravityaee eaeree n 131

vi Contents
 12 Universal Gravitation 168

Pane lneralinwAnple®. .s... 8. negccesso 168

[2 Ae GallineMOON Ge s.. ott an oes eae 169
D2 merne railing artis vers ae rere. ce eeeA
12.4 Newton's Law of
Universal Gravitation apse... ss. 2a - Afi
12.5 Gravity and Distance: The Inverse-
OCU ALE LAWier artes cicesstelea crt ties [75
L2.Ge Universal Gravitauoni, so seat ner was

10 Center of Gravity 136

Pierre atee OF Cetavily eee... sc ee es 136

POEL OLIVIASS: SCT ret ee oes esa caes 138
10.3. Locating the Center of Gravity ........ 139
Bile meSEITE pe 5, NA se eres 6 oo be 140
Wem otaviity. esc css S252. T aeteae RR: 142
ae Center Of (Gtiavity of People: 72022 .:22 145 Gravitational Interactions 182

At oe 4 GravitationalFields 4; aa4ciawilset-|182
Rotational Mechanics 150 Gravitational Field Inside a Planet ....184
13.3 Weight and Weightlessness ........... 186
11.1 Torque 5354 Wo OSS San aera Adis ti B.S oreo 150 19:4. Oceantlides*t he eee 187
11.2 Balanced Torques ....... vette eeeeees ‘ley 13.5 Tides in Earth and the Atmosphere ...193
11.3 Torque and Center of Gravity ......... 152 18.6, BlackHolesi.ce: = theviee.socos,c cranes. 193
Pete HOTUOMAl INCLU ma. otearnie ho ee ve oa» 154
11.5 Rotational Inertia and Gymnastics ....159
PEGs AnsularMomentum...7..-....05.... 161 14 Satellite Motion 199
11.7 Conservation of
pe eT pein «103 14,1) pearth Satelitestem: neeate
oe one 199
. 14°25 Circulam Oro smateecpere i -.<; at reae202
14-3 PEMD CAL Oris tava 4.2 otek occas t 203
14.4 Energy Conservation and
Sd LEM OMVIOLIOINGS threes clase ote shoe: 205
UA ee ESCADEODCCU lhe ei te Lita ao os 207

vii
 meSolids 258

Crystal Structtfes. a-iee eer aes 258

DO@MSItyes <5. Geena o sigan. eine 260
Elasticity seek tunic eae oe 263
Compression and Tension <7... .-.5.. 264
Special Relativity— Scaling s.gecddeees tee see re eee 267
Space and Time 212

DBRS UACES ING ens cease Sees « 865m 213

DG.2 mviOUOM IS RElALVe™ eon. 64am iscece aks 214
15.3. The Speed of Light Is Constant ....... 215
15.4 The First Postulate of
SPEciaURelativitVest sc.. ease eens 216
15.5 The Second Postulate of
Special Relativity. < A. occsees PA
POMP C TATION Yi... 5.6onauree ee ee oe ed218
Dnt LeCeL WATE AVI ies éi.c's os 2 cece oo eee 2e2
isamopaccanclime lravel .2..02.2..es228

16 Special Relativity—
Length, Momentum,
and Energy 232
19 Liquids 273
IGtE, Bength’@entraction we. SA Ewe. .2ose
16.2 Momentum and Inertia in Relativity ..234 PiGuid Pressure, se. er eae eee a es
16.3 Equivalence of Mass and Energy ...... 236 19.2 BUOY an CY ulet, on ite cutee ene ote
16.4 Kinetic Energy in Relativity........... 238 19.3 Archimedes ‘Principle Goaeaeoaer. 7278
16.5 The Correspondence Principle ....... 239 19.4 Does It Sink, or Does It Float?......... 280
19.5 Flotation. .on e+ o« Sead pee 282
19.6 Pascal's Principle... 2ocgseose eee 284

Unit ll
Properties of Matter 243

The Atomic Nature

of Matter 244
DC PeLICICHiSEee tCAe) oer er ete |. 244
I A2eentome~ are Recyclable ...¥...........° 246
fe smeOUCMSATE NSIT A 24 oso sana sda bacces. 246
DC AmEeNICCUCE LOL ALOMS . iis ts cy aw a os « 248
PUGS MEIVAOECLILCS: wecrigey ited ds. saree... 249
PAO MmCOMPOULCS tee cak ass le fa aves... 250
Hide He ALOMIC NUCLEUS s:40.0.8 5)... 250
i7ce SBleCiLons i the AtOM aye deena ac. ..252
ioe lhe Phases of Matter! ..205..2.... 255

Vili Contents
 290

Path PT eo 290
20.2 Atmospheric Pressure ............... 292
20.3 The Simple Barometer ............... 294
20.4 The Aneroid Barometer .............. 296
Me DO VME so tis ue es lak ovensee.297
mie SeDUGVaNOY Ol Altes 12s cdi asatuntea lh«299
20ra DEINOULTS PrINCIPlen.< 24. cleiwarslen
vies «300
20.8 Applications of Bernoulli’s
ELL8)[a Ga arene See Sea 301

23 Change of Phase 339

23.1 Evaporationges sete. cet. ere B39

Unit lll
bss Yet Condensation er: eee ee 341
Heat 306 23.3 Evaporation and Condensation Rates .343
23.4 Boiling S fossa eas Ser oc ee er 343
23.5 BreeZIng ag genet eae Aan ae ©5c345
23.6 Boiling and Freezing at
Temperature, Heat, the Same Time. 222%. Pee 346
and Expansion 307 23.7 Regelation¢s.7..600< 22 eee 346
23.8 Energy and Changes of Phase ........ 347
ee PeT CT AUNTS arole O65 =55 7566 Sxile es 307
2 te ae es a ete sy Sa» a ee 309
2a CREPal EeOuMiIDOUM |. oe sci. ssc} 310 Thermodynamics 354
edOe ARETE AAN PTICTOY or 85.62) ares 089%, 0)" 310
21.5 Measurement of Heat................ 311 Absolute:/erox7enmaen cee, eoee se 354
Ping. opecine Heal Capachy inc nis pene ora.<sS13 First Law of Thermodynamics ........ 355
21.7 The High Specific Heat Adiabatic DrOCeSSCS arg taser een 358
SP MIS OU VVALCD sec cstcrtefile ners oe«314 Second Law of Thermodynamics ..... 360
ay Seis ere oie (6 ee 315 Heat Engines and the Second Law ....361
oe Expansion Of Watery. 0... 5. ees 319 Order lendsic Disordeiees er) 2." 1 364
Entropyinnwserestiies
Stas esis Oe eleses 365

22 Heat Transfer 325

Pe COOMIUICHIOM, 0. 2. 55s cldieie ese balan ess 20

Pe EC OMVECHUME cl... 5.62 sie seen eee as 327
LDLEL PO UAT) Oe 8. one 330
22.4 Absorption of Radiant Energy ........ aol
22.5 Emission of Radiant Energy .......... ge
22.6 Newton’s Law of Cooling ............. 334
22.7 Global Warming and the
GrECIIGOUSCMHICCL ...Saekius + 335
 27 Light
Early Concepts of Light ....° OUT 404
The Speed Of Light’ neta o-ereeea 405
Electromagnetic Waves \.- 50. ---92o. 5408
Light and Transparent Materials ...... 409
Unit IV Opaque Materidlses.ee ee ee 411
7 Shadows i. saktaereee ss. 6s) aaaiene ane 412
Sound and Light 373 Polarizationeaiecsce oem: «- -.. ceeees 414
Polarized Light and 3-D Viewing ...... 416

25 Vibrations and Waves 372 28 Color a21

eee avon ole Ao teh ight | Pay aa 28.1 The ColorSpectrum: see). ane 421
Zoe Wave DeSCripulloniy iis esse deena. ou ;
‘ 28.2 Color by Reflection 732.5... ee 422
meme Wave MOUON :. .:.. 248i Lehine ies ssoto Pa
28.3 Color by Transmussion=.o7+. s+: eee 424
Dart eeVWAVEISDCEU feu sea teas SURAT. 376 ;
28.4> Sunlight ...... /AP2 ee tree et 425
ace Ss LAMSVETSG.WVAVES WRniw klakk. creed... 378 oa ‘
ee 28.5. Mixing Colored Light 22-145 eee 426
29.6 Longitudinal Waves ..........6c0006. 378
28.6 Complementary Colors: 0)2277. 222. .427
oot ME UICLOICE oi ints Wise viavc cues ou SAG S74 ie ;
é 28.7 Mixing Colored Pigments ............ 429
Zabe tance Wavesdhtwn ceiiieouwandeee.:380
28.8. Why the:SkyJs Blueee ye ee ee... 432
Zombie DON DICE PUCCE cso j.0edkmatte><<382
28.9. Why Sunsets Are Red 222702. 22 2. 433
yen DOV NAV CS AO tia. oi rehloakite nite +«384
25.11 Shock Waves 385 28.10 Why Water Is Greenish Blue .......... 435
MS ee er ae 9811 ‘The Atomic Color Cadell
Atomic: Spectray:t 2:22 ae 436
26 Sound 390
26.1 The Origin ofSound....... AERO 390
Boer meOU UN AIR. BP. Seeks tails Sices 5s391
26.3 Media That Transmit Sound .......... 392
AOA MeSDCEO OL OOUNGGs Es. nal. eel nn dani tan 593
PR SMEIURTCCOMPE Gott oe oe erssf oe et eas 393
ZY Ome OLCOM VIDEALION:. £2 50d fies vss ase os 394
Ze MeN ALULAREECCUCNCY cai tse cussed.edeooo
AIO MERESOUATICE Misvice skins aceo aye4 elves Core 390
Pe MIIILCTLCLENCER Att. woah 1 iisstakes5cs397
26.10 Beats

x Contents
2ONe Retection 2osee > worest s teawehh ., 442
2972). The Law of Reflection scwiw:s «oven !.. 443
ee NEO Get i A ee tee wesley . 444
29:4) Diffuse Reflection «iwsassiees..axcouls.. 446
abe Relectionmorsoounds:..... avi veoh). 447
29-6 Keltnetinnit? ottoell hes wien cee. 448
2o-7e Retraction of Soundss mesic) ial). 449
29.85 Revection Gf laughter aciecwes a... 451
22.97 Atmospheric Refractions ansyycia.... 452
29.10 Dishersioniin a PrismieG: goss): oe... - 454
291d ‘The Rain bowarewsesh) Separekk ack. 455
29.12 Total Internal Reflection ............. 457

interference 480

Set eruycens erinciplews...: 0. tte ee480

$122, Difitactio nippy kee 483
SIPS EIN teric rem cmt reteset nee 486
31.4 Young's Interference Experiment ..... 487
31.5 Single-Color Interference
frome) hin Pins ee ee tee eee ees a 490
31.6 Iridescence from Thin Films.......... 491
Sic Laser Wigtitmeererr. ak Perey ect 493
31-0 the Hologram. eee es cee 495

30 Lenses 463

30.1 Converging and Diverging Lenses ..... 463

30.2 Image Formation byaLens .......... 465
30.3. Constructing Images Through
Ray Diagrams ............-...-.---- 467
30.4 Image Formation Summarized ....... 470
30.5 Some Common Optical Instruments ..471
BI OMEEMG BYC0 a. . 52. .- see en nce ctemsne ses 473
30.7 Some Defectsin Vision ............-- 474
30.8 Some Defects of Lenses ............-. 475

xi
 34 Electric Current 531

34.1 Flow of Charge aio. 25a 44a 531

34.2 Electric Current’S3t73ee, «eee Bo2
34.3 Voltage Sources....%25-meeeuer
ener «533
34.4 Electric Resistance (iro, ae aeeetes««534
34.5 Olim's Law... A: Faeereeepeeta. ODD
34.6 Ohm’s Law and Electric Shock ........ 537
34.7 Direct Current and
Alternating Currentg.. 19 G2 ye7oe. -a0
34.8 Converting AGTO DU 90. wae eaintes.. 540
34.9 The Speed of Electrons in a Circuit ....541
34.10 The Source of Electrons in a Circuit .. .542
34.11 Electric Power

Unit V
Electricity and
Magnetism a9

35 Electric Circuits 548

32 Electrostatics 500
35.1 A Battery and a.Bulby eee eee 548
32.1 Electrical Forces and Charges ........ 500 35.2 Electric CirCuitsei..,,.- 2 ete ee eee 549
32.2 Conservation of Charge ...... 00.2.2... 502 35.3 Series Circuits: ... ..neeernae ee 550
Dees CUULOMN SLAWals pckabui bt Yok korneh «2504 35.4 Parallel CirCuitGasce «a eens etch ee 552
32.4 Conductors and Insulators ........... 508 35.5 schematic Diagrams) a) oe 554
32.5 Charging by Friction and Contact ..... 509 35.6 Combining Resistors in
32.6 Charging by Induction............... 510 a Compound Circtiiine 10. serene 555
Sear Harge Polarization: . casncc.nhistiashh«4512 35.7 Parallel Circuits and Overloading ..... ay

Electric Fields
and Potential

Diecric ricluserne yee... ....... ole

lece riGld AICS met is. sss... 519
Ve CUC LICKIN PMGea... .. 00. 521
Electrical Potential Energy ........... 523
Piecime POL
H idl manne... ...... 524
Electrical Energy Storage............. 526
The Van de Graaff
SeMeCLALOL Meee: eRehee
, ee... 527.

xii Contents
36 Magnetism 562

SM MAPTIOUG ROIS hi SFsectenrtinls ohs.5 <0 d's563

MOsa MIMABNCUCHICICOSMRt LR Gkaua loos. sa es 564
36.3 The Nature of a Magnetic Field ....... 565
3G.4 MaRNelC DOMAIS Ber. assesses 566
36.5 Electric Currents and
MESTIPUO TIONS) Sontk cc ctasee cases: 568
36.6 Magnetic Forces on Moving
RET RU IIUICIOS™ ent. Se eens 3570
36.7 Magnetic Forces on
Current-Carrying Wires ............. 571
Rathas PO IELS MIGIOLOLS ova ee see Sa Or vrs oot 572

Atomic and
Nuclear Physics 595
ER Ss Ee ee ee eed

38 The Atom and

the Quantum 596

SB Le UMOGel Se san sya Se cctrt aa hth ee ee 596

37, Electromagnetic Induction 577 SA Omght Ua (awe eo), 08 eee ee 597
38.3. Ihe Photoelecttic Effect .....<cass.a: 598
37.1 Electromagnetic Induction ........... 977 88.4 Waves as Particles® so cer ie oo ae 4 599
Sueeee ParaGayS LAW. np one ano Qemelte elas 579 $38.5 Particles as Waves .....0....0se-ccess 600
37.3. Generators and Alternating Current . . .580 B0.6 HICCIIOM WAVES: ... omen st ect re sees 601
37.4 Motor and Generator Comparison ... .582 38.7 Relative Sizes of Atoms .............. 603
epi EUISHOMIMICES 5 5 os ae np Sie's aie Pie olehs583 SO Be OWA PNySICSteeeres ot ees eecee: 605
37.6 Power lransmission .......0ssiees 60s 587 38.9 Predictability and Chaos ............. 606
37.7. Induction of Electric and
BAe a ACICS oes op s.ca « SUGGSIt
37.8 Electromagnetic Waves

xiii
 Activities and Features

Reaction LIMeC.. si. ¢corins ant pee eee ene21

Projectiles and Free Fall... 0.02.0 piyna pit oe 3D.
Acceleration, Which Way? i.) seesaaee ss. 61
Air ReSIStANCE «:.cartuauetunh ives abun ol70
Skateboards and Momentum ................ 94
Doing Work On.53a0d mac eebiae ae abe a106
Comparing Rolls «5 jaan oe eens 2a 125
Rolling on Tapered Wheel. jit veel 126
Water:Bucket Swing ..0.tcaseren sea eae 129
Males Versus Females ;......, ses ectevearenee 141
Applying Torque. to.aSpoolesmywens eos 155
Flip YOUR Pencil “ath bors «tater eee ibay?
Ilhusion Gheck: .vin2 $e0'. cee anes so oe ree 177
Drawings Elipses:. 2.9.22 oe nates eee 204
The Atomic Nucleus ACOMUIVGTALIOT tee s.cla « seg ches oe Sere een 247
and Radioactivity 609 Constructing litaneles ><. ).2.s eee 266
Noting. bl0Gd. Pressure ya 4. cones. ee 200
eee COMIC NUCICUS eo a ecco ss609 Touching Watenn was Stas. a: et rte, = Pe 280
Beem ACOUCLVe DECAY ..ce eter. Seon. 610 Liquidtiranster lechniques’.., saa. needs. yA
39.3 Radiation Penetrating Power ......... 612 Can You [rust Your Sens€st ee. «sane 309
a WP Eyal ieeien Cel Gc ——— 613 Brains Over Brawl saga: gone «1, = «este <316
aber LGW Mele nies CLBt(uae ee 615 Watching Convection... cose... +4.<. cee 328
39.6 Natural Transmutation of Elements ...617 Cool Hand ©...-.vagtaerey ve the. disci, oot eames o20
39.7 Artificial Transmutation of Elements . .620 Blocking Infrared Radiation %2.- sa see oeSat
mossste MeL MOEIED AGIOS ooo enc os = sana > sytae eke621 You Cant See Steanite, nce q ts oie eee 344
PAPUA IANS von. sce asees eo ts623 WorkYour Palins we occas s: aoe ae eafd
SI AO RAGIOACTIVE TTACETS 6. oc seek eee ne ee 623 IMIS WAVES worst cece teeters eee 376
Se AAMOM aNd YOU Sis ee leo eee se 624 Water Taps 00% 2 wa. ce oltay tele eseee ee 395
Wetter Is‘DarkerQee. 272 Oise eee. 41]
PaVvVOTite EVCa- i. oss. dee inc a tte ae 416
Reflections’... .....)Wamg 024). 2h) gee nee er 425
Nuclear Fission
Retinal Patigue:........ a2 RONn eee een 429
and Fusion 629 Mirrordmaged..2 00/3. aeeeeeeene fee 444
Multiplying Money 2 }geerenaee oer eeneenree 446
40.1 Nuclear Fission ......... 630
Refraction in Alty, oo)... us:nci eee een 453
40.2 The Nuclear Fission
Pinhole Images, ....%. cee eee eee eee476
DCACLO [me remeeicy.s cre 33,633
Seeing Diffraction Fringes’...:.....2....05.. 486
PLUHOMIUIN tee Week ee ot ands 634
Switling Colors ix. d canes SOs one ee 3 ss 493
The Breeder Reactor ....635
CHAT RING eins. 5 acetate ahs weshenene eee ee Re 513
Mass-Energy
Magnetism in the Pantry
Equivalence seyret .636
Nuclear Fusion ......... 639
Controlling Nuclear
ULSIOLISr eet. «. 7. ee’ 641

Xiv Contents
hh INSULOTIALL CRE
tLe
ne camera rely ance
TOLCOMIWS SS 101 ay Ss ea
eae 186
205
Space Science Inertiain Action ............. 48 TIP ROG Me ee. s SO EG ee Pyeeel, cutee eee oe Mays
Biology Action-Reaction in Action .......... 76 CAVUMEIN CIN COVA Gan hist cc ori am cules osieae eisetie 264
Chemistry Reactions ic 6. ws as 6. aGkaewn s2g NIBFeO TOO DIS a he.terate faucets aatiteeters 291
Technology Railroad Wheels .............. 126 ECONOUsVleet thot nite a sitet voit siktg tee 336
LTO aoa ORS Ra Sa eee ee, 141 Fire Fichteien sare ot. ca te ask cos eee Pee «2 350
Astronomy Spiral Galaxies ................ 163 ISIE lote RM etaathe ese chalet ages go cine. 378
Astronomy Planetary Rings ............... a3 BOUCE CTR CCUM WW occa Beane eo aiese susae 4 384
Technology Relativistic Clocks ............. 228 LESS eee, eR he ee eee ee Se 430
Biology Muons and Mutations............. 234 VHOLORTAD Reker a sent cn ke weer ame 474
CHSMMIBURWEINGIEDE, .. ree aa es Zo Electrician 2s: ce eken a.e chee Aes 551
Geology Floating Mountains .............. 280 Oceanocrapherar act ae ae ee 543
Entomology Desert Ants .................. 310 Cellular Phone Tower Technician ........... 590
Biophysics Hot-Headed Whale ............ 334 Archeologist scien ies tees cee 621
MER MMIMORMPICETAMNICS , o.oo coc 5 es ee ca as 363 Nuclear Power Plant Technician... 4" >635
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Electrochemistry Electrolysis ............. 536 Bungee JUMPING: nia. sie teams cere 3 sl ose 90
Technology Measuring with Current ....... 595 The Sweet Spo tang penis ae 109
Technology Sound Reproduction .......... 571 Chaos on the Slopes* sc) ca ae eee 606
Technology Metal Detectors............... 582
Technology Magnetic Storage ............. 585
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XV
Concepts Before Computation
An innovative approach
pioneered by Paul Hewitt
in Conceptual Physics
owledge
Kn
Physics

nly Conceptual Physics provides

comprehensive content and a Knowledge
Physics
three-step learning sequence that Time
builds conceptual understanding and offers
computational reinforcement.

Exploration
Ignite interest with meaningful examples and hands-on activities.

Concept Development
Expand understanding with engaging narrative and visuals,
multimedia presentations, and a wide range of concept-
development questions and exercises.

Application
Reinforce and apply key concepts with hands-on laboratory work,
critical thinking, and problem-solving.
Look for the following symbol which Vo
highlights computational problem solving: All
 he teaching and writing of Conceptual Physics is with analogies and clear explanations, with more qualita-
my life's work. My aim is to share my passion for tive questions than algebraic problems—all to help you
physics, to guide the reader to see physics as the discover that physics is fascinating, to provide a solid sci-
rules of the physical world, and to teach how the equa- ence foundation, and to see that a knowledge of physics is
tions of physics reveal the connections in nature. Whereas important to your overall education. The testimonials
many physics courses emphasize the tools of physics, the below are from some of the most prestigious professors of
focus here is on the physics concepts themselves, their major universities in the United States—physicists who
similarities, and their differences. The tone of the book is are familiar with this book and are willing to share their
friendly, illuminating rather than intimidating, and rich impressions of it.

Fur GtHesiff
Testimonials
Conceptual Physics is not an “about physics” course, nor a physics By stressing an understanding of the ideas ofphysics instead of rote
appreciation course—it is REAL physics. It is the book that best pre- computation, Conceptual Physics, together with its insightful
pares students for college-level physics. Concept-Development Practice Book, not only provides a firm
Sumner P. Davis foundation for further study in science, but more importantly,
Department of Physics nurtures a scientific outlook for everyday life.
University of California at Berkeley Helen Quinn
Senior Research Physicist,
Ifind students who have had a conceptual physics course in high Assistant to Director for Education Programs
school are generally better prepared for university physics than those Stanford Linear Accelerator Center
who have had a traditional problem-solving course.
Eric Mazur For 14 years Conceptual Physics has been our fundamental physics
Department of Physics course at Edison High, the highly successful science and computer
Harvard University magnet school that annually leads the central valley in the number
of National Merit Finalists. Thanks to the solid foundation provided
Turning high school students into proficient solvers of physics prob-
by Conceptual Physics, we have the largest offerings of AP science
lems is, Isuspect, the wrong approach. The emphasis should be on courses and the highest scores in the valley. We use it with gifted stu-
concepts, so vital and appealing that it should be unthinkable for dents in the ninth grade and sophomores through seniors in our
any educated person in the twenty-first century not to have mastered non-AP courses. Its readability with focus on concepts couched in
their elements. Conceptual Physics is a welcome and bold step in real-life applications makes it enormously successful, separating it
transforming the way physics should be taught. from other physics programs.
David L. Goodstein Roger Lucido
Vice Provost, Professor of Physics and Applied Physics, Former Vice President, AAPT, Northern California
Frank G. Gilloon Distinguished Teaching and Service Professor Center for Advanced Research and Technology (CART)
California Institute of Technology

The national workshop Comprehensive Conceptual Curriculum for T have used Conceptual Physics with ninth grade and senior stu-
Physics (C3P) enthusiastically endorses, advocates, and promotes the dents, with great success in both basic and honors sections.
use ofHewitt's Conceptual Physics textbook. It is the only textbook Conceptual Physics gets hold of the big ideas and makes them
that we endorse. understandable to students at all levels. While the calculations in
standard texts look impressive to non-scientists, students learn to
Richard P. Olenick
Professor of Physics, CP Principal Investigator follow them and to solve similar problems without real understand-
ing. My students, however, learn concepts first, which are more
Department of Physics
fundamental than calculations. Follow-up problems are then un-
University of Dallas
derstood. Different ability levels are easily accommodated with the
In my opinion, Paul Hewitt's Conceptual Physics provides a won- supplementary materials that come with the text and with addi-
derful introduction to the concepts and spirit of physics. His text, tional numerical problems in the new appendix. Conceptual
coupled with open-ended laboratories, encouragement for personal Physics is a text that all students read and profit from.
science hobbies, and further immersion in the formalism ofphysics, Craig B. Merow
would prepare students well for a calculus-based introductory Director, Academy Scholars Program
course at any university. Germantown Academy
Fort Washington, Pennysylvania
Edwin FETaylor
Senior Research Scientist, Emeritus
Department of Physics
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
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To the Student
Se a NTT EN Ee I Se

You can’t fully enjoy a game unless you know its rules.
Whether it’s a ball game, computer game, or party game—if you don’t
Know the rules, it can be boring. You miss out on what others enjoy. Just as a
musician hears what untrained ears can’t, and just as a cook tastes in food what
others miss, a person who knows nature’s rules can better appreciate nature.
Learning that satellites follow the same rules as tossed baseballs changes
the way you see orbiting astronauts on TV. Learning the rules of light changes
the way you see blue skies, white clouds, and rainbows. Richness in life is not
only seeing the world with wide open eyes, but knowing what to look for.
We begin by looking at some of nature’s basic rules—physics.
We treat physics conceptually in this book, which means concepts are presented
in familiar English, with equations as “guides to thinking.” Comprehension of
concepts before calculation is the key to understanding.
Enjoy your physics!

xix
 About Science

hat would it be like to live in outer

VV space? At first thought we might think
this question is for astronauts, particu-
larly those who have experienced space walks.
But on second thought, we realize this question
is for everybody, for all of us are in outer space.
At every moment we are riding on our home
planet Earth, which has been in outer space from
day one, hurtling completely out of human con-
trol around and around the sun. Photos of Earth
Spaceship Earth in outer space. taken by astronauts have greatly influenced the way we see our
home in space—a relatively small life-supporting garden planet.
We can’t control Earth’s motion, but we have learned the rules by
which it moves—trules that were painstakingly discovered by investi-
gators throughout much of human history. The study of nature’s
rules is what science is about. These rules, which are surprisingly few
‘in number, explain such things as why Earth is round, why its oceans
and sky are blue, and why its sunsets are red. The richness of life is
not only seeing the world with wide open eyes, but knowing about
the connections between things. To know nature’s rules is to add
richness to the way we see our world.
The roots of science go back to before recorded history, when
humans first discovered regularities and relationships in nature. One
regularity was the appearance of the star patterns in the night sky.
Another was the weather patterns during the year—when the rainy
season started or the days grew longer. People learned to make pre-
dictions based on these regularities and to make connections
between things that at first seemed to have no relationship. More
and more they learned about the workings of nature. That vast body
of knowledge, growing all the time, is part of science. The greater
part of science, however, is the methods used to produce that knowl-
edge. Science is a way of thinking, as well as a body of knowledge.

Chapter 1 About Science

Rss
RO RN ee
1.1 The Basic Science—Physics
Science is the present-day equivalent of what used to be called nat-
ural philosophy. Natural philosophy was the study of unanswered
questions about nature. As the answers were found, they became
part of what is now called science.
The study of science today branches into the study of living
things and nonliving things—the life sciences and the physical sci-
ences. The life sciences branch into areas such as biology, zoology,
and botany. The physical sciences branch into areas such as geology,
astronomy, chemistry, and physics.
Physics is more than a part of the physical sciences, it is the most
basic of all the sciences. It’s about the nature of basic things such as
motion, forces, energy, matter, heat, sound, light, and the composi-
tion of atoms. Chemistry is about how matter is put together, how
atoms combine to form molecules, and how the molecules combine
to make up the many kinds of matter around us. Biology is still more
complex and involves matter that is alive. So physics supports chem-
istry, which in turn supports biology. The ideas of physics are funda-
mental to these more complicated sciences. That’s why physics is the
most basic science. You can understand other sciences much better
if you first understand physics.

1.2 Mathematics—The Language

of Science
Science was transformed in the seventeenth century when it was
learned that nature can be analyzed, modeled, and described mathe-
matically. When the ideas of science are expressed in mathematical
terms, they are unambiguous. They don’t have the double meanings
that so often confuse the discussion of ideas expressed in common
language. When the findings in nature are expressed mathematically,
they are easier to verify or to disprove by experiment.” The methods
of mathematics and experimentation led to the enormous success
of science.

EET

* Although mathematics is very important to scientific mastery, it will not be the focus of
attention in this book. This book focuses instead upon what should come first: the basic
ideas and concepts of physics—in English. You'll note that at the end of most chapters
problems requiring elementary algebra are outnumbered by Think and Explain exer-
cises. In this book, you will learn physics primarily through word descriptions that help
on
you to visualize ideas and concepts, and only secondary emphasis will be placed
mathematical descriptions. By postponing emphasis on algebraic problem solving
of
(which often tends to obscure the physics), you will gain a better comprehension
the conceptual foundation of physics.
Figure 1.1
Galileo (left) and Francis Bacon
(right) have been credited as the
founders of the scientific method.

RS
1.3 Scientific Methods
The Italian physicist Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) and the English
philosopher Francis Bacon (1561-1626) are usually credited as the
principal founders of the scientific method—a method that is
extremely effective in gaining, organizing, and applying new knowIl-
edge. Scientific methods generally include some, if not all, of the fol-
lowing:
1. Recognize a problem.
2. Make an educated guess—a hypothesis—about the answer.
3. Predict the consequences of the hypothesis.
4. Perform experiments to test predictions.
5 . Formulate the simplest general rule that organizes the three main
ingredients: hypothesis, prediction, and experimental outcome.

Although this cookbook method has a certain appeal, it is not

the universal key to the discoveries and advances in science. Trial
and error, experimentation without guessing, or just plain accidental
discovery accounts for much of the progress in science. The success
of science has more to do with an attitude common to scientists
than with a particular method. This attitude is one of inquiry, experi-
mentation, and humility before the facts.

SE
(SESE
1.4 The Scientific Attitude
In science, a fact is a close agreement by competent observers who
make a series of observations of the same phenomenon. A scientific
hypothesis, on the other hand, is an educated guess that is only pre-
sumed to be factual until demonstrated by experiment. When
hypotheses are tested over and over again and not contradicted,
they may become known as laws or principles.

2 Chapter 1 About Science

 If a scientist finds evidence that contradicts a hypothesis, law, or
principle, then in the scientific spirit the hypothesis, law, or principle
must be changed or abandoned (unless the contradicting evidence
turns out to be wrong, which sometimes happens). A scientist must
be prepared to change or abandon an idea. As an example, the
greatly respected Greek philosopher Aristotle (384-322 B.c.) claimed
that an object twice as heavy as another falls twice as fast. This false
idea was held to be true for nearly 2000 years because of Aristotle's
compelling authority. In the scientific spirit, however, a single verifi-
able experiment to the contrary outweighs any authority, regardless
of reputation or the number of followers or advocates. In modern
science, argument by appeal to authority is of little value.
Scientists must accept their findings even when they would like
them to be different. They must strive to distinguish between what
they see and what they wish to see. Scientists, like most people, have
a vast capacity for fooling themselves.* People have always tended to
adopt general rules, beliefs, creeds, ideas, and hypotheses without
thoroughly questioning their validity and to retain them long after
they have been shown to be false or at least questionable. The most
widespread assumptions are often the least questioned. Most often
when an idea is adopted, particular attention is given to cases that
seem to support it, while cases that seem to refute it are distorted,
belittled, or ignored. / THEORIES
Scientists use the word theory differently from the way it is used (INTERPRET FACTS
a.
in everyday speech. In everyday speech a theory is the same as a
hypothesis—a supposition that has not been verified. A scientific
theory, on the other hand, is a synthesis of a large body of informa-
tion that encompasses well-tested and verified hypotheses about
certain aspects of the natural world. For example, physicists speak of
atomic theory; biologists speak of cell theory.
The theories of science are not fixed, but rather they undergo
change. Scientific theories evolve as they go through stages of redefi-
nition and refinement. During the past hundred years, the theory of tree ie & : ;
the atom has been refined as new evidence was gathered. Similarly, rece SLD SIR Ea eglh Ue
biologists have refined the cell theory.
The refinement of theories is a strength of science, not a weak-
ness. Many people feel that it is a sign of weakness to “change your
mind.” Yet competent scientists must be experts at changing their
minds. They change their minds, however, only when confronted
with solid experimental evidence to the contrary, or when a concep-
tually simpler hypothesis forces them to a new point of view. More
important than defending beliefs is improving them. Better hypothe-
ses are made by those who are honest in the face of fact.
The scientific attitude accompanies a search for order, for uni-
formities, and for lawful relations among the events of nature. These
enable prediction. By better understanding nature, we can better
control our destinies.

* In your education it is not enough to be aware that other people may try to fool you,
but mainly to be aware of your own tendency to fool yourself.
 1.5 Scientific Hypotheses
Must Be Testable
Before a hypothesis can be classified as scientific, it must link to a
general understanding of nature and conform to a cardinal rule. The
rule is that the hypothesis must be testable. It is more important that
there be a means of proving it wrong than that there be a means of
proving it correct. On first consideration this may seem strange, for
usually we concern ourselves with verifying that something is true.
Scientific hypotheses are different. In fact, if you want to determine
whether a hypothesis is scientific or not, look to see if there is a test
for proving it wrong. If there is no test for its possible wrongness,
then it is not scientific. Albert Einstein put it well when he stated,
“No number of experiments can prove me right; a single experiment
can prove me wrong.”
Figure 1.3 A Consider the hypothesis “The alignment of planets in the sky
Experiments test scientific determines the best time for making decisions.” Many people
hypotheses. believe it, but this hypothesis is not scientific. It cannot be proven
wrong, nor can it be proven right. It is speculation. Likewise, the
hypothesis “Intelligent life exists on other planets somewhere in the
universe” is not scientific. Although it can be proven correct by the
verification of a single instance of intelligent life existing elsewhere
in the universe, there is no way to prove it wrong if no life is ever
found. If we searched the far reaches of the universe for eons and
found no life, we would not prove that it doesn’t exist “around the
next corner.” The hypothesis “Most people stop for red lights” is also
outside of science, but for a different reason. Although it can easily

. Question |hill Mad an het

Which ofthese isascientifichypothesis?
Atoms arethe smallest particles of matter. |
vf ~The universe issurrounded by a second universe, the
existence: of which cannot be detected by scientists.
c. Albert Einstein was the greatest physicist a the
twentieth century. ;
ES

@ Answer

Only (a) is scientific, because there is a test for its wrongness. The statement is not only
capable of being proven wrong, but in fact it has been proven wrong. Statement (b) has no
test for possible wrongness and is therefore unscientific. Some pseudoscientists and other
pretenders of knowledge will not even consider a test for the possible wrongness of their
1 Explore statements. Statement (c) is an assertion that has no test for possible wrongness. If
Einstein was not the greatest physicist, how would we know? It is important to note that
1 Laboratory Manual 7
because the name Einstein is generally held in high esteem, it is a favorite of pseudoscien-
2 Concept-Development tists. So we should not be surprised that the name of Einstein, like the names of
other
Practice Book 7-7 prominent and respected figures, is often cited by charlatans who wish to bring
respect to
themselves and their points of view.

4 Chapter 1 About Science

be tested and shown to be right or wrong, the hypothesis doesn’t link
up to our general understanding of nature. It doesn’t fit into the
structure of science.
Here is a hypothesis that is scientific: “No material object can
travel faster than light.” Even if it were supported by a thousand other
experiments, this hypothesis could be proven wrong by a single exper-
iment. (So far, we believe it to be true.) A hypothesis that has no test
for its possible wrongness lies outside the domain of science.

SR EE SETS ET Ee
1.6 Science, Technology, and Society
Science and technology are different. Science is a method of answer-
ing theoretical questions; technology is a method of solving practical
problems. Science has to do with discovering facts and relationships
between observable phenomena in nature and with establishing the-
ories that organize and make sense of these facts and relationships.
Technology has to do with tools, techniques, and procedures for
putting the findings of science to use.
Science and technology are human enterprises, but in different
ways. In deciding what problems to work on, scientists are guided by
their own interests, and sometimes by a desire to help other people
or to serve their nation. Most often scientists are driven primarily by
curiosity, the simple urge to know. They pursue knowledge, insofar
eS
as is possible, that is free of current fashion, beliefs, and value judg- >
ae
ments. What scientists discover may shock or anger some people, ans
49
3
i
y
Say,
as did Darwin's theory of evolution. But science by itself does not
Sas Be
intrude on human life—technology does. Once developed, it can
hardly be ignored. Technologists specifically set out to design, create,
or build something for the use and enjoyment of humans, often for Figure 1.4 A
the betterment of human life. Yet some technology can have adverse Science complements technology.
side effects or create other problems that must be solved. Although
technology derives from science, it has to be judged on how it affects
human life.
We are all familiar with the abuses of technology. Many people
blame technology itself for widespread pollution, resource depletion,
and even social decay. The blame placed on technology often
obscures its promise. That promise is a cleaner and healthier world.
It is much wiser to combat the dangers of technology with knowl-
edge than with ignorance. Wise applications of science and technol-
ogy can lead to a better world.
Science and technology make up a larger part of our everyday
lives than ever before. Humans now have much influence over
nature’s delicate balance. With that power comes a responsibility to
maintain that balance, and to do that, we must understand nature's
basic rules. Citizens must be knowledgeable about how the world
works in order to deal with issues such as acid rain, global warming,
and toxic wastes. The scientific way of thinking becomes vital to
society as new facts are discovered and new ideas for caring for the
planet are needed.
 DIRE UN AAT TA ET
1.7 Science, Art, and Religion
The search for order and meaning in the world takes different forms;
one is science, another is art, and another is religion. Although the
roots of all three go back thousands of years, the traditions of sci-
ence are relatively recent. More important, the domains of science,
art, and religion are different, even though they overlap. Science is
mostly concerned with discovering and recording natural phenom-
ena, the arts are concerned with the value of human interactions as
they pertain to the senses, and religion is concerned with the source,
purpose, and meaning of everything.
The principal values of science and the arts are comparable.
Literature describes the human experience. It allows us to learn
about emotions, even if we haven't yet experienced them. The arts
do not necessarily give us those experiences, but they describe them
to us and suggest what may be in store for us. Similarly, science tells
us what is possible in nature. Scientific knowledge helps us to pre-
dict possibilities in nature even before these possibilities have been
experienced. It provides us with a way of connecting things, of see-
ing relationships between and among them, and of making sense of
the many natural events we find around us. Though science may not
answer all questions, it widens our perspective of nature. A truly
educated person is knowledgeable in both the arts and science.
Science and religion are different. The domain of science is nat-
ural order; the domain of religion is nature’s purpose. Religious
beliefs and practices usually involve faith in and worship of a
supreme being and the creation of human community—not the
practices of science. In this respect, science and religion are as dif-
ferent as apples and oranges and do not contradict each other. The
Figure 1.5 A
two complement rather than contradict each other.
Science and religion have
different domains. When we study the nature of light later in this book, we will treat
light first as a wave and then as a particle. To the person who knows
only a little physics, waves and particles are contradictory. Light can
be only one or the other, and we have to choose between them. But
to the enlightened physicist, waves and particles complement each

&;

- Question cere
j “Which ofthefollowing ie. rosea amounts of human passion,
talent, and ‘intelligence? —
ia? alia wb, literature c.music d. science
5
as fe te YoTi gnel 5qu)olla weglorul 19) Dew eae =!

@ Answer

All of them! In this book we focus on science, an enchanting human activity shared by a
wide variety of people. With present-day tools and know-how, we are reaching farther and
finding out more about ourselves and our environment than people in the past were ever
able to do. The more we know about science, the more passionate we feel toward our sur-
roundings. There is physics in everything we see, hear, smell, taste, and touch!

6 Chapter 1 About Science

other and provide a deeper understanding of light. Similarly, people
who are either uninformed or misinformed about the deeper nature
of both science and religion often feel they must choose between
them. But if we have an understanding of science and religion, we
can embrace both without contradiction.*

SS aS SS ene oe emeatmeees ere ea)

1.8 In Perspective
More than 3000 years ago enormous human effort went into the
construction of great pyramids in Egypt. They were the world’s great-
est monuments to a vision of the universe. The Pyramids testify to
human genius, endurance, and thirst for deeper understanding. A
few centuries ago the then-modern world directed its brilliance to
the building of great stone and marble structures. Cathedrals, syna-
gogues, temples, and mosques were manifestations of people’s
vision. Some of these structures took more than a century to build,
which means that nobody witnessed both the beginning and the end
of construction. Even the architects and early builders who lived to a
ripe old age never saw the finished results of their labors. Entire life-
times were spent in the shadows of construction that must have
seemed without beginning or end. This enormous focus of human
energy was inspired by a vision that went beyond world concerns—a
vision of the cosmos. To the people of that time, the structures they
erected were their “spaceships of faith’—firmly anchored but point-
ing to the cosmos.
Today the efforts of many of our most skilled scientists, engineers,
and artisans are directed toward building the spaceships that orbit
Earth, and others that will voyage beyond. The time required to build
these spaceships is extremely brief compared with the time spent
building the stone and marble structures of the past. Many people
working on today’s spaceships were alive before the first jetliner car-
ried passengers. Where will younger lives lead in a comparable time?
We seem to be at the dawn of a major change in human growth,
not unlike the stage of a chicken embryo before it fully matures. When
the chicken embryo exhausts the last of its inner-egg resources and
before it pokes its way out of its shell, it may seem to be at its last
moments. But what seems like an end is really only a beginning. Are Figure 1.6 A
we like the hatching chicks ready to poke through to a whole new A NASA mock-up of a spaceship
range of possibilities? Are our space-faring efforts the early signs of a of the future. New discoveries
new human era? await the people who will ven-
Earth is our cradle and has served us well. But cradles, however ture out into and beyond our
comfortable, are outgrown one day. With inspiration similar to the solar system.
inspiration of those who built the early cathedrals, synagogues, tem-
ples, and mosques, we aim for the cosmos.
We live at an exciting time!

* Of course, this doesn’t apply to certain extremists who steadfastly assert that one can-
not embrace both their brand of religion and science.
 Chapter Assessment

For: Study and Review Review Questions Check Concepts

(Go @nline Visit: PHSchool.com
Web Code: csd-0010 — . Why is physics the most basic science? (1.1)
2. Why is mathematics important to science?
Why is the use of mathematics minimized in
this book? (1.2)
Concept Summary 3. What is meant by the term scientific method?
Science is the study of nature’s rules. (1.3)
Science is a way of thinking as well as a body of 4. Is a scientific fact something that is absolute
knowledge. and unchanging? Explain. (1.4)
m Physics is the most basic of all the sciences. 5. Scientific theories undergo change. Is this a
strength or a weakness of science? Explain. (1.4)
m The use of mathematics helps make ideas in
science unambiguous. 6. What does it mean to say that if a hypothesis
is scientific, then there must be a means of
Scientific methods are procedures for answering
proving it wrong? (1.5)
questions about the world by testing educated
guesses (hypotheses) and formulating general 7. How do science and technology differ? (1.6)
rules.
8. How are science and the arts similar? (1.7)
m Hypotheses in science must be testable. They
9. How do science and religion differ? (1.7)
are changed or abandoned if they are contra-
dicted by experimental evidence. 10. Why do citizens have a responsibility to have
some basic understanding of nature's rules?
A scientific theory is a body of knowledge and
Cliza)
well-tested hypotheses about some aspect of the
natural world.
m Theories are modified as new evidence is
gathered. Think and Explain Think Critically
Science deals with knowledge for its own sake, 11. Why does science tend to be a “self-
while technology is an application of scientific correcting” way of knowing about things?
knowledge.
12. What is likely being misunderstood by some-
m Science deals with theoretical questions, while one who says, “But that’s only a scientific
technology deals with practical problems. theory”?
13. a. Make an argument for halting the advances
EIR SPEED ET EEE
of technology.
Key Terms b. Make an argument for continuing
fact (1.4) advances in technology.
hypothesis (1.3) c. Contrast your two arguments.
law (1.4)
principle (1.4)
scientific method (1.3)
theory (1.4)

8 Chapter 1 About Science

 wiechanics

There's a lot of physics in simply holding an apple. Not

only is the apple pulled downward by Earth, Earth is pulled
upward by the apple, with just as much force! Both Earth and the
apple pull on each other with equal forces in opposite directions.
The pair of forces, called action and reaction, comprise a single
gravitational interaction. Read on, discover the rules of
mechanics, and you'll do more than pass a physics course—
you'll sharpen your intuition of nature!

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For: Articles on mechanics

Visit: PHSchool.com
Web Code: cse-1000
 otion occurs all around us. We see it in
Vi the everyday activity of people, of cars on
the highway, in trees that sway in the
wind, and with patience, we see it in the nighttime
stars. There is motion at the microscopic level that
We experience the concepts of we cannot see directly: jostling atoms make heat and sound, flowing
speed, velocity, and acceleration electrons make electricity, and vibrating electrons produce radio and
when riding in automobiles. television. Even the light that lets us see motion is caused by the
motion of electrons in atoms. Truly, motion is everywhere.
Motion is easy to recognize, but it is hard to describe. Even the
Greek scientists of more than 2000 years ago, who had a very good
understanding of many of the ideas of physics we study today, had
great difficulty describing motion. They failed because they did not
understand the idea of rate. A quantity divided by time is a rate. It
tells how fast something happens, or how much something changes
in a certain amount of time. In this chapter we will describe motion
by the rates known as speed, velocity, and acceleration. It would be
very nice if this chapter helped you to master these concepts, but it
will be enough for you to become familiar with them and to be able
to distinguish among them. So we'll consider only the simplest form
of motion, motion along a straight-line path—linear motion. In
Chapter 3 we'll extend these concepts to include motion along
curved paths. The following chapters will sharpen your understand-
ing of the concepts of motion.

SSE
ERT ENT
2.1 Motion Is Relative
Everything moves. Even things that appear to be at rest move. They
move with respect to, or relative to, the sun and stars. A book that is
at rest, relative to the table it lies on, is moving at about 30 kilometers

Chapter 2 Linear Motion

per second relative to the sun. The book moves even faster relative to
the center of our galaxy. When we discuss the motion of something,
we describe its motion relative to something else. When we say that a
space shuttle moves at 8 kilometers per second, we mean its move-
ment relative to Earth below. When we say a racing car in the Indy 500
reaches a speed of 300 kilometers per hour, of course we mean rela-
tive to the track. Unless stated otherwise, when we discuss the speeds
of things in our environment, we mean speed with respect to the sur-
face of Earth. Motion is relative.

A moving object travels a certain distance in a given time. A car, for

example, travels so many kilometers in an hour. Speed is a measure
of how fast something is moving. It is the rate at which distance is
covered. Remember, the word rate is a clue that something is being
divided by time. Speed is always measured in terms of a unit of dis-
tance divided by a unit of time. Speed is defined as the distance cov-
ered per unit of time. The word per means “divided by.”

<4 Figure 2.1

A cheetah is the fastest land
animal over distances less than
500 meters and can achieve peak
speeds of 100 km/h.

Any combination of units for distance and time that are useful
and convenient are legitimate for describing speed. Miles per hour 1 Explore | 2 Develop E Apply
(mi/h), kilometers per hour (km/h), centimeters per day (the speed
of a sick snail?), or light-years per century are all legitimate units for
1 Laboratory Manual 2

speed. The slash symbol (/) is read as “per.” Throughout this book
 Table 2.1 Approximate Speeds in Different Units

20 km/h = 12 mi/h = 6 m/s

40 km/h = 25 mi/h = 11 m/s
60 km/h = 37 mi/h = 17 m/s
80 km/h = 50 mi/h = 22 m/s
100 km/h = 62 mi/h = 28 m/s
120 km/h = 75 mi/h = 33 m/s

we'll primarily use the units meters per second (m/s) for speed.
Table 2.1 shows some comparative speeds in different units.

Instantaneous Speed
A car does not always move at the same speed. A car may travel
down a street at 50 km/h, slow to 0 km/h at a red light, and speed up
to only 30 km/h because of traffic. You can tell the speed of the car at
any instant by looking at the car’s speedometer. The speed at any
instant is called the instantaneous speed. A car traveling at 50 km/h
may go at that speed for only one minute. If the car continued at
that speed for a full hour, it would cover 50 km. If it continued at that
speed for only half an hour, it would cover only half that distance, or
25 km. In one minute the car would cover less than 1 km.
Figure 2.2 4
The speedometer for a North
American car gives readings of Average Speed
instantaneous speed in both mi/h
In planning a trip by car, the driver often wants to know how long it
and km/h. Odometers for the
will take to cover a certain distance. The car will certainly not travel
U.S. market give readings
ase
in miles; those for the Canadian at the same speed all during the trip. The driver cares only about the
; ;
Fatketonemeadings in average speed for the trip as a whole. The average speed is defined
kilometers. as follows:

average speed = total distance

— covered
time interval
Average speed can be calculated rather easily. For example, if we
drive a distance of 60 kilometers during a time of 1 hour, we say our
average speed is 60 kilometers per hour (60 km/h). Or, if we travel
240 kilometers in 4 hours,

average speed = total distance covered ._ 240 km = 60 km/h

time interval 4h
Note that when a distance in kilometers (km) is divided by a time in
hours (h), the answer is in kilometers per hour (km/h).
Since average speed is the distance covered divided by the time
of travel, it does not indicate variations in the speed that may take
place during the trip. In practice, we experience a variety of speeds
on most trips, so the average speed is often quite different from the
instantaneous speed. Whether we talk about average speed or
instantaneous speed, we are talking about the rates at which dis-
tance is traveled.
12 Chapter 2 Linear Motion
 @ Questions
1. The speedometer in every car also has an odometer that
records the distance traveled.
a. If the odometer reads zero at the beginning of a trip and 35 km
a half hour later, what is the average speed?
b. Would it be possible to attain this average speed and never
exceed a reading of 70 km/h on the speedometer?
2. If acheetah can maintain a constant speed of 25 m/s, it will
cover 25 meters every second. At this rate, how far will it travel
in 10 seconds? In 1 minute?

SN SEER TN ET
2.3 Velocity
In everyday language, we can use the words speed and velocity inter-
changeably. In physics, we make a distinction between the two. Very
simply, the difference is that velocity is speed in a given direction.
When we say a Car travels at 60 km/h, we are specifying its speed.
But if we say a car moves at 60 km/h to the north, we are specifying
its velocity. Speed is a description of how fast an object moves; veloc-
ity is how fast and in what direction it moves. We will see in the next
section that there are good reasons for the distinction between speed
and velocity.

@ Answers

(Are you reading this before you have formulated a reasoned answer in your mind? If so,
do you also exercise your body by watching others do push-ups? Exercise your thinking!
When you encounter the many questions throughout this book, think before you read the
footnoted answers. You'll not only learn more, you'll enjoy learning more.)
total distance covered _ 35 kM _ 79 km/h
1. a. average speed =
time interval 0.5h

b. No, not if the trip started from rest and ended at rest, because any intervals with an
instantaneous speed less than 70 km/h would have to be compensated with instanta-
neous speeds greater than 70 km/h to yield an average of 70 km/h. In practice, aver-
age speeds are usually appreciably less than peak instantaneous speeds.
2. In 10s the cheetah will cover 250 m, and in 1 minute (or 60 s) it will cover 1500 m,
more than 15 football fields! If we know the average speed and the time of travel, then
the distance covered is
distance = average speed x time interval

distance = (25 m/s) x (10 s) = 250 m

distance = (25 m/s) X (60 s) = 1500 m

A little thought will show that this relationship is simply a rearrangement of

distance
average speed = ———
time interval

13
 @ Question
The speedometer of a car moving northward reads 60 km/h. It
passes another car that travels southward at 60 km/h. Do both cars
have the same speed? Do they have the same velocity?
Ne _

Constant Velocity
From the definition of velocity, it follows that to have a constant
velocity requires both constant speed and constant direction.
Constant speed means that the motion remains at the same speed—
the object does not move faster or slower. Constant direction means
that the motion is in a straight line—the object’s path does not curve
at all. Motion at constant velocity is motion in a straight line at
constant speed.

Figure 2.3
The car on the circular track may
have a constant speed but not a
constant velocity, because its
direction of motion is changing
every instant.

Changing Velocity
If either the speed or the direction (or both) is changing, then the
velocity is changing. Constant speed and constant velocity are not
the same. A body may move at constant speed along a curved path,
for example, but it does not move with constant velocity, because its
direction is changing every instant.
In a car there are three controls that are used to change the
velocity. One is the gas pedal, which is used to maintain or increase
the speed. The second is the brake, which is used to decrease the
speed. The third is the steering wheel, which is used to change the
direction.

1 Explore @ Answer

2 Laboratory Manual 3 Both cars have the same speed, but they have opposite velocities because they are mov-
ing in opposite directions.

14 Chapter 2 Linear Motion

TNE TEYRE E N Te ee
2.4 Acceleration
We can change the state of motion of an object by changing its
speed, its direction of motion, or both. Any of these changes is a
change in velocity. Sometimes we are interested in how fast the
velocity is changing. A driver on a two-lane road who wants to pass
another car would like to be able to speed up and pass in the short-
est possible time. The rate at which the velocity is changing is called
acceleration. Because acceleration is a rate, it is a measure of how
the velocity is changing with respect to time.
change of velocity
acceleration =
time interval
We are familiar with acceleration in an automobile. The driver
depresses the gas pedal, which is appropriately called the accelera-
tor. The passengers then experience acceleration, or “pickup” as it is
sometimes called, as they are pressed into their seats. The key idea
that defines acceleration is change. Whenever we change our state of
motion, we are accelerating. A car that can accelerate well has the
ability to change its velocity rapidly. A car that can go from zero to
60 km/h in 5 seconds has a greater acceleration than another car
that can go from zero to 80 km/h in 10 seconds. So having good
acceleration means being able to change velocity quickly and does
not necessarily refer to how fast something is moving.
In physics, the term acceleration applies to decreases as well as
increases in speed. The brakes of a car can produce large retarding
accelerations, that is, they can produce a large decrease per second in
the speed. This is often called deceleration, or negative acceleration.
We experience deceleration when the driver of a bus or car slams on
the brakes and we tend to hurtle forward.

Acceleration applies to changes in direction as well as changes in Figure 2.4 A

speed. If you ride around a curve at a constant speed of 50 km/h, A car is accelerating whenever
there is a change in its state of
you feel the effects of acceleration as your body tends to move out-
motion.
ward toward the outside of the curve. You may round the curve at
constant speed, but your velocity is not constant, because your
direction is changing every instant. Your state of motion is changing:
 you are accelerating. Now you can see why it is important to distin-
guish between speed and velocity and why acceleration is defined as
the rate of change in velocity, rather than speed. Acceleration, like
velocity, is directional. If we change either speed or direction, or
both, we change velocity and we accelerate.
In much of this book we will be concerned only with motion
along a straight line. When straight-line motion is considered, it is
common to use speed and velocity interchangeably. When the direc-
tion is not changing, acceleration may be expressed as the rate at
which speed changes.
change in speed
acceleration (along a straight line) = ———?=—
time interval
Speed and velocity are measured in units of distance per time.
The units of acceleration are a bit more complicated. Since accelera-
tion is the change in velocity or speed per time interval, its units are
those of speed per time. If we speed up, without changing direction,
from zero to 10 km/h in 1 second, our change in speed is 10 km/h in
a time interval of 1 s. Our acceleration along a straight line is

acceleration = change in speed = 10 km/h = 10 km/h:s

time interval Ls
The acceleration is 10 km/h-s, which is read as “10 kilometers
per hour-second.” Note that a unit for time enters twice: once for the
unit of speed and again for the interval of time in which the speed is
changing. If you understand this, you can answer the following ques-
tions. If you don’t, maybe the answers to the questions will help.

_— Questions ©
af Suppose a car moving in a straight line steadily increases its
‘speed each second, first from 35 to 40 km/h, then from 40 to
_ 45 km/h, then from 45 to 50 km/h. What is its acceleration?
‘ 2, In 5seconds a car moving in a straight line increases its speed
from 50 km/h to 65 km/h, while a truck goes from rest to 15 km/h
' ina straight line. Which undergoes greater acceleration? What
is the acceleration of each vehicle?
SS
SSS

@ Answers

1. We see that the speed increases by 5 km/h during each 1-s interval. The acceleration is
1 Explore
therefore 5 km/h:s during each interval.
2 Laboratory Manual 4 2. The car and truck both increase their speed by 15 km/h during the same time interval,
2 Probeware Lab Ey so their acceleration is the same. If you realized this without first calculating the accel-
Manual 7 erations, you're thinking conceptually. The acceleration of each vehicle is

3 Problem-Solving Ve acceleration = change in speed _ 15 km/h

= 3 km/h:s
Exercises in All time interval Bis
Physics 7-7
Although the speeds involved are quite different, the rates of change in speed are the
same. Hence, the accelerations are equal.

16 Chapter 2 Linear Motion

IRAP I Oca SL RRA Te TS AT CI
2.5 Free Fall: How Fast
An apple falls from a tree. Does it accelerate while falling? We know it
starts from a rest position and gains speed as it falls. We know this
because it would be safe to catch if it fell a meter or two, but not if it
fell from a high-flying balloon. Thus, the apple must gain more speed
during the time it drops from a great height than during the shorter
time it takes to drop a meter. This gain in speed indicates that the
apple does accelerate as it falls.

ai
Gravity causes the apple to accelerate downward once it begins
falling. In real life, air resistance affects the acceleration of a falling
object. Let’s imagine there is no air resistance and that gravity is the
only thing affecting a falling object. Such an object would then be in
free fall. Freely falling objects are affected only by gravity. Table 2.2
shows the instantaneous speed at the end of each second of fall of a
freely falling object dropped from rest. The elapsed time is the time
that has elapsed, or passed, since the beginning of the fall.

Table 2.2

Raped Time InatntanSpeooedns

Free Fall Speeds of Objects Dropped from Rest
Figure 2.5 A
If a falling rock were somehow

feoreete (meters/second) equipped with a speedometer, in

ol
each succeeding second of fall
: its reading would increase by

> | almost 10 m/s. Table 2.2 shows

the speed we would read at
pee oS 2 a various seconds of fall.
30 oes =

‘
: ;

| 2 3 so

te
ee

Note in Table 2.2 the way the speed changes. During each sec-
ond of fall the instantaneous speed of the object increases by an
additional 10 meters per second. This gain in speed per second is
the acceleration.
change in speed _ 10 m/s _ 19 y/o?
acceleration =
time interval ls

Note that when the change in speed is in m/s and the time interval 1 Explore
is in s, the acceleration is in m/s?, which is read as “meters per sec-
ond squared.” The unit of time, the second, occurs twice—once for 2 Concept-Development
the unit of speed and again for the time interval during which the
Practice Book 2-7

speed changes.
17
 The acceleration of an object falling under conditions where
air resistance is negligible is about 10 meters per second squared
(10 m/s?). For free fall, it is customary to use the letter g to represent
the acceleration because the acceleration is due to gravity. Although
gvaries slightly in different parts of the world, its average value is
nearly 10 m/s. More accurately, gis 9.8 m/s*, but it is easier to see
3 SECONDS; +0 the ideas involved when it is rounded off to 10 m/s*. Where accuracy
is important, the value of 9.8 m/s* should be used for the accelera-
eh
».
tion during free fall. Note in Table 2.2 that the instantaneous speed
250 @45 of an object falling from rest is equal to the acceleration multiplied
by the amount of time it falls, the elapsed time.
uyzl10™%
i} instantaneous speed = acceleration x elapsed time
!
The instantaneous speed v of an object falling from rest after an
elapsed time tcan be expressed in equation form*
is @ 55
BAG
The letter v symbolizes both speed and velocity. Take a moment
to check this equation with Table 2.2. You will see that whenever the
acceleration g= 10 m/s? is multiplied by the elapsed time in seconds,
the result is the instantaneous speed in meters per second.

PT oda spk th nseWy ciety Se ae OD ce a es

‘MQuestion y
ae teh eed ~ . a“
r What woul the speedometer reading on \ the ling rock sant in
han ae 4,5 seconds after it drops from rest? How about 8 sec-
is iropped?16 seconds? i
*

So far, we have been looking at objects moving straight down-

ward due to gravity. Now consider an object thrown straight up. It
continues to move upward for a while, then it comes back down.
At the highest point, when the object is changing its direction of
motion from upward to downward, its instantaneous speed is zero.
It then starts downward just as if it had been dropped from rest at
that height.
During the upward part of this motion, the object slows from its
initial upward velocity to zero velocity. We know the object is accel-
erating because its velocity is changing. How much does its speed
decrease each second? It should come as no surprise that the speed
decreases at the same rate it increases when moving downward—at
u=40'%
10 meters per second each second. So as Figure 2.6 shows, the

Figure 2.6 A
The change in speed each @ Answer
second is the same whether
the ball is going upward or The speedometer readings would be 45 m/s, 80 m/s, and 150 m/s, respectively. You can
downward. reason this from Table 2.2 or use the equation v = gt, where g is replaced by 10 m/s2.

* This relationship follows from the definition of acceleration when the acceleration is g
and the initial speed is zero. If the object is initially moving downward at speed v, , the
speed vafter any elapsed time tis v= v, + gt. This book will not focus on such added
complications. You can learn a lot from even the simplest cases!

18 Chapter 2 Linear Motion

instantaneous speed at points of equal elevation in the path is the
same whether the object is moving upward or downward. The
velocities are different of course, because they are in opposite direc-
tions. During each second, the speed or the velocity changes by
10 m/s. The acceleration is 10 m/s? the entire time, whether the
object is moving upward or downward.

How fast something moves is entirely different from how far it

moves—speed and distance are not the same thing. To understand the
difference, return to Table 2.2. At the end of the first second, the falling
object has an instantaneous speed of 10 m/s. Does this mean it falls a
distance of 10 meters during this first second? No. Here’s where the
difference between instantaneous speed and average speed comes in.
If the object falls 10 meters the first second, its average speed is 10 m/s.
But we know the speed began at zero and took a full second to get to
10 m/s. So the average speed is between zero and 10 m/s. For any
object moving in a straight line with constant acceleration, we find
the average speed the way we find the average of any two numbers:
add them and divide by 2. So adding the initial speed of zero and the
final speed of 10 m/s and then dividing by 2, we get 5 m/s. During the
first second, the object has an average speed of 5 m/s. So it falls a dis-
tance of 5 meters. To check your understanding of this, carefully con-
sider the following question before going further.

During the span of the second time interval in Table 2.2, the object ?
begins at 10 m/s and ends at 20 m/s. What is the average speed of —
the object during this 1-second interval? What is its acceleration?

Table 2.3 shows the total distance moved by a freely falling

object dropped from rest. At the end of one second, it has fallen
5 meters. At the end of 2 seconds, it has dropped a total distance
of 20 meters. At the end of 3 seconds, it has dropped 45 meters
altogether. These distances form a mathematical pattern: at the

ee >a er Bev1s Hen te A et eee

H Answer
1 Explore
The average speed will be
2 Concept-Development
beginning speed + final speed _ 10 m/s + 20 m/s _ 30 m/s _ ae Practice Book 2-2
2 2 2
3 Problem-Solving Vo
The acceleration will be Exercises in IN
change in speed _ 20 m/s- 10 m/s _ 10 m/s _ 10 mis? Physics 1-2
time interval 1s Ss
 Table 2.3
Free Fall Distances of an Object Dropped from Rest

end of time ¢, the object has fallen a distance d of }gt?.* Try using
g= 10 m/s? to calculate the distance fallen for some of the times
Figure 2.7 A shown in Table 2.3.
Pretend that a falling rock is
somehow equipped with an
odometer. The readings of dis- 4
tance fallen increase with time @ Question
Sano table 2.3. An apple drops from a tree and hits the ground in one second.
What is its speed upon striking the ground? What is its average
speed during the one second? How high above ground was the
apple when it first dropped?

@ Answer
Using 10 m/s? for g we find
speed v= gt= (10 m/s?)(1s) = 10 m/s

average speed V =
beginning v + final v _ 9 m/s+10 m/s =5 m/s
2 2
(The bar over the symbol v denotes average speed V.)
distance d = average speed x time interval = (5 m/s)(1s) = 5 m or equivalently,
distance d = zoe - tro m/s2)(1 s)2=5 m

Notice that the distance can be found by either of these equivalent relationships.

* distance = average speed x time interval

= begispeed
nn+infinal g
speed .

20 Chapter 2 Linear Motion

 PHYSICS

Reaction Time re
Try this with your friends. Hold a dollar bill so that the midpoint
hangs between a friend's fingers. Challenge your friend to catch it
by snapping his or her fingers shut when you release it. The bill
won't be caught!
Explanation: It takes at
least 1/7 second for nerve
impulses to travel from
the eye to the brain to the
fingers. But, according to
the equation d = (1/2)gt?,
in only 1/8 second the
bill falls 8 centimeters—
half the length of the bill.

We used freely falling objects to describe the relationship

between distance traveled, acceleration, and velocity acquired. In
our examples, we used the acceleration of gravity, g= 10 m/s2. But
accelerating objects need not be freely falling objects. A car acceler-
ates when we step on the gas or the brake pedal. Whenever an
object’s initial speed is zero and the acceleration ais constant, that
is, steady and “nonjerky,” the equations* for the velocity and dis-
tance traveled are
v=at and d=—at?

I ie oer a SEE SE ca
2.7 Graphs of Motion
Equations and tables are not the only way to describe relationships
such as velocity and acceleration. Another way is to use graphs that
visually describe relationships. Since you'll develop basic graphing
skills in the laboratory, we won't make a big deal of graphs. Here we'll
simply show the graphs for Tables 2.2 and 2.3.
Figure 2.9 is a graph of the speed-versus-time data in Table 2.2.
Note that speed vis plotted on the vertical axis and time tis plotted
on the horizontal axis. In this case, the “curve” that best fits the points
forms a straight line. The straightness of the curve indicates a “linear” 1 Explore |2 Develop

2 Laboratory Manual 5, 6
2 Probeware Lab E]
* If the object has an initial speed v,, some thought will show that the equations for Manual 2
velocity and distance traveled become v= v, + atand d= v,t+jat?.
 Some people, such as basketball players and
ballet dancers, are gifted with great jumping
ability. Leaping straight up, they seem to
hang in the air in defiance of gravity. Ask
your friends to estimate the “hang time” of
the great jumpers—the amount of time a
jumper is airborne (feet off the ground). One
or two seconds? Several seconds? Nope.
Surprisingly, the hang time of the greatest
jumpers is almost always less than 1 sec-
ond! Our perception of a longer hang time is
one of many illusions we have about nature.
A Figure 2.8 How high can you jump?
Jumping ability is best measured by a
standing vertical jump. Stand facing a wall,
and with feet flat on the floor and arms lf we know the vertical height, we can
extended upward, make a mark on the wall rearrange this expression to read
at the top of your reach. Then make your 2d
jump, and at the peak, make another mark. t= _|—
The distance between these two marks mea-
Vg
Basketball player Spud Webb's record jump-
sures your vertical leap. If it's more than 2
ing height is 1.25 meters (4 feet). Setting a*
feet (0.6 meters), you're exceptional.
equal to 1.25 m, and using the more precise
Here’s the physics. When you leap 9.8 m/s? for g, we find that ¢, half the hang
upward, jumping force is applied only as time, is Se ete
long as your feet are still in contact with the
r= (2d _ |201.25 m) =0.51s
ground. The greater the force, the greater
Vg Y 98 m/s?
your launch speed and the higher the jump
Doubling this, we see Spud’s record hang
is. It is important to note that as soon as
your feet leave the ground, whatever upward time is slightly greater than 1 second!
speed you attain immediately decreases at We've only been talking about vertical
the steady rate of g, 10 m/s?. Maximum motion. How about running jumps? We'll
height is attained when your upward speed learn in Chapter 3 that hang time depends
decreases to zero. You then begin falling, only on the jumper's vertical speed at launch;
gaining speed at exactly the same rate, g. lf it does not depend on horizontal speed. While
you land as you took off, upright with legs airborne, the jumper's horizontal speed
extended, then time rising equals time remains constant but the vertical speed
falling. Hang time is the sum of rising and undergoes acceleration. Interesting physics!
falling times. While airborne, no amount of
leg or arm pumping or other bodily motions
will change your hang time.
. a eee
The value of 1.25 m for d represents the maximum height
The relationship between rising or falling of- the beeper
jumper's
> Sor
center of5 gravity.
2
The h
Tt
t
time and vertical height is given by ee"
nter
LS Of gravity iS what's imp
4.
d = 99 —gt*

22 Chapter 2 Linear Motion

 Speed vs, Time for a Freely Falling Object <4 Figure 2.9
A speed-versus-time graph of the
data from Table 2.2,

0 1 2 3 4
Time (s)

relationship between speed and time, Vor every increase of | 5,

there is the same 10 m/s increase in speed, Mathematicians call this
linearity, and the graph shows why—the curve is a straight line, Since
the object is dropped from rest, the line starts at the origin, where both
vand tare zero, If we double t, we double v; if we triple ¢, we triple v;
and 80 on, This particular linearity is called a direct proportion,
The curve is a straight line, so its slope is constant—like a flight
of stairs, Slope is the vertical change divided by the horizontal
change for any part of the line, On this graph the slope measures
speed per time, or acceleration, Note that for each 10 m/s of vertical
change there is a corresponding horizontal change of | 6. We see the
slope is 10 m/s divided by 1 , or 10 m/s*, The straight line shows the
acceleration is constant. If the acceleration were greater, the slope of
the graph would be steeper, For more information about slope, see
Appendix C,
Figure 2.10 is a graph of the distance-versus-time data in Table 2.3.
Distance d is plotted on the vertical axis, and time tis on the horizontal
axis. The result is a curved line. The curve shows that the relationship
between distance traveled and time is not linear. The relationship
shown here is parabolic—when we double t, we do not double d; we
quadruple it. Distance depends on time squared!
A curved line also has a slope. If you look at the graph in Figure
2.10 you can see that the curve has a certain slant or “steepness” at

Distance vs. Time for a Freely Falling Object <4 Figure 2.10
A distance-versus-time graph of
the data from Table 2.3.

(m)
Distance
 every point. This slope changes from one point to the next. The
slope of the curve on a distance-versus-time graph is very signifi-
cant. It is speed, the rate at which distance is covered per unit of
time. In this graph the slope steepens (becomes greater) as time
passes. This shows:that speed increases as time passes. In fact, if the
slope could be measured accurately, you would find it increases by
10 meters per second each second.

Ine S500
2.8 Air Resistance and Falling Objects
Drop a feather and a coin and we notice the coin reaches the floor
far ahead of the feather. Air resistance is responsible for these differ-
ent accelerations. This fact can be shown quite nicely with a closed
glass tube connected to a vacuum pump. The feather and coin are
placed inside. When the tube is inverted with air inside, the coin falls
much more rapidly than the feather. The feather flutters through the
air. But if the air is removed with a vacuum pump and the tube is
quickly inverted, the feather and coin fall side by side with the same
acceleration, g, as shown in Figure 2.11.
Air resistance noticeably alters the motion of things like falling
feathers or pieces of paper. But air resistance less noticeably affects
the motion of more compact objects like stones and baseballs. In
many cases the effect of air resistance is small enough to be neglected.
With negligible air resistance, falling objects can be corisidered to be
falling freely. Air resistance will be covered in more detail in Chapter 5.

Figure 2.11
A feather and a coin accelerate
equally when there is no air
around them. 2.9 How Fast, How Far, How Quickly
How Fast Changes
Much of the confusion that occurs in analyzing the motion of falling
objects comes about from mixing up “how fast” with “how far.”
When we wish to specify how fast something freely falls from rest
after a certain elapsed time, we are talking about speed or velocity.
The appropriate equation is v= gt. When we wish to specify how far
that object has fallen, we are talking about distance. The appropriate
equation is d= gt*. Velocity or speed (how fast) and distance (how
far) are entirely different from each other.
One of the most confusing concepts encountered in this book is
acceleration, or “how quickly does speed or velocity change.” What
makes acceleration so complex is that it is a rate of a rate. It is often
confused with velocity, which is itself a rate (the rate at which dis-
tance is covered). Acceleration is not velocity, nor is it even a change
in velocity; acceleration is the rate at which velocity itself changes.
Please be patient with yourself if you find that you require a few
hours to achieve a clear understanding of motion. It took people nearly
2000 years from the time of Aristotle to Galileo to achieve as much! _

Chapter 2 Linear Motion

 Chapter Assessment

(Go0 @n
nline For: Study and Review
Visit: PHSchool.com
Review Questions Check Concepts
chool.com Wat Code: csd-1020 1. What do we mean when we say that motion is
relative? What is everyday motion usually rel-
ative to? (2.1)
2. Speed is the rate at which what happens? (2.2)
Concept Summary
3. You walk across the room at 2 kilometers per
Motion is described relative to something. hour. Express this speed using abbreviated
units. (2.2)
Speed is a measure of how fast something is
moving. . What is the difference between instantaneous
speed and average speed? (2.2)
m Speed is the rate at which distance is covered,
and it is measured in units of distance divided - Does the speedometer of a car read instanta-
by time. neous speed or average speed? (2.2)
Instantaneous speed is the speed at any instant. . What is the difference between speed and
velocity? (2.3)
Average speed is the total distance covered
divided by the time interval. . If the speedometer of a car reads a constant
speed of 40 km/h, can you say that the car
Velocity is speed together with direction.
has a constant velocity? Why or why not? (2.3)
m Velocity is constant only when speed and
. What two controls on a car cause a change in
direction are both constant.
speed? What control causes only a change in
Acceleration is the rate at which velocity is velocity? (2.3)
changing with respect to time.
. What quantity describes how quickly you
m An object accelerates when its speed is change how fast you're traveling, or how
increasing, when its speed is decreasing, quickly you change your direction? (2.4)
and/or when its direction is changing.
10. Acceleration is the rate at which what
= Acceleration is measured in units of speed happens? (2.4)
divided by time. 1 —_. What is the acceleration of a car that travels
An object in free fall is falling under the influence in a straight line at a constant speed of
of gravity alone when air resistance does not 100 km/h? (2.4)
affect its motion. 12. What is the acceleration of a car moving
m= An object in free fall has a constant accelera- along a straight-line path that increases its
tion of about 10 m/s?. speed from zero to 100 km/h in 10 s? (2.4)
13. By how much does the speed of a vehicle
(SNE Ss SE SE ES AS
moving in a straight line change each
second when it is accelerating at 2 km/h-s?
Key Terms At 4 km/h-s? At 10 km/h-s? (2.4)
acceleration (2.4) rate (2.0)
14. Why does the unit of time enter twice in the
average speed (2.2) relative (2.1)
unit of acceleration? (2.4)
elapsed time (2.5) speed (2.2)
free fall (2.5) velocity (2.3) 15. What is the meaning of free fall? (2.5)
instantaneous speed (2.2)
16. For a freely falling object dropped from rest, 30. Calculate the speed (in m/s) of a skateboarder
what is the instantaneous speed at the end of who accelerates from rest for 3 seconds down a
the fifth second of fall? The sixth second? (2.5) ramp at an acceleration of 5 m/s?.
17. For a freely falling object dropped from rest, - 31. Calculate the instantaneous speed of an
what is the acceleration at the end of the fifth apple that falls freely from a rest position and
second of fall? The sixth second? At the end of accelerates at 10 m/s? for 1.5 seconds.
any elapsed time f? (2.5)
32. An object is dropped from rest and falls freely.
18. Toss a ball upward. What is the change in After 6 seconds, calculate its instantaneous
speed each second on the way up? On the way speed, average speed, and distance fallen.
down? (2.5)
33. Calculate the instantaneous speed and dis-
19. How far will a freely falling object fall from tance fallen for an object that falls freely from
rest in five seconds? Six seconds? (2.6) rest for 8 seconds.
20. How far will an object move in one second if
its average speed is 5 m/s? (2.6)
21. How far will a freely falling object have fallen Think and Explain Think Critically
from a position of rest when its instantaneous
34. Why is it that an object can accelerate while
speed is 10 m/s? (2.6)
traveling at constant speed, but not at con-
22. What does the slope of the curve on a dis- stant velocity?
tance-versus-time graph represent? (2.7)
35. Light travels in a straight line at a constant
23. What does the slope of the curve ona speed of 300 000 km/s. What is the light’s
velocity-versus-time graph represent? (2.7) acceleration?
24. Does air resistance increase or decrease the 36. Which has more acceleration when moving in
acceleration of a falling object? (2.8) a straight line—a car increasing its speed
from 50 to 60 km/h, or a bicycle that goes
25. What is the appropriate equation for how fast
from zero to 10 km/h in the same time?
an object freely falls from a position of rest?
Defend your answer.
For how far that object falls? (2.9)
37. a. Ifa freely falling rock were equipped with a
speedometer, by how much would its speed
readings increase with each second of fall?
Plug and Chug Use Equations
b. Suppose the freely falling rock were
26. Calculate the average speed (in m/s) of a dropped near the surface of a planet where
cheetah that runs 140 meters in 5 seconds. g= 20 m/s*. By how much would its speed
27. a. Calculate the average speed (in km/h) of readings change each second?
Charlie, who runs to the store 4 kilometers 38. Ifa freely falling rock were equipped with an
away in 30 minutes. odometer, would the readings for distance
b. Calculate the distance (in km) that Charlie fallen each second stay the same, increase
runs if he maintains this average speed for with time, or decrease with time?
1 hour. 39. a. When a ball is thrown straight up, by how
28. Calculate the acceleration of a car (in km/h:s) much does the speed decrease each second?
that can go from rest to 100 km/h in 10 s. Neglect air resistance.
29. Calculate the instantaneous speed (in m/s) at b. After the ball reaches the top and begins its
the 10-second mark for a car that accelerates return back down, by how much does its
at 2 m/s? from a position of rest. speed increase each second?
c. Compare the times going up and
coming down.

26 Chapter 2 Linear Motion

40. Table 2.2 shows that the instantaneous speed 49. Calculate the hang time of an athlete who
of an object dropped from rest is 10 m/s after jumps a vertical distance of 0.75 meter.
1 second of fall. Table 2.3 shows that the
50. If a salmon swims straight upward in the
object has fallen only 5 meters during this
water fast enough to break through the sur-
time. Your friend says this is incorrect,
face at a speed of 5 meters per second, how
because distance traveled equals speed times
high can it jump above water?
time, so the object should fall 10 meters.
What do you say?
41. A ball is thrown straight up. What will be the
instantaneous velocity at the top of its path? Activities Performance Assessment
What will be its acceleration at the top? Why Sl. By any method you choose, determine
are your answers different? your average speed of walking. How do
your results compare with those of your
classmates?
Think and Solve 52. You can compare your reaction time with that
Develop Problem-Solving Skills of a friend by catching a ruler that is dropped
between your fingers. Let your friend hold the
42. If humans originated in Africa and migrated to
ruler as shown in the figure.
other parts of the world, some time would be
required for this to occur. At the modest rate
of a mere one kilometer per year, how many
centuries would it take for humans originating
in Africa to migrate to China, some
10 000 kilometers away?
43. A dragster going at 15 m/s north increases its
velocity to 25 m/s north in 4 seconds. What is
its acceleration during this time interval?
44. A car going at 30 m/s undergoes an accelera-
tion of 2 m/s? for 4 seconds. What is its final
Snap your fingers shut as soon as you see the
speed? How far did it travel while it was accel-
ruler released. On what does the number of
erating? centimeters that pass through your fingers
45. We drive for 1 hour at 20 km/h. Then we drive depend? You can find your reaction time in
for 1 hour at 30 km/h. What is our average seconds
by solving d= 5gt*; for time,
speed? t= V2d/g. If you express din meters (likely a
fraction of a meter), then f= 0.45Vd; if you
46. We drive a distance of 1 kilometer at 20 km/h.
express din centimeters, then t= 0.045V d.
Then we drive an additional distance of 1 kilo-
Compare your reaction time with those of
meter at 30 km/h. What is our average speed? your classmates.
47. If you throw a ball straight upward at a speed 53. Calculate your personal “hang time,” the time
of 10 m/s, how long will it take to reach zero your feet are off the ground during a vertical
speed? How long will it take to return to its jump.
starting point? How fast will it be going when
it returns to its starting point?
48. a. Find the speed required to throw a ball
straight up and have it return 6 seconds later.
Neglect air resistance.
lem-Solving Practice
a} es

b. How high does the ball go?

27
 Projectile
Motion

n the previous chapter we studied simple

straight-line motion—linear motion. We dis-
tinguished between motion with constant
Once airborne, the path of a velocity, such as a bowling ball rolling horizontally, and accelerated
projectile is determined only motion, such as an object falling vertically under the influence of
by initial velocity, gravity, and gravity. Now we extend these ideas to nonlinear motion—motion
air resistance. along a curved path. Throw a baseball and the path it follows is a
curve. This curve is a combination of constant-velocity horizontal
motion and accelerated vertical motion. We'll see that the velocity of
a thrown ball at any instant has two independent “components” of
motion—what happens horizontally is not affected by what happens
vertically. To understand this idea we must first learn about vectors.
We will learn that vectors are used to represent quantities that have
both magnitude (how much) and direction (which way).

UNE 200020
3.1 Vector and Scalar Quantities
It is often said that a picture is worth a thousand words. Sometimes a
picture explains a physics concept better than an equation does.
Physicists love sketching doodles and equations to explain ideas.
Their doodles often include arrows, where each arrow represents the
magnitude and the direction of a certain quantity. The quantity
might be the electric current in a power line, the orbital velocity of a
communication satellite, or the enormous force lifting the space
shuttle off the ground.
A quantity that requires both magnitude and direction for a com-
plete description is a vector quantity. Recall from the previous chap-
ter that velocity differs from speed in that velocity includes direction
in its description. Velocity is a vector quantity, as is acceleration. In

28 Chapter 3 Projectile Motion

later chapters we'll see that other quantities, such as force, are also
vector quantities. For now we'll focus on the vector nature of velocity.
Many quantities in physics, such as mass, volume, and time, are
completely specified by their magnitude only—they do not have
direction. A quantity that is completely described by magnitude only
is a scalar quantity. Scalars can be added, subtracted, multiplied,
and divided like ordinary numbers. When 3 kg of sand is added to
1 kg of cement, the resulting mixture has a mass of 4 kg. When
5 liters of water are poured from a pail that has 8 liters of water in it,
the resulting volume is 3 liters. If a scheduled 60-minute trip has a
15-minute delay, the trip takes 75 minutes. In each of these cases,
no direction is involved. We see that descriptions such as 10 kilo-
grams north, 5 liters east, or 15 minutes south have no meaning.

TE <0
3.2 Velocity Vectors a

An arrow is used to represent the magnitude and direction of a vector Figure 3.1 A
quantity. The length of the arrow, drawn to scale, indicates the magni- This vector, scaled so that 1 cm =
tude of the vector quantity. The direction of the arrow indicates the 20 km/h, represents 60 km/h to
direction of the vector quantity. Rules for combining arrows on a the right.
piece of paper are the same as the rules for combining vector quanti-
ties in nature. We call the arrow a vector. The vector in Figure 3.1 is
scaled so that 1 centimeter represents 20 kilometers per hour. It is
3 centimeters long and points to the right; therefore it represents a
velocity of 60 kilometers per hour to the right, or 60 km/h east. 120 KY,
A velocity is sometimes the result of combining two or more
other velocities. For example, an airplane's velocity is a combination ZO
of the velocity of the airplane relative to the air and the velocity of
the air relative to the ground, or the wind velocity. Consider a small
airplane slowly flying north at 100 km/h relative to the surrounding 100 Ky,
air. Suppose there is a tailwind blowing north at a velocity of look
20 km/h. This example is represented with vectors in Figure 3.2. Here
the velocity vectors are scaled so that 1 cm represents 20 km/h. ee BO *%,
Thus, the 100-km/h velocity of the airplane is shown by the 5-cm vec-
tor, and the 20-km/h tailwind is shown by the 1-cm vector. With or
without vectors we can see that the resulting velocity is going to be Is sdf
120 km/h. Without the tailwind, the airplane travels 100 kilometers
in one hour relative to the ground below. With the tailwind, it travels
120 kilometers in one hour relative to the ground below. 2050,
Now suppose the airplane makes a U-turn and flies into the
wind rather than with the wind. The velocity vectors are now in WITH THE AGAINST
opposite directions. The resulting speed of the airplane is 100 km/h WIND THE WIND
— 20 km/h = 80 km/h. Flying against a 20-km/h wind, the airplane
travels only 80 kilometers in one hour relative to the ground. Figure 3.2 A
The airplane’s velocity relative to
We didn’t have to use vectors to answer questions about tail-
the ground depends on the air-
winds and headwinds, but we'll now see that vectors are useful for plane’s velocity relative to the air
combining velocities that are not parallel. and on the wind’s velocity.
 1 Explore
BH Question
3 Problem-Solving Suppose that an airplane normally flying at 80 km/h encounters
Exercises in A
wind at a right angle to its forward motion—a crosswind. Will the
Physics 2-7
airplane fly faster or slower than 80 km/h?

Consider an 80-km/h airplane flying north caught in a strong

crosswind of 60 km/h blowing from west to east. Figure 3.3 shows
vectors for the airplane velocity and wind velocity. The scale is 1 cm =
20 km/h. The result of adding these two vectors, called the resultant,
is the diagonal of the rectangle described by the two vectors.

Figure 3.3 >

An 80-km/h airplane flying in a
60-km/h crosswind has a resul-
tant speed of 100 km/h relative to
the ground.
RESULTANT
|

(SCALE : |em=20*%) EQN,

|

The resultant of two perpendicular vectors is the diagonal of a

rectangle constructed with the two vectors as sides.
The diagonal of the constructed rectangle measures 5 cm, which
represents 100 km/h. So relative to the ground, the airplane moves
100 km/h northeasterly.*
A simple three-step technique is used to find the resultant of a
pair of vectors that are at right angles to each other. First, draw the

= Answer

A crosswind would increase the speed of the airplane and blow it off course by a pre-
_ determine the proper dictable amount.
speed and direction of
an aircraft by taking into
* Whenever a pair of vectors are at right angles (90°), their resultant can be found by the
account the velocity of
Pythagorean Theorem, a well-known tool of geometry. It states that the square of the
the wind, path of the air- hypotenuse of a right-angle triangle is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two
craft, and local air traffic. sides. Note that two right triangles are present in the rectangle in Figure 3.3. From
They use radar equip-
either one of these triangles we get
ment as well as their
view from the control resultant? = (60 km/h)? + (80 km/h)2
tower to follow the
= 3600 (km/h)? + 6400 (km/h)2
motion of all aircraft fly-
ing near the airport. = 10 000 (km/h)2

The square root of 10 000 (km/h)? is 100 km/h, as expected.

30 Chapter 3 Projectile Motion

B ohh) Pa ee i

Maries
377
4

two vectors with their tails touching as shown in Figure 3.4. Second, Figure 3.4 A
draw a parallel projection of each vector with dashed lines to form a The 3-unit and 4-unit vectors add
rectangle. Third, draw the diagonal from the point where the two to produce a resultant vector of
tails are touching. 5 units, at 37.5° from the
horizontal.
For the more general case when the vectors are not at right angles
to each other, the resultant is found by constructing a parallelogram.
A parallelogram is a four-sided figure with opposite sides that are
parallel and of equal length. The parallelogram is constructed with
the two vectors as sides. The resultant of the parallelogram is its
diagonal. A rectangle is a special case of a parallelogram—one in
which all the angles are right angles. We'll concern ourselves only
with rectangles in this chapter and leave parallelograms for Chapter 4.
Another special case of the parallelogram is a square. To add two
vectors that are equal in magnitude and at right angles to each other,
we construct a square. For any square, the length of its diagonal is Figure 3.5 A
V/2, or 1.414, times either of the sides. Thus, the resultant is V2 times The diagonal of a square is V2,
either of the vectors. For instance, the resultant of two equal vectors or 1.414, times the length of one
of magnitude 100 acting at right angles to each other is 141.4.* of its sides.

SURINNLISSS LT
3.3 Components of Vectors VELOCITY

Often we will need to change a single vector into an equivalent set of VERTICAL
two component vectors at right angles to each other. Any vector can COMPONENT”
be “resolved” into two component vectors at right angles to each OF VELOCITY
other. These two vectors are known as the components of the given
vector they replace. The process of determining the components of a
vector is called resolution. Any vector drawn on a piece of paper can
be resolved into vertical and horizontal components.
“ HORIZONTAL
COMPONENT OF
VELOCITY
———————————————

* An important property of vectors is that they can be moved around as long as their
length and direction are not changed. Vectors can be rearranged into a chain, tail-to- Figure 3.6 A
The horizontal and vertical com-
head in any order. A vector drawn from the tail of the first vector to the head of the
last vector represents the resultant of the entire chain of vectors.
ponents of a ball’s velocity.

31
 Surfing
Surfing nicely illustrates component and ‘parallel to the wave
resultant vectors. (1) When surfing in the front, v,, as well as
same direction as the wave, our velocity is the perpendicular
the same as the wave’'s velocity,v,. This component v,. We
velocity is calledv, because we an moving can vary Vj, bute’Vv,
perpendicular to the wave front. (2) To go stays relatively con-
faster, we surf at an angle to the wave front. stant as long as we
Now we have a component of velocity ride the wave.
Adding compo-
nents, we see
that when surf-
ing at an angle
to the wave front our resultant velocity,
v,, exceedsv,. (3) As we increase our
ge relative to the wave front, the
resultant velocity also increases.

Vector resolution is illustrated in Figure 3.7. Vector Vrepresents a

vector quantity. First, vertical and horizontal lines are drawn from
the tail of the vector (top). Second, a rectangle is drawn that encloses
the vector Vas its diagonal (bottom). The sides of this rectangle are
the desired components, vectors X and Y.

- . ;
7 + * = »

@ Exercise
&

With a ruler, draw the horizontal and vertical components of the

two vectors shown. Measure the components and compare your
_ findings with the answers given at the bottom of the page.

Figure 3.7 A
Construction of the vertical and
horizontal components of a vector.

@ Answer

Left vector: the horizontal component is 3 cm; the vertical component is 4 cm. Right vector:
the horizontal component is 6 cm; the vertical component is 4 cm.

32 Chapter 3 Projectile Motion

(SNL UIE SORES TO SS 1 Explore

3.4 Projectile Motion 2 Concept-Development

Practice Book 3-7
A cannonball shot from a cannon, a stone thrown into the air, a ball 3 Laboratory Manual 7
rolling off the edge of a table, a spacecraft circling Earth—all of these 3 Probeware Lab
are examples of projectiles. Projectiles near the surface of Earth fol- Manual 3
low a curved path that at first seems rather complicated. However,
these paths are surprisingly simple when we look at the horizontal
and vertical components of motion separately.
The horizontal component of motion for a projectile is just like
the horizontal motion of a ball rolling freely along a level surface.
When friction is negligible, a rolling ball moves at constant velocity.
The ball covers equal distances in equal intervals of time as shown
in Figure 3.8 (top). With no horizontal force acting on the ball there is
no horizontal acceleration. The same is true for the projectile—when
no horizontal force acts on the projectile, the horizontal velocity
remains constant.

Figure 3.8 (Top) A

Roll a ball along a horizontal surface, and its velocity is constant because no
component of gravitational force acts horizontally. (Right) BP» Drop it, and it
accelerates downward and covers a greater vertical distance each second.

The vertical component of a projectile’s velocity is like the

motion described in Chapter 2 for a freely falling object. In the verti-
cal direction, there is a force due to gravity. Like a ball dropped in
midair, a projectile accelerates downward as shown on the right in
Figure 3.8. Its vertical component of velocity changes with time. The
increasing speed in the vertical direction causes a greater distance to
be covered in each successive equal time interval.
Most important, the horizontal component of motion for a projec-
tile is completely independent of the vertical component of motion.
Each component is independent of the other. Their combined effects
produce the variety of curved paths that projectiles follow.
The multiple-flash exposure in Figure 3.9 shows equally timed
successive positions for two balls. One ball is projected horizontally
while the other is simply dropped. Study the photo carefully, for
there’s a lot of good physics here. Analyze the curved path of the ball
by considering the horizontal and vertical velocity components sep-
arately. There are two important things to notice. The first is that the
ball’s horizontal component of motion remains constant. The ball
moves the same horizontal distance in the equal time intervals
between each flash, because no horizontal component of force is
acting on it. Gravity acts only downward, so the only acceleration of

33
Figure 3.9 >
A strobe-light photo of two balls
released simultaneously from a
mechanism that allows one ball
to drop freely while the other is
projected horizontally. Notice that
in equal times both balls fall the
same vertical distance.
* a

the ball is downward. The second thing to note is that both balls fall
the same vertical distance in the same time. The vertical distance
fallen has nothing to do with the horizontal component of motion.
The downward motion of the horizontally projected ball is the same
as that of free fall.
The path traced by a projectile accelerating only in the vertical
direction while moving at constant horizontal velocity is a parabola.
When air resistance is small enough to neglect—usually for slow-
moving or very heavy projectiles—the curved paths are parabolic.

@ Question |
At the instant a horizontally pointed cannon is fired, a cannonball
held at the cannon’s side is released and drops to the ground.
Which cannonball strikes the ground first, the one fired from the
cannon or the one dropped?

@ Answer

Both cannonballs fall the same vertical distance with the same acceleration g and therefore
strike the ground at the same time. Do you see that this is consistent with our analysis of
Figure 3.9? Ask which cannonball strikes the ground first when the cannon is pointed at an
upward angle. In this case, the cannonball that is simply dropped hits the ground first. Now
consider the case when the cannon is pointed downward. The fired cannonball hits first. So
upward, the dropped cannonball hits first; downward, the fired cannonball hits first. There
must be some angle where both hit at the same time. Do you see it would be when the
cannon is pointing neither upward nor downward, that is, when it is pointing horizontally?

34 Chapter 3 Projectile Motion

 PHYSICS

| Projectiles and Free Fall

| Place a coin at the edge of a smooth table so that it hangs over
| slightly. Then place a second coin on the tabletop some distance
from the overhanging coin. Slide
the second coin across the table
(such as by flicking it with your
finger) so that it strikes the over-
hanging coin and both coins fall
to the floor below. See for yourself
which coin, if either, hits the floor
first. Does your answer depend
on the speed of the sliding coin?

1 Explore

3.5 Upwardly Launched Projectiles 2 Concept-Development

Practice Book 3-2
Consider a cannonball shot at an upward angle. Because of gravity,
the cannonball follows a curved path and finally hits the ground.
Pretend for a moment that there is no gravity and the cannonball
follows the straight-line path shown by the dashed line in Figure 3.10.
What really happens is quite fascinating. Get this: The cannonball
continually falls beneath this imaginary line until it hits the ground.
The vertical distance it falls beneath any point on the dashed line is
the same vertical distance it would fall if it were dropped from rest
and had been falling for the same amount of time. This dis-
tance, introduced in Chapter 2, is given by d= jgt?, where t y
is the elapsed time. Using the value of 10 m/s? for gin Ks ‘
the equation yields d= 5t* meters. Pins
We can put this another way. Toss a projec- 5
tile skyward at some angle and pretend is
there is no gravity. After so many sec- -
onds £, it should be at a certain ,
point along a straight-line path. ie 45m
But due to gravity, it isn’t. -
Where is it? The answer 7 20m 4 Figure 3.10
is, it’s directly below rp With no gravity the projectile
that point. How th would follow the straight-line
far below? path (dashed line). But because
of gravity it falls beneath this
line the same vertical distance it
would fall if it were released
from rest. Compare the distances
ie — fallen with those in
3s Table 2.3.
35
Figure 3.11
The velocity of a projectile is
shown at various points along its
path. Notice that the vertical
component changes while the
horizontal component does not.

The answer is 5t? meters below that point. How about that? The ver-
tical distance the cannonball falls below the imaginary straight-line
path increases continually with time and is equal to 5¢? meters.
Note also from Figure 3.10 that since there is no horizontal accel-
eration, the cannonball moves equal horizontal distances in equal
time intervals. That’s because there is no horizontal acceleration. The
only acceleration is vertical, in the direction of Earth’s gravity.
Figure 3.11 shows vectors representing both the horizontal and
vertical components of velocity for a projectile on a parabolic path.
Notice that the horizontal component is always the same and that
only the vertical component changes. Note also that the actual resul-
tant velocity vector is represented by the diagonal of the rectangle
formed by the vector components. At the top of the path the vertical
component shrinks to zero, so the velocity there is the same as the
horizontal component of velocity at all other points. Everywhere else
the magnitude of velocity is greater, just as the diagonal of a rectan-
gle is greater than either of its sides.
Figure 3.12 A Figure 3.12 shows the path traced by a projectile with the same
The path for a projectile fired at a launching speed but at a steeper angle. Notice that the initial veloc-
steep angle. ity vector has a greater vertical component than when the projection
angle is less. This greater component results in a higher path.
However, since the horizontal component is less, the range is less.
Figure 3.13 shows the paths of several projectiles all having the
same initial speed but different projection angles. The figure neglects
the effects of air resistance, so the paths are all parabolas. Notice that
these projectiles reach different heights above the ground. They also
travel different horizontal distances, that is, they have different
horizontal ranges.

Figure 3.13 >

The paths of projectiles launched
at the same speed but at differ-
ent angles. The paths neglect air
resistance.

36 Chapter 3 Projectile Motion

 The remarkable thing to note from Figure 3.13 is that the same
range is obtained for two different projection angles—angles that
add up to 90 degrees! For example, an object thrown into the air at
an angle of 60 degrees will have the same range as if it were thrown
at 30 degrees with the same speed. Of course, for the smaller angle
the object remains in the air for a shorter time.
We have emphasized the special case of projectile motion for
negligible air resistance. As we can see in Figure 3.15, when the
effect of air resistance is significant, the range of a projectile is
diminished and the path is not a true parabola.

oer F-=
- =
ge _

Figure 3.14 A
Maximum range is attained when
the ball is batted at an angle of
nearly 45°. For a thrown javelin,
on the other hand, maximum
range is achieved for an angle
quite a bit less than 45°, because
the force of gravity on the rela-
Figure 3.15 A tively heavy javelin is significant
In the presence of air resistance, the path of a high-speed projectile falls during launch. Just as you can’t
below the idealized parabola and follows the solid curve. throw a heavy rock as fast
upward as sideways, so it is that
the javelin’s launch speed is

@ Questions reduced when thrown upward.

1. A projectile is launched at an angle into the air. Neglecting air resis-

tance, what is its vertical acceleration? Its horizontal acceleration?
2. At what point in its path does a projectile have minimum
me, mM

10 m/s 10 Vs
speed? , a \
a \

30 m/s 30 Ys
If air resistance is negligible, a projectile will rise to its maximum
height in the same time it takes to fall from that height to the
ground. This is due to the constant effect of gravity. The deceleration
due to gravity going up is the same as the acceleration due to gravity

@ Answers

1. Its vertical acceleration is g because the force of gravity is downward. Its horizontal
Figure 3.16 A
acceleration is zero because no horizontal force acts on it.
Without air resistance, the speed
2. The minimum speed of a projectile occurs at the top of its path. If it is launched verti- lost while the cannonball is
cally, its speed at the top is zero. If it is projected at an angle, the vertical component of going up equals the speed
velocity is still zero at the top, leaving only the horizontal component. So the speed at gained while it is coming down.
the top is equal to the horizontal component of the projectile’s velocity at any point. The time to go up equals the
How about that? time to come down.

37
 _ jumper is gravity. Hang
“hang. time in Chapter 8 We time depends only on the ~
_ stated that the time one is vertical component of liftoff.
airborne during a jump is velocity. It turns out that
_independent of horizontal jumping force can be some-
speed. Now we see why what increased by the
this is so—horizontal and action of running, so hang
vertical components of time for a running jump
motion are independent of usually exceeds that for a
each other. The rules of standing jump. However,
projectile motion apply to once the feet are off the
jumping. Once the feet are ground, only the vertical
off the ground, if we component of liftoff veloc-
neglect air resistance, the ity determines hang time.
only force acting on the

coming down. The speed it loses going up is therefore the same as

the speed it gains coming down. So the projectile hits the ground
with the same speed it had originally when it was projected upward
from the ground.
re For short-range projectile motion such as a batted
ar Re ball in a baseball game, we usually assume the
> ground is flat. However, for very long range pro-
\ _ jectiles the curvature of Earth’s surface must
\__ be taken into account. We'll see that if an
\, object is projected fast enough, it will fall

20 all the way around Earth and become an

Earth satellite!
Figure 3.17 A
How fast is the ball thrown?
- Question eget 3h.
The boy:on the Pee in Figure 3.17 throws a ball a distance of
a0m. At what speed is the ball thrown?

@ Answer

The ball is thrown horizontally, so its speed equals the horizontal distance divided by the
time, that is, v= d/t. If we let the terms in the equation guide our thinking, we have the hori-
zontal distance of 20 m but not the time. The equation guides us to look for the time. This
we can do, for due to gravity the ball falls a vertical distance of 5 m—which takes 1 s. So
the time of flight is 1s. That means the ball travels horizontally a distance of 20 m in 1s.
The ball’s horizontal component of velocity, the speed at which it is thrown, must be 20 m/s.
This procedure works even when the numbers aren't so simple. Equations guide thinking!

38 Chapter 3 Projectile Motion

3.6 Fast-Moving Projectiles—Satellites
Consider the ball thrown from the tower in Figure 3.17. If gravity did
not act on the ball, the ball’s path would be a straight horizontal line.
But there is gravity and the ball falls below this straight-line path.
One second after the ball is thrown it has fallen 5 meters below this
imaginary line. The ball falls 5 meters no matter how fast it is thrown.
If the ball is thrown twice as fast, it will go twice as far in the same
time. If thrown three times as fast, it will go three times as far in the
same time and still fall a vertical 5 meters.
What if the ball were thrown so fast that the curvature of Earth
came into play? We know the ball follows a curved downward path.
We also know Earth’s surface curves. What if the ball were thrown fast
enough that its curved path matched the curve of Earth’s surface? If
there were no air resistance to slow it down, the ball would orbit
Earth! An Earth satellite, such as the space shuttle, is simply a pro-
jectile traveling fast enough to fall around Earth rather than into it.*
We'll see in Chapter 14 that this speed is 8 km/s, or 18 000 mi/h.
At 8 km/s, atmospheric friction would burn a baseball to a crisp
or melt a piece of iron. This is the fate of bits of rock and other mete-
orites that graze Earth’s atmosphere and burn up, appearing as
“falling stars.” That is why satellites such as the space shuttle are Figure 3.18 A
launched to altitudes above 150 kilometers. A common misconcep- If Superman were to throw a
tion is that satellites orbiting at high altitudes are free from Earth’s ball so fast that it cleared the
gravity. Nothing could be further from the truth. We will see later that horizon, the ball would then
orbit Earth and become an Earth
the force of gravity on a satellite 150 kilometers above Earth's surface
satellite.
is almost as strong as it is at the surface. The high altitude puts the
satellite beyond Earth’s atmosphere, where air resistance is almost
totally absent, but not beyond Earth’s gravity. We'll return to gravity
and satellite motion in Chapters 12-14.

Figure 3.19
The space shuttle and other
satellites are projectiles in a con-
stant state of free fall. Because
their velocity is parallel to Earth’s
surface, they fall around Earth
rather than vertically into it.

1 Explore |2 Develop

3 Problem-Solving @&&
be Exercises in A
* The conventional definition of to fall is “to get closer to Earth.” But falling can also
beneath a starting level. Satellites in circular orbit, such as the moon Physics 2-2
defined as falling
and the space shuttle, fall beneath the paths they would follow if there were no gravity.

39
 Chapter Assessment

. When a rectangle is constructed in order to

For: Study and Review add velocities, what represents the resultant
(G 0 @n line Visit: PHSchool.com of the velocities? (3.2)
HSchool.com Wat Code: csd-1030 . Why do we say a rectangle is a special case of
a parallelogram? (3.2)
. Will a vector at 45° to the horizontal be larger
or smaller than its horizontal and vertical
Concept Summary
components? By how much? (3.3)
Vector quantities have both magnitude and
direction. . Why does a bowling ball move without
acceleration when it rolls along a bowling
A vector is represented by an arrow whose length alley? (3.4)
represents the magnitude of the vector quantity
and whose direction represents the direction of . In the absence of air resistance, why does the
the vector quantity. horizontal component of velocity for a pro-
jectile remain constant while the vertical
The resultant of two velocities can be determined component changes? (3.4)
from a vector diagram drawn to scale.
. How does the downward component of the
Any single vector can be replaced by two compo- motion of a projectile compare with the
nents that add by vector rules to form the origi- motion of free fall? (3.4)
nal vector.
10. At the instant a ball is thrown horizontally
When gravity is the only force acting on a projec- over a level range, a ball held at the side of
tile near Earth, the horizontal component of its the first is released and drops to the ground.
velocity does not change. If air resistance is neglected, which ball
A satellite is continually falling around Earth. strikes the ground first? (3.4)
|BIe a. How far below an initial straight-line path
will a projectile fall in one second? (3.5)
Key Terms b. Does your answer depend on the angle of
launch or on the initial speed of the projec-
component (3.3) satellite (3.6)
tile? Defend your answer. (3.5)
projectile (3.4) scalar quantity (3.1)
resolution (3.3)
12. At what angle should a slingshot be oriented
vector (3.2)
for maximum altitude? For maximum hori-
resultant (3.2) vector quantity (3.1)
zontal range? (3.5)

ORME ISN SSE

13 . Neglecting air resistance, if you throw a ball
OT]

straight up with a speed of 20 m/s, how fast

Review Questions Check Concepts will it be moving when you catch it? (3.5)
1. How does a vector quantity differ from a 14, a. Neglecting air resistance, if you throw a
scalar quantity? (3.1) baseball at 20 m/s to your friend who is on
2. Why is speed classified as a scalar quantity and first base, will the catching speed be greater
velocity classified as a vector quantity? (3.1) than, equal to, or less than 20 m/s?

3. If a vector that is 1 cm long represents a b. Does the speed change if air resistance is a
velocity of 10 km/h, what velocity does a vec- factor? (3.5)
tor 2 cm long drawn to the same scale repre-
sent? (3.2)

40 Chapter 3 Projectile Motion

15. What do we call a projectile that continually 27. The launching velocity of a projectile is 20 m/s
“falls” around Earth? (3.6) at 53° above the horizontal. What is the vertical
16. How fast must a projectile moving horizon- component of its velocity at launch? Its hori-
tally travel so that the curve it follows zontal component of velocity? Neglecting air
matches the curve of Earth? (3.6) friction, which of these components remains
constant throughout the flight path? Which of
17. Why is it important that such a satellite be
these components determines the projectile’s
above Earth’s atmosphere? (3.6)
time in the air?
18. What force acts on a satellite that is above
28. Satellites in a circular, low Earth-orbit move
Earth’s atmosphere? (3.6)
at 8 km/s. Convert this speed to miles per
hour. (There are about 1.6 km in 1 mile and
3600 s in 1 h.)
Plug and Chug Use Equations
19. Calculate the resultant velocity of an airplane
that normally flies at 200 km/h if it encoun- Think and Explain Think Critically
ters a 50-km/h tailwind. If it encounters a 29. What is the maximum possible resultant of two
50-km/h headwind. vectors with magnitudes of 4 and 5 units? What
20. Calculate the resultant of the pair of velocities is the minimum possible resultant?
100 km/h north and 75 km/h south. Calculate 30. If you swim in a direction directly across a river
the resultant if both of the velocities are and you end up downstream due to the flow of
directed north. water, do you move faster than you would if
21. Calculate the magnitude of the resultant ofa the water didn’t flow? Explain.
pair of 100-km/h velocity vectors that are at 31. The speed of falling rain is the same 10 m
right angles to each other. above ground as it is just before it hits the
226 Calculate the magnitude of the horizontal and ground. What does this tell you about whether
vertical components of a vector that is 100 units or not the rain encounters air resistance?
long and is oriented at 45°. 32. Rain falling vertically will make vertical streaks
23. Calculate the resultant of a horizontal vector on a car's side window. However, if the car is
with a magnitude of 4 units and a vertical moving, the streaks are slanted. If the streaks
vector with a magnitude of 3 units. How does from a vertically falling rain make 45° streaks,
the resultant compare with the hypotenuse of how fast is the car moving compared with the
a right triangle having sides of 3 and 4 units? speed of the falling rain?

24. A right triangle with sides of 3, 4, and 5 units 33. You're driving behind a car and wish to pass,
has angles that are 37°, 53°, and 90°, respec- so you turn to the left and pull into the pass-
tively. Which of its sides is the hypotenuse? ing lane without changing speed. Why does
Which side is opposite the 37° angle? Which the distance increase between you and the
side is opposite the 53° angle? car youre following?

25. What are the horizontal and vertical compo- 34. A projectile is launched straight up at 141 m/s.
nents of a 10-unit vector that is oriented 37° How fast is it moving at the top of its trajec-
above the horizontal? tory? Suppose it is launched upward at 45°
above the horizontal plane. How fast is it
26. What are the horizontal and vertical compo- moving at the top of its curved trajectory?
nents of a 10-unit vector that is oriented 53°
above the horizontal?

41
35. When you jump up, your hang time is the 41. Harry accidentally falls out of a helicopter
time your feet are off the ground. Does hang that is traveling at 100 m/s. He plunges into a
time depend on your vertical component of swimming pool 2 seconds later. Assuming no
velocity when you jump, your horizontal air resistance, what was the horizontal dis-
component of velocity, or both? Defend your tance between Harry and the swimming pool
answel. when he fell from the helicopter?
36. The hang time of a basketball player who 42. Harry and Angela look from their balcony to
jumps a vertical distance of 2 feet (0.6 m) is a swimming pool below that is 15 m from the
2/3 second. What will be the hang time if the bottom of their building. They estimate the
player reaches the same height while jump- balcony is 45 m high and wonder how fast
ing a horizontal distance of 4 feet (1.2 m)? they would have to jump horizontally to suc-
37. Assuming no air resistance, why does a pro- ceed in reaching the pool. What is your
jectile launched horizontally at 8 km/s not answer?
strike Earth’s surface? 43. A girl throws a slingshot pellet directly at a
38. We think of something falling if it gets closer to target that is far enough away to take one-
the ground. Yet a satellite in circular orbit does half second to reach. How far below the target
not get closer to the ground, because Earth does the pellet hit? How high above the target
curves as much as the satellite's trajectory does. should she aim?
So how can we say it falls? (Hint. Compare the 44, The boy on the tower in the figure below
position of the satellite with the imaginary line throws a ball a distance of 60 m, as shown.
it would follow if there were no gravity. Does it At what speed, in m/s, is the ball thrown?
fall beneath this line?)

Think and Solve “AT

Develop Problem-Solving Skills
SO represen rere
39. A boat is rowed at 8 km/h directly across a river
that flows at 6 km/h, as shown in the figure.
45. A shiny new sports car sits in the parking lot
of a car dealership. Above is a cargo plane,
flying horizontally at 50 m/s. At the exact
moment the plane is 125 m directly above the
car, a heavy crate accidentally falls from its
cargo doors. Relative to the car, where will the
crate hit?
46. A cannonball launched with an initial velocity
a. What is the resultant speed of the boat? of 141 m/s at an angle of 45° follows a para-
b. How fast and in what direction can the boat bolic path and hits a balloon at the top of its
be rowed to reach a destination directly across trajectory. Neglecting air resistance, how fast
the river? is it going when it hits the balloon? What is
the acceleration of the cannonball just before
40. A girl is playing shuffleboard on an ocean it hits the balloon?
liner that travels due north at 3 m/s. She
makes a starboard shot (toward the east), rel-
ative to the deck, of 4 m/s. What is the veloc-
ity of the puck relative to the stationary stars? Led GEthe ssariaelte
n-Solving Practice

42 Chapter 3 Projectile Motion

 New ton’s First
Law of Motion—
Inertia

;f you saw a boulder in the middle of a flat field

suddenly begin to move across the ground,
you'd look for the cause of its motion. You might
look to see if someone was pulling the boulder with
a rope or pushing it with a stick. You would reason
that something was causing it to move. We don’t
believe that motion occurs without cause. In general, we say the cause
Because of its huge inertia, the
of the boulder’s motion is a force of some kind. We know that some-
ship is not easily pushed off
thing forces the boulder to begin moving.
course.

EN
Ee
4.1 Aristotle on Motion
The idea that a force causes motion goes back to the fourth century
B.c., when the Greeks were developing some of the ideas of science.
Aristotle, the foremost Greek scientist, studied motion and divided it
into two types: natural motion and violent motion.
Natural motion on Earth was thought to be either straight up or
straight down, such as a boulder falling toward the ground or a puff
of smoke rising in the air. Objects would seek their natural resting
places: boulders on the ground and smoke high in the air like the
clouds. It was “natural” for heavy things to fall and for very light
things to rise. Aristotle proclaimed circular motion was natural for
the heavens, for he saw both circular motion and the heavens as
without beginning or end. Thus, the planets and stars moved in per- Figure 4.1 A
fect circles around Earth. Since these motions were considered nat- Do boulders move without cause?
ural, they were not thought to be caused by forces.
Violent motion, on the other hand, was imposed motion. It was
the result of forces that pushed or pulled. A cart moved because it was
pulled by a horse; a tug-of-war was won by pulling on a rope; a ship
was pushed by the force of the wind. The important thing about defin-
ing violent motion was that it had an external cause. Violent motion

43
 was imparted to objects. Objects in their natural resting places could
not move by themselves; they had to be pushed or pulled.
It was commonly thought for nearly 2000 years that if an object
was moving “against its nature,” then a force of some kind was
responsible. Such motion was possible only because of an outside
force. If there were no force there would be no motion (except in the
vertical direction). So the proper state of objects was one of rest,
unless they were being pushed or pulled, or were moving toward
their natural resting place. Since most thinkers before the sixteenth
century considered it obvious that Earth must be in its natural rest-
ing place and assumed that a force large enough to move it was
unthinkable, it was clear that Earth did not move.

Ee
4.2 Copernicus and the Moving Earth
It was in this intellectual climate that the astronomer Nicolaus
Copernicus (1473-1543) formulated his theory of the moving Earth.
Copernicus reasoned that the simplest way to interpret astronomical
observations was to assume that Earth (and other planets) move
around the sun. This idea was extremely controversial at the time.
People preferred to believe that Earth was at the center of the uni-
verse. Copernicus worked on his ideas in secret to escape persecu-
tion. In the last days of his life and at the urging of close friends, he
sent his ideas to the printer. The first copy of his work, De
Revolutionibus, reached him on the day of his death, May 24, 1543.

a a
4.3 Galileo on Motion
Galileo, the foremost scientist of late-Renaissance Italy, was outspoken
in his support of Copernicus. As a result, he suffered a trial and house
arrest. One of Galileo's great contributions to physics was demolishing
the notion that a force is necessary to keep an object moving.
A force is any push or pull. Friction is the name given to the
force that acts between materials that touch as they move past each
other. Friction is caused by the irregularities in the surfaces of
objects that are touching. Even very smooth surfaces have micro-
scopic irregularities that obstruct motion. If friction were absent, a
moving object would need no force whatever to remain in motion.
Galileo argued that only when friction is present—as it usually
is—is a force needed to keep an object moving. He tested his idea by
rolling balls along plane surfaces tilted at different angles. He noted
that a ball rolling down such an inclined plane picks up speed, as
shown on the left in Figure 4.2. The ball is rolling partly in the direc-
tion of the pull of Earth’s gravity. He also noted that a ball rolling up
an inclined plane—in a direction opposed by gravity—slows down,
as shown in the center in Figure 4.2. What about a ball rolling ona

G4 Chapter 4 Newton's First Law of Motion—Inertia

level surface, as shown on the right in Figure 4.2? While rolling level,
the ball does not roll with or against gravity. Galileo found that a ball
rolling on a smooth horizontal plane has almost constant velocity.
He stated that if friction were entirely absent, a ball moving horizon-
tally would move forever. No push or pull would be required to keep
it moving once it is set in motion.

SLOPE DOWNWARD SLOPE UPWARD NO SLOPE < Figure 4.2

SPEED INCREASES SPEED DECREASES DOES SPEED CHANGE ? (Left) When the ball rolls down-
ward, it moves with Earth’s
gravity and its speed increases.
(Center) When the ball rolls
upward, it moves against gravity
and loses speed. (Right) When the
ball rolls on a level plane, it does
not move with or against gravity.
Galileo's conclusion was supported by another line of reasoning.
Does the ball’s speed change
He described two inclined planes facing each other, as in Figure 4.3. while rolling horizontally?
A ball released to roll down one plane would roll up the other to
reach nearly the same height. The smoother the planes were, the
more nearly equal would be the initial and final heights. He noted
that the ball tended to attain the same height, even when the second
plane was longer and inclined at a smaller angle than the first plane.
In rolling to the same height, the ball had to roll farther. Additional
reductions of the angle of the upward plane gave the same results.
Always, the ball went farther and tended to reach the same height.
What if the angle of incline of the second plane were reduced to
zero so that the plane was perfectly horizontal? How far would the ball
roll? He realized that only friction would keep it from rolling forever. It
was not the nature of the ball to come to rest as Aristotle had claimed.
In the absence of friction, the moving ball would naturally keep mov-
ing. Galileo stated that this tendency of a moving body to keep moving
is natural and that every material object resists change to its state of
motion. We call this property of a body to resist change inertia.

FROM HERE... TO HERE FROM HERE... TO HERE FROM HERE...

Figure 4.3 A
(Left) The ball rolling down the incline rolls up the opposite incline and
reaches its initial height. (Center) As the angle of the upward incline is
reduced, the ball rolls a greater distance before reaching its initial height.
(Right) How far will the ball roll along the horizontal?

Galileo was concerned with how things move rather than why
they move. He showed that experiment, not logic, is the best test of
knowledge. Galileo’s findings about motion and his concept of iner-
tia discredited Aristotle’s theory of motion. The way was open for
Isaac Newton (1642-1727) to synthesize a new vision of the universe.

45
 @ Question
A ball is rolled across a counter top and rolls slowly to a stop. How
would Aristotle interpret this behavior? How would Galileo inter-
pret it? How would you interpret it?

Ose |
4.4 Newton’s Law of Inertia
On Christmas day in the year Galileo died, Isaac Newton was born.
By age 24, he had developed his famous laws of motion. They
replaced the Aristotelian ideas that dominated the thinking of the
best minds for most of the previous 2000 years. This chapter covers
the first of Newton's three laws of motion. Newton's two other laws
of motion are covered in the following chapters.
Newton's first law, usually called the law of inertia, is a restate-
Figure 4.4 A
ment of Galileo's idea.
Objects at rest tend to remain at
rest. Every object continues in a state of rest, or of motion
in a straight line at constant speed, unless it is com-
pelled to change that state by forces exerted upon it.
Simply put, things tend to keep on doing what they’re already
doing. Dishes on a tabletop, for example, are in a state of rest. They
tend to remain at rest, as is evidenced if you snap a tablecloth from
beneath them. Try this at first with some unbreakable dishes. If you
do it properly, you'll find the brief and small forces of friction are not
significant enough to appreciably move the dishes (close inspection

We
ame Nei
REST D

&@ Answer

Aristotle would probably say that the ball stops because it seeks its natural
state of rest.
Galileo would probably say that the friction between the ball and the table
overcomes the
ball’s natural tendency to continue rolling—overcomes the ball’s inertia—an
d brings it to a
stop. Only you can answer the last question!

46 Chapter 4 Newton's First Law of Motion—Inertia

will show that brief friction between the dishes and the fast-moving 1 Explore
tablecloth starts the dishes moving, but immediately after the table-
cloth is removed friction between the dishes and table stops them). 1 Laboratory Manual 8
Objects in a state of rest tend to remain at rest. Only a force will
change that state.
Now consider an object in motion. If you slide a hockey puck
along the surface of a city street, the puck quite soon comes to rest.
If you slide it along ice, it slides for a longer distance. This is because
the friction force is very small. If you slide it along an air table where
friction is practically absent, it slides with no apparent loss in speed.
We see that in the absence of forces, a moving object tends to move
in a straight line indefinitely. Toss an object from a space station
located in the vacuum of outer space, and the object will move for-
ever. It will move by virtue of its own inertia.

<4 Figure 4.5

An air table: Blasts of air from
many tiny holes provide a nearly
friction-free surface.

We see that the law of inertia provides a completely different

way of viewing motion. Whereas the ancients thought continual
forces were needed to maintain motion, we now know that objects

STAY IN
A BODY IN MOTION MOTION 7
TENDS TO...
 continue to move by themselves. Forces are needed to overcome any
I friction that may be present and to set objects in motion initially.
Once the object is moving in a force-free environment, it will move
in a straight line indefinitely. In the next chapter we'll see that forces
are needed to accelerate objects, but not to maintain motion if there
is no friction.

BH Questions
1. If the force of gravity between the sun and planets suddenly
disappeared, what type of path would the planets follow?
Pioneer and Voyager 2. Is it correct to say that the reason an object resists change and
spacecraft launched in the persists in its state of motion is that it has inertia? i
late 1970s have gone
beyond the orbits of
Saturn, Uranus, and Pluto,
and are still cruising i a Sa eI ea Rice panacea P=]
beyond the solar system.
Initially, force supplied by 4.5 Mass—A Measure of Inertia
rockets sent the spacecraft
on their journeys. Kick an empty can and it moves. Kick a can filled with sand and it
However, once in outer doesn't move as much. Kick a can filled with steel nails and you'll hurt
space these engines sup- your foot. The nail-filled can has more inertia than the sand-filled
plied no more force. can, which in turn has more inertia than the empty can. The amount
Except for the gravita- of inertia an object has depends on its mass—which is roughly the
tional effect of the stars amount of material present in the object. The more mass an object
and planets in the uni-
has, the greater its inertia and the more force it takes to change its
verse, do you see that the
state of motion. Mass is a measure of the inertia of an object.
motion of the spacecraft
will continue without
change?
Mass Is Not Volume
Do not confuse mass and volume. They are entirely different con-
cepts. Volume is a measure of space and is measured in units such
as cubic centimeters, cubic meters, and liters. Mass is measured in
kilograms. If an object has a large mass, it may or may not have a
large volume. For example, equal-size bags of cotton and nails may
have equal volumes, but very unequal masses. How many kilograms
of matter an object contains and how much space the object occupies
Figure 4.6 A
You can tell how much matter is
in a can when you kick it.
B Answers

1, The planets would move in straight lines at constant speed—at constant velocity.
2. Ina strict sense, no. We don't know the reason why objects persist in their motion
when nothing acts on them, but we call this property inertia. We understand many
things, and we have labels for these things. There are also many things we do not
understand, and we have labels for these things too. Education consists not so much
in acquiring new labels, but in learning what is understood, what is not, and why.

48 Chapter 4 Newton’s First Law of Motion—Inertia

are two different things. (A liter of milk, juice, or soda—anything that
is mainly water—has a mass of about one kilogram.)
Which has more mass, a feather pillow or a common automobile
battery? Clearly an automobile battery is more difficult to set into
motion. This is evidence of the battery's greater inertia and hence its
greater mass. The pillow may be bigger, that is, it may have a larger
volume, but it has less mass. Mass is different from volume.

Mass Is Not Weight Figure 4.7 A

The pillow has a larger size (vol-
Mass is often confused with weight. We say a heavy object contains a ume) but a smaller mass than the
lot of matter. We often determine the amount of matter in an object battery.
by measuring its gravitational attraction to Earth. However, mass is
more fundamental than weight. Mass is a measure of the amount of
material in an object and depends only on the number of and kind
of atoms that compose it. Weight on the other hand is a measure of
the gravitational force acting on the object. Weight depends on an
object's location.
The amount of material in a particular stone is the same whether
the stone is located on Earth, on the moon, or in outer space. Hence,
the stone's mass is the same in all of these locations. This could be
demonstrated by shaking the stone back and forth in these three
locations. The same force would be required to shake the stone with
the same rhythm whether the stone was on Earth, on the moon, or
in a force-free region of outer space. The stone's inertia, or mass, is
solely a property of the stone and not its location.
But the weight of the stone would be very different on Earth and Figure 4.8 A
on the moon, and still different in outer space. On the surface of the It’s just as difficult to shake a
moon, the stone would have only one-sixth the weight it has on stone in its weightless state in
space as it is in its weighted state
Earth. This is because the force of gravity on the moon is only one-
on Earth.
sixth as strong as it is on Earth. If the stone were in a gravity-free
region of space, its weight would be zero. Its mass, on the other
hand, would not be zero. Mass is different from weight.
We can define mass and weight as follows:
Mass is the quantity of matter in an object. More specif-
ically, mass is a measure of the inertia, or “laziness,” that
an object exhibits in response to any effort made to
start it, stop it, or otherwise change its state of motion.

Weight is the force of gravity on an object.

While mass and weight are not the same, they are proportional
to each other in a given place. Objects with great mass have great
weight; objects with little mass have little weight. In the same loca-
tion, twice the mass weighs twice as much. Mass and weight are pro-
portional to each other, but they are not equal to each other.
Remember that mass has to do with the amount of matter in the
object, while weight has to do with how strongly that matter is
attracted by gravity.

a9
 One Kilogram Weighs 9.8 Newtons
In the United States it is common to describe the amount of matter
in an object by its gravitational pull to Earth, that is, by its weight. In
the United States, the traditional unit of weight is the pound. In most
parts of the world, however, the measure of matter is commonly
expressed in units of mass. The SI* unit of mass is the kilogram; its
symbol is kg. At Earth’s surface, a 1-kg bag of nails has a weight of 2.2
pounds.
The SI unit of force is the newton (named after guess who?). One
newton is equal to slightly less than a quarter pound, about the
weight of a quarter-pound burger after it is cooked. The SI symbol
for the newton is N and is written with a capital letter because it is
Figure 4.9 A named after a person. A 1-kg bag of nails weighs 9.8 N in SI units.
One kilogram of nails weighs Away from Earth’s surface, where the force of gravity is less, the bag
9.8 newtons, which is equal to
of nails weighs less.
2.2 pounds.
If you know the mass of something in kilograms and want its
weight in newtons, multiply the number of kilograms by 9.8. Or, if
you know the weight in newtons, divide by 9.8 and you'll have the
mass in kilograms. Weight and mass are proportional to each other.
Weight = mass X acceleration due to gravity, or simply, weight = mg.

@ Answers

1. The answer is yes to all questions. A 2-kilogram block of iron has twice as many iron
atoms, and therefore twice the amount of matter, mass, and weight. The blocks are
made of the same material, so the 2-kilogram block also has twice the volume.
2. Two kilograms of anything has twice the inertia and twice the mass of one kilogram of
anything else. In the same location, where mass and weight are proportional, two kilo-
grams of anything will weigh twice as much as one kilogram of anything. Except for
volume, the answer to all the questions is yes. Volume and mass are proportional only
when the materials are the same or when equal masses occupy the same volume, that
is, when they have the same density. Bananas are much more dense than bread, so
two kilograms of bananas must occupy less volume than one kilogram of bread.
1 Explore | 2 Develop} 3 Apply
— _ : as cee * The metric system was originally established in France in the 1790s. The International
2 Concept-Development System of Units (abbreviated SI, after the French name Le Systeme International
Practice Book 4-7 d’Unités) is a revised version of the metric system. The short forms of the SI units are
called symbols rather than abbreviations.

50 Chapter 4! Newton's First Law of Motion—Inertia

 @ Question
The text states that a 1-kg bag of nails weighs 9.8 N at Earth’s
surface. Does 1 kg of yogurt also weigh 9.8 N at Earth’s surface?

EE ee APPLIED | —
FORCES |
4.6 Net Force
In the absence of force, objects at rest stay at rest and objects in
motion continue in motion. More specifically, in the absence of a
net force, objects do not change their state of motion. For example,
if you push with equal and opposite forces on opposite sides of an
object at rest, it will remain at rest. The forces cancel each other out
and there is no net force. The combination of all forces acting on an
object is called the net force. It is the net force that changes an
object's state of motion.
Figure 4.10 shows how forces combine to produce a net force.
When you pull horizontally with a force of 10 N on an object resting
on a frictionless surface, the net force acting on the object is 10 N. Figure 4.10 A
When more than one force acts
If a friend assists you and also pulls in the same direction with a
on an object, the net force is the
force of 5 N, then the net force is the sum of these forces, or 15 N sum of the forces. When forces
(Figure 4.10, top). The object moves as if it were pulled with a single act in the same direction, the net
15-N force. However, if your friend pulls with a force of 5 N in the force is the sum of the forces.
opposite direction, then the net force is the difference of these When forces act in opposite
forces, or 5 N (Figure 4.10, center). The resulting motion of the directions, the net force is the dif-
object is the same as if it were pulled with a single 5-N force. ference of the forces.

4.7 Equilibrium—When Net Force

Equals Zero
What forces act on your book while it is motionless on a table? Don't
say just its weight. If only the force of gravity were acting on the
book, it would be in free fall. The fact that the book is at rest is evi-
dence that another force must be acting on it. This other force
exactly balances the book's weight and produces a net force of zero.
The other force is the support force of the table. Support force is
often called normal force.* As shown in Figure 4.11, the table pushes Figure 4.11 A
up on the book with a force equal to the book's weight. When an (Left) The table pushes up on the
book with a force equal to the
ee ee eee downward weight of the book.
(Right) The spring pushes up on
@ Answer your hand with the same force
Yes, at Earth’s surface 1 kg of anything weighs 9.8 N. you use to push down on the
spring.

* This force acts at right angles to the surface. Normal to means “at right angles to,”
which is why the force is called a normal force.
 object is at rest, with the net force on it being zero, we say the object
is in a state of equilibrium. The resting book is in equilibrium.
Does the table really push up on the book? Yes, just as a spring
pushes up on your hand when you compress it. Look at Figure 4.11.
You can feel the spring pushing back on your hand. Similarly, a book
lying on a table compresses the atoms in the table. Behaving like
microscopic springs, the atoms in contact with the book push back
on it. Since the book is in equilibrium, the net force on it must be
zero. The table actually pushes up on the book with the same force
that the book presses down. An ant trapped between the book and
the table would feel itself being squashed from both sides—the top
and the bottom.
When you hang from a rope, the atoms in the rope are not com-
pressed. Instead, the atoms are stretched apart. A tension force is
established in the rope. A rope under tension “twangs’” if you pluck
it. How much tension is in the rope when you hang from it? If you
are in equilibrium, then the tension must equal your weight. The
rope pulls you up and the force of gravity pulls you down. Since the
equal and opposite forces cancel each other, you hang motionless.
Suppose you hang from a bar supported by two ropes, as in Figure
4.12. Neglecting the weight of the bar, the tension in each rope is
one-half your weight. The total tension force acting upward (5 your
weight + 5 your weight) balances your weight, which acts downward.
When doing pull-ups using both arms, each arm supports half of
Figure 4.12 A your weight. Have you ever tried pull-ups with just one arm? Why is
The sum of the rope tensions it twice as difficult?
must equal your weight.
A spring scale can also be used to measure tension. When we
weigh a bag of apples by suspending it on a spring, the scale reading
tells us the weight. Consider a 1-kg bag of 10 apples weighing 10 N.

BH Question
When you step on a bathroom scale, the downward force supplied
by your feet and the upward force supplied by the floor compress a
calibrated spring. The compression of the spring gives your weight.
In effect, the scale measures the floor’s support force. What will
each scale read if you stand on two scales with your weight divided
equally between them? What happens if you stand with more of
your weight on one foot than the other?
sesso,

@ Answer

Since you are in equilibrium, the two scale readings must add up to your weight. The sum
of the scale readings, which equals the support force of the floor, counteracts your weight
so that the net force is zero. If you stand with your weight divided equally between the two
1 Explore scales, each scale will read half your weight. If you lean more on one scale, it will read
more than half your weight. However, the two readings must still add up to your weight.
3 Laboratory Manual 9 For example, if one scale reads two-thirds of your weight, the other scale will read one-
third of your weight. Get it?

Chapter 4’ Newton's First Law of Motion—Inertia

When suspended by a single vertical scale as shown on the left in
Figure 4.13, the scale reads 10 N. If instead we hang the 10-N bag
from a pair of vertical scales as shown on the right in Figure 4.13,
each scale reads 5 N. The two scales pull up with a combined force
equaling the bag’s weight, 10 N. Since the bag hangs at rest, the net
force on it must be zero. The key concept is this: If a 10-N bag is in
equilibrium, the resultant of the forces applied by the pair of springs
must equal 10 N. If the spring scales are oriented vertically, this is
easy:5 N+5N=10N.

10 10
SS
ERTAT
Figure 4.13 A
4.8 Vector Addition of Forces (Left) When a 10-N load hangs
vertically from a single spring
Let's now consider nonvertically oriented spring scales. The tension scale, the scale pulls upward with
a force of 10 N. (Right) When the
is greater in a pair of nonvertical spring scales and depends on their
load hangs vertically from two
angle from the vertical. This more complicated situation is most eas-
spring scales, each scale pulls
ily understood using vectors. Recall our treatment of velocity vectors upward with a force equal to half
in Chapter 3. We'll now use the same vector addition techniques with of the load’s weight, or 5 N.
forces. Force, like velocity, has magnitude and direction and is a vec-
tor quantity.
Look at the left of Figure 4.14. Notice that when the spring scales
hang at 60° from the vertical, their readings are 10 N each—double
the tension of the vertically hanging scales! Why? Because the sum of
the two tension vectors must support the downward-acting 10-N
weight. The sum of the vectors must be 10 N, directed vertically
upward as shown by the diagonal of the parallelogram formed from
the two vectors. For an angle 60° from the vertical, or 120° between
the scales, 10 N of tension force is required in each scale. For angles
greater than 60°, the scale readings would increase even more.
Notice that on the right of Figure 4.14, the angle from the verti-
cal has increased to 75.5°. At this angle, each spring must pull with
20 N to produce the required 10-N vertically upward resultant. As the
angle between the scales increases, the tension in the scales must
increase for the resultant to remain 10 N. In terms of the parallelo-
gram, as the scale’s angle from the vertical increases, the magnitude
of the tension force must also increase for the diagonal to remain the

2a
= _ os =
_ ag ee
al Sex ~
on
— 1s}
thee —

I =
<4 Figure 4.14
eae As the angle between the spring
scales increases, the scale read-
ings increase to maintain the
10-N upward resultant. The 10-N
resultant, shown as the dashed-
line vector, is needed to support
the 10-N load.

53
 same, 10 N. If you understand this, you understand why a vertical
clothesline can support your weight but a horizontal clothesline can-
not. The tension in the nearly horizontal clothesline is much greater
than the tension in the vertical clothesline, and therefore it breaks.
For any pair of scales, ropes, or wires supporting a load, the
greater their angle from the vertical, the larger the tension force in
them. The resultant of the tension forces, or the diagonal of the par-
allelogram they describe, must be equal and opposite to the load
being supported. As you will see when you answer the following
questions, the parallelogram technique of adding vectors yields
some very interesting results.

Figure 4.15 >

You can safely hang from a verti-
cally hanging clothesline, but
you'll break the clothesline if it is
strung horizontally.

H Questions
1. If the children on the swings are of equal weight, which swing
is more likely to break?

2. Consider what would happen if you suspended a 10-N object

midway along a very tight, horizontally stretched guitar string.
Is it possible for the string to remain horizontal without a slight
sag at the point of suspension?

@ Answers

1. The stretching force, or tension, is greater in the ropes hanging at an angle. The angled
ropes are more likely to break than the vertical ropes.

2. No way! If the 10-N load is to hang in equilibrium, there must be a supporting 10-N
1 Explore upward resultant. The tension in each half of the guitar string must form a
parallelo-
gram with a vertically upward 10-N resultant. For a slight sag, the sides
1 Laboratory Manual 70 of the parallelo-
gram are very, very long and the tension force is very large. To approach
no sag is to
2 Concept-Development approach an infinite tension. Turning this idea around, a little thought shows
that
Practice Book 4-2 4-3 pulling a tightly stretched string slightly to one side increases the tension
in the string
enormously. That's why a small sideways force can break a very
strong guitar string!

54 Chapter 4 Newton's First Law of Motion—Inertia

(NNR cS RCPS RET Ys
4.9 The Moving Earth Again
Copernicus announced the idea of a moving Earth in the sixteenth
century. This controversial idea stimulated much argument and
debate. One of the arguments against a moving Earth was as follows.
Consider a bird sitting at rest in the top of a tall tree. On the ground
below is a fat, juicy worm. The bird sees the worm, drops down verti-
cally, and catches it. It was argued that this would not be possible if
Earth moved as Copernicus suggested. If Copernicus were correct,
Earth would have to travel at a speed of 107 000 km/h to circle the
sun in one year. Convert this speed to kilometers per second and
you'll get 30 km/s. Even if the bird could descend from its branch in
one second, the worm would have been swept away by the moving
Earth for a distance of 30 kilometers. For the bird to catch the worm
under this circumstance would be an impossible task. The fact that
birds do catch worms from high tree branches seemed to be clear
evidence that Earth must be at rest.
Can you refute this argument? You can if you invoke the idea of
inertia. You see, not only is Earth moving at 30 km/s, but so are the
tree, the branch of the tree, the bird that sits on it, the worm below,
and even the air in between. All are moving at 30 km/s. Things in
motion remain in motion if no unbalanced forces act on them. So Figure 4.16 A
Must Earth be at rest for the bird
when the bird drops from the branch, its initial sideways motion of to catch the worm?
30 km/s remains unchanged. It catches the worm and is quite unaf-
fected by the motion of its total environment.
Stand next to a wall. Jump up so that your feet no longer touch
the floor. Does the 30-km/s wall slam into you? Why not? Because
you are also traveling at 30 km/s, before, during, and after your jump.
The 30 km/s is the speed of Earth relative to the sun, not the speed of
the wall relative to you.
Four hundred years ago, people had difficulty with ideas like
these, not only because they failed to acknowledge the concept of
inertia, but also because they were not accustomed to moving in
high-speed vehicles. Slow, bumpy rides in horse-drawn carriages do
not lend themselves to experiments that reveal inertia. Today we flip a
coin in a high-speed car, bus, or plane and catch the vertically mov-
ing coin as we would if the vehicle were at rest. We see evidence for
the law of inertia when the horizontal motion of the coin before, dur-
ing, and after the catch is the same. The coin keeps up with us. The
vertical force of gravity affects only the vertical motion of the coin.
Figure 4.17 A
Our notions of motion today are very different from those of our
Flip a coin in a high-speed air-
distant ancestors. Aristotle did not recognize the idea of inertia,
plane, and it behaves as if the
because he did not see that all moving things follow the same rules. plane were at rest. The coin
He imagined different rules for motion in the heavens and motion keeps up with you—inertia in
on Earth. He saw horizontal motion as “unnatural,” requiring a sus- action!
tained force. Galileo and Newton, on the other hand, saw that all
moving things follow the same rules. To them, moving things
required no force to keep moving if friction was not present. We can
only wonder how differently science might have progressed if
Aristotle had recognized the unity of all kinds of motion and fric-
tion’s effect on motion.
 Chapter Assessment

For: Study and Review Key Terms

Go @nline Visit: PHSchool.com
HSchool.com Wat Code: csd-1040 equilibrium (4.7) net force (4.6)
force (4.3) newton (4.5)
friction (4.3) Newton's first law (4.4)
inertia (4.3) normal force (4.7)
Concept Summary kilogram (4.5) support force (4.7)
Galileo concluded that if it were not for friction, law of inertia (4.4) weight (4.5)
an object in motion would keep moving forever. mass (4.5)

Newton's first law of motion—the law of inertia.

Every object continues in a state of rest,

or in a state of motion in a straight line at Review Questions Check Concepts
constant speed, unless it is compelled to 1. What distinction did Aristotle make between
change that state by forces exerted upon it. natural motion and violent motion? (4.1)
Inertia is the resistance an object has to a change 2. Why was Copernicus reluctant to publish his
in its state of motion. ideas? (4.2)
m Mass is a measure of inertia.
3. What is the effect of friction on a moving
m Mass is not the same as volume. object? (4.3)
m Mass is not the same as weight. 4. The speed of a ball increases as it rolls down
an incline and decreases as it rolls up an
= The mass of an object depends only on the incline. What happens to its speed on a
number and kind of atoms in it. Mass does smooth, horizontal surface? (4.3)
not depend on the location of the object.
5. Galileo found that a ball rolling down one
m= The weight of an object is the gravitational
incline will pick up enough speed to roll up
force acting on it. Weight depends on the
another. How high will it roll compared with
location of the object.
its initial height? (4.3)
The net force, which is the vector sum of all
6. Does the law of inertia pertain to moving
forces acting on an object, affects the object's
objects, objects at rest, or both? Support your
state of motion.
answer with examples. (4.4)
m When an object is at rest, its weight is bal-
7. The law of inertia states that no force is
anced by an equal and opposite support
required to maintain motion. Why, then, do
force.
you have to keep pedaling your bicycle to
m An object is in equilibrium when it is at rest, maintain motion? (4.4)
with zero net force acting on it.
8. If you were in a spaceship and launched a
cannonball into frictionless space, how much
force would have to be exerted on the ball to
keep it going? (4.4)
9. Does a 2-kilogram rock have twice the mass
of a 1-kilogram rock? Twice the inertia? Twice
the weight (when weighed in the same loca-
tion)? (4.5)
56 Chapter 4 Newton's First Law of Motion—Inertia
10. Does a liter of molten lead have the same vol- 22. Calculate in newtons the weight of a 2000-kg
ume as a liter of apple juice? Does it have the elephant.
same mass? (4.5)
23. Calculate in newtons the weight of a 2.5-kg
ll. Why do physicists say mass is more funda- melon. What is its weight in pounds?
mental than weight? (4.5)
24. An apple weighs about 1 N. What is its mass
12. An elephant and a mouse would both have in kilograms? What is its weight in pounds?
zero weight in gravity-free space. If they were
moving toward you with the same speed, 25. Susie Small finds she weighs 300 N. Calculate
would they bump into you with the same her mass.
effect? Explain. (4.5)
13. What is the weight of 2 kilograms of yogurt? (4.5)
Think and Explain Think Critically
14. What is the net force or, equivalently, the
resultant force acting on an object in equilib- 26. Many automobile passengers suffer neck
rium? (4.6) injuries when struck by cars from behind.
How does Newton's law of inertia apply here?
15. Forces of 10 N and 15 N in the same direction
How do headrests help to guard against this
act on an object. What is the net force on the type of injury?
object? (4.6)
27. Suppose you place a ball in the middle of a
16. If forces of 10 N and 15 N act in opposite direc- wagon that is at rest and then abruptly pull
tions on an object, what is the net force? (4.6) the wagon forward. Describe the motion
17. How does the tension in your arms compare of the ball relative to (a) the ground and
when you let yourself dangle motionless by (b) the wagon.
both arms and by one arm? (4.7) 28. When a junked car is crushed into a compact
18. A clothesline is under tension when you hang cube, does its mass change? Its volume? Its
from it. Why is the tension greater when the weight?
clothesline is strung horizontally than when it 29. If an elephant were chasing you, its enor-
hangs vertically? (4.8) mous mass would be very threatening. But if
19. If you hold a coin above your head while in a you zigzagged, the elephant’s mass would be
bus that is not moving, the coin will land at to your advantage. Why?
your feet when you drop it. Where will it land 30. When you compress a sponge, which quan-
if the bus is moving in a straight line at con- tity changes: mass, inertia, volume, or weight?
stant speed? Explain. (4.9)
31. A massive ball is suspended on a string and
20. In the cabin of a jetliner that cruises at slowly pulled by another string attached to it
600 km/h, a pillow drops from an overhead from below, as shown in Figure A below.
rack into your lap below. Since the jetliner is
moving so fast, why doesn’t the pillow slam a. Is the string tension greater
into the rear of the compartment when it in the upper or the lower
drops? What is the horizontal speed of the string? Which string is more
pillow relative to the ground? Relative to you likely to break? Which prop-
inside the jetliner? (4.9) erty, mass or weight, is
important here?
b. If the string is instead
Vo snapped downward, which
Plug and Chug Use Equations string is more likely to break?
21. If a woman has a mass of 50 kg, calculate her Is mass or weight important
this time? Figure A
weight in newtons.

57
32. The head of a hammer is loose and you wish 35. As Earth rotates about its axis, it takes three
to tighten it by banging it against the top of a hours for the United States to pass beneath
workbench. Why is it better to hold the ham- a point above Earth that is stationary relative
mer with the handle down, as shown in to the sun. What is wrong with the following
Figure B below, rather than with the head scheme? To travel from Washington, D.C. to
down? Explain in terms of inertia. San Francisco using very little fuel,

La!
simply ascend in a helicopter high over
Washington, D.C. and wait three hours until
San Francisco passes below.

Lk 36. In which position is the compression the

least in the arms of the weightlifters shown?
The most?

_a_
Figure B

33. The little girl in the figure hangs at rest from

the ends of the rope. How does the reading
37. Why can’t the strong man pull hard enough
on the scale compare with her weight?
to make the chain straight?

34. Harry the painter swings year after year from

his bosun’s chair. His weight is 500 N and the
rope, unknown to him, has a breaking point
of 300 N. Why doesn’t the rope break when he
is supported as shown on the left? One day
Harry is painting near a flagpole, and fora Think and Solve
change, he ties the free end of the rope to the Develop Problem-Solving Skills
flagpole instead of to his chair (right). Why 38. A medium-size American automobile has a
did Harry end up taking his vacation early? weight of about 3000 pounds. What is its
mass in kilograms?

39. If a woman weighs 500 N on Earth, what

would she weigh on Jupiter, where the accel-
eration of gravity is 26 m/s2?

Chapter 4 Newton's First Law of Motion—Inertia

 Newton’s
Second Law of
Motion—Force
and Acceleration
ick a football and it moves. Its path
through the air is not a straight line—it
curves downward due to gravity. Catch Ae =
the ball and it stops. Most of the motion we . > 4
see undergoes change. Most things start up, slow down, or curve as The thrill of a roller coaster
they move. The previous chapter covered objects at rest or moving at ride comes from the accelera-
constant velocity. There was no net force acting on these objects. tions experienced.
This chapter covers the more common cases in which there is a
change in motion—that is, accelerated motion. @&@
Recall from Chapter 2 that acceleration describes how quickly a
motion changes. Specifically, it is the change in velocity per certain
time interval. In shorthand notation,

acceleration =
change in velocity
time interval
This is the definition of acceleration.* This chapter focuses on Figure 5.1 A
the cause of acceleration: force. Kick a football and it neither
remains at rest nor moves ina

Enrat ie el ee straight line.

5.1 Force Causes Acceleration

Consider an object at rest, such as a hockey puck on ice. Apply a
force and it starts to move. Since the puck was not moving before, it
has accelerated—it has changed its motion. When the hockey stick is
no longer pushing it, the puck moves at constant velocity. Apply
another force by striking the puck again, and again the motion
changes. The puck accelerates—force causes acceleration.

* The Greek letter A (delta) is often used as a symbol for “change in” or “difference in.”
In delta notation, a = Av/At, where Avis the change in velocity and At is the change in Figure 5.2 A
time (the time interval). Puck about to be hit.

59
 Most often, the force we apply is not the only force acting on an
object. Other forces may act as well. Recall from the previous chapter
that the combination of forces acting on an object is the net force.
Acceleration depends on the net force. To increase the acceleration of
an object, you must increase the net force acting on it. This makes
good sense. Double the force on an object and its acceleration dou-
bles. If you triple the force, its acceleration triples, and so on. We say
an object’s acceleration is directly proportional to the net force act-
ing on it. We write
acceleration ~ net force

The symbol ~ stands for “is directly proportional to.”

BEEN
oc 7
5.2 Mass Resists Acceleration
Push on an empty shopping cart. Then push equally hard on a heavily
loaded shopping cart. The loaded shopping cart will accelerate much
less than the empty cart. This shows that acceleration depends on the
mass being pushed. The same force applied to twice as much mass
results in only half the acceleration. For three times the mass, one-
third the acceleration results. In other words, for a given force, the
acceleration produced is inversely proportional to the mass. We write

acceleration ~ —
mass
By inversely we mean that the two values change in opposite direc-
tions. Mathematically we see that as the denominator increases, the
Figure 5.3 A whole quantity decreases. The quantity 1/100 is less than the quan-
The acceleration produced tity 1/10, for example.
depends on the mass that is
pushed.

BEEN
ee 2 ST
5.3 Newton's Second Law
Newton was the first to realize that the acceleration produced when
we move something depends not only on how hard we push or pull,
1 Explore but also on the object's mass. He came up with one of the most
1 Laboratory Manual important rules of nature ever proposed, his second law of motion.
Cte, ae Newton’s second law states
2 Probeware Lab E] The acceleration produced by a net force on an object
Manual 4, 5 is directly proportional to the magnitude of the net
2 Concept-Development force, is in the same direction as the net force, and is
Practice Book 5-7, 5-2 5-3 inversely proportional to the mass of the object.
3 Problem-Solving
Or, in equation form,
Exercises in IN,
Physics 3-7
net force
acceleration ~
mass

60 Chapter 5 Newton's Second Law of Motion—Force and Acceleration

 <4 Figure 5.4
The great acceleration of the rac-
ing car is due to its ability to pro-
duce large forces.

eee 2. Rode

RIELLO oro: S

By using consistent units, such as newtons (N) for force, kilograms

(kg) for mass, and meters per second squared (m/s?) for acceleration,
we get the exact equation
net force
acceleration =
mass

In briefest form, where ais acceleration, Fis net force, and mis
mass,

a=—
m

The acceleration is equal to the net force divided by the mass.

From this relationship we see that doubling the net force acting on
an object doubles its acceleration. Suppose instead that the mass is
doubled. Then acceleration will be halved. If both the net force and
the mass are doubled, the acceleration will be unchanged.

PHYSICS

= pool ofcee if
theeee isote ree bythe ee to
the right, in which direction willitroll? Does it make a difference a
_ whether the — ee .
string is on
the bottom
or the top?
Try it and
you might be
surprised.
 Problem Solving

(2 If we know the mass of an object in kilograms (kg) and its

acceleration in meters per second per second (m/s?), then
the force will be expressed in newtons (N). One newton is the force
needed to give a mass of one kilogram an acceleration of one meter
per second squared. We can arrange Newton's second law to read
force = mass X acceleration

1 N = (1 kg)(1 m/s?)
We can see,
1N =1kg-m/s?
The dot between kg and m/s* means that the units are multiplied
together.
If we know two of the quantities in Newton's second law, we
can calculate the third. For example, how much force, or thrust,
must a 30 000-kg jet plane develop to achieve an acceleration of
1.5 m/s*? We calculate
P= ma

= (30 000 kg) (1.5 m/s?)

= 45 000 kg-m/s?

= 45 000 N
Suppose we know the force and the mass, and we want to find the
acceleration. For example, what acceleration is produced by a
force of 2000 N applied to a 1000-kg car? Using Newton's second
law we find

_ F_
== 2000N =_ 2000kg-mis? = ims?
m 1000 kg 1000 kg
If the force is 4000 N, what is the acceleration?

_ F
=e _ 4000N _ 4000 kg-m/s? = 4 m/s?
m 1000 kg 1000 kg
Doubling the force on the same mass simply doubles the
acceleration.
Physics problems are often more complicated than these.
We don't focus on solving complicated problems in this book.
Instead we emphasize equations as guides to thinking about the
relationships of basic physics concepts. The Plug and Chug
problems at the ends of many chapters familiarize you with
equations, and the Think and Solve problems go a step or two
further for more challenge. Solving problems is an important
skill in physics. But first, learn the concepts! Then problem
solving will be more meaningful.

Chapter 5 Newton's Second Law of Motion—Force and Acceleration

 @ Questions
ti Ifa Car can accelerate at 2 m/s?, what acceleration can it attain if
itistowing another car of equal mass?
2. What kind of motion does a constant force produce on an
object of
« fixed mass?

RS
PSATE
SE
5.4 Friction
We discussed friction in Chapter 4. Friction is a force like any other
force and affects motion. Friction acts on materials that are in con-
tact with each other, and it always acts in a direction to oppose
motion. When two solid objects come into contact, the friction is
mainly due to irregularities in the two surfaces. When one object
slides against another, it must either rise over the irregular bumps or
else scrape them off. Either way requires force.
The force of friction between the surfaces depends on the kinds
of material in contact and how much the surfaces are pressed
together. For example, rubber against concrete produces more fric-
tion than steel against steel. That’s why concrete road dividers have
replaced steel rails; see Figure 5.5. The friction produced by a tire
rubbing against the concrete is more effective in slowing the car than
the friction produced by a steel car body sliding against a steel rail.
Notice that the concrete divider is wider at the bottom to ensure that
the tire of a sideswiping car will make contact with the divider before
the steel car body does.
Friction is not restricted to solids sliding or tending to slide over
one another. Friction also occurs in liquids and gases, both of which
are called fluids (because they flow). Fluid friction occurs as an Figure 5.5 A
Cross-section view of a concrete
object pushes aside the fluid it is moving through. Have you ever
road divider and a steel road
tried running a 100-m dash through waist-deep water? The friction
divider. Which design is best for
of liquids is appreciable, even at low speeds. Air resistance, which is slowing an out-of-control, side-
the friction acting on something moving through air, is a very com- swiping car?
mon form of fluid friction. You usually don't notice air resistance
when walking or jogging, but you do notice it at the higher speeds
that occur when riding a bicycle or skiing downhill.
When friction is present, an object may move with a constant
velocity even when an outside force is applied to it. In such a case,
the friction force just balances the applied force. The net force is
zero, so there is no acceleration. For example, in Figure 5.6 the 1 Explore

2 Concept-Development
Practice Book 5-4, 5-5
3 Laboratory Manual 29
@ Answers
3 Problem-Solving
1. The same force on twice the mass produces half the acceleration, or 1 m/s?. Exercises in A
2. Aconstant force produces motion at a constant acceleration, in accordance with Physics 3-2
Newton’s second law.

63
 Figure 5.6 AIR RESISTANCE
PUSH
P ll
The direction of the force of fric-
~ tion always opposes the direction
of motion. (Left) Push the crate to
the right and friction acts toward
the left. (Right) The sack falls
downward and air friction acts
upward.

ee
FRICTION WEIGHT

crate moves with a constant velocity when the force pushing it just
balances the force of friction. The sack will also fall with a constant
velocity once the force due to air resistance balances the sack’s
weight. A diagram showing all the forces acting on an object is
called a free-body diagram.

_ @ Questions
1. Two forces acton a book resting on a table: its weight and the
i _ support force from the table. Does a force of friction act as well?
2 Suppose aa high-flying jet cruises with a constant velocity when
the thrust from its engines is a constant 80 000 N. What is the
ch
i acceleration ofthe jet? ae is the force of air resistance acting
y onthe jet? 384
= Py

MNRAS ECS ee eS
5.5 Applying Force—Pressure
No matter how you place a book on a table—on its back, upright, or
even balancing on a single corner—the force of the book on the table
is the same. You can check this by placing a book in any position on
a bathroom scale. You'll read the same weight in all cases. Balance a
book in different positions on the palm of your hand. Although the
force is always the same, you'll notice differences in the way the

@ Answers

1. No, not unless the book tends to slide or does slide across the table. For example, if it
1 Explore is pushed toward the left by another force, then friction between the book and table
will act toward the right. Friction forces occur only when an object tends to slide or is
| 2 Laboratory Manual 75 sliding.
3 Problem-Solving . The acceleration must be zero because the velocity is not changing—velocity is con-
nN
Exercises in A stant. Since the acceleration is zero, it follows from a = F/m that the net force is zero.
Physics 3-3, 3-4 This means the force of air resistance must equal the engine's thrust. The air resistance
is 80 000 N, and it acts in the direction opposite to the jet's motion.

64 Chapter 5 Newton's Second Law of Motion—Force and Acceleration

book presses against your palm. These differences are due to differ-
ences in the area of contact for each case. The amount of force per
unit of area is called pressure. More precisely, when the force is per-
pendicular to the surface area,

force
pressure = -—
area of application
In equation form,

Pets
A

where P is the pressure and A is the area over which the force acts. Figure 5.7 A
Force, which is measured in newtons, is different from pressure, The upright book exerts the
which is measured in newtons per square meter, or pascals (Pa). same force, but greater pressure,
One newton per square meter is equal to one pascal. against the supporting surface.
You exert more pressure against the ground when you stand on
one foot than when you stand on both feet. This is due to the
decreased area of contact. Stand on one toe like a ballerina and the
pressure is huge. The smaller the area supporting a given force, the
greater the pressure on that surface.
You can calculate the pressure you exert on the ground when
you are standing. One way is to moisten the bottom of your foot with
water and step on a clean sheet of graph paper. Count the number of
squares on the graph paper contained within your footprint. Divide
your weight by this area and you have the average pressure you exert
on the ground when standing on one foot. How will this pressure
compare with the pressure you exert when you stand on two feet?
A dramatic illustration of pressure is shown in Figure 5.8. The
Figure 5.8 W
author applies appreciable force when he breaks the cement block
The author applies a force to
with the sledge hammer. Yet his friend (the author of the lab manual)
fellow physics teacher Paul
sandwiched between two beds of sharp nails is unharmed. The Robinson, who is bravely sand-
friend is unharmed because much of the force is distributed over the wiched between beds of sharp
more than 200 nails that make contact with his body. The combined nails. The driving force per nail is
surface area of this many nails results in a tolerable pressure that not enough to puncture the skin.
does not puncture the skin. CAUTION: This demonstration is quite CAUTION: Do not attempt this
dangerous. Do not attempt it on your own. on your own!
 @ Questions
1. In attempting to do the demonstration shown
in Figure 5.8,
would it be wise to begin witha few nails and work upward to —
more nails? . |
2. The massiveness of the cement block plays an important role in
this demonstration. Which provides more safety, a less massive
block or a more massive one?

NS Ss
5.6 Free Fall Explained
Galileo showed that falling objects accelerate equally, regardless of
their masses. This is strictly true if air resistance is negligible, that is, if
the objects are in free fall. It is approximately true when air resistance
is very small compared with the mass of the falling object. For exam-
ple, a 10-kg cannonball and a 1-kg stone dropped from an elevated
position at the same time will fall together and strike the ground at
practically the same time. This experiment, said to be done by Galileo
from the Leaning Tower of Pisa, demolished the Aristotelian idea that
an object that weighs ten times as much as another should fall ten
times faster than the lighter object. Galileo’s experiment and many
others that showed the same result were convincing. But Galileo
couldn't say why the accelerations were equal. The explanation is a
straightforward application of Newton's second law and is the topic of
the cartoon “Backyard Physics.” Let’s treat it separately here.
Figure 5.9 A Recall that mass (a quantity of matter) and weight (the force due
Galileo’s famous demonstration. to gravity) are proportional. A 2-kg bag of nails weighs twice as much
as a 1-kg bag of nails. So a 10-kg cannonball experiences 10 times as
much gravitational force (weight) as a 1-kg stone. The followers of
Aristotle believed that the cannonball should accelerate at a rate ten
times that of the stone, because they considered only the cannon-
ball’s ten-times-greater weight. However, Newton's second law tells
us to consider the mass as well. A little thought will show that ten
times as much force acting on ten times as much mass produces the
same acceleration as the smaller force acting on the smaller mass. In
symbolic notation,

@ Answers

1. No, no, no! There would be one less physics teacher if the demonstration were per-
formed with fewer nails. The resulting greater pressure would cause harm.
~ The greater the mass of the block, the smaller the acceleration of the block and bed of
nails toward the friend. Much of the force wielded by the hammer goes into breaking
the block. It is important that the block be massive and that it break upon impact.

66 Chapter 5 Newton's Second Law of Motion—Force and Acceleration

 : =} | THAT'S EASY? THE BAG
i eee THE BAG OF CLOTHESPINS OF CLOTHESPINS IS
AND THE SINGLE PIN AT THE SAME HEAVIER, WHICH MEANS
TIME, WHICH WILL FALL TO. THE 4 | GRAVITY PULLS ON IT
WITH MORE FORCE.
GROUND FIRST? SO THE BAG OF PINS
WILL ACCELERATE
MORE AND HIT THE
Hf
Memeenp
GROUND FIRST?

NoT TRUE’ THE BAG an

CLOTHESPINS HAS MORE
MASS, WHICH IS TO SAY, “PIN WILL hee
HAS MORE INERTIA... IT WILL TB
BE LESS RESPONSIVE TO. .
GRAVITY AND LAG BEHIND | :
THE SINGLE PIN/

SINCE THE BAG HAS BOTH A

GREATER WEIGHT AND A ‘GREATER
yes ONE es oe OTHER!

67
 where F'stands for the force (weight) acting on the cannonball, and
M stands for the correspondingly large mass of the cannonball. The
small Fand mstand for the smaller weight and smaller mass of the

@:
stone. We see that the ratio of weight to mass is the same for these or
any objects. All freély falling objects undergo the same acceleration
at the same place on Earth. In Chapter 2 we introduced the symbol
g for the acceleration.
We can show the same result with numerical values. The weight
of a 1-kg stone is 9.8 N at Earth’s surface. The weight of a 10-kg
cannonball is 98 N at Earth’s surface. The force acting on a falling

JE
mn ie $
object is the force due to gravity—the object’s weight. Using
Newton's second law, the acceleration of the stone is
qu J. = Weight _ 9.8N _ 9.8 kg-m/s* _ 9 g m/s2 = g
m m 1 kg lkg
Figure 5.10 A and the acceleration of the cannonball is
The ratio of weight (F) to mass
(m) is the same for the 10-kg can- az T= eight _ 98N _ 98 kg-m/s* _ 9 8 m/s2 = g
nonball and the 1-kg stone. m m 10 kg 10 kg
In the famous coin-and-feather-in-a-vacuum-tube demonstration
discussed in Chapter 2, the reason for the equal accelerations was
not discussed. Now we know that both freely falling objects fall with
the same acceleration because the net force on each object is only its
weight, and the ratio of weight to mass is the same for both.

a Question
hy you were on the moon and dropped a hammer and a feather
from the same elevation at the same time, would they strike the
surface of the moon at the same instant?

ME
REEFALSE
5.7 Falling and Air Resistance
The feather and coin fall with equal accelerations in a vacuum, but
quite unequally in the presence of air. When air is let into the glass tube
and it is again inverted and held upright, the coin falls quickly while
the feather flutters to the bottom. Air resistance diminishes the net
forces acting on the objects. The net force decreases a tiny bit for the
coin and a lot for the feather. The downward acceleration for the
feather is very brief because the air resistance builds up quickly and
counteracts its tiny weight. The feather does not have to fall very long
or very fast for this to happen. When the air resistance on the feather
equals the weight of the feather, the net force is zero and no further

@ Answer
1 Explore
Yes. Astronaut David Scott did this exact experiment! On the moon, the hammer and feather
3 Laboratory Manual 74 weigh only one-sixth of their Earth weights, and there is no air to provide friction. The ratio
of moon-weight to mass for each object is the same, and they both accelerate at (1/6)g.

68 Chapter 5 Newton's Second Law of Motion—Force and Acceleration

 <4 Figure 5.11
Terminal speed is reached for the
sky divers when air resistance
equals weight.

acceleration occurs. Acceleration terminates: the feather has reached

its terminal speed. If we are concerned with direction, which is down
for falling objects, we say the feather has reached its terminal velocity.
Air resistance does not have as much effect on the coin. At slow
speeds, the force of air resistance is very small compared with the
weight of the coin, and its acceleration is only slightly less than the
acceleration of free fall, g. The coin might have to fall for several sec-
onds before its speed is great enough for air resistance to equal and
cancel its weight. Its speed at this point, perhaps as much as 200
km/h, would no longer increase. The coin reaches its terminal speed.
The terminal speed for a sky diver varies from about 150 to 200
km/h, depending on the weight and orientation of the body. A heavier
person will attain a greater terminal speed than a lighter person. The
greater weight is more effective in “plowing through” air. Body orien-
tation also makes a difference. More air is encountered when the body
is spread out and surface area is increased, like that of the flying squir-
rel in Figure 5.12. Terminal speed can be controlled by variations in
body orientation. A heavy sky diver and a light sky diver can remain in
close proximity to each other if the heavy person spreads out like a
flying squirrel while the light person falls head or feet first. A para-
chute greatly increases air resistance, and cuts the terminal speed
down to 15 to 25 km/h, slow enough for a safe landing.
If you hold a baseball and tennis ball at arm’s length and release
them at the same time, you'll see them strike the floor at the same Figure 5.12 A
time. But if you drop them from the top of a building, you'll notice The flying squirrel increases its
area by spreading out. This
increases air resistance and
decreases the speed of its fall.
H Question
If a heavy person and a light person open their parachutes together
at the same altitude and each wears the same size parachute, “Aste
will reach the ground first? oe ‘ae
{ " ms = = ie

BH Answer

The heavy person will reach the ground first. Like a feather, the light person reaches termi-
nal speed sooner, while the heavy person continues to accelerate until a greater terminal
speed is reached. The heavy person moves ahead of the light person, and the separation
continues to increase as they descend.
 PHYSICS

Air Resistance sot CEM Rear

If you drop a sheet of paper and a book side by side, the book will
fall faster because of its greater weight relative to the air resistance.
lf you place the paper against the bottom
surface of the horizontally held book and
drop them at the same time, it is no sur-
prise that they will hit the floor at the same
time. The book simply pushes the paper
with it as it falls. Repeat this with the paper
on top of the book. How do the accelera-
tions of the book and paper compare?

the heavier baseball strikes the ground first. This is due to the buildup
of air resistance at higher speeds (like the parachutists in the ques-
tion). At low speeds, air resistance is often negligible, but at high
speeds, it can make quite a difference. The effect of air resistance is
more pronounced on the lighter tennis ball than on the heavier base-
ball, so the acceleration of the fall is less for the tennis ball. The tennis
ball behaves more like a parachute than the baseball does.
When Galileo reportedly dropped the objects of different weights
from the Leaning Tower of Pisa, the heavier object did get to the
ground first. However, the time difference was only a split second,
rather than the pronounced time difference expected by the followers
Figure 5.13 A of Aristotle. The behavior of falling objects was never really understood
A stroboscopic photo of a golf until Newton announced his second law of motion.
ball and a Styrofoam? ball falling I :
saac Newton truly changed our way of seeing the world.
in air. The weight of the heavier y S y 5
golf ball is more effective in over-
coming air resistance, so its
acceleration is greater. Will both
ultimately reach a terminal
speed? Which will do so first? If the force of air resistance is the same for a falling baseball and a
Why? falling tennis ball, which will have the greater acceleration?

@ Answer

Don't say “the same”! It's true the air resistance may be the same for each, but that doesn’t
mean the net force is the same for each, or that the ratio of net force to mass is the same
for each. The heavier baseball has the greater net force, and greater net force per mass,
just as the heavier parachutist previously considered. Convince yourself of this by consid-
ering the upper limit of air resistance, that is, when air resistance is equal to the weight of
the tennis ball. What would the tennis balls acceleration be? It would be zero. But when
this amount of air resistance acts on the heavier baseball, do you see that the baseball still
accelerates? And with more thought, do you see that the baseball has the greater accelera-
tion even when the air resistance is less than the weight of the tennis ball?

70 Chapter 5 Newton's Second Law of Motion—Force and Acceleration

 Chapter Assessment

For: Study and Review Review Questions Check Concepts

Go @niine Visit: PHSchool.com
‘Com Web Code: csd-1050 I, Distinguish between the relationship that
defines acceleration and the relationship that
states how it is produced. (5.1)
. What is meant by the net force that acts on an
Concept Summary object? (5.1)
An object accelerates—changes speed and/or . Suppose a cart is being moved by a certain net
direction—when a net force acts on it. force. If the net force is doubled, by how much
does the cart’s acceleration change? (5.1)
= The acceleration of an object is directly
proportional to the net force acting on it. . Suppose a cart is being moved by a certain
net force. If a load is dumped into the cart so
m The acceleration of an object is inversely
its mass is doubled, by how much does the
proportional to the mass of the object.
acceleration change? (5.2)
Acceleration equals net force divided by mass.
. Distinguish between the concepts directly
Acceleration is in the same direction as the proportional and inversely proportional.
net force. Support your statement with examples.
(5.1-5.2)
When an object moves with constant velocity
while an applied force acts on it, an equal and . State Newton’s second law in words and then
opposite force, usually friction, must also act to in the form of an equation. (5.3)
balance the applied force.
. How much force does a 20 000-kg rocket
The application of a force over an area produces develop to accelerate 1 m/s? (5.3)
pressure.
. What is the cause of friction, and in what
m When the force is perpendicular to the sur- direction does it act with respect to the
face area, the pressure equals the force motion of a sliding object? (5.4)
divided by the area over which it acts.
. If the force of friction acting on a sliding crate
The acceleration of all objects in free fall is the is 100 N, how much force must be applied to
same, regardless of their mass. maintain a constant velocity? What will be the
net force acting on the crate? What will be the
mw When air resistance is present, a falling object
acceleration? (5.4)
accelerates only until it reaches its terminal
speed. 10. Distinguish between force and pressure. (5.5)

m= At terminal speed, the force of air resistance 11. Which produces more pressure on the
balances the force of gravity. ground, a person standing up or the same
person lying down? (5.5)
(En
12. The force of gravity is twice as great on a 2-kg
Key Terms rock as on a 1-kg rock. Why does the 2-kg
rock not fall with twice the acceleration? (5.6)
air resistance (5.4) pascal (5.5)
fluid (5.4) pressure (5.5) 13. Why do a coin and a feather in a vacuum
_ terminal speed (5.7) tube fall with the same acceleration? (5.7)
free-body diagram (5.4)
inversely (5.2) terminal velocity (5.7)
Newton’s second law (5.3)
71
14. Why do a coin and a feather fall with different 25. If an object has no acceleration, can you con-
accelerations in the presence of air? (5.7) clude that no forces are exerted on it? Explain
and draw a free-body diagram to illustrate an
15. How much air resistance acts on a 100-N bag
example.
of nails that falls at its terminal speed? (5.7)
26. What is the acceleration of a rock at the top of
16. How do the air resistance and the weight of a
its trajectory when thrown straight upward?
falling object compare when terminal speed
Explain whether or not the answer is zero by
is reached? (5.7)
using the equation a= F/mas a guide to your
17. All other things being equal, why does a thinking.
heavy sky diver have a terminal speed greater
24. A rocket fired from its launching pad not only
than a light sky diver? What can be done so
picks up speed, but its acceleration also
that the terminal speeds are equal? (5.7)
increases significantly as firing continues.
18. What is the net force acting on a 25-N freely Why is this so? (Hint: About 90% of the mass
falling object? What is the net force when the of a newly launched rocket is fuel.)
object encounters 15 N of air resistance?
28. If you push horizontally on your book with a
When it falls fast enough to encounter 25 N
force of 1 N to make the book slide at constant
of air resistance? (5.6-5.7)
velocity, how much is the force of friction on
the book?
29. When blocking in football, why does a
Plug and Chug Use Equations defending lineman often attempt to get his
19. Calculate the acceleration of a 2000-kg, body under that of his opponent and push
single-engine airplane just before takeoff upward? What effect does this have on the
when the thrust of its engine is 500 N. friction force between the opposing lineman’s
feet and the ground?
20. Calculate the acceleration of a 300 000-kg
jumbo jet just before takeoff when the thrust 30. Why does a sharp knife cut better than a dull
for each of its four engines is 30 000 N. knife?

Pa Ws a. Calculate the acceleration if you push with 31. An aircraft gains speed during takeoff due to
a 20-N horizontal force on a 2-kg block ona the constant thrust of its engines. When is the
horizontal friction-free air table. acceleration during takeoff greatest—at the
beginning of the run along the runway or just
b. What acceleration occurs if the friction before the aircraft lifts into the air? Think,
force is 4 N2 then explain.
paidsCalculate the horizontal force that must be 32. As a sky diver falls faster and faster through
applied to a 1-kg puck to make it accelerate on the air (before reaching terminal speed), does
a horizontal friction-free air table with the the net force on her increase, decrease, or
same acceleration it would have if it were remain unchanged? Does her acceleration
dropped and fell freely. increase, decrease, or remain unchanged?
23. Calculate the horizontal force that must be Defend your answers.
applied to produce an acceleration of 1.8 g 33. After she jumps, a sky diver reaches terminal
for a 1.2-kg puck on a horizontal friction-free
speed after 10 seconds. Does she gain more
air table. speed during the first second of fall or the
ninth second of fall? Compared with the first
SS SS ST ES AS S| second of fall, does she fall a greater ora
Think and Explain lesser distance during the ninth second?
Think Critically
24. What is the difference between saying that
one quantity is proportional to another and
saying it is equal to another?

72 Chapter 5 Newton's Second Law of Motion—Force and Acceleration

34. A regular tennis ball and another one filled 43. A 10-kg mass on a horizontal friction-free air
with sand are dropped at the same time from track is accelerated by a string attached to
the top of a high building. Your friend says another 10-kg mass hanging vertically from a
that even though air resistance is present, pulley as shown. What is the force due to
both balls should hit the ground at the same gravity in newtons of the hanging 10-kg
time because they are the same size and mass? What is the acceleration of the system
“plow through” the same amount of air. What of both masses?
do you say?

Think and Solve “AT

Develop Problem-Solving Skills
35. If a 1-N net force accelerates a 1-kg mass at
1m/s?, what is the acceleration caused by a
net force of 2N on a 2-kg mass?
36. What is the acceleration of a 747 jumbo jet,
mass 30 000 kg, in takeoff when the thrust for
each of its four engines is 30 000 N? 44. Suppose the masses described in the preced-
37. A certain force applied to a 2-kg mass acceler- ing problem are 1 kg and 100 kg, respectively.
ates the mass at 3 m/s. How much accelera- Compare the accelerations when they are
tion will the same force produce on a 4-kg interchanged, that is, for the case where the
mass? 1-kg mass dangles over the pulley, and then
for the case where the 100-kg mass dangles
38. A horizontal force of 100 N is required to over the pulley. What does this indicate about
push a crate across a factory floor at a con- the maximum acceleration of such a system
stant speed. What is the net force acting on of masses?
the crate? What is the force of friction acting
on the crate?
39. If a four-engine jet accelerates down the run-
way at 2 m/s’ and one of the jet engines fails,
Activity Performance Assessment
how much acceleration will the other three 45. When you drop two balls of different weights
produce? from the same height, you will see that for
low speeds, they practically fall together.
40. What will be the acceleration of a sky diver
What happens if you let them roll together
when air resistance is half the weight of the
down the same inclined plane? If each is sus-
sky diver? pended from the same length string, made
41. If a loaded truck that can accelerate at 1 m/s? into a pendulum, and then displaced through
loses its load and has three-fourths of the orig- the same angle, determine whether they
inal mass, what acceleration can it attain from swing back and forth in unison.
the same driving force?
42. An occupant of a car has a chance of surviv-
ing a crash if the deceleration during the
crash is not more than 30 g. Calculate the
force on a 70-kg person decelerating at
this rate.

73
 . Newton’s Third
Law of Motion—
Action and
Reaction
f you lean over too far, you'll fall. But if you lean
over with your hand outstretched and make
contact with a wall, you can do so without
falling. When you push against the wall, it pushes
Every foot that pushes down- back on you. That’s why you are supported. Ask your friends why you
ward on Earth is at the same don't topple over. How many will answer, “Because the wall is push-
time pushed upward by Earth— ing on you and holding you in place”? Probably not very many peo-
that’s the law! ple, unless they’re physics types, realize that walls can push on us
every bit as much as we push on them.*

LOOK AT THE
WALL PUSHING oR ET RAE RRL MCRAE BARRE Be NSE Ta on ke
ON ME?
6.1 Forces and Interactions

In the simplest sense, a force is a push or a pull. Looking closer, how-

ever, Newton realized that a force is not a thing in itself but part ofa
mutual action, an interaction, between one thing and another. For
Figure 6.1 A
When you push on the wall, the
example, consider the interaction between a hammer and a nail. A
wall pushes on you. hammer exerts a force on the nail and drives it into a board. But this
force is only half the story, for there must also be a force exerted on
the hammer to halt it in the process. What exerts this force? The nail
does! Newton reasoned that while the hammer exerts a force on the
nail, the nail exerts a force on the hammer. So, in the interaction
between the hammer and the nail, there are a pair of forces, one act-
ing on the nail and the other acting on the hammer. Such observa-
tions led Newton to his third law: the law of action and reaction.

* The terms push and pull usually invoke the idea of a living thing exerting a force. So,
Figure 6.2 A strictly speaking, to say “the wall pushes on you” is to say “the wall exerts a force as
The interaction that drives the though it were pushing on you.” As far as these mutual forces are concerned, there is
nail is the same as the one that no observable difference between the force exerted by you, a living being, and the
halts the hammer. force exerted by a wall, a nonliving object.

74 Chapter 6 Newton's Third Law of Motion—Action and Reaction

SET RRC eS
6.2 Newton’s Third Law
Newton’s third law states
Whenever one object exerts a force on a second object,
the second object exerts an equal and opposite force on
the first object.
One force is called the action force. The other force is called the
reaction force. It doesn’t matter which force we call action and which
we Call reaction. The important thing is that they are partners in a sin-
gle interaction and that neither force exists without the other. They are
equal in strength and opposite in direction. Newton's third law is often
stated: “To every action there is always an equal opposing reaction.”
In every interaction, the forces always occur in pairs. For example,
you interact with the floor when you walk on it. You push against the
floor, and the floor simultaneously pushes against you. Likewise, the
tires of a car interact with the road to produce the car’s motion. The Figure 6.3 A
tires push against the road, and the road simultaneously pushes back What happens to the boat when
on the tires. When swimming, you interact with the water. You push she jumps to shore?
the water backward, and the water pushes you forward. There are a
pair of forces acting in each interaction. Notice that the interactions in
these examples depend on friction. For example, a person trying to
walk on ice, where friction is minimal, may not be able to exert an
action force against the ice. Without the action force there cannot be a
reaction force, and thus there is no resulting forward motion.

H Questions
1. Does a stick of dynamite contain force?
2. Acar accelerates along a road. Strictly speaking, what is the
force that moves the car?
Figure 6.4 A
Does the dog wag the tail or
E
A SRT TT does the tail wag the dog? Or
both?
6.3 Identifying Action and Reaction
Sometimes the identity of the pair of action and reaction forces in an
interaction is not immediately obvious. For example, what are the

@ Answers

1. No. Force is not something an object has, like mass. Force is an interaction between
one object and another. An object may possess the capability of exerting a force on
another object, but it cannot possess force as a thing in itself. Later we will see that
something like a stick of dynamite possesses energy.
road
NS It is the road that pushes the car along. Really! Except for air resistance, only the
rotating tires push back on the road
provides a horizontal force on the car. How? The
(action). The road simultaneously pushes forward on the tires (reaction). The next
time 1 Explore
moving along a road, tell your friends that the road pushes the car along.
you see a car
1 Laboratory Manual 16
If at first they don’t believe you, convince them that there is more to the physical world
than meets the eye of the casual observer. Turn them on to some physics.

75
 action and reaction forces in the case of a falling boulder? You might
; LINK TO BIOLOGY = say that Earth’s gravitational force on the boulder is the action force,
ie SS ete ce but can you identify the reaction force? Is it the weight of the boul-
der? No, weight is simply another name for the force of gravity. Is it
caused by the ground where the boulder lands? No, the ground does
not act on the boulder until the boulder hits it.
It turns out that there is a simple recipe for treating action and
reaction forces. First identify the interaction. Let’s say one object, A,
interacts with another object, B. The action and reaction forces can
then be stated in the form
Action: Object A exerts a force on object B.

Reaction: Object B exerts a force on object A.

“why de
iepores si eA
This is easy to remember. Just identify interacting objects A and B,
bk such. as geese, fly |inaV ,
‘formation? The answer is and if the action is A on B, the reaction is simply B on A. So, in the
simple, physics! The ’ case of the falling boulder, the interaction during the fall is the gravi-
bird’s wings deflect air tational attraction between the boulder and Earth. If we call the
Maovinerd and the sito action Earth exerting a force on the boulder, then the reaction is the
pushes the bird upward. _ boulder simultaneously exerting a force on Earth.
But the story doesn’t end
there. The downward-
moving air meets the air
H Question
,
below and swirls upward. — _ We know that Earth pulls on the moon. Does the moon also pull on
This upward-swirling air _ Earth? If so, which pull is stronger?
creates an updraft, which i
is strongest off to the side
of the bird. A trailing bird
positions itself to get
added lift from the
updraft, thus conserving
its energy. This bird, in
turn, creates an updraft
for a following bird, and
so on. The result is a flock
flying in a V formation.

Figure 6.5 p>

Force-pair between object A and
object B. Note that when action is
A exerts force on B, the reaction
is simply B exerts force on A.

@ Answer

Yes, in the interaction between Earth and the moon, Earth and the moon pull simultaneous
ly
on each other. Earth pulls on the moon while the moon pulls on Earth. Both pulls
make up
an action-reaction pair, are opposite in direction to each other, and have equal
strength.

76 Chapter 6 Newton's Third Law of Motion—Action and Reaction

6.4 Action and Reaction on Different
NMiasses
Interestingly enough, in the interaction between the boulder and
Earth, the boulder pulls up on Earth with as much force as Earth
pulls down on the boulder. The forces are equal in strength and
opposite in direction. We say the boulder falls to Earth. Could we also
say Earth falls to the boulder? The answer is yes, but the distance
Earth falls is much less. Although the pair of forces between the boul- ae
der and Earth are the same, the masses are quite unequal. Recall that
Newton's second law states that acceleration is not only proportional
to the net force, but it is also inversely proportional to the mass. Figure 6.6 A
Earth is pulled up by the boulder
Because Earth has a huge mass, we don't sense its infinitesimally
with just as much force as the
small acceleration. Although Earth's acceleration is negligible, strictly boulder is pulled down by Earth.
speaking it does move up toward the falling boulder. So when you
step off a curb, the street actually comes up a tiny bit to meet you!
A similar, but less exaggerated, example occurs during the firing
of a cannon. When the cannon is fired, there is an interaction
between the cannon and the cannonball. The force the cannon
exerts on the cannonball is exactly equal and opposite to the force
the cannonball exerts on the cannon, so the cannon “kicks.” On first
consideration, you might expect the cannon to kick more than it
does, or you might wonder why the cannonball moves so fast com-
pared with the cannon. According to Newton's second law, we must
also consider the masses. i

o <4 Figure 6.7

The force exerted against the
recoiling cannon is just as great
as the force that drives the can-
nonball along the barrel. Why,
then, does the cannonball
or undergo more acceleration than
: : h <
Let Frepresent both the action and reaction forces; 771, the mass re ane
of the cannon; and m, the mass of the cannonball. Different size sym-
bols are used to indicate the differences in masses and the resulting
accelerations. The acceleration of the cannonball and cannon are

Cannonball: mer amnza

ide Cannon: am= a

Do you see why the change in the velocity of the cannonball is

great compared with the change in velocity of the cannon? A given
force exerted on a small mass produces a greater acceleration than
the same force exerted on a large mass.
If we extend the basic idea of a cannon recoiling from the can-
nonball it launches, we can understand rocket propulsion. Consider
air escaping from an untied, blown-up balloon. If the balloon is
released and allowed to move as shown in Figure 6.8, it accelerates
as the air comes out. A rocket accelerates in much the same way—it
continually recoils from the exhaust gases ejected from its engine.
Each molecule of exhaust gas acts like a tiny molecular cannonball
shot downward from the rocket.
77
 A common misconception is that a rocket is propelled by the
impact of exhaust gases against the atmosphere. In fact, before the
advent of rockets, it was commonly thought that sending a rocket to
the moon was impossible because of the absence of an atmosphere
for the rocket to push against. This is like saying a cannon wont recoil
unless the cannonball has air to push against. This is not true! Both
the rocket and recoiling cannon accelerate because of the reaction
forces created by the “cannonballs” they fire—air or no air. In fact,
rockets work better above the atmosphere where there is no air drag.
Using Newton's third law, we can understand how a helicopter
gets its lifting force. The whirling blades are shaped to force air parti-
cles downward (action), and the air forces the blades upward (reac-
tion). This upward reaction force is called /ift. When lift equals the
weight of the craft, the helicopter hovers in midair. When lift is
greater, the helicopter climbs upward.
Birds and airplanes also fly because of action and reaction forces.
When a bird is soaring, the shape of its wings deflects air downward.
The air in turn pushes the bird up. The slightly tilted wings of an air-
plane also deflect oncoming air downward and produce lift. Airplanes
must continuously push air downward to maintain lift and remain
airborne. This continuous supply of air is produced by the forward
Figure 6.8 A
motion of the aircraft, which results from jets or propellers that push
The balloon recoils from the air backward. When the engines push air back, the air in turn pushes
escaping air and climbs upward. the engines and the plane forward. We will learn later how the curved
surface of an airplane wing enhances the lifting force.

» Can you identify the action and reaction forces of an object falling
_in the vacuum of outer space?

6.5 Do Action and Reaction Forces

Cancel?
Since action and reaction forces are equal and opposite, why don’t
they cancel to zero? To answer this interesting question, we first con-
sider the system involved. Consider the force pair between the apple
and the orange in Figure 6.10. Suppose we ignore the apple and
everything else and concentrate only on the orange. We draw an
imaginary circle around the orange and call it the system. The pull
from the apple supplies a force on the system, and the system

Pp i esses

@ Answer
Figure 6.9 A To identify a pair of action-reaction forces in any situation, first identify the pair of interact-
The rocket recoils from the “mol- ing objects involved. In this case, the interaction is the gravitational attraction between the
ecular cannonballs” it fires and falling object and another object, possibly a distant planet. So the planet pulls down on the
climbs upward. object (action), while the object pulls up on the planet (reaction).

78 Chapter 6 Newton's Third Law of Motion—Action and Reaction

 <4 Figure 6.10
An apple pulls on an orange and
the orange accelerates—period!
The orange pulls back on the
apple, but this affects the apple
and not the orange.

accelerates. In this case, the interaction is between the system (the

orange) and something external (the apple), so the action and reac-
tion forces don't cancel. The fact that the orange simultaneously
exerts a force on the apple, which is external to the system, affects
the apple but not the orange.
However, if we consider the system to be both the orange and the
apple, the force pair is internal to the system. In this case, the forces
do cancel each other. Similarly, the many force pairs between the Figure 6.11 A
molecules in a baseball may hold the ball together into a cohesive A acts on B and B accelerates.
solid, but they play no role at all in accelerating the ball. A force
external to the ball is needed to accelerate it. Similarly, a force exter-
nal to both the apple and orange is needed to produce acceleration
of the entire system (like friction of the floor on the apple’s feet). If
action and reaction forces are internal to a system, they cancel each
other and produce no acceleration of the system. Action and reac-
tion forces do not cancel each other when either is external to the
system being considered. If this is confusing, it may be well to note
that Newton had difficulties with the third law himself.
Now, if two people kick the same ball with equal and opposite
force at the same time, as shown in Figure 6.12, there are two inter- Figure 6.12 A
actions to be considered. In this case, there are two forces acting on Both A and C act on B. They can
the ball and the net force on the ball is zero—but not for the single cancel each other so B does not
interaction with one foot. accelerate.

Suppose a friend who hears about Newton's third law says that
you can’t move a football by kicking it because the reaction force
by the kicked ball would be equal and opposite to your kicking
force. The net force would be zero, so no matter how hard you kick,
- the ball won’t move! What do you say to your friend?
EEE

BH Answer

Tell your friend that if you kick a football, it will accelerate. Does this acceleration contra-
dict Newton’s third law? No! Your kick acts on the ball. No other force has been applied to
the ball. The net force on the ball is very real, and the ball accelerates. What about the
reaction force? Aha! That force doesn’t act on the ball; it acts on your foot. The reaction
force decelerates your foot as it makes contact with the ball. Tell your friend that you can’t
cancel a force on the ball with a force on your foot.

79
 NUE
oe 0
6.6 The Horse-Cart Problem
A situation similar to the kicked football is shown in the comic strip
“Horse Sense.” Here we think of the horse as believing its pull on the
cart will be canceled by the opposite and equal pull by the cart on
the horse, thus making acceleration impossible. This is a classic
problem that stumps many college students. By thinking carefully,
you can understand it.
The horse-cart problem can be looked at from three different
points of view. First, consider the point of view of the farmer, who
is concerned with getting his cart (the cart system) to market. Then,
there is the point of view of the horse (the horse system). Finally,
there is the point of view of the horse and cart together (the
horse-cart system).
From the farmer's point of view, the only concern is with the
force that is exerted on the cart system. The net force on the cart,
divided by the mass of the cart, will produce a very real acceleration.
The farmer doesn’t care about the reaction on the horse.
Now look at the horse system. It’s true that the opposite reaction
force by the cart on the horse restrains the horse. Without this force,
the horse could freely gallop to the market. This force tends to hold
the horse back. So how does the horse move forward? The horse
Figure 6.13 A moves forward by interacting with the ground. When the horse
All the pairs of forces that act on pushes backward on the ground, the ground simultaneously pushes
the horse and cart are shown: (1) forward on the horse. If the horse pushes the ground with a greater
the pull P of the horse and the force than it pulls on the cart, there will be a net force on the horse
cart on each other; (2) the push F and acceleration occurs. When the cart is up to speed, the horse
of the horse and the ground on need only push against the ground with enough force to offset the
each other; and (3) the friction f
friction between the cart wheels and the ground.
between the cart wheels and the
Finally, look at the horse-cart system as a whole. From this view-
ground. Notice that there are two
forces applied to the cart and to
point, the pull of the horse on the cart and the reaction of the cart on
the horse. Can you see that the the horse are internal forces, or forces that act and react within the
acceleration of the horse-cart sys- system. They contribute nothing to the acceleration of the
tem is due to the net force F — f? horse-cart system. They cancel and can be neglected. To move
across the ground, there must be an interaction between the
horse-cart system and the ground. For example, if your car is stalled,

@ Questions
1. What is the net force that acts on the cart in Figure 6.13? On the
horse? On the ground?
2. Once the horse gets the cart up to the desired speed, must the
horse continue to exert a force on the cart?
SS
SSS

@ Answers

1. The net force on the cart is P- f; on the horse, F- P; on the ground, F- f.

2. Yes, but only enough to counteract wheel friction and air resistance.

80 Chapter 6 Newton's Third Law of Motion—Action and Reaction

 , IF | PULL ON THE CART,
OR ME TO THE CART WILL PULL BACK ON
PULL THE CART ME. BY NEWTON'S 3°¢ LAW,
CART SO We Pe GET GOING} WOULD BE A THE:FORGES«ARE
FUTILE EFFORT. EQUAL AND OPPOSITE:
SO THEY “LL CANCEL
OUT. A ZERO NET
FORCE WON’T
GET US
MOVING.

| DON’T CARE ABOUT THE FORCE

EXERTED ON YOU. |'M INTERESTED
IN THE FORCE YOU EXERT ON THE
CART? You PULLTHE
CART AND |
GUARANTEE. IT
WILL MOVE!

FORWARD WHEN THE

CART PULLS
BACKWARD ON ME

JUST PUSH BACKWARD ON THE THAT GROUND |S

GROUND. BY NEWTONS 3% LAW, DOING A VERY
THE GROUND WILL PUSH FORWARD Goob Jos?
EQUALLY ON YOU --- THEN ILL
SIMPLY FOLLOW

81
 you can't get it moving by sitting inside and pushing on the dashboard.
You must interact with the ground outside. You must get outside and
make the ground push the car. The horse-cart system is similar. It is
the outside reaction by the ground that pushes the system.

HONESTLY, THE WALL

HIT MY HAND AND Mae RNR SO aE Ua ee
SPRAINED MY WRIST& , a A
6.7 Action Equals Reaction
This chapter began with a discussion of how a wall pushes back on
you when you push against it. Suppose that for some reason, you
punch the wall. Bam! Your hand is hurt. Your friends see your dam-
aged hand and ask what happened. What can you say truthfully? You
can say that the wall hit your hand. How hard did the wall hit your
hand? It hit just as hard as you hit the wall. You cannot hit the wall
Figure 6.14 A any harder than the wall can hit you back.
If you hit the wall, it will hit you Hold a sheet of paper in midair and tell your friends that the
oa uel yeaetcl heavyweight champion of the world could not strike the paper with a
force of 200 N (45 pounds). You are correct, because a 200-N interac-
tion between the champ’s fist and the sheet of paper in midair isn't
possible. The paper is not capable of exerting a reaction force of 200
N, and you cannot have an action force without a reaction force.
Now, if you hold the paper against the wall, that’s a different story.
The wall will easily assist the paper in providing 200 N of reaction
force, and more if needed!
For every interaction between things, there is always a pair of
oppositely directed forces that are equal in strength. If you push hard
on the world, for example, the world pushes hard on you. If you
touch the world gently, the world will touch you gently in return.
The way you touch others is the way others touch you.

Figure 6.15 >

You cannot touch without being
touched—Newton’s third law.

1 Explore

2 Laboratory Manual 77, 78

2 Concept-Development
Practice Book 6-7

82 Chapter 6 Newton's Third Law of Motion—Action and Reaction

 Chapter Assessment

ce When a cannon is fired, how does the size of

(Go @nline For: Study and Review

Visit: PHSchool.com
the force of the cannon on the cannonball
compare with the force of the cannonball on
HSchool.com Web Code: csd-1060 the cannon? How does the acceleration of the
cannon compare with that of the cannonball?
Defend your answer. (6.4)
. How can a rocket be propelled above the
Concept Summary atmosphere where there is no air to “push
An interaction between two things produces a against”? (6.4)
pair of forces. Questions 9-11 refer to the apple-orange system in
m Interacting things exert forces on each other. Figure 6.10. Consider only horizontal forces.

m The two interacting forces are called the o: In the interaction between an apple and an
action force and the reaction force. orange, how many forces are exerted on the
apple? On the orange? Are these forces equal
m Action and reaction forces are equal in in strength? Are these forces opposite in
strength and opposite in direction. direction? (6.5)
10. Consider the orange system. Do action and
reaction forces cancel each other in the
Key Terms orange system? Does the orange system
accelerate? (6.5)
action force (6.2) Newton's third law (6.2)
reaction force (6.2) 11. Consider the orange—apple system. Do action
interaction (6.1)
and reaction forces cancel each other in this
system? Do the orange and apple accelerate
away from each other, or do they remain
Review Questions Check Concepts together? (6.5)

1. In the interaction between a hammer and the Questions 12-15 refer to the horse-cart system in
nail it hits, is a force exerted on the nail? On Figure 6.13. Consider only horizontal forces.
the hammer? How many forces occur in this 12. a. In the horizontal direction, how many
interaction? (6.1) forces are exerted on the cart?
2. When a hammer exerts a force on a nail, how b. What is the net horizontal force on the
does the amount of force compare with that cart? (6.6)
of the nail on the hammer? (6.1)
13. a. How many horizontal forces are exerted on
3. When you walk along a floor, what pushes the horse?
you along? (6.2)
b. What is the net horizontal force on the
4. When swimming, you push the water back- horse?
ward—call this action. What is the reaction
force? (6.2) c. How many horizontal forces are exerted by
the horse on other objects? (6.6)
5. If the action is a bowstring acting on an
arrow, identify the reaction force. (6.3) 14, a. How many horizontal forces are exerted on
the horse-cart system?
6. When you jump up, the world really does
b. What is the net horizontal force on the
recoil downward. Why can’t this motion of the
world be noticed? (6.4) horse-cart system? (6.6)

83
15. In order to increase its speed, why must the 25. Suppose you're weighing yourself while
horse push harder against the ground than it standing next to the bathroom sink. Using the
pulls on the wagon? (6.6) idea of action and reaction, explain why the
scale reading will be less when you push
16. If you hit a wall with a force of 200 N, how
down on the top of the sink. Why will the
much force is exerted on you? (6.7) scale reading be more if you pull up on the
17. Why can't you hit a feather in midair with a bottom of the sink?
force of 200 N? (6.7)
18. How does the saying “You get what you give”
relate to Newton's third law? (6.7)

Think and Explain Think Critically

19. Your weight is the result of the gravitational
force of Earth on your body. What is the cor-
responding reaction force?
20. Why can you exert greater force on the pedals
of a bicycle if you pull up on the handlebars?
21. Consider the two forces acting on a person 26. When a high jumper leaves the ground, what
who stands still, namely, the downward pull is the source of the upward force that acceler-
of gravity and the upward support of the ates her? What force acts after her feet are no
floor. Are these forces equal and opposite? longer in contact with the ground?
Do they comprise an action-reaction pair?
Why or why not? 27. What is the reaction force to an action force
of 1000 N exerted by Earth on an orbiting

F, communications satellite?

28. If action equals reaction, why isn’t Earth

pulled into orbit around a communications
satellite?
vatKeIf a bicycle and a massive truck have a head-
on collision, upon which vehicle is the impact
force greater? Which vehicle undergoes the
greater change in its motion? Defend your
answers.
W
30. A speeding bus makes contact with a bug that
splatters onto the windshield. Because of the
22. If you walk on a log that is floating in the
sudden force, the unfortunate bug undergoes
water, the log moves backward. Why? a sudden deceleration. Is the corresponding
23. Why is it easier to walk on a carpeted floor force that the bug exerts against the wind-
than on a smooth, polished floor? shield greater, less, or the same? Is the result-
ing deceleration of the bus greater than, less
24. If you step off a ledge, you accelerate notice-
than, or the same as that of bug?
ably toward Earth because of the gravitational
interaction between you and Earth. Does 31. Some people used to think that a rocket
Earth accelerate toward you as well? Explain. could not travel to the moon because it
would have no air to push against once it left
Earth's atmosphere. We now know that idea
was mistaken. What force propels a rocket
when it is in a vacuum?
84 Chapter 6 Newton's Third Law of Motion—Action and Reaction
32. Since the force that acts on a cannonball when 36. The strong man can withstand the tension
a cannon is fired is equal and opposite to the force exerted by the two horses pulling in
force that acts on the cannon, does this imply opposite directions. How would the tension
a zero net force and therefore the impossibility compare if only one horse pulled and the left
of an accelerating cannonball? Explain. rope were tied to a tree? How would the ten-
33. Suppose you exert 200 N on your refrigerator sion compare if the two horses pulled in the
and push it across the kitchen floor at con- same direction, with the left rope tied to
stant velocity. What friction force acts the tree?
between the refrigerator and the floor? Is the
friction force equal and opposite to your 200-
N push? Does the friction force make up the
reaction force to your push?
34. Your teacher challenges you and your best
friend to each pull on a pair of scales
attached to the ends of a horizontal rope, in
tug-of-war fashion, so that the readings on
the scales will differ. Can this be done?
Explain.
x

<p
RD

35. A pair of 50-N weights are attached to a 37. A balloon floats motionless in the air. A bal-
spring scale as shown. Does the spring scale loonist begins climbing up the supporting
read 0, 50, or 100 N? (Hint: Would it read any cable. In which direction does the balloon
differently if one of the strings were held by move as the balloonist climbs? Explain.
your hand instead of being attached to the
38. When you get up from a sitting position, do
50-N weight?)
your feet push against the floor with a force
equal to, more than, or less than your weight?
Explain.
39. When a weightlifter jerks a barbell over his
head, is the force exerted on the barbell more
than, less than, or equal to the barbell’s
weight? Explain.
 Momentum

H
ave you ever wondered how a karate expert can break
a stack of cement bricks with the blow of a bare hand?
Or why falling on a wooden floor hurts less than
falling on a cement floor? Or why follow-through is important
in golf, baseball, and boxing? To understand these things, you
Inertia and motion—that’s need to recall the concept of inertia introduced and developed when
momentum! we discussed Newton's laws of motion. Inertia was discussed both in
terms of objects at rest and objects in motion. In this chapter we are
concerned only with the concept of inertia in motion—momentum.

7.1 Momentum
We know that it’s harder to stop a large truck than a small car when
both are moving at the same speed. We say the truck has more
momentum than the car. By momentum, we mean inertia in motion,
or more specifically, the mass of an object multiplied by its velocity.
momentum = mass X velocity
or, in abbreviated notation,
momentum = mv
When direction is not an important factor, we can say

Figure 7.1 A momentum = mass X speed

A truck rolling down a hill has
which we still abbreviate mv.
more momentum than a roller
skate with the same speed,
We can see from the definition that a moving object can have a
because the truck has more
large momentum if it has a large mass, a high speed, or both. A mov-
mass. But if the truck is at rest ing truck has more momentum than a car moving at the same speed
and the roller skate moves, then because the truck has more mass. But a fast car can have more
the skate has more momentum momentum than a slow truck. And a truck at rest has no momentum
because only it has speed. at all.

Chapter 7 Momentum
 Can you think of a case where the roller skate and the truck shown
in Figure 7.1 would have the same momentum?

SAEED
ER SST
7.2 Impulse Changes Momentum
If the momentum of an object changes, either the mass or the veloc-
ity or both change. If the mass remains unchanged, as is most often
the case, then the velocity changes and acceleration occurs. What
produces acceleration? We know the answer is force. The greater the
force acting on an object, the greater its change in velocity, and
hence, the greater its change in momentum.
How long the force acts is also important. Apply a brief force to a
stalled automobile, and you produce a change in its momentum.
Apply the same force over an extended period of time and you pro-
duce a greater change in the automobile’s momentum. A force sus-
tained for a long time produces more change in momentum than
does the same force applied briefly. So both force and time are
important in changing momentum.
The quantity force X time interval is called impulse. In short-
hand notation
impulse = FAt
The greater the impulse exerted on something, the greater will be the
change in momentum. The exact relationship is
impulse = change in momentum
or*
Ft= A(mv)
The impulse-momentum relationship helps us to analyze a vari-
ety of situations where the momentum changes. Consider the famil-
iar examples of impulse in the following cases of increasing and
decreasing momentum.

BH Answer

The roller skate and truck can have the same momentum if the speed of the roller skate is
much greater than the speed of the truck. How much greater? As many times greater as
the truck’s mass is greater than the roller skate’s mass. Get it? For example, a 1000-kg truck
backing out of a driveway at 0.01 m/s has the same momentum as a 1-kg skate going
10 m/s. Both have momentum = 10 kg m/s.

* This relationship is derived by rearranging Newton's second Jaw to make the time
factor more evident. If we equate the formula for acceleration, a = F/m, with what accel-
eration actually is, a = Av/At, we get F/m = Av/At. From this we derive FAt = A(mv).
Calling At simply t, the time interval, Ft = A(mv).

87
 Case 1: Increasing Momentum
To increase the momentum of an object, it makes sense to apply the
greatest force possible for as long as possible. A golfer teeing off and
a baseball player trying for a home run do both of these things when
they swing as hard as possible and follow through with their swing.
The forces involved in impulses usually vary from instant to
instant. For example, a golf club that strikes a golf ball exerts zero
force on the ball until it comes in contact with it; then the force
increases rapidly as the ball becomes distorted (Figure 7.2). The
force then diminishes as the ball comes up to speed and returns to
its original shape. So when we speak of such impact forces in this
chapter, we mean the average force of impact. (Be careful to distin-
guish between impact and impulse. Impact refers to a force and is
measured in newtons; impulse is impact force x time and is mea-
Figure 7.2 A sured in newton-seconds.)
The force of impact on a golf ball
varies throughout the duration of x
impact. Case 2: Decreasing Momentum
If you were in a car that was out of control and had to choose
between hitting a concrete wall or a haystack, you wouldn't have to
call on your knowledge of physics to make up your mind. Common
sense tells you to choose the haystack. But knowing the physics
helps you to understand why hitting a soft object is entirely different
from hitting a hard one. In the case of hitting either the wall or the
haystack and coming to a stop, your momentum is decreased by
the same impulse. The same impulse does not mean the same

<ol
A foe<ON
LN ES>

Figure 7.3 A amount of force or the same amount of time; rather it means the
If the change in momentum same product of force and time. By hitting the haystack instead of
occurs over a long time, the force the wall, you extend the impact time—the time during which your
of impact is small. momentum is brought to zero. A longer impact time reduces the force
of the impact and decreases the resulting deceleration. For example,
if the time of impact is extended 100 times, the force of impact is
reduced 100 times. Whenever we wish the force of impact to be
small, we extend the time of impact.
We know that a padded dashboard in a car is safer than a rigid
metal one and that airbags save lives. We also know that to catch a
fast-moving ball safely with your bare hand, you extend your hand
forward so there's plenty of room for it to move backward after
making contact with the ball. When you extend the time of impact,
you reduce the force of impact.

88 Chapter 7 Momentum
 << Figure 7.4
If the change in momentum
occurs over a short time, the
force of impact is large.

When jumping from an elevated position down to the ground,

what would happen if you kept your legs straight and stiff? Ouch!
Instead, you know to bend your knees when your feet make contact
with the ground. By doing so you extend the time during which your
momentum decreases by 10 to 20 times that of a stiff-legged, abrupt
landing. The resulting force on your bones is reduced by 10 to 20
times. A wrestler thrown to the floor tries to extend his time of impact
with the mat by relaxing his muscles and spreading the impact into a
series of smaller ones as his foot, knee, hip, ribs, and shoulder succes-
sively hit the mat. Of course, falling on a mat is preferable to falling
on a solid floor because the mat also increases the impact time.
We know a glass dish is more likely to survive if it is dropped on
a Carpet rather than a sidewalk because the carpet has more “give”
than the sidewalk. Ask why a surface with more give makes for a
safer fall and you will get a puzzled response from most people. They
may simply say, “Because it gives more.” However, your question is,
“Why is a surface with more give safer for the dish?” In this case, a
common explanation isn’t really an explanation at all. A deeper
explanation is needed.
To bring the dish or its fragments to rest, the carpet or the side-
walk must provide an impulse, which you know involves two vari-
ables—impact force and impact time. Since impact time is longer on
the carpet than on the sidewalk, a smaller impact force results. The
shorter impact time on the sidewalk results in a greater impact force.

T= CHANGE INMOMENTUM [~t=CHANGE IN MOMENTUM

Figure 7.5 A
In both cases the impulse provided by the boxer’s jaw must counteract the
momentum of the punch. (Left) When the boxer moves away from the
punch, he increases the time of impact and reduces the force of impact.
(Right) When the boxer unwisely moves toward the punch, the time of
impact is reduced and the force of impact is increased. Ouch!
 Bungee Jumping
; < we
The impulse-momentum relationship is put * Because the rubber
to a thrilling test during bungee jumping. cord stretches for a
Be glad the rubber cord stretches when the long time, a large time
jumper’s fall is brought to a halt, because interval t ensures that
the cord has to apply an impulse equal to a small average force
the jumper’s momentum in order to stop F acts on the jumper.
the jumper—hopefully above ground level. Elastic cords typically
Note how Ft= A(mv) applies here. The stretch to about twice
momentum, mv, we wish to change is the their original length
amount gained before the cord begins during the fall.
stretching. Ft is the impulse the cord sup-
plies to reduce the momentum to zero.

The safety net used by circus acrobats is a good example of how to

achieve the impulse needed for a safe landing. The safety net reduces
the impact force on a fallen acrobat by substantially increasing the
time interval of the impact.
Sometimes a difference in impact time is important even if you
can't notice the give in a surface. For example, a wooden floor and a
concrete floor may both seem rigid, but the wooden floor can have
enough give to make quite a difference in the forces that these two
surfaces exert.

®@ Questions
1. When a dish falls, will the impulse be less if it lands on a carpet
__ than if it lands on a hard floor?
2. Ifthe boxer in Figure 7.5 is able to make the impact time five
times longer by “riding” with the punch, how much will the
force of impact be reduced?

@ Answers

1. No. The impulse would be the same for either surface because the same momentum
1 Explore change occurs for each. It is the force that is less for the impulse on the carpet because
of the greater time of momentum change. If you answered this question incorrectly,
3 Problem-Solving you probably did not distinguish between impulse and impact. They sound the same,
Exercises in but they’re not!
Physics 4-7 2. Since the time of impact increases five times, the force of impact will be reduced
five times.

Chapter 7 Momentum
7.3 Bouncing
If a flower pot falls from a shelf onto your head, you may be in trou-
ble. If it bounces from your head, you may be in more serious trouble.
Why? Because impulses are greater when an object bounces. The
impulse required to bring an object to a stop and then to “throw it
back again” is greater than the impulse required merely to bring the
object to a stop. Suppose, for example, that you catch the falling pot
with your hands. You provide an impulse to reduce its momentum to
zero. If you throw the pot upward again, you have to provide addi-
tional impulse. It takes a greater impulse to catch the pot and throw
it back up than merely to catch it. This increased amount of impulse
is supplied by your head if the pot bounces from it.

< Figure 7.6

Is the karate chop delivered ina
short time or a long time? If the
hand bounces upon impact, is
the change in momentum
greater? Is the impulse greater?

The fact that impulses are greater when bouncing takes place
was used with great success during the California Gold Rush. The
waterwheels used in gold mining operations were not very effective.
A man named Lester A. Pelton saw that the problem had to do with

<4 Figure 7.7

The Pelton Wheel. The curved
blades cause water to bounce
and make a U-turn, producing a
large impulse that turns the
IMPULSE
wheel.
 the flat paddles on the waterwheel. He designed a curve-shaped
paddle that caused the incoming water to make a U-turn upon
impact with the paddle. Because the water “bounced,” the impulse
exerted on the waterwheel was increased. Pelton patented his idea
and probably made more money from his invention, the Pelton
Wheel, than any of the gold miners earned. Physics can indeed make
you rich!

MEN
SSE 225990002
7.4 Conservation of Momentum
From Newton's second law you know that to accelerate an object, a
net force must be applied to it. This chapter says much the same
thing, but in different language. If you wish to change the momen-
tum of an object, exert an impulse on it.
In either case, the force or impulse must be exerted on the object
by something outside the object. Internal forces won't work. For
example, the molecular forces within a basketball have no effect on
the momentum of the basketball, just as a push against the dash-
board of a car you're sitting in does not affect the momentum of the
car. Molecular forces within the basketball and a push on the dash-
board are internal forces. They come in balanced pairs that cancel
within the object. To change the momentum of the basketball or the
car, an outside push or pull is required. If no outside force is present,
no change in momentum is possible.

|
5

Figure 7.8 A
The momentum before firing is zero. After firing, the net momentum is still
zero because the momentum of the cannon is equal and opposite to the
momentum of the cannonball.

Consider the cannon being fired in Figure 7.8. The force on the
cannonball inside the cannon barrel is equal and opposite to the
1 Explore force causing the cannon to recoil. Recall Newton’s third law about
action and reaction forces. These forces are internal to the system
1 Laboratory Manual 19, 20 comprising the cannon and the cannonball, so they don’t change
1 Probeware Lab
Manual 6 a the momentum of the cannon-cannonball system. Before the firing,
the system is at rest and the momentum is zero. After the firing the
net momentum, or total momentum, is still zero. Net momentum is

Chapter 7 Momentum
neither gained nor lost. Let’s consider the effects of internal and
external forces carefully.
Momentum, like the quantities velocity and force, has both
direction and magnitude. It is a vector quantity. Like velocity and
force, momentum can be canceled. So, although the cannonball in
the preceding example gains momentum when fired and the recoil-
ing cannon gains momentum in the opposite direction, the can-
non-cannonball system gains none. The momenta (plural form of
momentum) of the cannonball and the cannon are equal in magni-
tude and opposite in direction. Therefore, these momenta cancel
each other out for the system as a whole. No external force acted on
the system before or during firing. Since no net force acts on the sys-
tem, there is no net impulse on the system and there is no net
change in the momentum. /f no net force or net impulse acts on a sys-
tem, the momentum of that system cannot change.
In every case, the momentum of a system cannot change unless
it is acted on by external forces. A system will have the same
momentum before some internal interaction as it has after the inter-
action occurs. When momentum, or any quantity in physics, does not
change, we say it is conserved. The idea that momentum is conserved
when no external force acts is elevated to a central law of mechanics,
called the law of conservation of momentum, which states,

In the absence of an external force, the momentum of

a system remains unchanged.
If a system undergoes changes wherein all forces are internal, as
for example, in atomic nuclei undergoing radioactive decay, cars col-
liding, or stars exploding, the net momentum of the system before
and after the event is the same.

@ Questions
1. Newton’s second law states that if no net force is exerted on a
system, no acceleration occurs. Does it follow that no change in
momentum occurs?
Newton’s third law states that the force a cannon exerts
2. on a
cannonball is equal and opposite to the force the cannonball
exerts on the cannon. Does it follow that the impulse the can-
non exerts on the cannonball is equal and opposite to the
impulse the cannonball exerts on the cannon?
EEUU

BH Answers

1. Yes, because no acceleration means that no change occurs in velocity or in momentum

(mass X velocity). Another line of reasoning is simply that no net force means there is
no net impulse and thus no change in momentum.
2. Yes, because the cannon acts on the cannonball and the cannonball reacts on the can-
and
non during the same time interval. Since time is equal and the forces are equal
opposite, the impulses, Ft, are also equal and opposite. Impulse is a vector quantity
and can be canceled.

93
 PHYSICS wy Se
PL he

Stand at rest on a skateboard and throw a massive object forward

or backward. Notice that you recoil in the opposite direction. The
recoil is understandable because the momentum before the throw
is zero and the net momentum just after the throw is also zero.
Your recoil momentum is equal and
opposite to the momentum of the
thrown object. Observe that momen-
tum is conserved. Now repeat the
throwing motion with the same ob-
ject, but this time don't let go of it.
Do you still recoil? Explain.

= ee Ree eee a aca

7.5 Collisions
The collision of objects clearly shows the conservation of momen-
tum. Whenever objects collide in the absence of external forces, the
net momentum of both objects before collision equals the net
Figure 7.9 ¥ momentum of both objects after collision.
Elastic collisions. (a) A moving
ball strikes a ball at rest. (b) A net momentum before collision = HET MOMentum after collision
head-on collision between two
moving balls. (c) A collision of two Elastic Collisions
balls moving in the same direc-
tion. In all cases, momentum is When a moving billiard ball collides head-on with a ball at rest,
simply transferred or redistributed the first ball comes to rest and the second ball moves away with a
without loss or gain. velocity equal to the initial velocity of the first ball. We see that

Before Collision Collision After Collision

a @ e <x

94 Chapter 7 Momentum
é |
 momentum is transferred from the first ball to the second ball. When
objects collide without being permanently deformed and without
generating heat, the collision is said to be an elastic collision.
Colliding objects bounce perfectly in perfect elastic collisions, as
shown in Figure 7.9. Note that the sum of the momentum vectors is
the same before and after each collision.

Inelastic Collisions
Momentum conservation holds true even when the colliding objects
become distorted and generate heat during the collision. Whenever
colliding objects become tangled or couple together, a totally inelastic
collision occurs. The freight train cars in Figure 7.10 provide an
example. Suppose the freight cars are of equal mass m, and that one
car moves at 4 m/s toward the other car that is at rest. Can you
predict the velocity of the coupled cars after impact? From the con-
servation of momentum,
net momentum before collision = HEt Momentum after collision
Or in equation form,

(net mv) before — (net mv) after

(m)(4 m/s) + (m)(0 m/s) = (2M) (Vago)

Since twice as much mass is moving after the collision, can you
see that the velocity, v,;,.,, must be one half of 4 m/s? Solving for the
velocity after the collision, we find v,,.. = 2 m/s in the same direction
as the velocity before the collision, v,,,,,,-- The initial momentum is
shared by both cars without loss or gain. Momentum is conserved.

Figure 7.10 A
Inelastic collision. The momentum of the freight car on the left is shared with
the freight car on the right.

1 Explore | 2 Develop
Most collisions usually involve some external force. Billiard balls
do not continue indefinitely with the momentum imparted to them. 2 Concept-Development
The moving balls encounter friction with the table and the air. These Practice Book 7-7
external forces are usually negligible during the collision, so the net 3 Problem-Solving
momentum does not change during collision. The net momentum of Exercises in
two colliding trucks is the same before and just after the collision. As Physics 4-2
the combined wreck slides along the pavement, friction provides an
Figure 7.11 >
Conservation of momentum is
nicely demonstrated with the use
of an air track. Many small air
jets provide a nearly frictionless
cushion of air for the gliders to
slide on.

impulse to decrease its momentum. Similarly, a pair of space vehi-

cles docking in orbit have the same net momentum just before and
just after contact. Since there is no air resistance in space, the com-
bined momentum of the space vehicles after docking is then
changed only by gravity.

@ Questions
Refer to the gliders on the air track in Figure 7.11 to answer the
oat
. Suppose both anders have the same mass. They move toward
each other at the same speed and experience an elastic colli-
ro sion. Describe the motion after the collision.
"25 “Suppose both gliders have the same mass and stick together
> when they collide. The gliders move toward each other at equal
+ speeds. Describe their motion after the collision.
gsi ‘Suppose one glider is at rest and is loaded so that it has three
aetimes the mass of the moving glider. Again, the gliders stick
: together when they collide. Describe their motion after the
; c collision.
NR
NESSL EL

@ Answers

1. Since the collision is elastic, the gliders reverse directions after colliding and move
away from each other at a speed equal to their initial speed.

2. Before the collision, the gliders have equal and opposite momenta because their equal
masses are moving in opposite directions at the same speed. The net momentum of
the two gliders as a system is zero. Since momentum is conserved, their net momen-
tum after sticking together must also be zero. They slam to a dead halt.

3. Before collision, the net momentum equals the momentum of the unloaded, moving
glider. After the collision, the net momentum is the same as before, but now the gliders
are stuck together and moving as a single unit. The mass of the stuck-together gliders
is four times that of the unloaded glider. Thus, the postcollision velocity of the stuck-
together gliders is one-fourth of the unloaded glider’s velocity before collision. This
velocity is in the same direction as before, since the direction as well as the amount of
momentum is conserved.

96 Chapter 7 Momentum
 “AIT Consider a 6-kg fish that swims toward and swallows a
2-kg fish that is at rest. If the larger fish swims at 1 m/s,
what is its velocity immediately after lunch? Momentum is con-
served from the instant before lunch until the instant after (in so
brief an interval, water resistance does not have time to change
the momentum), so we can write
net MOMENtUM jefore unch = NEt MOMENTUM afer junch

(net MV) before = (net MV) after

(6 kg)(1 m/s) + (2 kg)(0 m/s) = (6kg +2 kg) Vafrer)

6 kg-m/s = (8 kg) (Uypre,)

6 kg-m/s

3
Vatter = a m/s

We see that the small fish has no momentum before lunch

because its velocity is zero. Using simple algebra we see that
after lunch the combined mass of the two-fish system is 8 kg
and its speed is + m/s in the same direction as the large fish’s
direction before lunch.
Suppose the small fish is not at rest but is swimming toward
the large fish at 2 m/s. Now we have opposing directions. If we
consider the direction of the large fish as positive, then the
velocity of the small fish is -2 m/s. We pay attention to the nega-
tive sign and see that

(net MV) before = (net MV) after

(6 kg)(1 m/s) + (2 kg)(-2 m/s) = (6 kg + 2 kg)(v,4.,)

(6 kg-m/s) + (-4 kg-m/s) = (8 kg) (Vigie,)

4on = Vatter

The negative momentum of the small fish is very effective in

slowing the large fish. If the small fish were swimming at -3 m/s,
then both fish would have equal and opposite momenta. Zero
momentum before lunch would equal zero momentum after
lunch, and both fish would come to a halt.
More interestingly, suppose the small fish swims at —4 m/s.

(net MV) before a (net m V) after

(6 kg)(1 m/s) + (2 kg)(-4 m/s) = (6 kg + 2 kg) (Vater)

ee
 Problem Solving (continued)

Perfectly elastic collisions are not common in the everyday world.

We find in practice that some heat is generated during collisions.
Drop a ball and after it bounces from the floor, both the ball and the
floor are a bit warmer. Even a dropped superball will not bounce to
its initial height. At the microscopic level, however, perfectly elastic
collisions are commonplace. For example, electrically charged parti-
cles bounce off one another without generating heat; they don’t even
touch in the classic sense of the word. Later chapters will show that
the concept of touching needs to be considered differently at the
atomic level.

am
SK
7.6 Momentum Vectors
Momentum is conserved even when interacting objects don’t move
along the same straight line. To analyze momentum in any direction,
we use the vector techniques we've previously learned. We'll look at
momentum conservation involving angles by briefly considering the
three following examples.
Notice in Figure 7.12 that the momentum of car A is directed due
east and that of car B is directed due north. If their momenta are

\ > ae aej\
————— ' COMBINED
MOMENTUM = '

Figure 7.12 A
Momentum is a vector quantity. The momentum of the wreck is equal to the
vector sum of the momenta of car A and car B before the collision.

98 Chapter 7 Momentum
Figure 7.13 A
When the firecracker bursts, the vector sum of the momenta of its fragments
add up to the firecracker’s momentum just before bursting.

equal in magnitude, after colliding their combined momentum will

be in a northeast direction with a magnitude V2 times the momen-
tum either vehicle had before the collision (just as the diagonal of a
square is V2 times the length of a side).
Figure 7.13 shows a falling firecracker that explodes into two
pieces. The momenta of the fragments combine by vector rules to
equal the original momentum of the falling firecracker.
Figure 7.14 shows tracks made by subatomic particles in a bubble
chamber. The mass of these particles can be computed by applying
both the conservation of momentum and conservation of energy
laws—the conservation of energy law will be discussed in the next
chapter. The conservation laws are extremely useful to experimenters
in the atomic and subatomic realms. A very important feature of their
usefulness is that forces do not show up in the equations. Forces in
collisions, however complicated, are not a concern.
Conservation of momentum and, as the next chapter will discuss,
conservation of energy, are the two most powerful tools of mechanics.
Their application yields detailed information that ranges from under-
standing the interactions of subatomic particles to entire galaxies.

<q Figure 7.14

Momentum is conserved for the
high-speed elementary particles,
as shown by the tracks they
leave in a bubble chamber. The
relative masses of the particles
are determined by, among other
things, the paths they take after
collision.
 Chapter Assessment

For: Study and Review Review Questions Check Concepts

(Go @nline Visit: PHSchool.com
Web Code: csd-1070 1. Distinguish between mass and momentum.
Which is inertia and which is inertia in
motion? (7.1)
2. a. Which has the greater mass, a heavy truck
Concept Summary at rest or a rolling skateboard?
The momentum of an object is the product of its b. Which has greater momentum? (7.1)
mass and its velocity.
3. Distinguish between impact and impulse.
m The change in momentum depends on the Which designates a force and which is force
force that acts and the length of time it acts. multiplied by time? (7.2)
= Impulse is average force multiplied by the 4. When the force of impact on an object is
time during which it acts. extended in time, does the impulse increase
or decrease? (7.2)
m= The impulse exerted on something is equal to
the change in momentum it produces. 5. Distinguish between impulse and momentum.
Which is force X time and which is inertia in
The law of conservation of momentum states
motion? (7.2)
that momentum is conserved when there is no
net external force. 6. Does impulse equal momentum, or a change
in momentum? (7.2)
@ When objects collide in the absence of exter-
nal forces, momentum is conserved no mat- 7. For a constant force, suppose the duration of
ter whether the collision is elastic or inelastic. impact on an object is doubled.
Momentum is a vector quantity. a. How much is the impulse increased?
= Momenta combine by vector rules. b. How much is the resulting change in
momentum increased? (7.2)
8. In a car crash, why is it advantageous for an
Key Terms occupant to extend the time during which the
collision takes place? (7.2)
conserved (7.4)
elastic collision (7.5) 9. If the time of impact in a collision is extended
by four times, how much does the force of
impulse (7.2)
impact change? (7.2)
inelastic collision (7.5)
law of conservation of momentum (7.4) 10. Why is it advantageous for a boxer to ride
with the punch? Why should he avoid moving
momentum (7.1)
into an oncoming punch? (7.2)

100 Chapter 7 Momentum

11. Visualize yourself on a skateboard. 21. a. What impulse occurs when an average
a. When you throw a ball, do you experience force of 10 N is exerted on a cart for 2.5 s?
an impulse? b. What change in momentum does the cart
b. Do you experience an impulse when you undergo?
catch a ball of the same speed? c. If the mass of the cart is 2 kg and the cart is
c. Do you experience an impulse when you initially at rest, calculate its final speed.
catch it and then throw it out again? 22. A 2-kg blob of putty moving at 3 m/s slams
d. Which impulse is greatest? (7.3) into a 2-kg blob of putty at rest.

12. Why is more impulse delivered during a colli- a. Calculate the speed of the two stuck-
together blobs of putty immediately after
sion when bouncing occurs than during one
colliding.
when it doesn’t? (7.3)
b. Calculate the speed of the two blobs if the
13. Why is the Pelton Wheel an improvement
one at rest was 4 kg.
over paddle wheels with flat blades? (7.3)
14. In terms of momentum conservation, why
does a cannon recoil when fired? (7.4)
Think and Explain Think Critically
15. What does it mean to say that momentum is
conserved? (7.4) 23. When you ride a bicycle at full speed and the
bike stops suddenly, why do you have to push
16. Distinguish between an elastic and an inelas- hard on the handlebars to keep from flying
tic collision. (7.5) forward?
17. Imagine that you are hovering next to the 24. In terms of impulse and momentum, why are
space shuttle in an Earth orbit. Your buddy of air bags in automobiles a good idea?
equal mass, who is moving at 4 km/h with
respect to the shuttle, bumps into you. If he 25. Why is it difficult for a firefighter to hold a
holds onto you, how fast do you both move hose that ejects large amounts of water at
with respect to the ship? (7.5) high speed?

18. Is momentum conserved for colliding objects 26. You can’t throw a raw egg against a wall with-
that are moving at angles to one another? out breaking it, but you can throw it at the
Explain. (7.6) same speed into a sagging sheet without
breaking it. Explain.
27. Suppose you roll a bowling ball into a pillow
and the ball stops. Now suppose you roll it
Plug and Chug Use Equations against a spring and it bounces back with an
19. a. What is the momentum of an 8-kg bowling equal and opposite momentum.
ball rolling at 2 m/s? a. Which object exerts a greater impulse, the
b. If the bowling ball rolls into a pillow and pillow or the spring?
stops in 0.5 s, calculate the average force it ex- b. If the time it takes the pillow to stop the
erts on the pillow. ball is the same as the time of contact of the
c. What average force does the pillow exert on ball with the spring, how do the average
the ball? forces exerted on the ball compare?

20. a. What is the momentum of a 50-kg carton

that slides at 4 m/s across an icy surface?
b. The sliding carton skids onto a rough sur-
face and stops in 3 s. Calculate the force of
friction it encounters.
28. If you topple from your treehouse, you'll con- 34. A car with a mass of 1000 kg moves at 20 m/s.
tinuously gain momentum as you fall to the What braking force is needed to bring the car
ground below. Doesn't this violate the law of to a halt in 10 s?
conservation of momentum? Defend . 35. Assume an 8-kg bowling ball moving at 2 m/s
your answer. bounces off a spring at the same speed that it
29. A bug and the windshield of a fast-moving had before bouncing.
car collide. Indicate whether each of the fol-
a. What is its momentum of recoil?
lowing statements is true or false.
b. What is its change in momentum?
a. The forces of impact on the bug and on the
(Hint: What is the change in temperature
car are the same size.
when something goes from 1° to —1°)
b. The impulses on the bug and on the car are
c. If the interaction with the spring occurs in
the same size.
0.5 s, calculate the average force the spring
c. The changes in speed of the bug and of the exerts on it.
car are the same.
d. Compare this force with the force on the
d. The changes in momentum of the bug and pillow in Plug and Chug 19.
of the car are the same size.
36. A railroad diesel engine weighs four times
30. What difference in recoil would you expect in as much as a freight car. If the diesel engine
firing a solid ball versus firing a hollow ball coasts at 5 km/h into a freight car that is at
from the same cannon? Explain. rest, how fast do the two coast after they
couple?
31. A group of playful astronauts, each with a bag
full of balls, form a circle as they free-fall in 37. A 5-kg fish swimming 1 m/s swallows an
space. Describe what happens when they absent-minded 1-kg fish at rest. What is the
begin tossing balls simultaneously to one speed of the large fish immediately after
another. lunch? What would its speed be if the small
fish were swimming toward it at 4 m/s?
32. A proton from an accelerator strikes an atom.
An electron is observed flying forward in the
same direction the proton was moving and at
a speed much greater than the speed of the
proton. What conclusion can you draw about
the relative mass of a proton and an electron?

Think and Solve

Develop Problem-Solving Skills 38. Comic-strip hero Superman meets an aster-
oid in outer space and hurls it at 100 m/s.
33. A 1000-kg car moving at 20 m/s slams into a The asteroid is a thousand times more mas-
building and comes to a halt. Consider ques- sive than Superman is. In the strip, Superman
tions a and b below. Which question can be is seen at rest after the throw. Taking physics
answered using the given information and into account, what would be his recoil speed?
which one cannot be answered? Explain. What is this in miles per hour?
a. What impulse acts on the car?
b. What is the force of impact on the car?

102 Chapter 7 Momentum

 Energy

Eenergy is the most central concept under-

lying all of science. Surprisingly, the idea
of energy was unknown to Isaac Newton,
and its existence was still being debated in the
1850s. Even though the concept of energy is
relatively new, today we find it ingrained not only in all branches of The mechanical energy of the
science, but in nearly every aspect of human society. We are all quite wind can be harnessed to pro-
familiar with energy. Energy comes to us from the sun in the form of duce electrical power.
sunlight, it is in the food we eat, and it sustains life. Energy may be
the most familiar concept in science, yet it is one of the most diffi-
cult to define. Persons, places, and things have energy, but we
observe only the effects of energy when something is happening—
only when energy is being transferred from one place to another or
transformed from one form to another. We begin our study of energy
by observing a related concept, work.

SENN
TEE SRST EET
8.1 Work
The previous chapter showed that the change in an object's motion
is related to both force and how long the force acts. “How long”
meant time. Remember, the quantity force x time is called impulse.
But “how long” need not always mean time. It can mean distance
also. When we consider the quantity force x distance, we are talking
about an entirely different concept. This concept is called work.
We do work when we lift a load against Earth’s gravity. The heav-
ier the load or the higher we lift it, the more work we do. Two things
enter into every case where work is done: (1) the application of a
force, and (2) the movement of something by that force.
Let’s look at the simplest case, in which the force is constant and
the motion takes place in a straight line in the direction of the force.

103
 Then the work done on an object by an applied force is the product
of the force and the distance through which the object is moved.*
work = force X distance

In equation form,
W= Fd

If we lift two loads up one story, we do twice as much work as we

would in lifting one load the same distance, because the force
needed to lift twice the weight is twice as great. Similarly, if we lift
one load two stories instead of one story, we do twice as much work
because the distance is twice as great.
Notice that the definition of work involves both a force and a dis-
tance. A weight lifter holding a barbell weighing 1000 N over his head
does no work on the barbell. He may get really tired holding it, but if
the barbell is not moved by the force he exerts, he does no work on
the barbell. Work may be done on the muscles by stretching and
squeezing them, which is force times distance on a biological scale,
but this work is not done on the barbell. Lifting the barbell, however,
is a different story. When the weight lifter raises the barbell from the
Figure 8.1 A
floor, he is doing work on it.
Work is done in lifting the bar-
Work generally falls into two categories. One of these is the work
bell. If the barbell could be lifted
twice as high, the weight lifter
done against another force. When an archer stretches her bowstring,
would have to do twice as much she is doing work against the elastic forces of the bow. Similarly,
when the ram of a pile driver is raised, work is required to raise the
ram against the force of gravity. When you do push-ups, you do work
against your own weight. You do work on something when you force
it to move against the influence of an opposing force—often friction.
The other category of work is work done to change the speed of
an object. This kind of work is done in bringing an automobile up to
speed or in slowing it down.
The unit of measurement for work combines a unit of force, N,
with a unit of distance, m. The resulting unit of work is the newton-
meter (N-m), also called the joule (rhymes with cool) in honor of
James Joule. One joule (J) of work is done when a force of 1 N is
exerted over a distance of 1 m, as in lifting an apple over your head.
For larger values we speak of kilojoules (kJ)—thousands of joules—or
megajoules (MJ)—millions of joules. The weight lifter in Figure 8.1
does work on the order of kilojoules. To stop a loaded truck going at
100 km/h takes megajoules of work.

The definition of work says nothing about how long it takes to do the
work. When carrying a load up some stairs, you do the same amount
of work whether you walk or run up the stairs. So why are you more
3 Problem-Solving

* For the more general case, work is the product of the component of force acting in the
direction of motion and the distance moved.
tired after running upstairs in a few seconds than after walking
upstairs in a few minutes? To understand this difference, we need to
talk about how fast the work is done, or power. Power is the rate at
which work is done. It equals the amount of work done divided by
the time interval during which the work is done.
work done
power = ————_——
time interval
A high-power engine does work rapidly. An automobile engine
that delivers twice the power of another automobile engine does not
necessarily produce twice as much work or go twice as fast as the
less powerful engine. Twice the power means the engine can do
twice the work in the same amount of time or the same amount of
work in half the time. A powerful engine can get an automobile up to
a given speed in less time than a less powerful engine can.
The unit of power is the joule per second, also known as the
watt, in honor of James Watt, the eighteenth-century developer of
the steam engine. One watt (W) of power is expended when one Figure 8.2 A
joule of work is done in one second. One kilowatt (kW) equals 1000 The three main engines of the
watts. One megawatt (MW) equals one million watts. In the United space shuttle can develop
States, we customarily rate engines in units of horsepower and elec- 33 000 MW of power when fuel
tricity in kilowatts, but either may be used. In the metric system of is burned at the enormous rate
units, automobiles are rated in kilowatts. One horsepower (hp) is the of 3400 kg/s. This is like empty-
ing an average-size swimming
same as 0.75 kW, so an engine rated at 134 hp is a 100-kW engine.
pool in 20 seconds!

@ Question Pea log iannetpave h.

_ Ifa forklift is replaced with a new forklift that has twice the power, 7
how much greater a load can it lift in the same amount
of time? If it
lifts the same load, how much faster can it operate? . — » * ~ e
_

NEE ES EE EE EE
8.3 Mechanical Energy
When work is done by an archer in drawing back a bowstring, the
bent bow acquires the ability to do work on the arrow. When work is
done to raise the heavy ram of a pile driver, the ram acquires the abil-
ity to do work on the object it hits when it falls. When work is done to
wind a spring mechanism, the spring acquires the ability to do work
on various gears to run a clock, ring a bell, or sound an alarm.
In each case, something has been acquired that enables the object
to do work. It may be in the form of a compression of atoms in the
material of an object; a physical separation of attracting bodies; or a
rearrangement of electric charges in the molecules of a substance.
1 Explore | 2 Develop
sea yEEEEEEEE ESSERE
1 Laboratory Manual 27
BH Answer 1 Probeware Lab
Manual 7
The forklift that delivers twice the power will lift twice the load in the same time, or the
same load in half the time. Either way, the owner of the new forklift is happy.
 Pour a handful of dry sand into
temperature of the sand with a thermometer. Remove the ther-
mometer and cover the can. Shake the can vigorously for a minute
or so. You're doing work on the
sand as you change its energy—
kinetic, potential, or both—
depending on how you shake it.
After shaking, measure the tem-
perature of the sand again. What
happened to the temperature?
How can you explain the change?

This “something” that enables an object to do work is energy.* Like

work, energy is measured in joules. It appears in many forms that
will be discussed in the following chapters. For now we will focus
on the two most common forms of mechanical energy—the energy
due to the position of something, or the movement of something.
Mechanical energy can be in the form of either potential energy or
kinetic energy, or the sum of the two.

NN Snes
8.4 Potential Energy
An object may store energy by virtue of its position. The energy that
is stored and held in readiness is called potential energy (PE)
because in the stored state it has the potential for doing work. A
stretched or compressed spring, for example, has a potential for
doing work. When a bow is drawn back, energy is stored in the bow.
The bow can do work on the arrow. A stretched rubber band has
potential energy because of its position. If the rubber band is part of
a slingshot, it is also capable of doing work.
The chemical energy in fuels is also potential energy. It is actu-
ally energy of position at the submicroscopic level. This energy is
available when the positions of electric charges within and between
molecules are altered, that is, when a chemical change takes place.
Any substance that can do work through chemical action possesses
potential energy. Potential energy is found in fossil fuels, electric bat-
teries, and the food we eat.

* Strictly speaking, that which enables an object to do work is called its available energy,
because not all the energy of an object can be transformed into work.

Chapter 8 Energy
 <4 Figure 8.3
The potential energy of the
100-N boulder with respect to
the ground below is 200 J in
each case because the work done
in elevating it 2 m is the same
whether the boulder is (a) lifted
with 100 N of force, (b) pushed
up the 4-m incline with 50 N of
force, or (c) lifted with 100 N of
Work is required to elevate objects against Earth’s gravity. The force up each 0.5-m stair. No
potential energy due to elevated positions is called gravitational work is done in moving it hori-
potential energy. Water in an elevated reservoir and the raised ram of zontally, neglecting friction.
a pile driver have gravitational potential energy.
The amount of gravitational potential energy possessed by an
elevated object is equal to the work done against gravity in lifting it.
The work done equals the force required to move it upward times the
vertical distance it is moved (remember W= Fd ). The upward force
required while moving at constant velocity is equal to the weight,
mg, of the object, so the work done in lifting it through a height h is
the product mgh.
gravitational potential energy = weight x height
PE = mgh
Note that the height is the distance above some chosen reference
level, such as the ground or the floor of a building. The gravitational
potential energy, mgh, is relative to that level and depends only on
mg and h. We can see in Figure 8.3 that the potential energy of the
boulder at the top of the ledge does not depend on the path taken to
get it there.

@ Questions
1. How much work is done on a 100-N boulder that you carry horizon-
tally across a 10-m room? How much PE does the boulder gain?
2. a. How much work is done on a 100-N boulder when you lift it 1m?
b. What power is expended if you lift the boulder a distance of
1minatime of 1s? — 4

c. What is the gravitational potential energy of the boulder in the -

lifted position?
a,

BH Answers

1. You do no work on the boulder moved horizontally, because you apply no force (except
for the tiny bit to start and stop it) in its direction of motion. It has no more PE across
the room than it had initially.

2. a. You do 100 J of work when you lift it 1 m, since Fd =100 N-m = 100 J

b. Power = ae = 100 W

c. It depends. Relative to its starting position, the boulder’s PE is 100 J. Relative to

some other reference level, its PE would be some other value.

107
 ln
8.5 Kinetic Energy
Push on an object and you can set it in motion. If an object is mov-
ing, then it is capable of doing work. It has energy of motion, or
kinetic energy (KE). The kinetic energy of an object depends on the
mass of the object as well as its speed. It is equal to half the mass
multiplied by the square of the speed.

kinetic energy = *mass X speed?

KE = 1 mv?
2
Figure 8.4 A
The potential energy of the When you throw a ball, you do work on it to give it speed as it
drawn bow equals the work leaves your hand. The moving ball can then hit something and push
(average force X distance) done it, doing work on what it hits. The kinetic energy of a moving object
by drawing the arrow into posi- is equal to the work required to bring it to that speed from rest, or
tion. When released, potential the work the object can do while being brought to rest.
energy will become the kinetic
energy of the arrow. net force X distance = kinetic energy
or in equation notation,*

Fd=14mv?
2D

Note that the speed is squared, so if the speed of an object is

doubled, its kinetic energy is quadrupled (2? = 4). Consequently, it
takes four times the work to double the speed. Also, an object mov-
ing twice as fast takes four times as much work to stop. Accident
investigators are aware that a car going 100 km/h has four times the
kinetic energy it would have at 50 km/h. So a car going 100 km/h
will skid four times as far when its brakes are locked as it will
at 50 km/h, because speed is squared for kinetic energy.

Figure 8.5 >

Typical stopping distances for 30 km, bas 10-m SKID
cars traveling at various speeds.
The work done to stop the car is GO km/, mmm 40-17 SKID
friction force X distance of slide.
Notice how work depends on the
square of the speed. The dis-
tances would be even greater if
the driver’s reaction time were
In the above equation, note the relationship between work and
taken into account. energy. Work changes kinetic energy. If no change in energy occurs,
then no work is done. Likewise for potential energy. Whenever work
is done, energy changes. This is the work-energy theorem:

Work = AE

1 Explore * This formula is derived algebraically as follows. Multiply both sides of F = ma, which
is Newton's second law, by d to get Fd = mad. Recall that for motion in a straight line
3 Laboratory Manual 26, 27 at constant acceleration, d = ;at?. So Fd =ma(jat?) = }maat? = 1m(at)2. Substituting
v= at, we get Fd =}mv?.

108 Chapter 8 Energy

 The Sweet Spot
The sweet spot of a softball bat or a tennis energy in the ball
racquet is the place where the ball’s impact after being struck.
produces minimum vibrations in the racquet Energy that is not in
or bat. Strike a ball at the sweet spot and it vibrations is energy
goes faster and farther. Strike a ball in available to the ball.
another part of the bat or racquet, and vibra- Do you see why a ball
tions can occur that sting your hand! From will go faster and far-
an energy point of view, there is energy in ther when struck at
the vibrations of the bat or racquet. There is the sweet spot?

When the brakes of a motorcycle traveling at 60 km/h become

locked, how much farther will the motorcycle skid than if it —
travels at 20 km/h?

a
TT
8.6 Conservation of Energy
More important than knowing what energy is, is understanding how
it behaves—how it transforms. We can better understand nearly
every process or change that occurs in nature if we analyze it in
terms of a transformation of energy from one form to another.
As you draw back the stone in a slingshot, you do work stretch-
ing the rubber band. The rubber band then has potential energy.
When released, the stone has kinetic energy equal to this potential
energy. It delivers this energy to its target, perhaps a wooden fence
post. The slight distance the post is moved multiplied by the average
force of impact doesn’t quite match the kinetic energy of the stone.
The energy score doesn‘ balance. But if you investigate further,
you'll find that both the stone and fence post are a bit warmer. By
how much? By the energy difference. Energy changes from one form
to another. It transforms without net loss or net gain. 1 Explore
1 Laboratory Manual 23, 24
2 Concept-Development
@ Answer Practice Book 8-7
Nine times farther; the motorcycle has nine times as much kinetic energy when it travels 3 Problem-Solving
three times as fast. KE = m(3v)? = ;m9v? = 9(5mv%). Ordinarily, the friction force will be Exercises in A
the same in either case. Therefore, to do nine times the work requires nine times more Physics 5-2
sliding distance.
 Pa

Ce, PE=10000J
KE=O rn i
“b

2'\J HEAT

Figure 8.6 A
Part of the PE of the wound spring changes into KE. The remaining PE goes
PE=7500J into heating the machinery and the surroundings due to friction. No energy
KE=2500J is lost.

The study of the various forms of energy and the transforma-

tions from one form into another led to one of the greatest general-
izations in physics—the law of conservation of energy:
Energy cannot be created or destroyed. It can be
transformed from one form into another, but the total
PE250005 amount of energy never changes.
KE=5000J
When you consider any system in its entirety, whether it is as
simple as a swinging pendulum or as complex as an exploding
galaxy, there is one quantity that does not change: energy. It may
change form or it may be transferred from one place to another, but
the total energy score stays the same.

PE=25003
KE=7500J

Figure 8.8 A
Energy transformations in a pendulum: The PE of the pendulum bob at its
highest point is equal to the KE of the bob at its lowest point. Everywhere
along its path, the sum of PE and KE is the same. Because of the work done
against friction, this energy will eventually be transformed into heat.

Figure 8.7 A
When the lady in distress leaps This energy score takes into account the fact that each atom that
from the burning building, note makes up matter is a concentrated bundle of energy. When the
that the sum of her PE and KE nuclei (cores) of atoms rearrange themselves, enormous amounts of
remains constant at each succes- energy can be released. The sun shines because some of its nuclear
sive position— +, 3, ¢, and all the energy is transformed into radiant energy. In nuclear reactors,
way down to the ground. nuclear energy is transformed into heat.

110 Chapter 8 Energy

 Enormous compression due to gravity in the deep hot interior
of the sun causes hydrogen nuclei to fuse and become helium > CINK TO CHEMISTRY
nuclei. This high-temperature welding of atomic nuclei is called
thermonuclear fusion and will be covered later, in Chapter 40. This
process releases radiant energy, some of which reaches Earth. Part
of this energy falls on plants, and some of the plants later become
coal. Another part supports life in the food chain that begins with
microscopic marine animals and plants, and later gets stored in oil.
Part of the sun’s energy is used to evaporate water from the ocean.
Some water returns to Earth as rain that is trapped behind a dam.
By virtue of its elevated position, the water behind the dam has
potential energy that is used to power a generating plant below the
dam. The generating plant transforms the energy of falling water
into electrical energy. Electrical energy travels through wires to
homes where it is used for lighting, heating, cooking, and operating
electric toothbrushes. How nice that energy is transformed from
one form to another!

" aa

iM Question - tet adits oflama at

+ halt as wth WV

~ Supposeacarwith.aee engine% ableto convertinto) worrien

100% ofthe energy released when gasoline burns (40.million joules _
e-per liter). If the air
aidrag
di and | overall‘frictional forces ‘on the cartrav-
- lingDDE anoe 500 N,, what i
is the upper |imitin dis: +. rele. sroduce
_tance per literof
ofgasoline the carcould
c coverrathighway speed? Slowenergy re-
ae
ye occurs during the ah,
e
|digestion of food. The
conservation of enetey
Es I a ae rules chemical
ay)
reactions. meae
The ‘amount of energy
8.7 Machines required
“6 to break a chemi-_
| calbondisthe same _
A machine is a device used to multiply forces or simply to change | amount released when —
the direction of forces. The concept that underlies every machine is that bond is formed.
the conservation of energy. Consider one of the simplest machines,
the lever, shown in Figure 8.9. At the same time we do work on one
end of the lever, the other end does work on the load. We see that the
direction of force is changed. If we push down, the load is lifted up. If
the heat from friction is small enough to neglect, the work input will
be equal to the work output.

H Answer

Work is defined as force x distance. By rearranging the formula, we get distance = work
= force. If all 40 million joules of energy in one liter of gas were used to do the work of
overcoming the air drag and frictional forces, the distance would be

< work = 40 000 000 J

= 80 000 m = 80 km
GEIS Se Gr 500 N
The important point here is that even with a perfect engine, fuel economy has an upper
limit that is dictated by the conservation of energy.
 work input = work output
Since work equals force times distance, we can say
(force X distance);4,= (force x distance) urput
A little thought will show that the pivot point, or fulcrum, of the lever
can be relatively close to the load. Then a small input force exerted
through a large distance will produce a large output force over a cor-
respondingly short distance. In this way, a lever can multiply forces.
Figure 8.9 A However, no machine can multiply work or energy. That’s a conser-
The lever. The work (force X dis- vation of energy no-no!
tance) done at one end is equal
to the work done on the load at
the other end.

Figure 8.10 A
The output force (80 N) is eight times the input force (10 N), while the output
distance (1/8 m) is one-eighth of the input distance (1 m).

Consider the ideal weightless lever in Figure 8.10. The child

pushes down 10 N and lifts an 80-N load. The ratio of output force to
input force for a machine is called the mechanical advantage. Here
the mechanical advantage is (80 N)/(10 N), or 8. Notice that the load
moves only one-eighth of the distance the input force moves.
Neglecting friction, the mechanical advantage can also be deter-
mined by the ratio of input distance to output distance.

Figure 8.11 >

The three basic types of levers.
Notice that the direction of the
force is changed in type 1.

TY PEst TY Pee TYPES

Three common ways to set up a lever are shown in Figure 8.11.

1 Explore A type 1 lever has the fulcrum between the force and the load, or
between input and output. This kind of lever is commonly seen in
1 Laboratory Manual 22 a playground seesaw with children sitting on each end of it. Push
2 Concept-Development down on one end and you lift a load at the other. You can increase
Practice Book 8-2 8-3 force at the expense of distance. Note that the directions of input
and output are opposite.

Chapter 8 Energy
 For a type 2 lever, the load is between the fulcrum and the input
force. To lift a load, you lift the end of the lever. One example is plac-
ing one end of a long steel bar under an automobile frame and lifting
on the free end to raise the automobile. Again, force on the load is
increased at the expense of distance. Since the input and output
forces are on the same side of the fulcrum, the forces have the same
direction.
In the type 3 lever, the fulcrum is at one end and the load is at
the other. The input force is applied between them. Your biceps mus-
cles are connected to the bones in your forearm in this way. The ful-
crum is your elbow and the load is in your hand. The type 3 lever
increases distance at the expense of force. When you move your
biceps muscles a short distance, your hand moves a much greater
distance. Notice that the input and output forces are on the same
side of the fulcrum and therefore they have the same direction.
A pulley is basically a kind of lever that can be used to change
the direction of a force. Properly used, a pulley or system of pulleys
can multiply forces.

Output
Outpu Input

QO. t ; C

Input

The single pulley in Figure 8.12a behaves like a type 1 lever. The Figure 8.12 A
A pulley can (a) change the direc-
axis of the pulley acts as the fulcrum, and both lever distances (the
tion of a force as input is exerted
radius of the pulley) are equal so the pulley does not multiply force. downward and load moves
It simply changes the direction of the applied force. In this case, the upward, (b) multiply force as
mechanical advantage equals 1. Notice that the input distance input is now half the load, and (c)
equals the output distance the load moves. when combined with another
In Figure 8.12b, the single pulley acts as a type 2 lever. Careful pulley, both change the direction
thought will show that the fulcrum is at the left end of the “lever” and multiply force.
where the supporting rope makes contact with the pulley. The load is
suspended halfway between the fulcrum and the input end of the
lever, which is on the right end of the “lever.” Each newton of input
will support two newtons of load, so the mechanical advantage is 2.
This number checks with the distances moved. To raise the load
1 m, the woman will have to pull the rope up 2 m. We can say the
mechanical advantage is 2 for another reason: the load is now sup-
ported by two strands of rope. This means each strand supports half
the load. The force the woman applies to support the load is there-
fore only half of the weight of the load.
The mechanical advantage for simple pulley systems is the same
as the number of strands of rope that actually support the load. In
Figure 8.12a the load is supported by one strand and the mechanical
advantage is 1. In Figure 8.12b the load is supported by two strands

113
 and the mechanical advantage is 2. Can you use this rule to state the
mechanical advantage of the pulley system in Figure 8.12c?*
The mechanical advantage of the simple system in Figure 8.12c
is 2. Notice that although three strands of rope are shown, only two
strands actually support the load. The upper pulley serves only to
change the direction of the force. Actually experimenting with a vari-
ety of pulley systems is much more beneficial than reading about
them in a textbook, so try to get your hands on some pulleys, in or
out of class. They’re fun.
The pulley system shown in Figure 8.13 is a bit more complex,
but the principles of energy conservation are the same. When the
Figure 8.13 A
rope is pulled 5 m with a force of 100 N, a 500-N load is lifted 1 m.
In an idealized pulley system,
applied force X input distance = The mechanical advantage is (500 N)/(100 N), or 5. Force is multi-
output force X output distance. plied at the expense of distance. The mechanical advantage can also
be found from the ratio of distances: (input distance) /(output dis-
tance) =5.
No machine can put out more energy than is put into it. No
machine can create energy. A machine can only transfer energy from
one place to another or transform it from one form to another.

PN
EES
8.8 Efficiency
The previous examples of machines were considered to be ideal. All
the work input was transferred to work output. An ideal machine
would have 100% efficiency. In practice, 100% efficiency never hap-
pens, and we can never expect it to happen. In any machine, some
energy is transformed into atomic or molecular kinetic energy—
making the machine warmer. We say this wasted energy is dissipated
as heat.**
When a simple lever rocks about its fulcrum, or a pulley turns
about its axis, a small fraction of input energy is converted into ther-
mal energy. We may put in 100 J of work on a lever and get out 98 J of
work. The lever is then 98% efficient and we lose only 2 J of work
input as heat. In a pulley system, a larger fraction of input energy is
lost as heat. For example, if we do 100 J of work, the friction on the
pulleys as they turn and rub on their axle can dissipate 40 J of heat
energy. So the work output is only 60 J and the pulley system has an
efficiency of 60%. The lower the efficiency of a machine, the greater
is the amount of energy wasted as heat.

1 Explore

1 Laboratory Manual 25, 28

* The number-of-strands rule applies only to simple pulleys, where same-size pulleys are
1 Probeware Lab on the same shaft. The chain hoist popular in auto repair shops, for example, gets its
Manual 8 mechanical advantage from different-size pulleys on the same shaft.
3 Problem-Solving
Exercises in IN ** Energy of atomic or molecular motion is actually thermal energy, not heat. We'll see in
Physics 5-3 Chapter 21 that heat is energy being transferred from one place to another by atomic and
molecular motion. Heat is analogous to work; both involve energy transfer by motion.

114 Chapter 8 Energy

 Efficiency can be expressed as the ratio of useful work output to
total work input.

efficiency = useful work output

total work input
An inclined plane is a machine. Sliding a load up an incline
requires less force than lifting it vertically. Figure 8.14 shows a 5-m
inclined plane with its high end elevated by 1 m. Using the plane to
elevate a heavy load, we push the load five times farther than we lift
it vertically. If friction is negligible, we need apply only one-fifth of
the force required to lift the load vertically. The inclined plane shown
has a theoretical mechanical advantage of 5.

< Figure 8.14

Pushing the block of ice 5 times
farther up the incline than the
vertical distance it’s lifted
requires a force of only one-fifth
its weight. Whether pushed up
the plane or simply lifted, the ice
gains the same amount of PE.

A block of ice sliding along an icy plank, or a horse-pulled cart

with well-lubricated wheels, might have an efficiency of almost 100%.
However, when the load is a wooden crate sliding on a wooden plank,
both the actual mechanical advantage and the efficiency will be con-
siderably less. Efficiency can also be expressed as the ratio of actual
mechanical advantage to theoretical mechanical advantage.

efficiency = actual mechanical advantage

theoretical mechanical advantage
Efficiency will always be a fraction less than 1. To convert effi-
ciency to percent, we simply express it as a decimal and multiply
by 100%. For example, an efficiency of 0.25 expressed in percent is
0.25 x 100%, or 25%.
The auto jack shown in Figure 8.15 is actually an inclined plane
wrapped around a cylinder. You can see that a single turn of the han-
dle raises the load a relatively small distance. If the circular distance
the handle is moved is 500 times greater than the pitch, which is the
distance between ridges, then the theoretical mechanical advantage
of the jack is 500.* No wonder a child can raise a loaded moving van
with one of these devices! In practice there is a great deal of friction
Figure 8.15 A
The auto jack is like an inclined
plane wrapped around a cylinder.
Every time the handle is turned
* To raise a load by 2 mm the handle has to be turned once, through a distance equal to one revolution, the load is raised
the circumference of the circular path of the 16-cm radius. This distance is 100 cm a distance of one pitch.
(since the circumference is 2mr= 2 X 3.14 X 16 cm = 100 cm). A simple calculation will
show that the 100-cm work-input distance is 500 times greater than the work-output
distance of 2 mm. If the jack were 100% efficient, then the input force would be multi-
plied by 500 times. The theoretical mechanical advantage of the jack is 500.
 in this type of jack, so the efficiency might be about 20%. Thus the
jack actually multiplies force by about 100 times, so the actual
mechanical advantage approximates an impressive 100. Imagine the
value of one of these devices if it had been available when the great
pyramids were being built!

@ Question
A child on a sled (total weight 500 N) is pulled up a 10-m slope that
elevates her a vertical distance of 1 m.

eh mae biel
er
a. What is the theoretical mechanical advantage of the slope?
b. Ifthe slope is without friction, and she is pulled up the slope at
constant speed, what will be the tension in the rope?
c. Considering the practical case where friction /s present, sup-
pose the tension in the rope were actually 100 N. What is the
actual mechanical advantage of the slope? What would the effi-
ciency be?

An automobile engine is a machine that transforms chemical

energy stored in fuel into mechanical energy. The molecules of the
gasoline break up as the fuel burns. Burning is a chemical reaction in
which atoms combine with the oxygen in the air. Carbon atoms from
the gasoline combine with oxygen atoms to form carbon dioxide,
hydrogen atoms combine with oxygen, and energy is released. The
converted energy is used to run the engine.
It would be nice if all this energy were converted to mechanical
energy, but as physicists learned in the nineteenth century, trans-
forming 100% of thermal energy into mechanical energy is not possi-
ble. Some heat must flow from the engine. Friction adds more to the
energy loss. Even the best-designed engines are unlikely to be more

@ Answer

a. The ideal, or theoretical, mechanical advantage is

input distance _ 10m - 10
output distance hm

b. 50 N. With no friction, ideal mechanical advantage and actual mechanical advantage

would be the same, 10. So the rope tension, or the input force, will be 1/10 the weight
being raised, 500 N. (Note that this input force is the same as the component of the
child’s weight along the slope.)
c. The actual mechanical advantage is (weight being raised)/(input force) = (500 N)/(100 N)
= 5. The efficiency would then be 0.5 or 50%, since (actual mechanical advantage)/
(theoretical mechanical advantage) = 5/10 = 0.5. The efficiency can also be obtained
from the ratio (useful work output)/(work input).

Chapter 8 Energy
 FUEL ENERGY IN = COOLING WATER LOSSES + ENGINE OUTPUT+EXHAUSTHEAT <q Figure 8.16
100 % 35 % 30% 35% Only 30% of the energy produced
by burning gasoline in a typical
automobile engine becomes use-
ful mechanical energy.

than 35% efficient. Some of the heat energy goes into the cooling
system and is released through the radiator to the air. Some of it goes
out the tailpipe with the exhaust gases, and almost half goes into
heating engine parts as a result of friction. On top of these contribu-
tors to inefficiency, the fuel does not burn completely. A certain
amount of it goes unused. We can look at inefficiency in this way: In
any transformation there is a dilution of the amount of useful energy.
Useful energy ultimately becomes thermal energy. Energy is not
destroyed, it is simply degraded. Through heat transfer, thermal
energy is the graveyard of useful energy.

aN IS SENT EIT DE
8.9 Energy for Life
Every living cell in every organism is a machine. Like any machine, liv-
ing cells need an energy supply. Most living organisms on this planet
feed on various hydrocarbon compounds that release energy when
they react with oxygen. Just as there is more energy stored in gasoline
than in the products of its combustion, there is more energy stored in
the molecules in food than there is in the reaction products after the
food is metabolized. The energy difference is what sustains life.
The same principle of combustion occurs in the metabolism of
food in the body and the burning of fossil fuels in mechanical
engines. The main difference is the rate at which the reactions take
place. During metabolism, the reaction rate is much slower and
energy is released as it is needed by the body. Like the burning of fos-
sil fuels, the reaction is self-sustaining once it starts. In metabolism,
carbon combines with oxygen to form carbon dioxide.
The reverse process is more difficult. Only green plants and cer-
tain one-celled organisms can make carbon dioxide combine with
water to produce hydrocarbon compounds such as sugar. This
process is photosynthesis and requires an energy input, which nor-
mally comes from sunlight. Sugar is the simplest food. All other
foods, such as carbohydrates, proteins, and fats, are also synthesized
compounds containing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and other ele-
ments. Aren't we very fortunate that green plants are able to use the
energy of sunlight to make food that gives us and all other organisms
energy? Because of this, there is life.

117
 Toe 4;

Energy Conservation ie
ost energy consumed in America «

Mi comes from fossil fuels. Oil, natural

gas, and coal supply the energy for almost
all our industry and technology. About 70%
of electrical power in the United States
comes from fossil fuels, with about 21%
from nuclear power. Worldwide, fossil fuels
also account for most energy consumption.
We have grown to depend on fossil fuels
because they have been plentiful and inex-
pensive. Until recently, our consumption
was small enough that we could ignore their
environmental impact.
But things have changed. Fossil fuels are water we drink. Yet, despite these problems,
being consumed at a rate that threatens to many people consider fossil fuels to be as
deplete the entire world supply. Locally and inexhaustible as the sun’s glow and as
globally, our fossil fuel consumption is mea- acceptable as Mom’s apple pie, because
surably polluting the air we breathe and the these fuels lasted and nurtured us through
the 1900s. Financially, fossil fuels are still a
bargain, but this is destined to change.
Environmentally, the costs are already dra-
matic. Some other fuel must take the place
of fossil fuels if we are to maintain the
industry and technology to which we are
accustomed. The French have chosen
nuclear, with about 74% of their electricity
coming from nuclear power plants. What
energy source would you choose as an
alternative?
In the meantime, we shouldn’t waste
energy. As individuals, we should limit the
consumption of useful energy by such mea-
Sures as turning off unused electrical appli-
ances, using less hot water, going easy on
heating and air conditioning, and driving
energy-efficient automobiles. By doing these
things, we are conserving useful energy.
Critical Thinking \n how many reasonable
ways can we reduce energy consumption?

Chapter 8 Energy
 Chapter Assessment

(Go @nline For: Study and Review

Visit: PHSchool.com
Review Questions Check Concepts
HSchool.com Web Code: csd-1080 ike A force sets an object in motion. When the
force is multiplied by the time of its applica-
tion, we call the quantity impulse, which
changes the momentum of that object. What
do we call the quantity force x distance, and
Concept Summary
what quantity can this change? (8.1)
When a constant force moves an object in the
. Work is required to lift a barbell. How many
direction of the force, the work done equals the
times more work is required to lift the barbell
product of the force and the distance the object
three times as high? (8.1)
is moved.
. Which requires more work, lifting a 10-kg
m Power is the rate at which work is done.
load a vertical distance of 2 m or lifting a 5-kg
The energy of an object enables it to do work. load a vertical distance of 4 m? (8.1)
m= Mechanical energy is due to the position of . How many joules of work are done on an
something (potential energy) or the move- object when a force of 10 N pushes it a dis-
ment of something (kinetic energy). tance of 10 m? (8.1)
The law of conservation of energy states that . How much power is required to do 100 J of
energy cannot be created or destroyed. work on an object in a time of 0.5 s? How
much power is required if the same work is
m Energy can be transformed from one form
done in 1 s? (8.2)
into another.
. What are the two main forms of mechanical
A machine is a device for multiplying force or
energy? (8.3)
changing the direction of force.
. a. If you do 100 J of work to elevate a bucket of
m The lever, pulley, and inclined plane are sim-
water, what is its gravitational potential energy
ple machines. relative to its starting position?
m The useful work output of a machine is less
b. What would the gravitational potential energy
than the total work input. be if the bucket were raised twice as high? (8.4)
. A boulder is raised above the ground so that
its potential energy relative to the ground is
Key Terms 200 J. Then it is dropped. What is its kinetic
energy just before it hits the ground? (8.5)
efficiency (8.8) mechanical advantage (8.7)
energy (8.3) mechanical energy (8.3) . Suppose an automobile has 2000 J of kinetic
fulcrum (8.7) potential energy (8.4) energy. When it moves at twice the speed,
what will be its kinetic energy? What’s its
joule (8.1) power (8.2)
kinetic energy at three times the speed? (8.5)
kinetic energy (8.5) _ pulley (8.7)
law of conservation watt (8.2) 10. What will be the kinetic energy of an arrow
of energy (8.6) work (8.1) having a potential energy of 50 J after it is
shot from a bow? (8.6)
lever (8.7) work-energy theorem (8.5)
machine (8.7)
11. What does it mean to say that in any system
the total energy score stays the same? (8.6)
12. In what sense is energy from coal actually 25. Calculate the change in potential energy of
solar energy? (8.6) 8 million kg of water dropping 50 m over
Niagara Falls.
13. How does the amount of work done on an
automobile by its engine relate to the energy 26. If 8 million kg of water flows over Niagara
content of the gasoline? (8.6) Falls each second, calculate the power avail-
able at the bottom of the falls.
14. In what two ways can a machine alter an
input force? (8.7) 27. a. Calculate the kinetic energy of a 3-kg toy
cart that moves at 4 m/s.
15. In what way is a machine subject to the law
of energy conservation? Is it possible for a b. Calculate the kinetic energy of the same
machine to multiply energy or work input? (8.7) cart at twice the speed.
16. What does it mean to say that a machine has 28. A lever is used to lift a heavy load. When a
a certain mechanical advantage? (8.7) 50-N force pushes one end of the lever down
1.2 m, the load rises 0.2 m. Calculate the
17. In which type of lever is the output force
weight of the load.
smaller than the input force? (8.7)
29. a. In raising a 5000-N piano with a pulley
18. What is the efficiency of a machine that
system, the workers note that for every 2m
requires 100 J of input energy to do 35 J of
of rope pulled down, the piano rises 0.4 m.
useful work? (8.8)
Ideally, how much force is required to lift the
19. Distinguish between theoretical mechanical piano?
advantage and actual mechanical advantage.
b. If the workers actually pull with 2500 N of
How would these compare if a machine were
force to lift the piano, what is the efficiency of
100% efficient? (8.8)
the pulley system?
20. What is the efficiency of her body when a
30. Your European friends tell you they are pleased
cyclist expends 1000 W of power to deliver
because their new car gives them 15 kilome-
mechanical energy to the bicycle at the rate
of 100 W? (8.8) ters per liter of fuel. Translate this into miles
per gallon so you can decide whether to be
impressed. One mile is 1.6 km, and one gallon
is 3.8 liters.
Plug and Chug Use Equations
21. Calculate the work done when a 20-N force
pushes a cart 3.5 m. Think and Explain Think Critically
22. Calculate the work done in lifting a 500-N 31. State two reasons why a rock projected with
barbell 2.2 m above the floor. What is the a slingshot will go faster if the rubber is
potential energy of the barbell when it is stretched an extra distance.
lifted to this height?
32. Does an object with momentum always have
23. Calculate the power expended when the bar- energy? Does an object with energy always
bell above is lifted 2.2 min 2s. have momentum? Explain.
24. a. Calculate the work needed to lift a 90-N 33. If a mouse and an elephant both run with the
block of ice a vertical distance of 3 m. What same kinetic energy, can you say which is
PE does it have? running faster? Explain in terms of the equa-
b. When the same block of ice is raised the tion for KE.
same vertical distance by pushing it up a 34. An astronaut in full space gear climbs a verti-
5-m-long inclined plane, only 54 N of force is cal ladder on the earth. Later, the astronaut
required. Calculate the work done to push the makes the same climb on the moon. In which
block up the plane. What PE does it have? location does the gravitational potential
energy of the astronaut change more? Explain.

120 Chapter 8 Energy

35. Most Earth satellites follow an oval-shaped
(elliptical) path rather than a circular path
Think and Solve
around Earth. The PE increases when the
Develop Problem-Solving Skills
satellite moves farther from Earth. According
to the law of energy conservation, does a 42. Relative to the ground below, how many
satellite have its greatest speed when it is joules of PE does a 1000-N boulder have at
closest to or farthest from Earth? the top of a 5-m ledge? If it falls, with how
much KE will it strike the ground? What will
36. Suppose you are at the edge of a cliff and
be its speed on impact?
throw one ball down to the ground below and
another up at the same speed. The upward- . Ahammer falls off a rooftop and strikes the
thrown ball rises and then falls to the ground ground with a certain KE. If it fell from a roof
below. How do the speeds of the balls com- that was four times higher, how would its KE
pare when striking the ground? Neglect air of impact compare? Its speed of impact?
resistance and use the conservation of energy (Neglect air resistance.)
to arrive at your answer. . Acertain car can go from 0 to 100 km/h in
37. Why does a small, lightweight car generally 10 s. If the engine delivered twice the power to
have better fuel economy than a big, heavy the wheels, how many seconds would it take?
car? How does a streamlined design improve . Ifa car traveling at 60 km/h will skid 20 m
fuel economy? when its brakes lock, how far will it skid if it is
38. Does using an automobile’s air conditioner traveling at 120 km/h when its brakes lock?
while driving increase fuel consumption? (This question is typical on some driver’s
What about driving with the lights on? What license exams.)
about playing the car radio when parked with . How many kilometers per liter will a car go if
the engine off? Explain in terms of the con- its engine is 25% efficient and it encounters an
servation of energy. average retarding force of 1000 N at highway
39. What is the theoretical mechanical advantage speed? Assume the energy content of gasoline
for each of the three lever systems shown? is 40 MJ per liter.
. The pulley shown on the left has a mechani-
cal advantage of 1. What is the mechanical
advantage when it is used as shown on the
right? Defend your answer (1) by considering
the pulley to be a lever and (2) by tension in
the rope.
40. You tell your friend that no machine can pos-
sibly put out more energy than is put into it,
and your friend states that a nuclear reactor
puts out more energy than is put into it. What
do you say?
4l. The energy we require to live comes from the
chemically stored potential energy in food,
which is transformed into other energy forms
during the digestion process. What happens
to a person whose combined work and heat
output is less than the energy consumed?
What happens when the person's work and
heat output is greater than the energy con-
sumed? Can an undernourished person per-
form extra work without extra food? Defend
your answers.
 Circular Motion

hich moves faster on a merry-go-round,

a horse near the outside rail or one near
the inside rail? Why don’t the riders fall
out of the rotating carnival ride in Figure 9.1 when
the rotating platform is raised? If you swing a tin
can at the end of a string in a circle over your head
The linear speed of the hamster and the string breaks, does the can fly directly outward or does it
is related to the rotational continue its motion without changing its direction? Why do astro-
speed of the track. nauts orbiting in a space shuttle float in a weightless condition,
whereas astronauts orbiting in some future rotating space station
will experience normal Earth gravity? These questions indicate the
flavor of this chapter. We begin by discussing the difference between
rotation and revolution.

Figure 9.1 >

Why do the occupants of this car-
nival ride not fall out when it is
tipped almost vertically?

?
=

Pip)
By
/ wen

5]
Ler
ary
-

122 Chapter 9 Circular Motion

A aS I eS eR

9.1 Rotation and Revolution

Both the rotating platform of the carnival ride shown in Figure 9.1
and an ice skater doing a pirouette turn around an axis. An axis is
the straight line around which rotation takes place. When an object
turns about an internal axis—that is, an axis located within the body
of the object—the motion is called rotation, or spin. Both the carni-
val ride and the skater rotate.
When an object turns about an external axis, the motion is called
revolution. Although the platform of the carnival ride rotates, the
riders along the platform's outer edge revolve about its axis.
Earth undergoes both types of rotational motion. It revolves
Figure 9.2 A
around the sun once every 365 } days,* and it rotates around an axis
The turntable rotates around its
passing through its geographical poles once every 24 hours.** axis while a ladybug sitting at its
edge revolves around the same
axis.
(NNE
TSE ARR
9.2 Rotational Speed
We began this chapter by asking which moves faster on a merry-go-
round, a horse near the outside rail or one near the inside rail.
Similarly, which part of a turntable moves faster? On the pre-CD
record player shown in Figure 9.2, which part of the record moves
faster under the stylus—the groove at the outer part of the record or
the groove near the center? If you ask people these questions you'll
probably get more than one answer, because some people will think
about linear speed while others will think about rotational speed.
Linear speed, which we simply called speed in Chapter 2, is the
distance moved per unit of time. A point on the outer edge of a
merry-go-round or turntable moves a greater distance in one com-
plete rotation than a point near the center. The linear speed is
greater on the outer edge of a rotating object than it is closer to the
axis. The speed of something moving along a circular path can be
called tangential speed because the direction of motion is always
tangent to the circle. For circular motion, we can use the terms lin-
ear speed and tangential speed interchangeably.
Rotational speed (sometimes called angular speed) is the
number of rotations per unit of time. All parts of the rigid
merry-go-round and the turntable rotate about their axis in the
same amount of time. Thus, all parts have the same rate of rotation,

* Can you see the reason for leap years? Since Earth takes ; day more than 365 days to
circle the sun, an extra day is added to the calendar every fourth year.

** With respect to the sun, Earth rotates once each 24-hour period. A 24-hour day is the
time required for a point on Earth that is located directly under the sun to rotate and 1 Explore 2 Develop |3 Apply
reach that point again. But with respect to the stars, a complete rotation of Earth takes
23 hours and 56 minutes. Why? Because while Earth rotates, it revolves about a degree 1 Laboratory Manual 30
around the sun in its orbit.

123
 or the same number of rotations per unit of time. It is common to
express rotational speed in revolutions per minute (RPM).* For
example, phonograph records that were common in the past rotate
at 335 RPM. A ladybug sitting anywhere on the surface of the record
revolves at 33; RPM.
Tangential speed and rotational speed are related. Have you ever
ridden on a giant rotating platform in an amusement park? The
faster it turns, the faster your tangential speed is. Tangential speed
is directly proportional to the rotational speed and the radial dis-
tance from the axis of rotation. So we state**
Tangential speed ~ radial distance X rotational speed
At the center of the rotating platform, right at its axis, you have
no tangential speed at all, but you do have rotational speed. You
merely rotate. As you move away from the center, you move faster
and faster—your tangential speed increases while your rotational
speed stays the same. Move out twice as far from the center, and
you have twice the tangential speed. Move out three times as far,
and you have three times as much tangential speed. When a row of
skaters locked arm in arm at the skating rink makes a turn, the
motion of tail-end Charlie is evidence of this greater speed.
Figure 9.3 >
All parts of the turntable rotate
at the same rotational speed, but
FAST TWICE AS FAST

J
ladybugs at different distances
from the center travel at different
linear speeds. A ladybug sitting
twice as far from the center
moves twice as fast.

To summarize: In any rigidly rotating system, all parts have the

same rotational speed. However, the linear or tangential speed varies.
Tangential speed depends on rotational speed and the distance from
the axis of rotation.
eerr
C

* Rotation rate is described as turns per unit of time, or as the angle turned (degrees or
radians) per unit of time. The symbol for rotational speed is @ (the Greek letter omega).
Examples of units for rotational speed are RPM, degrees per second, or radians per
second. One degree is 1/360 of a full turn. One radian is about 1/6 of a full turn—
precisely, it is 1/2n times 360 degrees, or 57.3 degrees. You may learn more about
radians in a follow-up course.

* *
If you take a follow-up physics course you'll learn that when the proper units are used
for tangential speed v, rotational speed «, and radial distance r, the direct proportion of
vto rand w becomes the exact equation v= ro. This relationship applies only to a
rotating system wherein all parts simultaneously have the same @, like a rigid disk or
rigid rod. It does not apply to a system of planets, for example, where each planet
has
a different rotational speed «. (We will learn later that the innermost planets in
a plane-
tary system have both the greatest rotational speed and the greatest linear speed.)

124 Chapter 9 Circular Motion

 PHYSICS

Comparing Rolls
Roll a cylindrical can across a table. Note that the distance it
rolls in each complete rotation equals the circumference of
the can. Note also the can rolls in a straight-line path. Now
roll an ordinary tapered drink-
ing cup on the table (a paper or wa
foam cup works fine). The wide
end has a greater radius than
the narrow end. Does the cup
roll straight or does it curve?
Does the wide end of the cup
cover more distance as it
rotates? Is the linear speed of
the wide end greater? Doesn't
this nicely show that linear
speed depends on radius?

BH Questions
1. Which part of Earth’s surface has the greatest rotational speed
about Earth's axis? Which part has the greatest linear speed
relative to Earth’s axis?
— 2. Ona particular merry-go-round, the horses along the outer rail
are located three times farther from the axis of rotation than the
horses along the inner rail. If a boy sitting on a horse near the
inner rail has a rotational speed of 4 RPM and a tangential
speed of 2 m/s, what will be the rotational speed and tangential
speed of his sister who is sitting on a horse along the outer rail?
3. Trains ride on a pair oftracks. For straight-line motion, both
tracks are the same length. But which track is longer for a curve,
the one on the outside or the one on the inside of the curve?

BH Answers

1, Like a rotating turntable, all parts have the same rotational speed. The equatorial
region has the greatest linear speed because it is farthest from the axis.
The rotational speed of the sister is also 4 RPM. Her tangential speed is 6 m/s. Since
the merry-go-round is rigid, all the horses have the same rotational speed. But the
horse at the outer rail is three times the distance from the center and thus has three
times the tangential speed.
The outside track is longer, just as a circle with a greater radius has a longer
circumference.
= LINK TO TECHNOLOGY =, PHYSICS

Rolling on Tapered Wheels :

=

Tape a pair of paper or foam cups together as shown. The

pair doesn’t roll well along a table, but rolls very well along
a set of tracks. Set two meter sticks to simulate “railroad
tracks.” Set them parallel, about one cup length apart.
Roll the cups on the tracks. When the cups are centered so
parts of equal radius make contact with the tracks, straight-
line motion results—both sides have the same linear speed.
oe
When atrain followsa
eae Roll the cups a bit off center and notice how they self-
correct. Do you see that when a wider part on one cup rides
"curve, the outside wheels the track, it moves faster than the narrow part of the other
must travel faster thanthe — cup riding on the opposite track? This motion steers the
inside wheels. Train cups toward the middle of the tracks. If the rolling cups
wheels are tapered, and “overshoot” the middle, does the same process occur on
railroad tracks are slightly _
the other side to steer the cups back toward the middle?
rounded so that onlya _
small part of the wheel Do you think the wheels on a railroad car are cylindrical or
rides on the track at any slightly tapered?
time. When a train makes —
‘a left turn the tendency of
the train to go straight
puts the large-diameter
part of the tapered right
wheel on the right track
and the small-diameter
part of the tapered left
wheel on the left track.
Since both wheels, being
attached to the same axis,
have the same rotational
speed, the right wheel has
the greater linear speed
9.3 Centripetal Force
required to make the turn.
Whirl a tin can on the end of a string and you'll notice that you must
keep continuously pulling on the string. You pull inward on the string
to keep the can revolving over your head in a circular path. A force of
some kind is required to maintain circular motion. Any force that
causes an object to follow a circular path is called a centripetal force.
Centripetal means “center-seeking,” or “toward the center.” The force
that holds the occupants safely in the rotating carnival ride (Figure
9.1) is a center-directed force. Without it, the motion of the occupants
would be along a straight line—they would not revolve.
Centripetal force is not a new kind of force. It is simply the name
Figure 9.4 A
given to any force that is directed at a right angle to the path of a mov-
Like the cup in the Doing Physics
activity above, the rims of
ing object and that tends to produce circular motion. Gravitational
wheels on railroad tracks are and electrical forces act across empty space as centripetal forces.
tapered. Can you see when the Gravitational force directed toward the center of Earth holds the
wheels shift to the left of center, moon in an almost circular orbit around Earth. Electrons revolving
the left wheel rides on a larger around the nucleus of the atom are held in their orbits by an electrical
diameter than the right wheel? force that is directed inward toward the nucleus.

126 Chapter 9 Circular Motion

 “— CENTER OF CURVATURE —7 < Figure 9.5
(Left) For the car to go around a
curve, there must be sufficient
friction to provide the required
centripetal force. (Right) If the
CENTRIPETAL force of friction is not great
FORCE enough, skidding occurs.
CENTRIPETAL
FORCE
2 4
[3 =” = —

When an automobile rounds a corner, the sideways-acting fric-

tion between the tires and the road provides the centripetal force
that holds the car on a curved path (Figure 9.5). If the force of fric-
tion is not great enough, the car fails to make the curve and the tires
slide sideways. The car skids.
Centripetal force plays the main role in the operation of a cen-
trifuge. A familiar example is the spinning tub in an automatic wash-
ing machine. The tub rotates at high speed during its spin cycle. The
tub’s inner wall exerts a centripetal force on the wet clothes, which
are forced into a circular path. The tub exerts great force on the
clothes, but the holes in the tub prevent the tub from exerting the
same force on the water in the clothes. The water escapes through
the holes. It is important to note that a force acts on the clothes, not Figure 9.6 A
the water. It is not a force that causes the water to escape. The water The clothes are forced into a cir-
cular path, but the water is not.
escapes because it tends to move by inertia in a straight-line path
(Newton's first law) unless acted on by a centripetal force or any
other force. So interestingly enough, the clothes are forced away
from the water, and not the other way around.

NNN
TB RINSE
9.4 Centripetal and Centrifugal Forces
In the preceding examples, circular motion is described as being
caused by a center-directed force. Sometimes an outward force is
also attributed to circular motion. This outward force is called
centrifugal force.* Centrifugal means “center-fleeing,” or “away from ee nel
the center.” In the case of the whirling can, it is a common miscon- 7 \
\
ception to state that a centrifugal force pulls outward on the can. If
the string holding the whirling can breaks (Figure 9.7), it is often
J \
/ \
wrongly stated that centrifugal force pulls the can from its circular
path. But in fact, when the string breaks the can goes off in a tangen-
tial straight-line path because no force acts on it. We illustrate this
\
\
\
Dey
\/
i /
further with another example. See eee

Figure
9.7 A
When the string breaks, the
* Both centrifugal force and centripetal force depend on the mass m, tangential speed v, whirling can moves in a straight
and radius of curvature rof the circularly moving object. If you take a follow-up line, tangent to—not outward from
physics course you'll learn the exact relationship F = mv2/r . the center of—its circular path.

127
 Suppose you are the passenger in a car that suddenly stops
short. If you're not wearing a seat belt you pitch forward toward the
dashboard. When this happens, you don't say that something forced
you forward. You know that you pitched forward because of the
absence of a force, which a seat belt provides. Similarly, if you are in a
car that rounds a sharp corner to the left, you tend to pitch outward
against the right door. Why? Not because of some outward or cen-
trifugal force, but rather because there is no centripetal force hold-
ing you in circular motion. The idea that a centrifugal force bangs
you against the car door is a misconception.
So when you swing a tin can in a circular path, there is no force
pulling the can outward. Only the force from the string acts on the
can to pull the can inward. The outward force is on the string, not on
the can.

Figure 9.8 > —

The only force that is exerted on =
the whirling can (neglecting -
gravity) is directed toward the of
center of circular motion. This is
a centripetal force. No outward
force acts on the can. 2

Now suppose there is a ladybug inside the whirling can

(Figure 9.9). The can presses against the bug’s feet and provides
the centripetal force that holds it in a circular path. The ladybug in
turn presses against the floor of the can. Neglecting gravity, the only
force exerted on the ladybug is the force of the can on its feet. From
our outside stationary frame of reference, we see there is no cen-
trifugal force exerted on the ladybug, just as there is no centrifugal
force exerted on the person who pitches against the car door. The
“centrifugal-force effect” is attributed not to any real force but to
inertia—the tendency of the moving body to follow a straight-line
path. But try telling that to the ladybug!

CENTRIPETAL FORCE

1 Explore

2 Concept-Development
Practice Book 9-7
3 Problem-Solvin
Exercises in Figure 9.9 A
Physics 6-7 Theidcan provides the centripetal force necessary to hold the ladybug in a
circular path.

128 Chapter 9 Circular Motion

9.5 Centrifugal Force in a Rotating
Reference Frame
Our view of nature depends on the frame of reference from which
we view it. For instance, when sitting on a fast-moving train, we
have no speed at all relative to the train, but we have an appreciable
speed relative to the reference frame of the stationary ground out-
side. From one frame of reference we have speed; from another
we have none—likewise with force. Recall the ladybug inside the
whirling can. From a stationary frame of reference outside the
whirling can, we see there is no centrifugal force acting on the lady-
bug inside the whirling can. However, we do see centripetal force
acting on the can, producing circular motion. Thus, from an outside
stationary frame of reference the only force acting on the ladybug is
the centripetal force exerted by the bottom of the can on the lady-
bug’s feet.

CENTRIFUGAL FORCE Figure 9.10

From the reference frame of the
ladybug inside the whirling can,
the ladybug is being held to the
bottom of the can by a force that
is directed away from the center
of circular motion. The ladybug
calls this outward force a cen-
trifugal force, which is as real to
the ladybug as gravity.

PHYSICS

Water-Bucket Swing
Half fill a bucket of water and swing it in a vertical circle. If
you swing it fast enough, the water won't fall out at the top.
Interestingly enough, although it won't fall out, it still falls.
The trick is to swing the bucket fast enough that the bucket
falls as fast as the water
inside falls. Can you see that
because the bucket is revolv-
ing, the water moves tangen-
tially as it falls—and stays in
the bucket? Later we'll learn
that an orbiting space shuttle
similarly falls while in orbit.
The trick is to give the shuttle
sufficient tangential velocity
that it falls around the curved
Earth rather than into it.
 But nature seen from the reference frame of the rotating system
is different. In the rotating frame of reference of the whirling can,
both centripetal force (supplied by the can) and centrifugal force act
on the ladybug. The centrifugal force appears as a force in its own
right, as real as the pull of gravity. However, there is a fundamental
difference between the gravity-like centrifugal force and actual gravi-
tational force. Gravitational force is always an interaction between
one mass and another. The gravity we feel is due to the interaction
between our mass and the mass of Earth. However, in a rotating ref-
erence frame the centrifugal force has no agent such as mass—there
is no interaction counterpart. Centrifugal force is an effect of rota-
tion. It is not part of an interaction and therefore it cannot be a
150 km/h. Roller coaster true force. For this reason, physicists refer to centrifugal force as a
- designers, or mechanical
design engineers, use the
laws of physics to create
rides that are both excit- @ Questions
ing and safe. In particular,
1. A heavy iron ball is attached by a spring to a rotating platform,
designers must under-
as shown in the sketch. Two observers, one in the rotating
stand how roller coasters
frame and one on the ground at rest, observe its motion. Which
can safely navigate tall
observer sees the ball being pulled outward, stretching the
loops without exerting too
much force on the riders.
spring? Which observer sees the spring pulling the ball into cir-
Designers of modern
cular motion?
roller coasters first test
their designs on comput-
ers to identify any prob-
lems before construction
begins. Many private com-
panies design roller coast-
ers for amusement parks 2. The spring in the sketch stretches 10 cm when the ball is
throughout the world. located midway between the axis and the outer edge of the
rotating circular platform. The spring support is then moved so
the ball is located directly over the platform’s outer edge, effec-
tively doubling the ball’s distance from the axis. Will the spring
stretch more than, less than, or the same (10 cm) as it did
before the support was moved?
nn SSS

@ Answers

1. The observer in the reference frame of the rotating platform states that centrifugal force
pulls radially outward on the ball, which stretches the spring. The observer in the rest
frame states that centripetal force supplied by the stretched spring pulls the ball into cir-
cular motion. (Only the observer in the rest frame can identify an action-reaction pair of
forces; where action is spring-on-ball, reaction is ball-on-spring. The rotating observer
can't identify a reaction counterpart to the centrifugal force because there isn’t any.)
2. The ball has twice the linear speed when it's located at twice the distance from the
1 Explore rotational axis. With this greater speed there is a greater centripetal/centrifugal force.
The spring therefore stretches more when the ball is near the edge. (We will see in
2 Concept-Development Chapter 18 that the stretch of a spring is directly proportional to the applied force.
This
Practice Book 9-2 means that in this example, when the force is doubled, the stretch will double,
from
10 cm to 20 cm.)

130 Chapter 9 Circular Motion

fictitious force, unlike gravitational, electromagnetic, and nuclear
forces. Nevertheless, to observers who are in a rotating system, cen-
trifugal force is very real. Just as gravity is ever present at Earth’s sur-
face, centrifugal force is ever present within a rotating system.

RE
9.6 Simulated Gravity
Consider a colony of ladybugs living inside a bicycle tire—the bal-
loon kind used on mountain bikes that has plenty of room inside. If
we toss the wheel through the air or drop it from an airplane high in
the sky, the ladybugs will be in a weightless condition. They will
seem to float freely while the wheel is in free fall. Now spin the
wheel. The ladybugs will feel themselves pressed to the outer part of
the tire’s inner surface. If the wheel is spun at just the right speed,
the ladybugs will experience simulated gravity that feels like the
gravity they are accustomed to. Gravity is simulated by centrifugal
force. The “down” direction to the ladybugs is what we call “radially
outward,” away from the center of the wheel.

< Figure 9.11

If the spinning wheel freely falls,
the ladybugs inside will experi-
ence a centrifugal force that feels
like gravity when the wheel spins
at the appropriate rate. To the
occupants, the direction “up” is
toward the center of the wheel
and “down” is radially outward.

Today we live on the outer surface of our spherical planet, held

here by gravity. Earth has been the cradle of humankind. But we will
not stay in the cradle forever. We are on our way to becoming a
spacefaring people. In the years ahead many people will likely live in
huge lazily rotating space stations where centrifugal force simulates
gravity. The simulated gravity will be provided so the people can
function normally.
Occupants in today’s space shuttles feel weightless because they
lack a support force. They’re not pressed against a supporting floor
by gravity, nor do they experience a centrifugal force due to spin-
ning. But future space travelers need not be subject to weightless- Figure 9.12 A
ness. Their space habitats will probably spin, like the ladybug’s The interaction between the man
and the floor as seen at rest out-
spinning bicycle wheel, effectively supplying a support force and
side the rotating system. The floor
nicely simulating gravity.
presses against the man (action)
The comfortable 1 gwe experience at Earth’s surface is due to and the man presses back on the
gravity. Inside a rotating spaceship the acceleration experienced is floor (reaction). The only force
the centripetal/centrifugal acceleration due to rotation. The magni- exerted on the man is by the
tude of this acceleration is directly proportional to the radial dis- floor. It is directed toward the cen-
tance and the square of the rotational speed. For a given RPM, the ter and is a centripetal force.

131
 acceleration, like the linear speed, increases with increasing radial
distance. Doubling the distance from the axis of rotation doubles the
centripetal/centrifugal acceleration. Tripling the distance triples the
acceleration, and so forth. At the axis where radial distance is zero,
there is no acceleration due to rotation.
Small-diameter structures would have to rotate at high speeds to
provide a simulated gravitational acceleration of | g. Sensitive and del-
icate organs in our inner ears sense rotation. Although there appears
to be no difficulty at a single revolution per minute (1 RPM) or so,
many people have difficulty adjusting to rotational rates greater than
2 or 3 RPM (although some people easily adapt to 10 or so RPM). To
Figure 9.13 A simulate normal Earth gravity at 1 RPM requires a large structure—
As seen from inside the rotating one almost 2 km in diameter. This is an immense structure compared
system, in addition to the man-
with the size of today’s space shuttle vehicles. Economics will proba-
floor interaction there is a centri-
bly dictate that the size of the first inhabited structures be small. If
fugal force exerted on the man
at his center of mass. It seems as
these structures also do not rotate, the inhabitants will have to adjust
real as gravity. Yet, unlike gravity, to living in a seemingly weightless environment. Larger rotating habi-
it has no reaction counterpart— tats with simulated gravity will likely follow later.
there is nothing out there that If the structure rotates so that inhabitants on the inside of the
he can pull back on. Centrifugal outer edge experience 1 g, then halfway between the axis and the
force is not part of an interaction, outer edge they would experience only 0.5 g. At the axis itself they
but results from rotation. It is would experience weightlessness at 0 g. The possible variations of g
therefore called a fictitious force. within the rotating space habitat holds promise for a most different
and as yet unexperienced environment. We could perform ballet at
0.5 g; acrobatics at 0.2 gand lower g states; three-dimensional soccer
and sports not yet conceived in very low g states. People will explore
possibilities never before available to them. This time of transition
from our earthly cradle to new vistas is an exciting time in which to
live—especially for those who will be prepared to play a role in these
new adventures.*

Figure 9.14 >

A NASA depiction of a rotational
space colony.

1 Explore

2 Concept-Development
Practice Book 9-3 *
At the risk of stating the obvious, this preparation can well begin by taking your study
of physics very seriously.

132 Chapter 9 Circular Motion

 Chapter Assessment

4. What is linear speed called when something

(Go @nline For: Study and Review
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moves in a circle? (9.2)
5. At a given distance from the axis, how does
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linear (or tangential) speed change as rota-
tional speed changes? (9.2)
6. At a given rotational speed, how does linear
Concept Summary (or tangential) speed change as the distance
from the axis changes? (9.2)
An object rotates when it turns around an inter-
nal axis; it revolves when it turns around an 7. When you roll a cylinder across a surface it
external axis. follows a straight-line path. A tapered cup
rolled on the same surface follows a circular
m= Rotational speed is the number of rotations or path. Why? (9.2)
revolutions made per unit of time.
8. When you whirl a can at the end of a string in
A centripetal force pulls objects toward a center. a circular path, what is the direction of the
force that acts on the can? (9.3)
m An object moving in a circle is acted on bya
centripetal force. 9. Does the force that holds the riders on the
carnival ride in Figure 9.1 act toward or away
m When an object moves in a circle, there is no from the center? (9.3)
force pushing the object outward from the
10. Does an inward force or an outward force act
circle.
on the clothes during the spin cycle of an
m From within a rotating frame of reference, automatic washer? (9.3)
there seems to be an outwardly directed cen-
11. When a car makes a turn, do seat belts pro-
trifugal force, which can simulate gravity.
vide you with a centripetal force or centrifu-
gal force? (9.4)
12. If the string that holds a whirling can in its cir-
Key Terms cular path breaks, what causes the can to
revolution (9.1) move in a straight-line path—centripetal force,
axis (9.1)
centrifugal force, or a lack of force? What law
centrifugal force (9.4) rotation (9.1)
of physics supports your answer? (9.4)
centripetal force (9.3) rotational speed (9.2)
tangential speed (9.2) 13. Identify the action and reaction forces in the
linear speed (9.2)
interaction between the ladybug and the
whirling can in Figure 9.10. (9.5)
14. A ladybug in the bottom of a whirling tin can
Review Questions Check Concepts feels a centrifugal force pushing it against the
1. Distinguish between a rotation and a revolu- bottom of the can. Is there an outside source
tion. (9.1) of this force? Can you identify this as the
action force of an action-reaction pair? If so,
2. Does a child on a merry-go-round revolve or what is the reaction force? (9.5)
rotate around the merry-go-round’s axis? (9.1)
15. Why is the centrifugal force the ladybug feels in
3. Distinguish between linear speed and rota- the rotating frame called a fictitious force? (9.5)
tional speed. (9.2)

133
16. For a rotating space habitat of a given size, 25. A motorcyclist is able to ride on the vertical
what is the relationship between the magni- wall of a bowl-shaped track, as shown. Does
tude of simulated gravity and the habitat’s centripetal force or centrifugal force act on
rate of spin? (9.6) the motorcycle? Defend your answer.
17. For space habitats spinning at the same rate,
what is the relationship between simulated
gravity and the radius of the habitat? (9.6)
18. Why would orbiting space stations that simu-
late gravity likely be large structures? (9.6)

Think and Explain Think Critically

26. When a soaring eagle turns during its flight,
19. If you lose your grip on a rapidly spinning what is the source of the centripetal force
merry-go-round and fall off, in which direc- acting on it?
tion will you fly?
27. A car resting on a level road has two forces
20. A ladybug sits halfway between the axis and acting on it: its weight (down) and the nor-
the edge of a rotating turntable. What will mal force (up). Recall from Chapter 4 that the
happen to the ladybug’s linear speed if normal force is the support force, which is
a. the RPM rate is doubled? always perpendicular to the supporting sur-
face. If the car makes a turn on a level road,
b. the ladybug sits at the edge? the normal force is still straight up. Friction
c. both a and b occur? between the wheels and road is the only cen-
tripetal force providing curved motion.
21 . Which state in the United States has the Suppose the road is banked so the normal
greatest tangential speed as Earth rotates force has a component that provides cen-
around its axis? tripetal force as shown in the sketch. Do you
225 The speedometer in a car is driven by a cable think the road could be banked so that for a
connected to the shaft that turns the car’s given speed and a given radius of curvature,
wheels. Will speedometer readings be more a vehicle could make the turn without fric-
or less than actual speed when the car’s tion? Explain.
wheels are replaced with smaller ones?
23. Keeping in mind the concept from the previ- Normal
ous question, a taxi driver wishes to increase
his fares by adjusting the size of his tires.
Should he change to larger tires or smaller
tires?
24. Consider the pair of cups taped together as
shown. Will this design self-correct its motion
and keep the pair of wheels on track? Predict
before you try it and see!

134 Chapter 9 Circular Motion

28. Does centripetal force do work on a rotating b. How fast does the spot of laser light sweep
object? (Hint: Consider the direction of cen- across clouds that are 20 km away?
tripetal force and the direction of motion.)
Defend your answer. c. At what distance will the laser beam sweep
across the sky at the speed of light (the speed
29. Explain why the faster Earth spins, the less a of light is 300 000 km/s)? (In Chapter 15 we will
person weighs, whereas the faster a space learn that no material can travel at the speed
station spins, the more a person weighs. of light; here we have a nonmaterial spot. Not
30. Occupants in a single space shuttle in orbit only can it travel at the speed of light, at
feel weightless. Describe a scheme whereby greater radial distances the nonmaterial spot
can travel faster than the speed of light!)
occupants in a pair of shuttles (or even one
shuttle and another massive object in orbit) 35. Suppose you tie a rock to the end ofa
would be able to use a long cable to continu- 1-meter-long string and spin it in a vertical
ously experience a comfortably normal Earth- circle. What is the minimum speed it can
like gravity. travel and “just” get around the top? (Hint:
The rope will just start to go “slack” and the
only force acting on the rock, downward,
is gravity.)
Think and Solve
Develop Problem-Solving Skills 36. Consider a too-small space station that con-
sists of a 4-m-radius rotating sphere. A man
31. From the equation F = mv*/r, calculate the standing inside is 2 m tall and his feet are at
tension in a 2-m length of string that whirls a 1 g. What is the acceleration of his head?
1-kg mass at 2 m/s in a horizontal circle. Explain why rotating space structures need
32. Answer the previous question for the case to be large.
of (a) twice the mass, (b) twice the speed, 37. Standing inside a rotating space station, your
(c) twice the length of string (radical feet have a greater linear speed and a greater
distance), and (d) twice mass, twice speed, centripetal acceleration than your head. We
and twice distance all at the same time. say there is a difference in g's from your head
33. Mars is about twice as far from the sun as is to your feet, and this difference can be quite
Venus. A Martian year, which is the time it uncomfortable. Studies show, however, that a
takes Mars to go around the sun, is about difference of {5 gacross the human body pro-
three times as long as a Venusian year. duces no discomfort. What, then, should be
the radius of the space station compared to
a. Which of these two planets has the greater your height so that the difference in accelera-
rotational speed in its orbit? tion between your head and feet is only ;5 g?
b. Which planet has the greater linear speed? 38. Suppose you are standing within the rim ofa
circular space station, in outer space. The rim
34. A turntable that turns 10 revolutions each
revolves around the center of the space sta-
second is located on top of a mountain.
tion at a speed of 300 m/s. If the radius of the
Mounted on the turntable is a laser that emits
station is 9184 meters, what will you weigh?
a bright beam of light. As the turntable and
(Hint. Find v?/r and compare it to g.)
laser rotate, the beam also rotates and sweeps
across the sky. On a dark night the beam
reaches some clouds 10 km away.
a. How fast does the spot of laser light sweep
across the clouds?

135
———— aT TTBo pci aerate Soa — = ec, ie : es
wicks fei % ‘ a a, : Sim

Center of Gravity

y hy doesn’t the famous Leaning Tower of

| Pisa topple over? How far can it lean
=! before it does topple over? Why is it
impossible for us to stand with our back and our
heels against a wall and then bend over and touch
opel
our toes without toppling forward? To answer
Stability depends on the loca- these questions, we first need to know about center of gravity. Then
tion of the center of gravity. we need to know how this concept can be applied to balancing and
stability. Let’s start with center of gravity.

ees

10.1 Center of Gravity

Throw a baseball into the air, and it follows a smooth parabolic path.
Throw a baseball bat into the air and its path is not smooth. The bat
seems to wobble all over the place. But it wobbles about a special
point. This point stays on a parabolic path, even though the rest of
the bat does not; see Figure 10.1. The motion of the bat is the sum of
two motions: (1) a spin around this point and (2) a movement
through the air as if all the weight were concentrated at this point.
This point is the center of gravity of the bat.

Figure 10.1 >

The centers of gravity of the
baseball and of the spinning
baseball bat each follow para-
bolic paths.

RI I an gg en 9 ee FI oeoeow:

136 Chapter10 Center of Gravity

 < Figure 10.2
The center of gravity for each
object is shown by the colored
dot.

The center of gravity of an object is the point located at the

object's average position of weight. For a symmetrical object, such as
a baseball, this point is at the geometric center of the object. But an
irregularly shaped object, such as a baseball bat, has more weight at
one end than the other end, so the center of gravity is toward the
heavier end. The center of gravity of a piece of tile cut into the shape
of a triangle is located on the line passing through the center and the
apex, one-third of the way up from the base. A solid cone’s center of
gravity is one-fourth of the way up from its base.
Objects not made of the same material throughout (that is,
objects of varying density) may have the center of gravity quite far
from the geometric center. Consider a hollow ball half filled with
lead. The center of gravity would not be at the geometric center;
rather, it would be located somewhere within the lead part. The ball
will always roll to a stop with its center of gravity as low as possible.
Make the ball the body of a lightweight toy clown, and whenever it is
pushed over, it will come back right-side up (Figure 10.3).
The multiple-flash photograph in Figure 10.4 shows the top view
of a wrench sliding across a smooth horizontal surface. Notice that its
center of gravity, which is marked by the white dot, follows a straight-
line path. Other parts of the wrench rotate about this point as the Figure 10.3 A
wrench moves across the surface. Notice also that the center of grav- The center of gravity of the toy is
ity moves equal distances in the equal time intervals of the flashes below ts georetue center
(because no net force acts in the direction of motion). The motion of
the wrench is a combination of straight-line motion of its center of
gravity and rotation around its center of gravity.

Figure 10.4 A a
The center of gravity of the rotating wrench follows a straight-line path.

If the wrench were instead tossed into the air, no matter how it
rotated, its center of gravity would follow a smooth parabola. The same
is true even for an exploding projectile, such as the fireworks rocket

137
Figure 10.5 >
The center of gravity of the fire-
works rocket and its fragments
move along the same path
before and after the explosion.

shown in Figure 10.5. The internal forces during the explosion do not
change the projectile’s center of gravity. Interestingly enough, if air
resistance is negligible, the center of gravity of the dispersed frag-
ments as they fly through the air will be at any time where the center
of gravity would have been if the explosion had never occurred.

Ce eee cae SERS enn Prete eae sees nerd]

10.2 Center of Mass
Center of gravity is often called center of mass, which is the average
position of all the particles of mass that make up an object. For
almost all objects on and near the earth, these terms are inter-
changeable. There can be a small difference between center of grav-
ity and center of mass when an object is large enough for gravity to
vary from one part to another. For example, the center of gravity of
the World Trade Center is about 1 millimeter below its center of
mass. This is due to the lower stories being pulled a little more
strongly by Earth's gravity than the upper stories. For everyday
objects (including tall buildings!) we can use the terms center of
gravity and center of mass interchangeably.
If you threw a wrench so that it rotated as it moved through the
air, you'd see it wobble about its center of gravity. The center of grav-
ity itself would follow a parabolic path. Now suppose you threw a
lopsided ball—one with its center of gravity off-center. You'd see it
Figure 10.6 VW
wobble also. The sun itself wobbles for a similar reason. As shown in
The center of mass of the solar
system is not at the geometric Figure 10.6, the center of mass of the solar system can lie outside the
center of the sun. If all the plan- massive sun, not at the sun's geometric center. Why? Because the
ets were lined up on one side of masses of the planets contribute to the overall mass of the solar sys-
the sun, the center of mass tem. As the planets orbit at their respective distances, the sun actually
would be about 2 solar radii wobbles off-center. Astronomers look for similar wobbles in nearby
from the sun’s center. stars—the wobble is an indication of a star with a planetary system.

=a aug
@: et: @... Sele

138 Chapter10 —_Center of Gravity

ER SE TS I
10.3 Locating the Center of Gravity |
VVVVVVLVVVVVY
The center of gravity (called the CG from here on) of a uniform
object (such as a meter stick) is at the midpoint, its geometric center.
The GG is the balance point. Supporting that single point supports
the whole object. In Figure 10.7 the many small vectors represent the
Figure 10.7 A
force of gravity along the meter stick. All of these can be combined The weight of the entire stick
into a resultant force that acts at the CG. The effect is as if the weight Pahavad seihit were concent
of the meter stick were concentrated at this point. That’s why you trated at its center.
can balance the meter stick with a single upward force directed at
this point.
If you suspend any object (a pendulum, for example) at a single
point, the CG of the object will hang directly below (or at) the point
of suspension. To locate the object’s CG, construct a vertical line
beneath the point of suspension. The CG lies somewhere along that
line. Figure 10.8 shows how a plumb line and bob can be used to
construct a line that is exactly vertical. You can locate the CG by sus-
pending the object from some other point and constructing a sec-
ond vertical line. The CG is where the two lines intersect.
The CG of an object may be located where no actual material
exists. The CG of a ring lies at the geometric center where no matter
exists. The same holds true for a hollow sphere such as a basketball.
The CG of even half a ring or half a hollow ball is still outside the Figure 10.8 A
physical structure. There is no material at the CG of an empty cup, Finding the CG for an irregularly
bowl, or boomerang. shaped object with a plumb bob.

<4 Figure 10.9

There is no material at the CG of
these objects.

fl Questions
1. Where isthe CG of a donut?
2. Can an object have more than one CG?

@ Answers

= In the center of the hole!

dis-
N A rigid object has one CG. If it is nonrigid, such as a piece of clay or putty, and is
torted into different shapes, then its CG may change as its shape is changed. Even
then, it has one CG for any given shape.

139
 10.4 Toppling
Pin a plumb line to the center of a heavy wooden block and tilt the
block until it topples over as shown in Figure 10.10. You can see that
the block will begin to topple when the plumb line extends beyond
the supporting base of the block.

Figure 10.10 >

The block topples when the CG
extends beyond its support base.

The rule for toppling is this: If the CG of an object is above the

area of support, the object will remain upright. If the CG extends
outside the area of support, the object will topple. This principle is
dramatically employed in Figure 10.11.

Figure 10.11 >

A “Londoner” double-decker
bus undergoing a tilt test. The
bus must not topple when the
chassis is tilted 28° with the top
deck fully loaded and only the
driver and conductor on the
lower deck. Because so much
of the weight of the vehicle is in
the lower part, the load of the
passengers on the upper deck
raises the CG only a little, so the
bus can be tilted well beyond
this 28° limit without toppling.

The Leaning Tower of Pisa does not topple because its CG does
Figure 10.12 A not extend beyond its base. As shown in Figure 10.12, a vertical line
The Leaning Tower of Pisa does below the CG falls inside the base, and so the Leaning Tower has
not topple over because its CG stood for centuries. If the tower leaned far enough that the CG
lies above its base. extended beyond the base, the tower would topple.

140 Chapter 10 —_Center of Gravity

 PHYSICS LINK TO BIOLOGY

Males Versus Females

Try the following with a group of males and females. Stand exactly
two footlengths away from a wall and place a chair between your-
self and the wall. Bend over
with a straight back and let
your head lean against the
wall, as shown. Then lift
the chair off of the floor
while your head is still
leaning against the wall.
Now attempt to straighten
up. Give two reasons why
You can bend over only
females can generally do so far when trying to
Co FOOTLENGTHS 7
this while males cannot. extend your horizontal
reach. How far you can
extend depends on keep-
ing your CG within your
support base. A monkey
The support base of an object does not have to be solid. The four
can reach proportionally
legs of a chair bound a rectangular area that is the support base for
much farther than you can
the chair, as shown in Figure 10.13. Practically speaking, supporting
without toppling. How?
props could be erected to hold the Leaning Tower up if it leaned too
By extending its tail, thus
far. Such props would create a new support base. An object will keeping its CG above its
remain upright if the CG is above its base of support. feet. A tail gives an animal
the ability to shift its CG
and increase stability. The
@ Questions massive tails of dinosaurs
1. When you carry a heavy load—such as a pail of water—with one tell us that they were able
arm, why do you tend to hold your free arm out horizontally? to extend their heads con-
siderably beyond the sup-
2. To resist being toppled, why does a wrestler stand with San baceror thelr feet!
(a) feet wide apart and (b) knees bent?
3. How will the support base of the chair in Figure 10.13 change if
one of the front legs is removed? Will the chair topple?
aia,

BH Answers

1. You tend to hold your free arm outstretched to shift the CG of your body away from the
load so your combined CG will more easily be above the base of support. To really
help matters, divide the load in two if possible, and carry half in each hand. Or, carry
the load on your head!

2. (a) Wide-apart feet increase the support base. (b) Bent knees lower the CG.

3. The support base for four legs is a rectangle. With three legs it's a triangle of half the Figure 10.13 A
area. The CG will be toward the rear of the chair because of the weight of the back and The shaded area bounded by the
loss of weight of the front leg, and be within and above the triangular support base. So bottom of the chair legs defines
it will not topple—until somebody sits on it! the support base of the chair.

141
 Try balancing the pole end of a broom or mop on the palm of
your hand. The support base is very small and relatively far beneath
the CG, so it is difficult. But after some practice you can do it if you
learn to make slight movements of your hand to exactly respond to
variations in balance. You learn to avoid underresponding or over-
responding to the slightest variations in balance. Similarly, high-
speed computers help massive rockets remain upright when they
are launched. Variations in balance are quickly sensed. The comput-
ers regulate the firings at multiple nozzles to make corrective
adjustments, quite similar to the way your brain coordinates your
adjustive action when balancing a long pole on the palm of your
hand. Both feats are truly amazing.

SE ET ee ee es ee

10.5 Stability
It is nearly impossible to balance a pen upright on its point, while it is
rather easy to stand it upright on its flat end, because the base of sup-
port is inadequate for the point and adequate for the flat end. But
there is a second reason. Consider a solid wooden cone on a level
table. As you can see in Figure 10.14, you cannot stand it on its tip.
Even if you position it so that its center of gravity is exactly above its
tip, the slightest vibration or air current will cause the cone to topple.
When it does topple, will the center of gravity be raised, be lowered,
or not change at all? The answer to this question provides the second
reason for stability. A little thought will show that the CG is lowered by
any movement. We say that an object balanced so that any displace-
ment lowers its center of gravity is in unstable equilibrium.

Figure 10.14 A
Equilibrium is (a) unstable when the CG is lowered with displacement,
(b) stable when work must be done to raise the CG, and (c) neutral when
displacement neither raises nor lowers the CG.

A cone balances easily on its base. To make it topple, its CG must

be raised. This means the cone's potential energy must be increased,
which requires work. We say an object that is balanced so that any
displacement raises its center of gravity is in stable equilibrium.
Figure 10.15 A Place the cone on its side and its CG is neither raised nor low-
For the pen to topple when it is ered with displacement. An object in this configuration is in neutral
on its flat end, it must rotate equilibrium.
over one edge. During the rota- Like the cone, the pen is in unstable equilibrium when it is on its
tion, the CG rises slightly and point. When the pen is on its flat end, as in Figure 10.15, it is in stable
then falls. equilibrium because the CG must be raised slightly to topple it over.

142 Chapter 10 Center of Gravity

 < Figure 10.16
Toppling the upright book
requires only a slight raising of
its CG; toppling the flat book
requires a relatively large raising
of its CG. Which requires more
work?

Consider the upright book and the book lying flat in Figure 10.16.
Both are in stable equilibrium. But you know the flat book is more
stable. Why? Because it would take considerably more work to raise
its CG to the point of toppling than to do the same for the upright
book. An object with a low CG is usually more stable than an object
with a relatively high CG.
The horizontally balanced pencil on the left in Figure 10.17 is in
unstable equilibrium. Its CG is lowered when it tilts. But suspend a
potato from each end and the pencil becomes stable, as shown on
the right in Figure 10.17. Why? Because the CG is below the point of
support, and is raised when the pencil is tilted.

< Figure 10.17

(Left) A pencil balanced on the
edge of a hand is in unstable
equilibrium. (Right) When its
ends are stuck into long pota-
A toes that hang below, it is stable
because its new CG rises when
POTATOES it is tipped.

B Question
Explain why the toy clown in Figure 10.3 cannot remain on its side.

Some well-known balancing toys depend

on this principle. Their secret is that they
have been weighted so that the CG lies
vertically underneath the point of sup-
port while most of the remainder of the
toy is above it. See the example in
Figure 10.18. A toy that hangs with
its CG below its point of sup-
port is in stable equilib-
rium because the
< Figure 10.18
CG rises when
The toy is in stable equilibrium
the toy tilts. because the CG rises when the
toy tilts.

@ Answer
The CG is lowest when the toy is upright. Tipping the toy raises its CG and increases its
potential energy. If it is pushed over, it will easily roll back with the aid of gravity until the
CG is the lowest and its potential energy the least it can be.

143
 The CG of a building is lowered if much of the structure is
below ground level. This is important for tall, narrow structures.
An extreme example is the state of Washington's tallest freestanding
structure, the Space Needle in Seattle. This structure is so “deeply
rooted” that its center of gravity is actually below ground level. It
cannot fall over intact. Why? Because falling would not lower its CG
at all. If the structure were to tilt intact onto the ground, its CG
would be raised!
The tendency for the CG to take the lowest position available can
be seen by placing a very light object, such as a table-tennis ball, at
the bottom of a box of dried beans or small stones. Shake the box,
and the beans or stones tend to go to the bottom and force the ball
to the top. By this process the CG of the whole system takes a lower
position.

Figure 10.19 A
The Seattle Space Needle can no
more fall over than can a floating
iceberg. In both, the CG is below
the surface.

Figure 10.20 A
(Left) A table-tennis ball is placed at the bottom of a container of dried
beans. (Right) When the container is shaken from side to side, the ball is
nudged to the top. The result is a lower center of gravity.

The same thing happens in water when an object rises to the

surface and floats. If the object weighs less than an equal volume of
water, the CG of the whole system will be lowered when the object is
forced to the surface. This is because the heavier (more dense) water
can then occupy the available lower space. If the object is heavier
than an equal volume of water, it will be more dense than water and
sink. In either case, the CG of the whole system is lowered. In the
case where the object weighs the same as an equal volume of water
(same density), the CG of the system is unchanged whether the
Figure 10.21 A
The CG of the glass of water is
object rises or sinks. The object can be at any level beneath the sur-
higher when the table-tennis ball face without affecting the CG. You can see that a fish must weigh the
is anchored to the bottom (left) same as an equal volume of water (have the same density); otherwise
and lower when the ball floats it would be unable to remain at different levels in the water. We will
(right). return to these ideas in Chapter 19, where liquids are treated in
more detail.
Shake a box of stones of different sizes and observe what hap-
pens. The shaking enables the small stones to slip down into the
spaces between the larger stones and in effect lower the CG. The
larger stones therefore tend to rise to the top. The same thing hap-
pens when a tray of berries is gently shaken—the larger berries
tend to come to the top.

144 Chapter 10 Center of Gravity

 1 Explore
10.6 Center of Gravity of People 1 Laboratory Manual 37
2 Concept-Development
When you stand erect with your arms hanging at your sides, your CG Practice Book 70-7
is within your body. It is typically 2 to 3 cm below your navel, and
midway between your front and back. The CG is slightly lower in

Figure 10.22 A
A high jumper executes a “Fosbury flop” to clear the bar while his CG
passes beneath the bar.

Figure 10.23 A
women than in men because women tend to be proportionally When you stand, your CG is
larger in the pelvis and smaller in the shoulders. In children, the CG somewhere above the area
is approximately 5% higher because of their proportionally larger bounded by your feet.
heads and shorter legs.
Raise your arms vertically overhead. Your CG rises 5 to 8 cm.
Bend your body into a U or C shape and your CG may be located
outside your body altogether. This fact is nicely employed by the
high jumper in Figure 10.22, who clears the bar while his CG nearly
passes beneath the bar.
When you stand, your CG is somewhere above your support
base, the area bounded by your feet. In unstable situations, as in
standing in the aisle of a bumpy-riding bus, you place your feet
farther apart to increase this area. Standing on one foot greatly
decreases this area. In learning to walk, a baby must learn to coor-
dinate and position the CG above a supporting foot. Many birds,
pigeons for example, do this by jerking their heads back and forth
with each step.
You can probably bend over and touch your toes without bend-
ing your knees. In doing so, you unconsciously extend the lower part
of your body, as shown in Figure 10.24. In this way your CG, which is
now outside your body, is nevertheless above your supporting feet. If Figure 10.24 A
you try it while standing with your heels to a wall, you may be in for eae aiaanivanand soon
a surprise. You cannot do it! This is because you are unable to adjust your toes without toppling only
your body, and your CG protrudes beyond your feet. You are off bal- if your CG is above the area
ance and you topple over. bounded by your feet.

145
 ervation, | exp
8 ome eadi ici ae , may be ! 7

toa calise-c 1d-effect relationshi em a i detailedjlogical.conne eco ne provided. a

things. It involves asking the kinds of ques wap The danger of pseudo- |
tions science can handle, and _ science is that it can lead us —
searching for answers via to believe things that aren't
careful, controlled experi- true, or make us think we
mentation. Only when know things we don’t. Thus,
repeated experiments pro- we may make unwise deci-
duce consistent results and sions. Nevertheless, pseudo-
objective evidence is pro- sciences appeal to many
vided, is an idea scientifically people. They can excite the
valid. Such ideas reliably imagination, simplify com-
explain and predict many plex issues, and soothe anxi-
types of events. ety about the unknown.
A pseudoscience is a Critical Thinking Are horoscopes that
false science. It claims the power of science are seen frequently in newspapers and
to explain and predict events, but it is not magazines an example of science or
based on the careful methods of science. pseudoscience? Explain. How can you
Often, “evidence” cited by a pseudoscientist identify pseudoscience?

All the examples of toppling illustrate the rule: If the CG extends

beyond the support base, toppling occurs. Knowing this rule can
sharpen your perception of many familiar things—like the upright
positions of toys, buildings, and tall trees, and how far they can lean
and still remain stable. But knowing this rule is only a beginning, for
this chapter has not taught you why things topple when they aren't
above a support base. The reason has to do with the concept of
torque, which begins the next chapter.
You don't need to take a course in physics to know where to bal-
ance a baseball bat, how to stand a pencil upright on its flat end, or
that you can't lean over and touch your toes if your heels are against
a wall. With or without physics, everybody knows that it is easier to
hang by your hands below a supporting rope than it is to stand on
your hands above a supporting floor. And you don't need a formal
study of physics to balance like a gymnast. But maybe it’s nice to know
that physics is at the root of many things you already know about.
Knowing about things is not always the same as understanding
things. Understanding begins with knowledge. So we begin by know-
ing about things, and then progress deeper to an understanding of
things. That’s where a knowledge of physics is very helpful.

146 Chapter 10 Center of Gravity

 Chapter Assessment

. What is suggested by a star that wobbles off

(Go @nline For: Study and Review
Visit: PHSchool.com
center? (10.2)

HSchool.com Wet Code: csd-1100 . How can the CG of an irregularly shaped

object be determined? (10.3)

. Cite an example of an object that has a CG

where no physical material exists. (10.3)
Concept Summary . Why does the Leaning Tower of Pisa not top-
The center of gravity (CG) of an object is the ple? (10.4)
point at the center of its weight distribution. . How far can an object be tipped before it top-
m When an object is thrown through the air, its ples over? (10.4)
CG follows a smooth parabolic path, even if 10. How is balancing the pole end of a broom in
the object spins or wobbles. an upright position on the palm of your hand
m For everyday objects, the center of gravity is similar to the launching of a rocket? (10.4)
the same as the center of mass. 11. Distinguish between unstable, stable, and
An object will remain upright if its CG is above neutral equilibrium. (10.5)
the area of support. 12. Is the gravitational potential energy more,
m An object is in stable equilibrium when any less, or unchanged when the CG of an object
displacement raises its CG. is raised? (10.5)

13. Why is it easier to hang by your arms below a

supporting cable than to do handstands on a
supporting floor? (10.5)
Key Terms
14. What is the “secret” of balancing toys that
center of gravity (10.1) exhibit stable equilibrium while appearing to
center of mass (10.2) be unstable? (10.5)
neutral equilibrium (10.5)
15. What accounts for the stability of the Space
stable equilibrium (10.5) Needle in Seattle? (10.5)
unstable equilibrium (10.5)
16. If a container of dried beans with a table-
tennis ball at the bottom is shaken, what
happens to the CG of the container? (10.5)
Review Questions Check Concepts if What happens to the CG of a glass of water
1. Why is the CG of a baseball bat not at its mid- when a table-tennis ball is poked beneath the
point? (10.1) surface? (10.5)

2. What part of an object follows a smooth path 18. Why do some high jumpers arch their bodies
when the object is made to spin through the into a U shape when passing over the high
air or across a flat smooth surface? (10.1) bar? (10.6)

3. Describe the motion of the CG of a projectile, 19. Why do you spread your feet farther apart
when standing in a bumpy-riding bus? (10.6)
before and after it explodes in midair. (10.1)
20. Why can you not successfully bend over and
4. When are the CG and center of mass of an
touch your toes when you stand with your
object the same? When can the CG and center
of mass be different? (10.2) heels against a wall? (10.6)

147
 26. Which balancing act in the figure is in stable
Think and Explain Think Critically equilibrium? In unstable equilibrium? Nearly
at neutral equilibrium?
21. To balance automobile wheels, particularly
when tires have worn unevenly, lead weights
are fastened to their edges. Where should the
CG of the balanced wheel be located?
22. Why does a washing machine vibrate violently
if the clothes are not evenly distributed in the
tub?
23. A bottle rack that seems to defy common
sense is shown in the figure. Where is the CG
of the rack and bottle?

27. How can the three bricks in the figure be

stacked so that the top brick has maximum
horizontal overhang above the bottom brick?
For example, stacking them as the dotted lines
suggest would be unstable and the bricks
would topple. (Hint: Start with the top brick
and think your way down. At every interface
the CG of the bricks above must not extend
beyond the end of the supporting brick.)

24. Which glass in the figure is unstable and will

topple?

28. The CGs of the three trucks parked on a hill

are shown by the X’s in the figure. Which
truck(s) will topple over?

25. Why is it dangerous to roll open the top draw-

ers of a fully loaded file cabinet that is not
secured to the floor?

148 Chapter 10 Center of Gravity

29. Why does a pregnant woman during the late
stages of pregnancy or a man with a large
Activities Performance Assessment
paunch tend to lean backward when walking?
35. Suspend a belt from a piece of stiff wire that
30. A long track balanced like a seesaw supports a
is bent as shown. Why does the belt balance
golf ball and a more massive billiard ball with as it does?
a compressed spring between the two as
shown in the figure. The CG of the two-ball
system is therefore directly above the point of
support (the triangular fulcrum). When the
spring is released, the balls move away from
each other. As the balls roll outward, will the
track remain in balance, or will it tip? What
principles do you use for your explanation?

. Rest a meter stick on two extended fore-

31. Why is the middle seating most comfortable in fingers as shown. Slowly bring your fingers
a bus traveling along a bumpy road? together. Where do your fingers meet?
Explain why this always happens, no matter
32. Why does a hiker carrying a heavy backpack where you start your fingers. What is the role
lean forward? of friction here? What happens when one fin-
33. What is the role of the heavy tail of a dinosaur ger gets ahead of the other? If you repeat this
with respect to CG?
activity with a small weight at one end of the
stick, where will your fingers meet?

34. How does a heavy tail enable a monkey stand-

ing on a branch to reach to farther branches?

37. Hang a hammer on a loose ruler as shown.

Then explain why it doesn’t fall.

RULER) TABLE ToPy

149
 Rotational
Mechanics

@ ush on an object that is free to move, and

y you set it in motion. Some objects will
x move without rotating, some will rotate
without moving, and others will do both. For
example, a kicked football often tumbles end
over end. What determines whether an object
will rotate when a force acts on it? This chapter
is about the factors that affect rotation. We will
Rotational motion can produce see that these factors explain most of the techniques used by gym-
linear motion. nasts, ice skaters, and divers.

11.1 Torque
Every time you open a door, turn on a water faucet, or tighten a nut
with a wrench, you exert a turning force. This turning force produces
a torque (rhymes with fork). Torque is different from force. If you
want to make an object move, apply a force. Forces tend to make
things accelerate. If you want to make an object turn or rotate, apply
a torque. Torques produce rotation.

Figure 11.1
A torque produces rotation.

150 Chapter11 Rotational Mechanics

 A torque is produced when a force is applied with “leverage.” You LEVER ARM
use leverage when you use a claw hammer to pull a nail from a piece
of wood. The longer the handle of the hammer, the greater the lever-
age and the easier the task. The longer handle of a crowbar provides
even more leverage. You use leverage when you use a screwdriver or
a table knife to open the lid of a paint can.
A torque is used when opening a door. A doorknob is placed far
away from the turning axis at its hinges to provide more leverage
L HINGE ~
when you push or pull on the doorknob. The direction of your applied Figure 11.2 A
force is important. In opening a door, you'd never push or pull the When a perpendicular force is
doorknob sideways to make the door turn. You push perpendicular applied, the lever arm is the dis-
to the plane of the door. Experience has taught you that a perpendic- tance between the doorknob and
ular push or pull gives more rotation for less effort. the edge with the hinges.
If you have used both short- and long-handled wrenches, you
also know that less effort and more leverage result with a long handle.
When the force is perpendicular, the distance from the turning axis to
the point of contact is called the lever arm. If the force is not at a
right angle to the lever arm, then only the perpendicular component
of the force, F,, will contribute to the torque. Torque is defined as*
torque = force, X lever arm
So the same torque can be produced by a large force with a short
lever arm, or a small force with a long lever arm. Greater torques are
produced when both the force and lever arm are large.

TORQUE Figure 11.3 A

gee
The doorknob on this door is
placed at the center. What do
physics types say about the
practicality of this?

Figure 11.4 A
Although the magnitudes of the applied forces are the same in each case,
the torques are different. Only the component of forces perpendicular to the
lever arm contributes to torque.

1 Explore 2 Develop | 3 Apply

nn EEE 1 Laboratory Manual 32

(the 3 Problem-Solving
* The unit of a torque is a newton-meter. Work is also measured in newton-meters
What contributes to work is Exercises in A
same as joules), but work and torque are very different.
what contributes to torque is the force perpen- Physics 6-2
the force along the direction of motion;
dicular to the lever arm.
 @ Questions
1. If a doorknob were placed in the center of a door rather than at
the edge, how much more force would be needed to produce
the same torque for opening the door?
2. If you cannot exert enough torque to turn a stubborn bolt,
would more torque be produced if you fastened a length of
rope to the wrench handle as shown?

11.2 Balanced Torques

Torques are intuitively familiar to youngsters playing on a seesaw.
Children can balance a seesaw even when their weights are not
equal. Weight alone does not produce rotation—torque does.
400N Children soon learn that the distance they sit from the pivot point
is as important as their weight (Figure 11.5). The heavier boy sits a
Figure 11.5 A shorter distance from the fulcrum (turning axis) while the lighter girl
A pair of torques can balance
sits farther away. Balance is achieved if the torque that tends to pro-
each other.
duce clockwise rotation by the boy equals the torque that tends to
produce counterclockwise rotation by the girl.
Scale balances that work with sliding weights are based on
balanced torques, not balanced masses. The sliding weights are
adjusted until the counterclockwise torque just balances the clock-
wise torque. Then the arm remains horizontal.

MERE oo) 2g DU
11.3 Torque and Center of Gravity
If you stand with your back and heels to the wall and then attempt to
lean over and touch your toes, you will soon find yourself rotating.
Recall from Chapter 10 that if there is no base of support beneath the

Figure 11.6 A ®@ Answers

This scale relies on balanced
1. Twice as much, because the lever arm in the center of the door would be half as long.
torques.
Mathematically, 2F x d/2 = F x d, where Fis the applied force, dis the distance from
the hinges to the edge of the door, and d/2 is the distance to the center.
2. No, because the lever arm is the same. To increase the lever arm, a better idea would
be to use a pipe that extends upward.

152 Chapter11 Rotational Mechanics

 Computational Example

Suppose that a meterstick is supported at the center, and

a 20-N block is hung at the 80-cm mark. Another block of
unknown weight just balances the system when it is hung at the
10-cm mark. What is the weight of the second block?

ZON

You can compute the unknown weight by applying the prin-

ciple of balanced torques. The block of unknown weight tends
to rotate the system of blocks and stick counterclockwise (ccw),
and the 20-N block tends to rotate the system clockwise (cw).
The system is in balance when the two torques are equal:

counterclockwise torque = clockwise torque

(FD cow= F,Dexy

ccw

The equation is rearranged to solve for the unknown weight:

= Ce x (Dew
tSccw (d)
CCW

It is important to note that the lever arm for the unknown

weight is 40 cm, because the distance between the 10-cm mark
and the pivot point at the 50-cm mark is 40 cm. The lever arm
for the 20-N block is 30 cm, because its distance from the pivot
point is 30 cm. Substituting these values into the equation, we
determine the unknown weight:

(20 N) X (30 cm)

tecw
= 2(40 cm)
= IN

The unknown weight is thus 15 N. This makes sense. You can tell
that the weight is less than 20 N because its lever arm is greater
than that of the block of known weight. In fact, the unknown
weight’s lever arm is (40 cm) + (30 cm) or 4/3 that of the first
block, so its weight is 3/4 as much. Anytime you use physics to 1 Explore
compute something, consider whether or not your answer 2 Laboratory Manual 33, 34
makes sense. Computation without comprehension is not 2 Concept-Development
conceptual physics! Practice Book 77-7

153
 center of gravity (CG), an object will topple. When the area bounded
by your feet is not beneath your CG, there is a torque. Now you can
see that the cause of toppling is this torque.

Figure 11.7
The L-shaped bracket will topple
because of a torque. Similarly,
when you stand with your back
and heels to the wall and then
try to touch your toes, a torque
is produced when your CG
extends beyond your feet.

We began this chapter by asking what determines whether or

not a football will tumble end over end when kicked. The answer
involves CG, force, and torque. You know that a force is required to
launch any projectile, whether it be a football or a Frisbee® flying
disk. If the direction of the force is through the CG of the projectile,
all the force can do is move the object as a whole. There will be no
torque to turn the projectile around its own CG. However, if the force
is directed “off center,” then in addition to motion of the CG, the pro-
jectile will rotate about its CG.
For example, when you throw a ball and impart spin to it, or
when you launch a Frisbee, a force must be applied off axis—to the
edge of the object. This produces a torque that adds rotation to the
projectile. If you wish to kick a football so that it sails through the air
without tumbling, kick it in the middle (Figure 11.8 top). If you want
it to tumble end over end in its trajectory, kick it below the middle
(Figure 11.8 bottom) to impart torque as well as force to the ball.

Figure 11.8 A SRNR

DS 23.SESS
If the football is kicked in line
with its CG, it will move without 11.4 Rotational Inertia
rotating. If it is kicked above or
below its CG, it will also rotate. In Chapter 3 you learned about inertia: An object at rest tends to stay
at rest, and an object in motion tends to remain moving in a straight
line. There is a similar law for rotation:
An object rotating about an axis tends to keep rotating
about that axis.
The resistance of an object to changes in its rotational motion is
called rotational inertia.* Rotating objects tend to keep rotating,
while nonrotating objects tend to stay nonrotating.

* Rotational inertia is sometimes called moment ofinertia.

154 Chapter11 Rotational Mechanics

 Just as it takes a force to change the linear state of motion of an
object, a torque is required to change the rotational state of motion
of an object. In the absence of a net torque, a rotating top keeps
rotating, while a nonrotating top stays nonrotating.
Like inertia in the linear sense, rotational inertia depends on
mass. But unlike inertia, rotational inertia depends on the distribu-
tion of the mass. The greater the distance between the bulk of the
mass of an object and the axis about which rotation takes place, the
greater the rotational inertia.
A long baseball bat held near its end has more rotational inertia
than a short bat. Once moving, it has a greater tendency to keep
moving, but it is harder to bring it up to speed. A short bat has less
rotational inertia than a long bat, and is easier to swing. Baseball
players sometimes “choke up” on a bat by grasping it closer than
normal to the more massive end. Choking up on the bat reduces its
DIFFICULT TO ROTATE
rotational inertia and makes it easier to bring up to speed. A bat held Figure 11.9 A
at its end, or a long bat, doesn’t “want” to swing as readily. Likewise Rotational inertia depends on the
with the legs of people and animals. Long-legged animals such as distance of mass from the axis.
giraffes, horses, and ostriches normally run with a slower gait than
hippos, dachshunds, and mice.

PHYSICS

Applying Torgisc toa Spool oe

Place a spool of string or thread on a table. For best eee use

a spool with rims noticeably wider than its axle. By pulling the
string or thread you can exert a torque
on the spool, as evidenced by the rota- Figure 11.10 A
tion produced. Pull gently so the spool The short pendulum will swing
back and forth more frequently
rolls without skidding and its gain in than the long pendulum.
rotational speed is directly proportional
to the torque. Remember that torque is
force X lever arm, and when pulling
horizontally, the lever arm is the string’s
distance above the table. Notice that
the lever-arm distance is longer when
the string is on the top of the axle than
when the string extends from the bot-
tom of the axle. Predict the effect of
pulling it both ways—with the string on
the top and with the string on the bottom. Are your findings con-
sistent with your interpretation of the physics? Is there an angle at
which the string can be pulled that will produce no torque?
 ROTATIONAL INERTIA
= SIGH=

Figure 11.11 A
By holding a long pole, the tightrope walker increases his rotational inertia.
This allows him to resist rotation and gives him plenty of time to readjust
his CG.

It is important to note that the rotational inertia of an object is

not necessarily a fixed quantity. It is greater when the mass within
the object is extended from the axis of rotation. You can try this with
your outstretched legs. Swing your outstretched leg back and forth
from the hip. Now do the same with your leg bent. In the bent posi-
tion it swings back and forth more easily. To reduce the rotational
inertia of your legs, simply bend them. That’s an important reason
for running with your legs bent—bent legs are easier to swing back
and forth.

Figure 11.12 A
For similar mass distributions,
short legs have less rotational
inertia than long legs. Animals
with short legs run with quicker
strides more easily than animals
with long legs.

Figure 11.13 A
You bend your legs when you run to reduce their rotational inertia.

156 Chapter11 Rotational Mechanics

 PHYSICS

Flip Your Pencil 1

Flip your pencil back and forth between your fingers. Compare the
ease of rotation when you flip it about its midpoint versus flipping
it about one of its ends. For a int
third comparison, rotate the
pencil between your thumb
and forefinger about the pen-
cil’s long axis (so the lead is
the axis). Study the three
cases represented in Figure
11.14. Relate the relative ease
of rotating the pencil to the formulas in the figure. In which case
is rotation easiest? In this case is the small rotational inertia con-
sistent with the small r?

Formulas for Rotational Inertia

When all the mass m of an object is concentrated at the same dis-
tance r from a rotational axis (as in a simple pendulum bob swinging
on a string about its pivot point, or a thin wheel turning about its
center), then the rotational inertia [= mr?. When the mass is more
spread out, as in your leg, the rotational inertia is less and the for-
mula is different. Figure 11.14 compares rotational inertias for vari-
ous shapes and axes. (It is not important for you to learn these
values, but you can see how they vary with the shape and axis.)

HOOP ABOUT NORMAL AXIS --- ABOUT DIAMETER < Figure 11.14
SIMPLE
PENDULUM ~~ Rotational inertias of various
objects, each of mass m, about
indicated axes.

T=77ir~ bee alia

|
ery STICK ABOUT CG--1;
I=% mr? -—£
“T=%e mit

STICK ABOUT (i Keer SPHERE

SOLID
Ae
END a

Of

157
 Rolling
Which will roll down an incline with greater acceleration, a hollow
cylinder or a solid cylinder of the same mass and radius? The answer
is the cylinder with the smaller rotational inertia. Why? Because the
cylinder with the greater rotational inertia requires more time to get
rolling. Remember that inertia of any kind is a measure of “laziness.”
Which has the greater rotational inertia—the hollow or the solid
cylinder? The answer is, the one with its mass concentrated farthest
from the axis of rotation—the hollow cylinder. So a hollow cylinder
has a greater rotational inertia than a solid cylinder of the same
radius and mass and will be more “lazy” in gaining speed. The solid
cylinder will roll with greater acceleration.

Figure 11.15 A
A solid cylinder rolls down an incline faster than a hollow one, whether or
not they have the same mass or diameter.

Interestingly enough, any solid cylinder will roll down an incline

with more acceleration than any hollow cylinder, regardless of mass
or radius. A hollow cylinder has more “laziness per mass” than a solid
cylinder. Objects of the same shape but different sizes accelerate
equally when rolled down an incline. You should experiment and see
this for yourself. If started together, the smaller shape, whether it be a
ball, disk, or hoop, rotates more times than the larger shape, but both
reach the bottom of the incline in the same time. Why? Because all
objects of the same shape have the same “laziness per mass” ratio.
Similarly, recall from Chapter 5 how the same “weight per mass”
ratio of all freely falling objects accounted for their equal accelera-
tion: a= F/m.

_& Questions
ar When swinging your leg from your hip, why is the rotational
inertia of the leg less when it is bent?
2. A heavy iron cylinder and a light wooden cylinder, similar in
shape, roll down an incline. Which will have more acceleration?

B@ Answers

1 Explore 1. The rotational inertia of any object is less when its mass is concentrated closer to the
axis of rotation. Can you see that a bent leg satisfies this requirement?
2 Laboratory Manual 35 2. The cylinders have different masses, but the same rotational inertia per mass, so both
2 Concept-Development will accelerate equally down the incline. Their different masses make no difference, just
Practice Book 77-2 as the acceleration of free fall is not affected by different masses. All objects of the
same shape have the same “laziness per mass” ratio.

158 Chapter11 Rotational Mechanics

OR ie, ISNT ea SE

11.5 Rotational Inertia and Gymnastics

Consider the human body. You can rotate freely about three princi-
pal axes of rotation (Figure 11.16). Each of these axes is at right
angles to the others (mutually perpendicular). Each axis coincides
with a line of symmetry of the body and passes through the center of
gravity. The rotational inertia of the body differs about each axis.

LONGITUDINAL AXIS a

Jie etre
MEDIAN AXIS

TRANSVERSE AXIS
<< Figure 11.16
The human body’s principal axes
of rotation.

Rotational inertia is least about the longitudinal axis, which is

the vertical head-to-toe axis, because most of the mass is concen-
trated along this axis. Thus, a rotation of your body about your
longitudinal axis is the easiest rotation to perform. An ice skater
executes this type rotation when going into a spin. Rotational iner-
tia is increased by simply extending a leg or the arms (Figure 11.17).
The rotational inertia when both arms are extended is about three
times more than when the arms are tucked in, so if you go into a
spin with outstretched arms, you will triple your spin rate when you
draw your arms in. With your leg extended as well, you can vary your Figure 11.17 W
Rotations about the longitudinal
spin rate by as much as six times.
axis. Rotational inertia in posi-
You rotate about your transverse axis when you perform a som-
tion (d) is about 5 or 6 times as
ersault or a flip. Figure 11.18 shows the rotational inertia of different great as in position (a), so spin-
positions, from the least (when your arms and legs are drawn inward ning in position (d) and then
in the tuck position) to the greatest (when your arms and legs are changing to position (a) will
fully extended in a line). The relative magnitudes of rotational inertia increase the spin rate about 5 or
stated in the caption are with respect to the body’s center of gravity. 6 times.
 &aveEN
Figure 11.18 A
Rotations about the transverse
axis. Rotational inertia is least in
Rotational inertia is greater when the axis is through the hands,
such as when doing a somersault on the floor or swinging from a
horizontal bar with your body fully extended. The rotational inertia
(a), the tuck position. It is about of a gymnast is up to 20 times greater when she is swinging in a fully
1.5 times as great in (b), 3 times
extended position from a horizontal bar than after dismount when
as great in (c), and 5 times as
great in (d).
she somersaults in the tuck position. Rotation transfers from one
axis to another, from the bar to a line through her center of gravity,
and she automatically increases her rate of rotation by up to 20
times. This is how she is able to complete two or three somersaults
before contact with the ground.

Figure 11.19 >

The rotational inertia of a body is
with respect to the rotational
axis. When the gymnast pivots
about the bar (a), she has a
greater rotational inertia than
when she spins freely about her
center of gravity (b).

The third axis of rotation for the human body is the front-to-
back axis, or medial axis. This is a less common axis of rotation and
is used in executing a cartwheel. Like rotations about the other axes,
rotational inertia can be varied with different body configurations.

@ Question
Why is the rotational inertia greater for a gymnast when she swings
by her hands from a horizontal bar with her body fully extended
than when she executes a somersault with her body fully extended?
I

Figure 11.20 A ®@ Answer

When the gymnast pivots
When the gymnast pivots about the bar, her mass is concentrated far from the axis of rota-
around the horizontal bar with
tion. Her rotational inertia is therefore greater. When she somersaults, her mass is concen-
her body fully extended, her trated close to the axis because she is rotating about her center of gravity.
rotational inertia is greatest.

160 Chapter 11 Rotational Mechanics

Pn eg a te eee
11.6 Angular Momentum
Anything that rotates, whether it be a colony in space, a cylinder rolling
down an incline, or an acrobat doing a somersault, keeps on rotating
until something stops it. A rotating object has an “inertia of rotation.”
Recall from Chapter 7 that all moving objects have “inertia of motion,”
or momentum, which is the product of mass and velocity. To be clear,
let us call this kind of momentum linear momentum. Similarly, the
“inertia of rotation” of rotating objects is called angular momentum.
Like linear momentum, angular momentum is a vector quantity
and has direction as well as magnitude. When a direction is assigned
to rotational speed, we call it rotational velocity. Rotational velocity Figure 11.21 A
is a vector whose magnitude is the rotational speed. (By convention, A turntable has more angular
the rotational velocity vector, as well as the angular momentum vec- momentum when it is turning at
tor, have the same direction and lie along the axis of rotation.) 45 RPM than at 333 RPM. It has
Angular momentum is defined as the product of rotational iner- even more angular momentum if
tia, J, and rotational velocity, o. a load is placed on it so its rota-
tional inertia is greater.
angular momentum = rotational inertia x rotational velocity
or in equation form,
angular momentum = I x @
It is the counterpart of linear momentum:
linear momentum = mass X velocity
In this book, we won't treat the vector nature of angular momen-
tum (or even of torque, which also is a vector) except to acknowl-
edge the remarkable action of the gyroscope. The rotating bicycle
wheel in Figure 11.23 shows what happens when a torque by Earth's
gravity acts to change the direction of the bicycle wheel's angular
momentum (which is along the wheel’s axle). The pull of gravity that
acts to topple the wheel over and change its rotational axis causes it
instead to precess in a circular path about a vertical axis. You must do Figure 11.22 A
this yourself while standing on a turntable to fully believe it. Full A gyroscope. Low-friction
swivels can be turned in any
understanding will likely not come until a later time.
direction without exerting a
torque on the whirling gyro-
scope. As a result, it stays
pointed in the same direction.

Figure 11.23
Angular momentum keeps the
wheel axle almost horizontal
when a torque supplied by
Earth's gravity acts on it. Instead
of toppling, the torque causes
the wheel to slowly precess
about a vertical axis.
 te For the case of an object that is small compared with the radial
distance to its axis of rotation, such as a tin can swinging from a long
eC \ string or a planet orbiting in a circle around the sun, the angular
; ‘i s momentum is simply equal to the magnitude of its linear momen-
/ r : tum, mv, multiplied by the radial distance, r. In equation form,
cc | “aaa 4 angular momentum = mur
/ Just as an external net force is required to change the linear
‘ “4 / momentum of an object, an external net torque is required to change
~ ain the angular momentum of an object. We restate Newton's first law of
inertia for rotating systems in terms of angular momentum:
Figure 11.24 A
An object of concentrated mass
An object or system of objects will maintain its angu-
m whirling in a circular path of lar momentum unless acted upon by an unbalanced
radius r with a speed v has external torque.
angular momentum mvr.

Figure 11.25 A
The lightweight wheels on racing bikes have less angular momentum than
those on recreational bikes, so it takes less effort to get them turning.

We know it is easier to balance on a moving bicycle than on one

at rest. The spinning wheels have angular momentum. When our
center of gravity is not above a point of support, a slight torque is
produced. When the wheels are at rest, we fall over. But when the
bicycle is moving, the wheels have angular momentum, and a
greater torque is required to change the direction of the angular
momentum. The moving bicycle is easier to balance.

162 Chapter11 Rotational Mechanics

 ‘LINK TO ASTRONOMY=
11.7 Conservation of Angular
Momentum
Just as the linear momentum of any system is conserved if no net
forces are acting on the system, angular momentum is conserved for
systems in rotation. The law of conservation of angular momentum
states
If no unbalanced external torque acts on a rotating
system, the angular momentum of that system is
constant.
This means that with no external torque, the product of rotational
inertia and rotational velocity at one time will be the same as at any
other time.
An interesting example of angular momentum conservation is
shown in Figure 11.26. The man stands on a low-friction turntable
with weights extended. Because of the extended weights his overall
rotational inertia is relatively large in this position. As he slowly turns,
his angular momentum is the product of his rotational inertia and 6 Speece begirns tocon-¢
rotational velocity. When he pulls the weights inward, his overall rota- i tractunder the influenc e..
tional inertia is considerably decreased. What is the result? His rota- of its owngravity. |
Ifithas :
tional speed increases! This is best appreciated by the turning person "even1 theslightestrotation _.
e about some axis,ithas a -a
who feels changes in rotational speed that seem to be mysterious.
_ somee angular momen- |
But it’s straight physics! This procedure is used by a figure skater who
tum, which must be con- =
starts to whirl with her arms and perhaps a leg extended, and then "served. As the gas: a i
draws her arms and leg in to obtain a greater rotational speed. ‘ contracts, ‘itsrotational _ 5
Whenever a rotating body contracts, its rotational speed increases. | inertia decreases. Then, |
oa
like a spinning ice skater
~ who draws her §arms —
_ inward, the ball of gas —
spins faster. As itdoes so,
it is flattened, just as Our —
spinning Earth is flattened
at its poles. If the glob has
enough angular momen-
tum, it turns into a flat
pancake with a diameter
far greater than its thick-
ness, and may become a
spiral galaxy. The law of
angular momentum con-
servation is an everynight
fact of life to astronomers.

1 Explore

Figure 11.26 A 3 Problem-Solving

Exercises in
Conservation of angular momentum. When the man pulls his arms and the
Physics 6-3
whirling weights inward, he decreases his rotational inertia, and his rota-
tional speed correspondingly increases.

163
 Figure 11.27 A
Rotational speed is controlled by variations in the body’s rotational inertia as
angular momentum is conserved during a forward somersault.

Similarly, when a gymnast is spinning freely with no unbalanced

torques on his or her body, angular momentum does not change.
However, as we have already seen, rotational speed can be changed by
simply making variations in rotational inertia. This is done by moving
some part of the body toward or away from the axis of rotation.
If a cat is held upside down and dropped, it is able to execute a
twist and land upright even if it has no initial angular momentum.
Zero-angular-momentum twists and turns are performed by turning
one part of the body against the other. While falling, the cat rearranges
its limbs and tail to change its rotational inertia. Repeated reorienta-
tions of the body configuration result in the head and tail rotating one
way and the feet the other, so that the feet are downward when the cat
reaches the ground.
During this maneuver the total angular momentum remains
zero. When it is over, the cat is not turning. This maneuver rotates
the body through an angle, but it does not create continuing rota-
tion. To do so would violate angular momentum conservation.
Humans can perform similar twists without difficulty, though not
as fast as a cat can. Astronauts have learned to make zero-angular-
momentum rotations about any principal axis. They do these to orient
their bodies in any preferred direction when floating freely in space.
The law of momentum conservation is seen in the planetary
motions and in the shape of the galaxies. It will be a fact of everyday
Figure 11.28 A life to inhabitants of rotating space habitats who will head for these
Time-lapse photo of a falling cat. distant places.

164 Chapter 11 Rotational Mechanics

 Chapter Assessment

ho. What is the lever arm of a force? (11.1)

(Go @nline For: Study and Review

Visit: PHSchool.com
iss). In what direction should a force be applied to
produce maximum torque? (11.1)
HSchool.com Web Code: csd-1110
4. How do clockwise and counterclockwise
torques compare in a balanced system? (11.2)
5. In terms of center of gravity, support base, and
Concept Summary torque, why can’t you stand with your heels
Torque for an object being turned is the product and back to a wall and then bend over to touch
of the lever arm and the component of the force your toes without falling over? (11.3)
perpendicular to the lever arm. 6. Where must a football be kicked so that it
m When balanced torques act on an object, wont topple end over end as it sails through
there is no change in rotation. the air? (11.3)

m When the center of gravity is not over the 7. What is the law of inertia for rotation? (11.4).
base of support, the gravitational force pro- 8. On what two quantities does rotational iner-
duces a torque that causes toppling. tia depend? (11.4)
The resistance of an object to changes in its rota- 9. What is the effect of adding a weight to the
tional state of motion is called rotational inertia. end of a baseball bat used for practice
mu The greater the rotational inertia, the harder it swings? (11.4)
is to change the rotational speed of an object. 10. Why is it easier to swing your legs back and
Angular momentum, the “inertia of rotation,” is forth when they are bent? (11.4)
the product of rotational inertia and rotational 11. Which will have the greater acceleration
velocity. rolling down an incline—a large ball or a
m= Angular momentum is conserved when no small ball? (11.4)
external torque acts on an object. 12. Which will have the greater acceleration
rolling down an incline—a hoop or a solid
disk? (11.4)

Key Terms 13. How can a person vary his or her rotational
inertia? (11.5)
angular momentum (11.6)
14. Distinguish between rotational velocity and
law of conservation of angular momentum (11.7)
rotational speed. (11.6)
lever arm (11.1)
linear momentum (11.6) 15. Distinguish between linear momentum and
angular momentum. (11.6)
rotational inertia (11.4)
rotational velocity (11.6) 16. What motion does the torque produced by
torque (11.1) Earth’s gravity impart to a vertically spinning
bicycle wheel supported at only one end of its
axle? (11.6)
a I a

17. What does it mean to say that angular

Review Questions Check Concepts momentum is conserved? (11.7)
1. Compare the effects of a force and a torque 18. When is angular momentum conserved? (11.7)
exerted on an object. (11.1)

165
19. If a skater who is spinning pulls her arms in 24. When the spool is pulled to the right, in
so as to reduce her rotational inertia to half, which direction does it accelerate? If the
by how much will her rate of spin increase? string is instead pulled straight upward, in
(L157) which direction will the spool accelerate? Is
there an angle where a gentle pull produces
20. What happens to a gymnast’s angular
no acceleration? Show with a sketch.
momentum when he changes his body
configuration during a somersault? What
happens to his rotational speed? (11.7)

Plug and Chug Use Equations

21. a. Calculate the torque produced by a 50-N
perpendicular force at the end of a 0.2-m-
long wrench.
29. If you know your own weight and have a see-
b. Calculate the torque produced by the same saw and a meterstick available, how can you
50-N force when a pipe extends the length of determine the approximate weight of a friend?
the wrench to 0.5 m.
26. You cannot stand with your heels and back to
22. a. Calculate the individual torques produced the wall and then lean over and touch your
by the weights of the girl and boy on the see- toes without toppling. Would either stronger
saw in the figure. What is the net torque? legs or longer feet help you to do this? Defend
your answer.
a Rese 20: If you walked along the top of a fence, why
would holding your arms out help you to
balance?
28. Which will have the greater acceleration
rolling down an incline—a bowling ball or a
300N volleyball? Defend your answer.
29. The most popular gyroscope around is a
b. Calculate the distance a 600-N boy should Frisbee® flying disk. What is one function,
sit from the fulcrum. besides being a place for gripping and catch-
ing, of its somewhat thicker curved rim?
c. Calculate the distance a 300-N girl should
sit when the boy weighs 400 N. 30. Consider two rotating bicycle wheels, one
filled with air and the other filled with water.
Which would be more difficult to stop rotat-
PN 52 SS ET SE RE ing? Explain.
Think and Explain Think Critically 31. How and why do you throw a football so that
23. Which is better for prying open a stuck cover it spins about its long axis when traveling
through the air?
from a can of paint—a screwdriver with a
thick handle or one with a long handle? 32. You sit in the middle of a large, freely rotating
Which is better for turning stubborn screws? turntable at an amusement park. If you
Explain. crawled toward the outer rim, would the rota-
tion speed increase, decrease, or remain
unchanged? What law of physics supports
your answer?

166 Chapter11 Rotational Mechanics

 Copy the diagram below onto a sheet of paper.
Think and Solve “Ar Answer the questions that follow. Be complete and
Develop Problem-Solving Skills show the logic of your solutions.
33. What is the mass of the rock shown in A ruler is balanced with the fulcrum at the 50-cm
the figure? mark as shown in the diagram.

Ocm 75cm (00 cm \\

34. What is the mass of the meterstick shown in

the figure? 38. If a 200-g mass is placed at the 20-cm mark
(30 cm from the fulcrum), at what mark
poem 25cm 50cm 75cm |00cm should a 500-g mass be placed so that the
system balances?
4)
_—
39. If a 100-g mass was placed at the 25-cm mark,
and a 20-g mass at the 10-cm mark, where
35. If a trapeze artist rotates twice each second should a 500-g mass be placed to balance
while sailing through the air, and contracts to the system?
reduce her rotational inertia to one-third, how 40. Find an arrangement of a 50-g, a 100-g,
many rotations per second will result? a 200-g, and a 500-g mass that balances.
Show all the calculations and indicate the
36. A pair of identical 1000-kg space pods in
positions the masses should occupy (as in
outer space are connected to each other bya
problems 38 and 39).
900-m-long cable. They rotate about a com-
mon point like a spinning dumbbell as shown
in the figure. Calculate the rotational inertia
of each pod about the axis of rotation. What is
Activities Performance Assessment
the rotational inertia of the two-pod system
about its midpoint? Express your answers 41. Gather a selection of canned foods. Predict
in kg-m?. which will roll faster down an incline. Compare
liquids (which slide or slosh rather than roll
inside the can) and solids. Roll the cans to test
your predictions. Describe your results.
42, Place the ends of a uniform horizontal board
on a pair of weighing scales. Each scale reads
half the weight of the board. What happens if
you place a toy truck with a heavy brick in it
on the center of the board? Explain. How
would you go about figuring how much weight
is supported by each scale when the load is
not in the middle? Make predictions for vari-
ous places before you check by experiment.

37. The two-pod system in the previous question

rotates 1.2 RPM to provide artificial gravity for
its occupants. If one of the pods pulls in 100 m
of cable (bringing the pods closer together),
what will be the system's new rotation rate?
 Universal
Gravitation

hings such as leaves, rain, and satellites fall

: because of gravity. Gravity is what holds tea
in a cup and what makes bubbles rise. It
made Earth round, and it builds up the pressures
that kindle every star that shines. These are things
that gravity does. But what is gravity? In the early
part of the twentieth century, Albert Einstein
made the amazing discovery that gravity arises
Gravitation is universal. from the “warping” of space and time. Neither space nor time is per-
fectly smooth. Both are just a tiny bit lumpy (except near a black
hole, which is a great big lump). Explaining what that means is
beyond the scope of this book, but we can say this: Gravity is the
way in which masses communicate with each other. Every mass in
the universe reaches out to attract every other one, and every mass
feels an attraction from every other one. So projectiles, satellites,
planets, galaxies, and clusters of galaxies are influenced by gravity.
This chapter covers the basic behavior of gravity. In the next chapter
we shall investigate more of its consequences.

12.1 The Falling Apple

The idea that gravity extends throughout the universe is credited to
Isaac Newton. According to popular legend, this idea occurred to
Newton while he was sitting underneath an apple tree on his
mother’s farm pondering the forces of nature. Newton understood
the concept of inertia developed earlier by Galileo; he knew that
without an outside force, moving objects continue to move at con-
stant speed in a straight line. He knew that if an object undergoes
a change in speed or direction, then a force is responsible.

168 Chapter 12 Universal Gravitation

 A falling apple triggered what was to become one of the most
far-reaching generalizations of the human mind. Newton saw the
apple fall, or maybe even felt it fall on his head—the story about this
is not clear. Perhaps he looked up through the apple tree branches
and noticed the moon. Newton was probably puzzled by the fact
that the moon does not follow a straight-line path, but instead cir-
cles about Earth. He knew that circular motion is accelerated
motion, which requires a force. But what was this force? Newton had
the insight to see that the moon is falling toward Earth, just as the
apple is. He reasoned that the moon is falling for the same reason
the apple falls—they are both pulled by Earth’s gravity.
Figure 12.1 A
If the moon did not fall, it would
follow the straight-line path.
LR Because of its attraction to Earth,
it falls along a curved path.
12.2 The Falling Moon
Newton developed this idea further. He compared the falling apple
with the falling moon. Newton realized that if the moon did not fall,
it would move off in a straight line and leave its orbit. His idea was
that the moon must be falling around Earth. Thus the moon falls in
the sense that it falls beneath the straight line it would follow if no
force acted on it. He hypothesized that the moon was simply a pro-
jectile circling Earth under the attraction of gravity.
This concept is illustrated in an original drawing by Newton,
shown in Figure 12.2. He compared motion of the moon to a cannon-
ball fired from the top of a high mountain. He imagined that the
mountaintop was above Earth’s atmosphere, so that air resistance
would not impede the motion of the cannonball. If a cannonball
were fired with a small horizontal speed, it would follow a parabolic Figure 12.2 A
path and soon hit Earth below. If it were fired faster, its path would be The original drawing by Isaac
less curved and it would hit Earth farther away. Newton reasoned that Newton showing how a projec-
if the cannonball were fired fast enough, its path would become a cir- tile fired fast enough would fall
cle and the cannonball would circle indefinitely. It would be in orbit. around Earth and become an
Both the orbiting cannonball and the moon have a component of Earth satellite. In the same way,
the moon falls around Earth and
velocity parallel to Earth’s surface. This sideways or tangential velocity
is an Earth satellite.
is sufficient to ensure nearly circular motion around Earth rather than
into it. If there is no resistance to reduce its speed, the moon will con-
tinue “falling” around and around Earth indefinitely.
Newton's idea seemed correct. But for the idea to advance from
hypothesis to the status of a scientific theory, it would have to be
tested. Newton's test was to see if the moon’s “fall” beneath its other-
wise straight-line path was in correct proportion to the fall of an apple
or any object at Earth’s surface. He reasoned that the mass of the 90 TANGENTIAL
moon should not affect how it falls, just as mass has no effect on the ae VELOCITY
acceleration of freely falling objects on Earth. How far the moon falls, PULL OF GRAVITY
and how far an apple at Earth's surface falls, should relate only to their Figure 12.3 A
respective distances from Earth’s center. If the distance of fall for the Tangential velocity is the “side-
moon and the apple are in correct proportion, then the hypothesis that ways” velocity—the component
Earth's gravity reaches to the moon must be taken seriously. of velocity perpendicular to the
pull of gravity.
 DISTANCE MOON TRAVELS The moon was already known to be 60 times farther from the
IN ONE SECOND center of Earth than an apple at Earth’s surface. The apple will fall
———
nearly 5 m in its first second of fall—or more precisely, 4.9 m.
Newton reasoned that gravitational attraction to Earth must be
MOON HERE
“diluted” by distance. Does this mean the force of Earth's gravity
WITHOUT GRAVITY would reduce to 1/60 at the moon’s distance? No, it is much less than
1T SHOULD BE HERE this. As we shall soon see, the influence of gravity should be diluted
IN ONE SECOND 1/60 of 1/60, or 1/(60)2. So in one second the moon should fall
1/(60)? of 4.9 m, which is 1.4 millimeters.*
WITH GRAVITY IT
Using geometry, Newton calculated how far the circle of the
SHOULD FALL TO
moon's orbit lies below the straight-line distance the moon otherwise
HERE IN ONE
SECOND would travel in one second (Figure 12.4). His value turned out to be
about the 1.4-mm distance accepted today. But he was unsure of the
distance between Earth and the moon, and whether or not the cor-
rect distance to use was the distance between their centers. At this
time he hadn't proved mathematically that the gravity of the spherical
Earth (and moon) is the same as if all its mass were concentrated at
its center. Because of this uncertainty, and also because of criticisms
he had experienced in publishing earlier findings in optics, he placed
his papers in a drawer, where they remained for nearly 20 years.
During this period he laid the foundation and developed the field of

o geometrical optics for which he first became famous.

Newton finally returned to the moon problem at the prodding
of his astronomer friend Edmund Halley (of Halley’s comet fame). It
wasn‘ until after Newton invented a new branch of mathematics,
Figure 12.4 A
If the force that pulls apples off calculus, to prove his center-of-gravity hypothesis, that he published
trees also pulls the moon into what is one of the greatest achievements of the human mind—the law
orbit, the circle of the moon’s of universal gravitation.** Newton generalized his moon finding to all
orbit should fall 1.4 mm below objects, and stated that all objects in the universe attract each other.
a point along the straight line
where the moon would other-
wise be one second later.

60R

Figure 12.5 A
An apple falls 4.9 m during its first second of fall when it is near Earth’s
surface. Newton asked how far the moon would fall in the same time if it
were 60 times farther from the center of Earth. His answer was (in today’s
units) 1.4 mm.

* Or working backward, (0.0014 m) x (60)2 = 4.9 m.

170 Chapter12 Universal Gravitation

 a
wal
SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY |
— ae + ~~ Re
Scientific: Truth andInteagrity “Vas

n advertiser who claims that 9 out of 10 Miceeni”aes fee no other brands of cook- ."
doctors recommend the ingredient ing oil soak through foods either—at least
found in his or her advertised product may not at ordinary temperatures and pressures.
be telling the truth. But the implication being While the facts stated are true, the implica-
conveyed, that 9 out of 10 doctors recom- tions conveyed are not. There is a difference
mend the product itself, may be quite false. between truthfulness and integrity.
An advertiser who claims that a certain
Critical Thinking Do you think advertisers
brand of cooking oil will not soak through
have a responsibility to be completely truthful
foods is telling the truth. What the advertiser
about their products? Explain why or why not.

ee Oo-_-—

a SE SE -~ TANGENTIAL VELOCITY

12.3 The Falling Earth

Newton's theory of gravitation confirmed the Copernican theory of
“——~“
the solar system. No longer was Earth considered to be the center of —
the universe. Earth was not even the center of the solar system. The ma at
sun occupies the center, and it became clear that Earth and the Cais
planets orbit the sun in the same way that the moon orbits Earth.
The planets continually “fall” around the sun in closed paths. Why Figure 12.64
don't the planets crash into the sun? They don’t because the planets The tangential velocity of Earth
have tangential velocities. What would happen if the tangential about the sun allows it to fall
velocities of the planets were reduced to zero? The answer is simple around the sun rather than
enough: Their motion would be straight toward the sun and they directly into it. If this tangential
velocity were reduced to zero,
would indeed crash into it. Any objects in the solar system with
what would be the fate of Earth?
insufficient tangential velocities have long ago crashed into the sun;
what remains is the harmony we observe.

m@ Question ae Y hate
Since the moon is gravitationally attracted to Earth,whydoes itnot ,
simply crash into Earth? Hy aay

B@ Answer

The moon would crash into Earth if its tangential velocity were reduced to zero, but
because of its tangential velocity, the moon falls around Earth rather than into it. We
will return to this idea in more detail in Chapter 14.

** Compare Newton’s painstaking effort to get everything right and nailed down mathe-
matically with the lack of “doing one’s homework,” the hasty judgments, and the
absence of cross-checking that so often characterize the pronouncement of less-than-
scientific theories.

171
 EE aT AA TS

412.4 Newton’s Law of Universal

Gravitation
- -—- — ie aes
Newton did not discover gravity. What Newton discovered was that
gravity is universal. Everything pulls on everything else in a beauti-
fully simple way that involves only mass and distance. Newton's law
of universal gravitation states that every object attracts every other
object with a force that for any two objects is directly proportional
to the mass of each object. The greater the masses, the greater the
~—-<---"~
- force of attraction between them. Newton deduced that the force
decreases as the square of the distance between the centers of mass
Figure 12.7 A of the objects increases. The farther away the objects are from each
The force of gravity between other, the less the force of attraction between them.
objects depends on the distance The law can be expressed symbolically as
between their centers of mass.

where m, is the mass of one object, m, is the mass of the other, and dis
the distance between their centers of mass. The greater the masses ™,
and m,, the greater the force of attraction between them.* The greater
the distance d between the objects, the weaker the force of attraction.

The Universal Gravitational Constant, G

The proportionality form of the law of universal gravitation can be
expressed as an exact equation when the constant of proportionality
G, called the universal gravitational constant, is introduced. Then
the equation is
Fa Glam
d2
In words, the force of gravity between two objects is found by mul-
tiplying their masses, dividing by the square of the distance between
their centers, and then multiplying this result by the constant G. The
magnitude of Gis given by the magnitude of the force between two
masses of 1 kilogram each, | meter apart: 0.000 000 000 0667 newton.
This is an extremely weak force. The units of Gare such as to make the
force come out in newtons. In scientific notation,**

In previous chapters we have treated mass as a measure of inertia, which is called iner-
tial mass. Now we see mass as a measure of gravitational force, which in this context
is called gravitational mass. Experiments show that the two are equal, and as a matter
of principle, the equivalence of inertial and gravitational mass is the foundation of
Einstein's general theory of relativity (which is beyond the scope of this book).
1 Explore

3 Problem-Solving ** The numerical value of G depends entirely on the units of measurement we choose for
Exercises in A mass, distance, and time. Using SI units, the choice is mass in kilograms, distance in
Physics 7-7 Meters, and time in seconds. Scientific notation is discussed in Appendix B at the end
of this book.

172 Chapter12 —_Universal Gravitation

 G= 6.67 X 10°! N-m2/kg?
G was first measured 150 years after Newton's discovery of
universal gravitation by an English physicist, Henry Cavendish.
Cavendish accomplished this by measuring the tiny force between
lead masses with an extremely sensitive torsion balance. A simpler
method was later developed by Philipp von Jolly, who attached
a spherical flask of mercury to one arm of a sensitive balance
(Figure 12.8). After the balance was put in equilibrium, a 6-ton
lead sphere was rolled beneath the mercury flask. The flask was Figure 12.8 A
pulled slightly downward. The gravitational force F between the Von Jolly’s method of measuring
lead mass and the mercury was equal to the weight that had to be the attraction between two
placed on the opposite end of the balance to restore equilibrium. masses.
Since the quantities F m,, m,, and d were all known, the ratio G
was calculated:

G=—"__ = 667 x 10! _N__- 667x101 N-m2/kg?

m,m, | d? kg?/m?
The value of G tells us that the force of gravity is a very weak force.
It is the weakest of the presently known four fundamental forces. (The
other three are the electromagnetic force and two kinds of nuclear
forces.) We sense gravitation only when masses like that of Earth are
involved. The force of attraction between you and a classmate is too

Writing Very Large and Very Small Numbers

war"g Large and small numbers are conveniently expressed in a

PNB mathematical abbreviation called scientific notation. An
example of a large number is the equatorial radius of Earth:
6 370 000 m. This number can be obtained by multiplying 6.37
by 10, and again by 10, and so on until 10 has been used as a
multiplier six times. So 6 370 000 can be written as 6.37 x 10°.
That’s 6.37 million meters. A thousand million is a billion, 10°.
To better comprehend the size of a billion:

= A billion meters is slightly more than the Earth-moon distance.

g A billion kilograms is the mass of about 120 Eiffel Towers.
w A billion Earths would equal the mass of about three suns.
g A billion seconds is 31.7 years.
g A billion minutes is 1903 years.
m A billion years ago there were no humans on Earth.
@ A billion people live in China.
g A billion atoms make up the dot over this i.

Small numbers are expressed in scientific notation by dividing

by 10 successive times. A millimeter (mm) is 7465 m, or 1 m
divided by 10 three times. In scientific notation, 1 mm = 10° m.
The gravitational constant Gis a very small number,
0.000 000 000 066 726 N-m2/kg?. By dividing 6.6726 by 10 eleven
times, and rounding off, it is 6.67 x 10°'! N-m?/kg*.
Soe eeee eeeeeee

173
 weak to notice (but it’s there!). The force of attraction between you and
Earth, however, is easy to notice. It is your weight.
In addition to your mass, your weight also depends on your dis-
tance from the center of Earth. At the top of a mountain your mass is
the same as it is anywhere else, but your weight is slightly less than
at ground level. Your weight is less because your distance from the
center of Earth is greater.

Figure 12.9 > a)

Your weight is less at the top of
a mountain because you are far-
ther from the center of Earth.

Interestingly enough, Cavendish’s first measure of G was called

the “Weighing the Earth” experiment, because once the value of G
was known, the mass of Earth was easily calculated. The force that
Earth exerts on a mass of 1 kilogram at its surface is 9.8 newtons.
The distance between the 1-kilogram mass and the center of mass
of Earth is Earth’s radius, 6.4 < 10° meters. Therefore, from
F=(Gm,m,/d?), where m, is the mass of Earth,
lkg xX m,
9.8 N = 6.67 X 101! N-m?2/kg? x
(6.4 X 106 m)?
from which the mass of Earth m, = 6 X 10% kilograms.

@ Question
If there is an attractive force between all objects, why do we not
feel ourselves gravitating toward massive buildings in our vicinity?

@ Answer

We are gravitationally attracted to massive buildings and everything else in the universe.
The 1933 Nobel Prize-winning physicist Paul A. M. Dirac put it this way: “Pick a flower on
Earth and you move the farthest star!” How much you are influenced by buildings or how
much interaction there is between flowers is another story. The forces between you and
buildings are relatively small because the masses are small compared with the mass of
Earth. The forces due to the stars are small because of their great distances. These tiny
forces escape our notice when they are overwhelmed by the powerful attraction to Earth.

174 Chapter 12 Universal Gravitation

12.5 Gravity and Distance: The Inverse-
Square Law
We can understand how gravity is reduced with distance by consid-
ering an imaginary “butter gun” used in a busy restaurant for butter-
ing toast (Figure 12.10). Imagine melted butter sprayed through a
square opening in a screen. The opening is exactly the size of one
piece of square toast. And imagine that a spurt from the gun
deposits an even layer of butter 1 mm thick. Consider the conse-
quences of holding the toast twice as far from the butter gun. You
can see in Figure 12.10 that the butter would spread out for twice the
distance and would cover twice as much toast vertically and twice as
much toast horizontally. A little thought will show that the butter
would now spread out to cover four pieces of toast. How thick will
the butter be on each piece of toast? Since it has been diluted to
cover four times as much area, its thickness will be one-quarter as
much, or 0.25 mm.
Note what has happened. When the butter gets twice as far from
the gun, it is only 1/4 as thick. More thought will show that if it gets
3 times as far, it will spread out to cover 3 X 3, or 9, pieces of toast.
How thick will the butter be then? Can you see it will be 1/9 as thick?
And can you see that 1/9 is the inverse square of 3? (The inverse of 3
is simply 1/3; the inverse square of 3 is (1/3), or 1/9.) When a quan-
tity varies as the inverse square of its distance from its source, it fol-
lows an inverse-square law. This law applies not only to the
spreading of butter from a butter gun, and the weakening of gravity
with distance, but to all cases where the effect from a localized
source spreads evenly throughout the surrounding space. More
examples are light, radiation, and sound.

BUTTER HERE IS ONLY

% mm THICK
BUTTER ON TOAST HERE
1S % mm THICK
BUTTER ON TOAST HER
IS Imm THICK

TRAY TO COLLECT EXTRA BUTTER

(
“BUTTER GUN” TOAST IS PLACED ON BACK
(U.S. PATENT APPLIED FOR) SIDE OF SQUARE HOLE
1 Explore
Figure 12.10 A 2 Concept-Development
the nozzle of the
The inverse-square law. Butter spray travels outward from Practice Book 72-7
straight lines. Like gravity, the “strengt h” of the spray obeys an
butter gun in
inverse-square law.
175
 The greater the distance from Earth’s center, the less an object
will weigh (Figure 12.11). If your little sister weighs 300 N at sea level,
she will weigh only 299 N atop Mt. Everest. But no matter how great
the distance, Earth’s gravity does not drop to zero. Even if you were
transported to the far reaches of the universe, the gravitational influ-
ence of Earth would be with you. It may be overwhelmed by the grav-
itational influences of nearer and/or more massive objects, but it is
there. The gravitational influence of every object, however small or
far, is exerted through all space. That’s impressive!

| Figure 12.11
Wy x

A
APPLE WEIGHS
1N HERE
2d 3d
WE
4d

seeAPPLE WEIGHS
aed
5d

An apple that weighs 1 N at Earth’s surface weighs only 0.25 N when located
twice as far from Earth’s center because the pull of gravity is only 1/4 as
DISTANCE

(7) N HERE

strong. When it is 3 times as far, it weighs only 1/9 as much, or 0.11 N. What
would it weigh at 4 times the distance? Five times?
—>

¢ %y

MQuestion ~—
; <

|
Suppose that an apple at the top of a tree is pulled by Earth’s grav-
ity with a force of 1 N. If the tree were twice as tall, would the force
of gravity on the apple be only 1/4 as strong? Explain your answer.
SS

@ Answer
No, because the twice-as-tall apple tree is not twice as far from Earth’s center. The taller
tree would have to have a height equal to the radius of Earth (6370 km) before the
weight
of the apple would reduce to i N. Before its weight decreases by 1%, an apple or any
object must be raised 32 km—nearly four times the height of Mt. Everest, the tallest
mountain in the world. So as a practical matter we disregard the effects of everyday
changes in elevation.

176 Chapter 12 Universal Gravitation

 PHYSICS

Illusion Check
Hold your hands outstretched, one twice as far from your eyes as
the other, and make a casual judgment about which hand looks.
bigger. Most people see their
hands to be about the same
size, while a few see the nearer
hand as slightly bigger. Almost
nobody upon casual inspection
sees the nearer hand as four
times as big. But by the inverse-
square law, the nearer hand
should appear twice as tall and
twice as wide and therefore
occupy four times as much of your visual field as the farther hand.
Your belief that your hands are the same size is so strong that you
likely overrule this information. Now, if you overlap your hands
slightly and carefully view them with one eye closed, you'll see the
nearer hand as clearly bigger. This raises an interesting question:
What other illusions do you have that are not so easily checked?

RARER
TS LEE
12.6 Universal Gravitation
We all know that Earth is round. But why is Earth round? It is round
because of gravitation. Since everything attracts everything else,
Earth had attracted itself together before it became solid. Any “cor-
ners” of Earth have been pulled in so that Earth is a giant sphere.
The sun, the moon, and Earth are all fairly spherical because they
have to be (rotational effects make them somewhat wider at
their equators).
If everything pulls on everything else, then the planets must pull
on each other. The net force that controls Jupiter, for example, is not
just from the sun, but from the planets also. Their effect is small
compared with the pull of the more massive sun, but it still shows.
When the planet Saturn is near Jupiter, for example, its pull disturbs
the otherwise smooth path of Jupiter. Both planets deviate from
1 Explore
their normal orbits. This deviation is called a perturbation.
Up until the middle of the last century astronomers were puz- 3 Problem-Solving
zled by unexplained perturbations of the planet Uranus. Even when Exercises in A
the influences of the other planets were taken into account, Uranus Physics 7-2
was behaving strangely. Either the law of gravitation was failing at

177
 Figure 12.12 A
Gravitation dictates the shape of the spiral arms in a galaxy.

this great distance from the sun, or some unknown influence such as
another planet was perturbing Uranus.
The source of Uranus’s perturbation was uncovered in 1845
and 1846 by two astronomers, John Adams in England and Urbain
Leverrier in France. With only pencil and paper and the application
of Newton's law of gravitation, both astronomers independently
arrived at the same conclusion: A disturbing body beyond the orbit of
Uranus was the culprit. They sent letters to their local observatories
with instructions to search a certain part of the sky. The request by
Adams was delayed by misunderstandings at Greenwich, England,
but Leverrier’s request to the director of the Berlin Observatory
was heeded right away. The planet Neptune was discovered within
a half hour.
Subsequent tracking of the orbits of both Uranus and Neptune
led to the prediction of another massive body beyond Neptune. In
1930, at the Lowell Observatory in Arizona, Pluto was discovered.
Whatever you may have learned in your early schooling, many
astronomers now regard Pluto as an asteroid and not a true planet.
In fact, many asteroids of nearly planetary size have recently been,
and continue to be, discovered beyond Neptune. One of these aster-
oids, Quaoar, discovered in 2002, has a moon. Other planetary-size
bodies, also with moons, have since been discovered. These discov-
eries pose a dilemma for astronomers, who are faced with having
either to classify the growing list of Pluto’s neighbors as planets, or
to reclassify Pluto. Is Pluto the pipsqueak of planets or the king

178 Chapter 12 Universal Gravitation

among asteroids? Whatever its status, the object we call Pluto
takes 248 years to make a single revolution about the sun, so no one
will see it in its discovered position again until the year 2178.
The shapes of distant galaxies provide further evidence that the
law of gravity applies to larger distances—and even underlies the fate
of the entire universe. According to current scientific understanding,
the universe originated and grew from the explosion of a primordial
fireball some 12 to 15 billion years ago. This is the “Big Bang” theory of
the origin of the universe. All the matter of the universe was hurled
outward from this event and continues in an outward expansion.
Evidence for this includes precise measurements of the earliest rem-
nant of the Big Bang: its cosmic microwave background. e
More recent evidence suggests the universe is not only expand- aieeere ss
ing, but accelerating outward. It is pushed by an anti-gravity dark - Astronomers work mainly
-
for university and govern-
energy that makes up an estimated 73 percent of the universe.
/ ment observatories. ee
Twenty-three percent of the universe is composed of the yet-to-be
_Whereas most. ofthea, =
discovered particles of exotic dark matter. Ordinary matter—the
- efforts of.early -astron- . e
stuff of stars, cabbages, and kings—makes up only 4 percent. The “omers were in cataloging re —
concepts of dark matter and dark energy will continue to inspire _ _ objects in the sky, :astron-—
exciting research in the coming century. They may hold clues to how - omers today employ —
the cosmos began and where it is headed, and may be the key to much physics as ao
understanding the fate of the universe. Our present view of the uni- study the history of ane
verse has progressed appreciably beyond the universe as Newton universe from the Big
perceived it. Bang to the present and
Yet few theories have affected science and civilization as much seek to understand black _
as Newton's theory of gravity. The successes of Newton's ideas ush- holes,
“dark matter” and
ered in the Age of Reason or Century of Enlightenment. Newton had “dark energy.” It can truly -
demonstrated that by observation and reason, people could uncover be said that astronomers
the workings of the physical universe. How profound it is that all the are far-out people.
moons and planets and stars and galaxies have such a beautifully
simple rule to govern them, namely,

The formulation of this simple rule is one of the major reasons

for the success in science that followed, for it provided hope that
other phenomena of the world might also be described by equally
simple and universal laws.
This hope nurtured the thinking of many scientists, artists,
writers, and philosophers of the 1700s. One of these was the English
philosopher John Locke, who argued that observation and reason,
as demonstrated by Newton, should be our best judge and guide
in all things. Locke urged that all of nature and even society should
be searched to discover any “natural laws” that might exist. Using
Newtonian physics as a model of reason, Locke and his followers
modeled a system of government that found adherents in the
13 British colonies across the Atlantic. These ideas culminated
in the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution of the
United States of America.

179
 Chapter Assessment

5. How did Newton check his hypothesis that

For: Study and Review there is an attractive force between Earth and
Visit: PHSchool.com the moon? (12.2)
Go @nline
chool.com Web Code: csd-1120 6. What is required before a hypothesis (an edu-
cated guess) advances to the status of a scien-
tific theory (organized knowledge)? (12.2)

Concept Summary 7. Since the planets are pulled to the sun by

gravitational attraction, why don't they simply
The moon and other objects in orbit around Earth crash into the sun? (12.3)
are actually falling toward Earth but have great
enough tangential velocity to avoid hitting Earth. 8. What did Newton discover about gravity? (12.4)

According to Newton's law of universal gravita- 9. What does the very small value of the gravita-
tion, everything pulls on everything else with a tional constant G (in standard units) tell us
force that depends upon the masses of the objects about the strength of gravitational forces? (12.4)
and the distances between their centers of mass. 10. What are the two masses and the one dis-
m The greater the masses, the greater is the force. tance that determine your weight? (12.4)

m The greater the distance, the smaller is 11. In what way is gravity reduced with distance
the force. from Earth? (12.5)

Gravitation decreases according to the inverse- 12. What would be the difference in your weight if
square law. The force of gravity weakens as the you were five times farther from the center of
distance squared. Earth than you are now? Ten times? (12.5)
13. What makes Earth round? (12.6)
14. What causes planetary perturbations? (12.6)
Key Terms
inverse-square law (12.5)
law of universal gravitation (12.4) Plug and Chug Use Equations
perturbation (12.6)
15. Calculate the force of gravity on a 1-kg mass
universal gravitational constant, G (12.4) at Earth’s surface. The mass of Earth is
6 X 1074 kg, and its radius is 6.4 X 10° m.
16. Calculate the force of gravity on the same
Review Questions Check Concepts 1-kg mass if it were 6.4 X 10° m above Earth’s
surface (that is, if it were 2 Earth radii from
1. Why did Newton think that a force must act
Earth’s center).
on the moon? (12.1)
17. Calculate the force of gravity between Earth
2. What did Newton conclude about the force
(mass = 6.0 x 10*4 kg) and the moon (mass =
that pulls apples to the ground and the force
7.4 X 10** kg). The average Earth-moon
that holds the moon in orbit? (12.1)
distance is 3.8 X 108 m.
3. If the moon falls, why doesn’t it get closer
18. Calculate the force of gravity between Earth
to Earth? (12.2)
and the sun (sun’s mass = 2.0 X 10°° kg;
4. What is meant by tangential velocity? (12.2) average Earth—-sun distance = 1.5 x 10! m).

180 Chapter 12 Universal Gravitation

19. Calculate the force of gravity between a new- 29. The planet Jupiter is about 300 times as mas-
born baby (mass = 4 kg) and the planet Mars sive as Earth, but an object on its surface
(mass = 6.4 X 103 kg), when Mars is at its would weigh only 2.5 times as much as it
closest to Earth (distance = 8 X 10!° m). would on Earth. Can you come up with an
20. Calculate the force of gravity between a new- explanation? (Hint: Let the terms in the
born baby of mass 4 kg and the obstetrician equation for gravitational force guide your
of mass 75 kg, who is 0.3 m from the baby. thinking.)
Which exerts more gravitational force on the 30. Some people dismiss the validity of scientific
baby, Mars or the obstetrician? By how much? theories by saying they are “only” theories.
The law of universal gravitation is a theory.
Does this mean that scientists still doubt its
validity? Explain.
Think and Explain Think Critically
21. Comment on whether or not this label on a
consumer product should be cause for con-
cern. CAUTION: The mass of this product
Think and Solve vo

Develop Problem-Solving Skills

affects every other mass in the universe, with an
attracting force that is proportional to the prod- ot, If the moon orbited twice as far from Earth,
uct of the masses and inversely proportional to how far would it “fall” each second?
the square of the distance between them.
32. By what factor would your weight change if
nen Earth and the moon are gravitationally Earth’s diameter were doubled and its mass
attracted to each other. Does the more mas- were also doubled? 3
sive Earth attract the moon with a greater
33. If you stood atop a ladder that was
force, the same force, or less force than the
so tall that you were twice as far
moon attracts Earth?
from Earth’s center, how would
23. What is the magnitude and direction of the your weight compare with its
gravitational force that acts on a woman who present value?
weighs 500 N at the surface of Earth?
34. Estimate the size of Jupiter's diameter (com-
24. If the gravitational forces of the sun on the pared with Earth’s diameter). See Think and
planets suddenly disappeared, in what kind Explain 29.
of paths would the planets move?
35. To better comprehend the magnitude of the
2a The moon “falls” 1.4 mm each second. Does gravitational force between Earth and the
this mean that it gets 1.4 mm closer to Earth moon, pretend gravity is turned off and the
each second? Would it get closer if its tangen- pull replaced by the tension in a steel cable
tial velocity were reduced? Explain. joining them. How thick would such a cable
need to be? You can estimate the diameter by
26. If the moon were twice as massive, would the knowing that the tensile strength of steel
attractive force of Earth on the moon be twice
cable is about 5.0 x 108 N/m? (each square-
as large? Of the moon on Earth? meter cross section can support a force of
27. Which requires more fuel—a rocket going 5.0 X 108 newtons).
from Earth to the moon, or a rocket coming
from the moon to Earth? Why?
28. Evidence indicates that the present expan-
sion of the universe is slowing down. Is this
consistent with, or contrary to, the law of
gravity? Explain.
 Gravitational
Interactions
a
‘y ae

Tteb ae
AN

=<.
iP x4
veryone knows that objects fall because of
gravity. Even people before the time of Isaac
Newton knew this. Contrary to popular
belief, Newton did not discover gravity. What
Newton discovered was that gravity is universal—
that the same force that pulls an apple off a tree
All matter is under the influence holds the moon in orbit, and that both Earth and the moon are simi-
of gravity. larly held in orbit around the sun. And the sun revolves as part of a
cluster of other stars around the center of our galaxy, the Milky Way.
Newton discovered that all objects in the universe attract each other.
This was discussed in the previous chapter. In this chapter we'll
investigate the role of gravity at, below, and above Earth’s surface. We
will see how gravity affects Earth’s oceans and its atmosphere, and
then we will look at gravity at its extreme—in stellar objects called
black holes. We begin with the concept of the gravitational field.

NEN
RT (6 SUSI
13.1 Gravitational Fields
If you have ever played with iron filings and a magnet, you're famil-
iar with magnetic fields. A magnetic field is a force field that sur-
rounds a magnet. A force field exerts a force on objects in its vicinity.
A magnetic field exerts a magnetic force on magnetic substances.
You can look ahead to Figure 36.4 and see how the iron filings
Figure 13.1A around a magnet reveal the shape of its force field. The pattern of
We can say that the rocket is the filings shows the strength and direction of the magnetic field at
attracted to Earth, or that it different points in the space around the magnet. Where the filings
is interacting with the gravita- are closest together, the field is strongest. Later we will learn about
tional field of Earth. Both similar electric force fields that surround electric charges. But now
are correct.
we will investigate the kind of force field that surrounds massive
objects—the gravitational field.

182 Chapter 13 Gravitational Interactions

 Earth's gravitational field can be represented by imaginary field
lines (Figure 13.2). Like the iron filings around a magnet, the field
lines are closer together where the gravitational field is stronger. The
direction of the field at any point is along the line the point lies on.
Arrows show the field direction. A particle, a spaceship, or any mass
in the vicinity of Earth will be accelerated in the direction of the field
line at that location.
The strength of Earth’s gravitational field is the force per unit
mass exerted by Earth on any object.* We define the gravitational
field
val
Sees

It has the same symbol as the acceleration due to gravity because it Figure 13.2 A
is equal to the free fall acceleration experienced by an object when Field lines represent the gravita-
only the force of gravity acts on it. Near the surface of Earth, the tional field about Earth. Where
the field lines are closer together,
gravitational field strength is
the field is stronger. Farther
=e ee= 9.8 N/kg
=. e.
= 9.8 m/s 2 away, where the field lines are
farther apart, the field is weaker.
Let’s verify this value of g. At Earth’s surface the gravitational
force on an object is its weight—the gravitational attraction between
the object’s mass m and the mass of Earth, say M. The distance
between centers of mass is Earth's radius, R. If we make these substi-
tutions (7m, = m, m, = M, d= R) in the law of gravity and divide by m,
we get
mM
pe,Reveal sh?
5mm

Canceling m, we get
_ GM
BRE
With your calculator, evaluate g, using the following values
for G, M, and R:
G = 6.67 x 107!! N-m?/kg?
M=5.98 x 1024kg
ReG63i0x.10&m

Multiply the first two numbers and divide twice by the third.
Rounded off, your answer will be 9.8 N/kg. And, since 1 N equals
1 kg-m/s2, the combination unit N/kg is the same as m/s*.** Figure 13.3 A
Thus, we can see that the numerical value of g at Earth’s surface The weight of the load is the
depends on the mass of Earth and its radius. If Earth had a different gravitational force of attraction
mass or radius, g at its surface would have a different value. If you between the load and Earth.

pee ee ee

* gis a vector quantity, for it has both magnitude (strength) and direction.

** The unit N/kg is equivalent to m/s’. 1 N is the force that will cause 1 kg to accelerate
1 m/s2, That is (using F = ma), 1 N = 1 kg-:m/s?. This means that the unit N/kg =
(kg:m/s2)/kg = m/s?.

183
1 Explore know the mass and radius of any planet, you can calculate the accel-
eration due to gravity at the surface of that planet.
1 Laboratory Manual 36, 37 The strength of Earth’s gravitational field, like the strength of its
1 Probeware Lab force on objects, follows the inverse-square law outside Earth. So g
Manual 9 weakens with increasing distance from Earth.
2 Concept-Development
Practice Book 73-7, 13-2

@ Questions
1. Why do all freely falling objects have the same acceleration?
2. The acceleration of objects on the surface of the moon is only
1/6 of 9.8 m/s?. From this fact, is it correct to say that the mass
of the moon is therefore 1/6 the mass of Earth?
3. How does g at the surface of Jupiter compare with g at the sur-
face of Earth? Data: Jupiter’s mass is about 300 times that of
Earth, and its radius is about 10 times greater than the radius
of Earth.

13.2 Gravitational Field Inside a Planet

The gravitational field of Earth exists inside Earth as well as outside.
To investigate the gravitational field beneath the surface, imagine a
hole drilled completely through Earth, say from the North Pole to
the South Pole. Forget about impracticalities such as lava and high
temperatures, and consider the kind of motion you would undergo if
you fell into such a hole. If you started at the North Pole end, you'd
fall and gain speed all the way down to the center, and then over-
shoot and lose speed all the way to the South Pole. You'd gain speed
moving toward the center, and lose speed moving away from the

Figure 13.4 A
As you fall faster and faster into
a hole bored through Earth, your @ Answers
acceleration diminishes because
1. When we studied Newton's second law in Chapter 5, we learned that a = F/m. In free
the pull of the mass above you
fall, the ratio F/m (weight/mass) is the same for all masses, so acceleration is the same.
partly cancels the pull below. At
In this chapter we say the same thing from another point of view—the concept of the
Earth’s center the pulls cancel to
gravitational field g, which also equals F/m. From Newton’s equation for the force of
zero and your acceleration is
gravity, we see that F/m at Earth’s surface equals 9.8 m/s2. In the same gravitational
zero. Momentum carries you
field g, all freely falling objects have the same acceleration g.
against a growing acceleration
past the center to the opposite a) No. We could conclude that the mass of the moon is 1/6 that of Earth's only if both the
side where it is again g. moon and Earth had the same radius. The radius of the moon (1.74 x 108 m) is in fact
less than one third of Earth's radius, and its mass (7.36 x 1022 kg) is about 1/80 the
mass of Earth.
wo For Earth, g = GM/R2. The value of g on Jupiter's surface is G(300M)/(10R)2 =
300 GM/(100R?) = 3 GM/R?, or 3 times Earth's g. (More precisely, Jupiter's g = 2.44
times Earth's g because its radius is nearly 11 times that of Earth.)

184 Chapter 13 Gravitational Interactions

center. Without air drag, the trip would take nearly 45 minutes. If
you failed to grab the edge, you'd fall back toward the center, over-
shoot, and return to the North Pole in the same amount of time.
Suppose you had some way to measure your acceleration during
this trip. At the beginning of the fall, the gravitational field strength
and your acceleration are g, but you'd find they steadily decrease as
you continue toward the center of Earth. Why? Because as you are
being pulled “downward” toward Earth’s center, you are also being
pulled “upward” by the part of Earth that is “above” you. In fact,
when you get to the center of Earth, the pull “down” is balanced by
the pull “up.” You are pulled in every direction equally, so the net
force on you is zero. There is no acceleration as you whiz with maxi-
mum speed past the center of Earth. The gravitational field of Earth
at its center is zero! Figure 13.5A
In a cavity at the center of Earth
your weight would be zero,
because you would be pulled
equally by gravity in all direc-
@ Questions tions. The gravitational field at
1. If you stepped into a hole bored completely through Earth and Earth’s center is zero.
made no attempt to grab the edges at either end, what kind of |
motion would you experience?
2. Halfway to the center of Earth, would gravity pull on you more ¥
strongly or less strongly than at the surface of Earth? 7

B@ Answers

1. You would oscillate back and forth, approximating simple harmonic motion. Each
round trip would take nearly 90 minutes. Interestingly enough, we will see in the next
chapter that an Earth satellite in close orbit about Earth also takes the same 90 minutes
to make a complete round trip.

2. Less strongly, because the part of Earth’s mass that pulls you “down” is counteracted
by mass above you that pulls you “up.” If Earth were of uniform density, halfway to
the center gravitational force would be exactly half that at the surface. But since Earth’s
core is so dense (about seven times the density of surface rock), the gravitational pull
at this point would be somewhat more than half its strength at the surface. Exactly
how much depends on how Earth's density varies with depth, information that is not
known today.

* Interestingly enough, you'd gain acceleration during the first few kilometers beneath
Earth’s surface, because the density of surface material is much less than the density of
the condensed center. This means you'd weigh slightly more for the first few kilome-
ters beneath Earth’s surface. Farther in, your weight would decrease and would dimin-
ish to zero at Earth’s center.
More accurately, cancellation is of the entire surrounding “shell” of inner radius
equal to your radial distance from the center. Halfway down, for example, all mass in
the shell that surrounds you contributes zero gravitational force on you. You are pulled
only by the mass within this shell—below you. It is this Earth mass you use in
Newton's equation for gravitation. At Earth’s center, the whole Earth is the shell and
complete cancellation occurs. (Cancellation of a force field inside a shell is further
developed for electrical forces in Section 33.3.)
 MONNNNNINL200
CR 60052: TN
13.3 Weight and Weightlessness
The force of gravity, like any force, causes acceleration. Objects
under the influence of gravity are pulled toward each other and
accelerate (as long as nothing prevents the acceleration). We are
almost always in contact with Earth. For this reason, we think
of gravity primarily as something that presses us against Earth rather
than as something that accelerates us. The pressing against Earth is
the sensation we interpret as weight.
Stand on a bathroom scale that is supported on a stationary
floor. The gravitational force between you and Earth pulls you
against the supporting floor and scale. By Newton's third law, the
floor and scale in turn push upward on you. Located in between you
and the supporting floor are springs inside the bathroom scale. The
springs are compressed by this pair of forces. The weight reading on
the scale is linked to the amount of compression of the springs.
_imentsinspace,and =
If you repeated this weighing procedure in a moving elevator,
move outside the space-
craft. Astronauts usually
you would find your weight reading would vary—not during steady
have flight experience motion, but during accelerated motion. If the elevator accelerated
along with degrees in sci- upward, the bathroom scale and floor would push harder against
entific disciplines such as. your feet, and the springs inside the scale would be compressed
physics or chemistry. The even more. The scale would show an increase in your weight.
United States astronaut
program is managed by
the National Aeronautics
and Space Administration
(NASA).

Figure 13.6 >

The sensation of weight is equal | WEIGHT
")
|ae
Ve | SLESS® r
to the force that you exert
against the supporting floor.
ee b WEIGHT
When the floor accelerates up or
: 24
down, your weight seems to
vary. You feel weightless when
you lose your support in free fall. NO WEIGHT

If the elevator accelerated downward, the scale would show a

decrease in your weight. The support force of the floor would now be
less. If the elevator cable broke and the elevator fell freely, the scale
reading would register zero. According to the scale, you would be
weightless. And you would feel weightless, for your insides would no
1 Explore
[2
Develop longer be supported by your legs and pelvic region. Your organs
would respond as though gravity were absent. But gravity is not
1 Laboratory Manual 38 absent, so would you really be weightless? The answer to this ques-
tion depends on your definition of weight.

186 Chapter 13 —_ Gravitational Interactions

Figure 13.7 A
The astronaut feels weightless all the time in orbit.

Rather than define your weight as the force of gravity that acts
on you, it is more practical to define weight as the force you exert
against a supporting floor (or weighing scales). According to this
definition, you are as heavy as you feel. Thus, the condition of
weightlessness is not the absence of gravity; rather, it is the absence
of a support force. That queasy feeling you get when you are in a car
that seems to leave the road momentarily when it goes over a hump,
or worse, off a cliff, is not the absence of gravity. It is the absence of
a support force. Astronauts in orbit are without a support force and
are in a sustained state of weightlessness. Astronauts sometimes Figure 13.8 A
experience “space sickness” until they get used to a state of sus- Both people experience
tained weightlessness. weightlessness.

EN
Pa 9 LI
13.4 Ocean Tides
Seafaring people have always known there was a connection
between the ocean tides and the moon, but no one could offer
a satisfactory theory to explain why there are two high tides per
day. Newton showed that the ocean tides are caused by differences
in the gravitational pull of the moon on opposite sides of Earth. The
moon’s attraction is stronger on Earth’s oceans closer to the moon,
and weaker on the oceans farther from the moon. This is simply
because the gravitational force is weaker with increased distance.
Since the moon's pull is stronger on the ocean nearer the moon
and weaker on the opposite ocean farther away, why doesn't the
ocean just pile up into a single bulge on Earth under the moon?

187
Figure 13.9 >
Twice a day, every point along
the ocean shore has a high tide.
In between the high tides is a
low tide.

ee
LOW TIDE HIGH TIDE
Why isn’t there one tide every day instead of two tides every day?
There would be only one tide if Earth were “nailed down” in one
place and held stationary except for its daily rotation. But Earth
is not nailed down; it is in orbit around the moon, just as the moon is
in orbit around Earth. Actually, both are circling about their com-
bined center of mass, a point inside Earth about three-quarters
of the way from Earth’s center to its surface (Figure 13.10).
What then happens is that the ocean nearest the moon is pulled
upward toward the moon, while the main body of Earth is pulled
Figure 13.10 A toward the moon also—away from the ocean on the far side. This is
Both Earth and the moon orbit because Earth as a whole is closer to the moon than the far-side
about a common point—the ocean is. So Earth's waters get slightly elongated—at both ends. A
center of mass of the Earth-moon crude model of this elongation is shown in Figure 13.11. Ifa ball of
system. taffy is swung on the end of a string, it deforms, with “tidal bulges” on
the inner and outer sides. Although the actual Earth-moon interac-
tion differs from this simplified model, the result is similar. Both the
taffy and Earth are elongated. Earth’s elongation is evident in the pair
of ocean bulges on opposite sides of Earth.*

Figure 13.11 A
An initially spherical ball of gooey taffy will be elongated when it is spun in a
circular path.

EXAGGERATED
( MOON
LEVER ARM
* Earth likewise causes tides on the moon, which means the solid moon is slightly football
A TORQUE shaped. Its deviation from a sphere is enough that its center of gravity is slightly dis-
EXISTS WHEN placed from its center of mass. Both lie along the moon's long axis. Whenever the
MOON'S LONG moon's long axis is not lined up toward Earth (see sketch), Earth exerts a small torque
AXIS IS NOT
ALIGNED WITH on the moon. This tends to twist the moon toward aligning with Earth’s gravitational
EARTH'S field, like the torque that aligns a compass needle with a magnetic field. So we see there
CM GRAVITATIONAL
FIELD is a reason why the moon always shows us its same face! Interestingly enough, this
“tidal lock” is also working on Earth. Our days are getting longer at the rate of 2 millisec-
onds per century. In a few billion years our day will be as long as a month and Earth will
always show the same face to the moon. How about that?

188 Chapter 13 Gravitational Interactions

 Earth makes one complete turn per day beneath these ocean
bulges. This produces two sets of ocean tides per day. Any part of
Earth that passes beneath one of the bulges has a high tide.
Worldwide, the average high tide is about 1 meter above the average
surface level of the ocean. About six hours later, after Earth has
made a quarter turn, the water level at the same part of the ocean is
about 1 meter below the average sea level. This is low tide. The water Figure 13.12 A
that “isn’t there” is under the bulges that make up the high tides Two tidal bulges remain rela-
elsewhere. So Earth turns beneath two tide bulges per rotation and tively fixed with respect to the
we have two high tides and two low tides daily. While Earth spins, moon while Earth spins daily
the moon moves in its orbit and appears at the same position in our beneath them.
sky every 24 hours and 50 minutes, so the two-high-tide cycle is
actually at 24-hour-and-50-minute intervals. That’s why tides do not
occur at the same time every day.

yw, DISTANCES TO FAR SIDE OF EARTH Figure 13.13

When you stand close to the
~
—_——
DISTANCES TO NEAR SIDE OF EARTH globe (as the moon is in relation
> to Earth), the closest part of the
globe is noticeably nearer to you
than the farthest part. When you
stand far away (as the sun is in
relation to Earth), the difference
in distance between the closest
and farthest parts of the globe is
less significant.

The sun also contributes to ocean tides, but not as much as the
moon. This may seem puzzling when you realize that the sun’s pull
on Earth is about 180 times stronger than the moon's pull on Earth.
Why, then, doesn’t the sun cause tides 180 times higher than lunar
tides? The answer has to do with a key word: difference. Because of
the sun’s great distance from Earth, there is not much difference
between the distance from the sun to the near part of Earth and
the distance from the sun to the far part of Earth (Figure 13.13).
This means there is not much difference in the gravitational pull
between the sun and the part of the ocean nearer to it, and the sun
and the part of the ocean farther from it. The small difference in
solar pulls on opposite sides of Earth only slightly elongates Earth’s
shape and produces tidal bulges less than half those produced by
the moon*

* The relative difference in distance is only hinted at in Figure 13.13, which is way off
scale. The actual distance between Earth and the sun is nearly 12 000 Earth diameters.
Using an ordinary globe 1/3 meter in diameter to judge the relative difference between
closest and farthest parts of the globe from the moon, you'd have to stand
10 meters away. From the sun’s position, you’d have to stand “across town,” 4 kilome-
ters away! (The percentage difference in the pull of the sun across Earth is only about
0.017%, compared with 6.7% across Earth by the moon. It is only because
the sun’s pull is 180 times stronger than the moon's pull that the sun’s tides are almost
half as high [180 x 0.017% = 3%, nearly half of 6.7%].)

189
 Newton deduced that the difference in pulls decreases as the
cube of the distance between the centers of the bodies—twice as far
away produces 1/8 the tide; three times as far, only 1/27 the tide,
and so on. Only relatively close distances result in appreciable tides,
and so the nearby moon “out-tides” the enormously more massive
but farther-away sun. The size of the tide also depends on the size of
the body having tides. Although the moon produces a considerable
tide in Earth’s oceans, which are thousands of kilometers apart, it
produces scarcely any in a lake. That’s because no part of the lake is
significantly closer to the moon than any other part of the lake, so
there is no significant difference in the moon’s pull on the lake. The
same is true for the fluids in your body. Any tides in the fluids of
your body caused by the moon are negligible. You're not tall enough
compared with the moon's distance for tides. The microtides pro-
duced by a 1-kilogram book held 1 meter over your head are far
greater than any microtides produced in your body by the moon.

@ Question
We know that both the moon and the sun produce our ocean tides.
~ And we know the moon plays the greater role because it is closer.
Does its closeness mean it pulls with more gravitational force than
_ the sun on Earth’s oceans?

Figure 13.14 >

When the sun, the moon, and
Earth are aligned, spring tides
occur.

When the sun, Earth, and the moon are all lined up, the tides
due to the sun and the moon coincide. We then have higher-than-
average high tides and lower-than-average low tides. These are called
spring tides (Figure 13.14). (Spring tides have nothing to do with the
spring season.)

ee

@ Answer

No, the sun’s pull is much stronger. Gravitational pull weakens with the square of the dis-
tance to the body that pulls. But the difference in pulls across Earth's oceans weakens
with the distance cubed. When the distance to the sun is squared, gravitation from the
sun is still stronger than gravitation from the closer moon—because of the sun's enor-
mous mass. But when the distance to the sun is cubed, as is the case for tidal forces, the
sun’s influence is less than the moon’s. Distance is the key to tidal forces. If the
moon
were closer to Earth, the tides on both Earth and the moon would increase with the
inverse cube of this closer distance—which could be catastrophic, as the planetary
rings
of other planets suggest.

190 Chapter13 Gravitational Interactions

 spo LUNAR ECLIPSE: MOON IS COMPLETELY
IN EARTH S SHADOW

EARTH SEES FULL MOON

OBSERVERS IN THE SHADOW OF THE MOON

PSE

J ? OBSERVERS ON THE NIGHTTIME SIDE

q OF EARTH ARE OUT OF VIEW OF THE
NEW MOON

Figure 13.15 A
Detail of sun-Earth-moon alignment. (a) Perfect alignment produces a lunar
eclipse. (b) Nonperfect alignment produces a full moon. (c) Perfect alignment
produces a solar eclipse. (d) Nonperfect alignment produces a new moon.
Can you see that from the daytime side of the world, the new moon cannot
be seen because the dark side faces Earth, and from the nighttime side of
the world, the new moon is out of view altogether?

If the alignment is perfect, we have an eclipse. A lunar eclipse is ee

produced when Earth is directly between the sun and moon (Figure
13.15a). A solar eclipse is produced when the moon is directly
between the sun and Earth (Figure 13.15c). But the alignment is usu- -@:
ally not perfect, because the plane of the moon's orbit is slightly
tilted toward the plane of Earth's orbit about the sun. So each month (aes
when Earth is between the sun and the moon we have a full moon,
and when the moon is between the sun and Earth we have a new
(dark) moon. Consequently, spring tides occur at the times of a new rd 7 @
moon and a full moon.
When we see a half-moon, that is, when the moon is halfway Figure 13.16 A
between a new moon and a full moon in either direction (Figure 13.16), When the attractions of the sun
the tides due to the sun and the moon partly cancel each other. Then, and the moon are at right angles
the high tides are lower-than-average high tides, and the low tides are to one another (at the time of a
higher-than-average low tides. These are called neap tides. half-moon), neap tides occur.
 | SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY _
Power Production
gn 1984, the first modern tidal power plant Critical Thinking What are the advan-
[in North America began operating in Nova tages of using ocean tides to produce
Scotia, Canada. A dam across an estuary electricity?
gets its power from the rising and falling of
the daily ocean tide. First the water is higher
on one side of the dam, and is maintained at
about 1.6 meters higher than the lower side.
Water then flows through a series of gates to
the lower side, turning a huge turbine in the
process. When the tide changes, the flow of
water is in the reverse direction, again turn-
ing the turbine. The dam produces more than
20 MW of power—enough to meet the elec-
tricity needs for 4500 homes.

Another factor affecting tides is the tilt of Earth’s axis (Figure

13.17). Even though the opposite tidal bulges are equal, Earth’s tilt
causes the two daily high tides experienced in most parts of the
ocean to be unequal most of the time.

Figure 13.17
Earth’s tilt causes the two daily
high tides in the same place to
be unequal.

Our treatment of tides is quite simplified here. We have ignored

such complications as interfering land masses, tidal inertia, and fric-
tion with the ocean bottom, all of which result in a wide range of
tides in different parts of the world. Although worldwide average
tides are about 1 meter above and below the ocean’s normal level, in
some places the tides are much greater than this. In the Bay of Fundy
in Nova Scotia and in some Alaskan fjords, for example, tides some-
1 Explore
times exceed 15 meters. This is largely due to the ocean floor, which
2 Concept-Development funnels shoreward in a V-shape. The tide often comes in faster than a
Practice Book 13-3 person can run. Don't dig clams near the water's edge at low tide in
the Bay of Fundy!

192 Chapter 13 Gravitational Interactions

ARNE DRI AOA OES TR
SLINK TO ASTRONOMY!
13.5 Tides in Earth and the Atmosphere
Earth is not a rigid solid but, for the most part, is molten liquid cov-
ered by a thin solid and pliable crust. As a result, the moon-sun tidal
forces produce Earth tides as well as ocean tides. Twice each day the
solid surface of Earth rises and falls by as much as 25 cm! We don’t
normally notice this, just as people on a ship in the middle of the
ocean would not notice the gradual rising and falling of ocean tides.
Satellite detectors measure both ocean and Earth tidal movements.
Interestingly enough, earthquakes and volcanic eruptions have a
slightly higher probability of occurring when Earth is experiencing
an Earth spring tide—that is, near a full or new moon.
We live at the bottom of an ocean of air that also experiences
tides. Atmospheric tides are relatively small. In the upper part of the
atmosphere is the ionosphere, so named because it is made up of
ions, electrically charged atoms that are the result of intense cosmic
ray bombardment and ultraviolet radiation from the sun. Tidal
effects in the ionosphere produce electric currents that alter the
magnetic field that surrounds Earth. These are magnetic tides.
They in turn regulate the degree to which cosmic rays penetrate into
the lower atmosphere. The cosmic ray penetration affects the ionic
composition of our atmosphere, which in turn is evident in subtle
ne an the|self-gravita-“
changes in the behaviors of living things. The highs and lows of mag-
tion that holds it together. of
netic tides are greatest when the atmosphere is having its spring
iS Earlyintthe lifeof the oo :
tides—again, near the full and new moons.* "solar“system, Saturn (andoe
_ other outerplanets)may -
_ havehad one ‘ormore a
nn et sat aE RE TERS Ny Tepears Oe Se ed Sera “moons orbitingtoo close :
| to the planet'ss surface. . ae
13.6 Black Holes - Powerful tidal forces -— a
~ could have stretched | a
There are two main processes going on continously in stars like our them and torn them apart.
sun. One process is gravitation, which tends to crunch all solar s During |billions of years
material toward the center. The other process is thermonuclear : fragments could have a
fusion consisting of reactions similar to those in a hydrogen bomb. “separated into ‘billions one
These hydrogen bomb-like reactions tend to blow solar material _ of still smaller pieces ee
outward. When the processes of gravitation and thermonuclear - spreading out to form the —
fusion balance each other, the result is the sun of a given size. beautiful rings 'we see
If the fusion rate increases, the sun will get hotter and bigger; if | today. Our moon issuffi- _
the fusion rate decreases, the sun will get cooler and smaller. What ciently far away to resist —
will happen when the sun runs out of fusion fuel (hydrogen)? The this tidal disintegration.
But if it were to come too
answer is, gravitation will dominate and the sun will start to col-
close, within a few hun-
lapse. For our sun, this collapse will ignite the nuclear ashes of
dred kilometers of Earth,
fusion (helium) and fuse them into carbon. During this fusion
the increased tidal forces
process, the sun will expand to become the type of star known as a would tear the moon
red giant. It will be so big that it will extend beyond Earth's orbit and apart. Then Earth, like
Saturn, Jupiter, Uranus,
and Neptune, would have
a system of planetary
rings!
* Could this be why some of your friends seem a bit weird at the time of a full moon?

193
 La as:
The size of the sun is the result of a “tug-of-war” between two opposing
processes: nuclear fusion, which tends to blow it up (blue arrows), and grav-
itational contraction, which tends to crunch it together (black arrows).

swallow Earth. Fortunately, this won't take place until some

5 billion years from now. When the helium is all “burned,” the red
giant will collapse and die out. It will no longer give off heat and
light. It will then be the type of star called a black dwarf—a cool
cinder among billions of others.
The story is a bit different for stars more massive than the sun.
For a heavy star, one that is at least two to three times more massive
than our sun,* once the flame of thermonuclear fusion is extin-
FIELD STRENGTH guished, gravitational collapse takes over—and it doesn't stop! The
HEREIS G2 star not only caves in on itself, but the atoms that compose the stel-
lar material also cave in on themselves until there are no empty
spaces. According to theory, the collapse never stops and the density
~ Ae
becomes literally infinite. Gravitation near these shrunken configu-
ae rations is so enormous that nothing can get back out. Even light can-
STAR OF MASS m not escape. They have crushed themselves out of visible existence.
They are called black holes.
BLACK HOLE sal is Interestingly enough, a black hole is no more massive than the
OF MA star from which it collapsed. The gravitational field near the black
Neer eg STi.
hole may be enormous, but the field beyond the original radius of
aoe . ce ma aur
\ d 7®y ¢ the star is no different after collapse than before (Figure 13.19). The
~— meee
ee amount of mass has not changed, so there is no change in the field
at any point beyond this distance. Black holes will be formidable
Figure 13.19 A only to future astronauts who venture too close.
The gravitational field strength The configuration of the gravitational field about a black hole
near a giant star that collapses to represents the collapse of space itself. The field is usually represented
become a black hole is the same as a warped two-dimensional surface, as shown in Figure 13.20.
before collapse (top) and after Astronauts could enter the fringes of this warp and, with a powerful
collapse (bottom). spaceship, still escape. After a certain distance, however, they could

* Astrophysicists don’t yet have an exact number for the least massive star that will
inevitably become a black hole. They believe it to be at least two solar masses.

194 Chapter 13 Gravitational Interactions

 H Question
Our sun is not massive enough to become a black hole. But if it
were, and if it collapsed from its present size to become a black
hole, would Earth be drawn into it?

not escape, and they would disappear from the observable universe.
Dont go too close to a black hole!
Although black holes can't be seen, their effects can be. Many
stars in the sky occur as binaries—pairs that orbit around each other.
Sometimes only one star of a binary pair is seen. Matter streams from
this visible star toward its invisible companion, emitting X-rays as it
accelerates toward the “nothingness” that is probably a black hole.
And near the centers of most galaxies are immensely massive yet
very small centers of force that cause stars near them to speed
around in tight orbits. These black holes, if that’s what they are, are
more massive than a million suns.

Figure 13.20 A
A two-dimensional representation of the gravitational field around a black
hole. Anything that falls into the central warp disappears from the observ-
able universe.

@ Answer

No, the gravitational force between the solar black hole and Earth would not change. Earth
and the other planets would continue in their orbits. Observers outside the solar system
of
would see the planets orbiting about “nothing” and would likely deduce the presence
a black hole. Observations of astronomical bodies that orbit unseen partners indicate the
presence of black holes.
 Chapter Assessment

. Which is correct—to say that a distant rocket

For: Study and Review interacts with the mass of Earth, or to say that
(Go @nline Visit: PHSchool.com it interacts with the gravitational field of
chool.com Web Code: csd-1130 Earth? Explain. (13.1)
. How does the gravitational field strength at
the surface of Earth compare with the accel-
eration of free fall? (13.1)
Concept Summary
. Upon what quantities does the acceleration
Earth can be thought of as being surrounded by a of gravity on the surfaces of various planets
gravitational field that interacts with objects and depend? (13.1)
causes them to experience gravitational forces.
. How does the gravitational field surrounding
The gravitational field g is equal to the accelera- Earth vary with increasing distance? (13.1)
tion of a freely falling object.
. Where is your weight greatest—at the surface
Objects in orbit around Earth have a gravitational of Earth, deep below the surface, or above the
force acting on them even though they may surface? (13.2)
appear to be weightless.
. Why would your weight be less if you were
Ocean tides (and even tides within the solid deep beneath Earth’s surface? (13.2)
Earth and within the atmosphere) are caused by
differences in the gravitational pull of the moon . What is the value of the gravitational field at
(and sun) on opposite sides of Earth. the center of Earth? (13.2)

When a star runs out of fuel for fusion, it col- . Does your apparent weight change when you
lapses under gravitational forces. Sufficiently ride an elevator moving at constant speed?
massive stars collapse to form black holes. An accelerating elevator? Explain. (13.3)
10. How does the support force of a floor you
stand on relate to your weight? (13.3)
Key Terms 11. If the gravitational pull of the moon on Earth
were the same over all parts of Earth, would
black hole (13.6) neap tide (13.4) there be any tides? Defend your answer.
force field (13.1) solar eclipse (13.4) (13.4)
gravitational field (13.1) spring tide (13.4)
12 . Why is difference a key word in explaining
lunar eclipse (13.4) weightlessness (13.3) tides? (13.4)

13. Which force-pair is greater—that between the

moon and Earth, or that between the sun and
Review Questions Check Concepts Earth? (13.4)

1. We can think of a force field as a kind of 14 . Which is more effective in raising ocean
extended aura that surrounds a body, spread- tides—the moon or the sun? Why does this
ing its influence to affect things. As later answer not contradict your previous answer?
chapters will show, an electric field affects (13.4)
electric charges, and a magnetic field affects
15. Why are tides greater at the times of the full
magnetic poles. What does a gravitational
field affect? (13.1) and new moons and at the times of lunar and
solar eclipses? (13.4)

196 Chapter 13 _—_Gravitational Interactions

16. Distinguish between spring tides and neap 24. Even a 1-kg melon held above your head
tides. (13.4) exerts a tidal force on you. The above equa-
17. Do the sun and moon produce atmospheric tion, however, is a good approximation only
tides on Earth? (13.5) when d is much larger than R—certainly true
for the previous cases, but not for the melon.
18. What two major factors determine the size of The distance d between the center of the
a star? (13.6) melon and your center is only about twice R.
So the general tidal force equation (the
19. Distinguish between a stellar black dwarf and
a black hole. (13.6) source of the above equation) must be used,
which is F,; = (4GMdR)/(@ — R’)*. Use this to
20. Why would Earth not be sucked into the sun calculate the melon’s F, on you. Here M= 1 kg,
if it became a black hole? (13.6) and if you're 2 m tall, R= 1m, and d=2 m.
How does this compare with the tidal force of
the moon on you?

Plug and Chug Use Equations

Problems 21-24 all relate to the following
information.
Think and Explain Think Critically
25. The gravitational field strength at Earth’s sur-
A kilogram of water on the side of Earth nearest
face is 9.8 N/kg. What is the field strength at
the moon is gravitationally attracted to the moon
the center of Earth? At a distance one Earth
with a greater force than a kilogram of water on
radius beyond the surface?
the side of Earth farthest from the moon. The dif-
ference in force per mass, the tidal force, is 26. If Earth were the same size but twice as mas-
approximated by sive, how would the value of G change, if at
all? How would the value of g change, if at all?
F,= 4GMR
=: (Why are your answers different? In this and
where Gis the gravitational constant, M is the the following question, let the equation
mass of the moon, Ris the radius of Earth, and d g = GM/R? guide your thinking.)
is the distance between the centers of the moon
27. How would the gravitational field at Earth’s
and Earth.
surface be affected if Earth shrank in size
21. Calculate F, of the moon on Earth in units without any change in mass? What would be
N/kg. (M= 7.35 x 10** kg, R= 6.4 x 10° m, and its relative strength at the new surface if Earth
d= 3.85 x 108 m) shrank to half size? To one-tenth size?

22. If you stand on Earth directly under the 28. If the radius of Earth somehow shrank by half
moon, the moon's tidal pull will slightly without any change in Earth’s mass, what
stretch you, pulling harder on your head than would be the value of g at the new surface?
on your feet. Your head and feet are not far What would be the value of g above the new
apart like Earth’s oceans are, so R in the tidal surface at a distance equal to the present
force equation is only about half your height radius?
rather than half Earth’s diameter. 29. The weight of an apple near the surface of
Approximate the F, of the moon on you. Earth is 1 N. What is the weight of Earth in
23. Earth under your feet also stretches you ever the gravitational field of the apple?
so slightly by pulling harder on your feet than 30. A friend proposes an idea for launching space
on your head. What is Earth’s F, on you? (Now probes that consists of boring a hole com-
Ris half your height and dis the distance pletely through Earth. Your friend reasons
from the center of Earth to you, 6.4 x 10° m. that a probe dropped into such a hole would
Mwill be Earth's mass, 6.0 x 10*4 kg.) How accelerate all the way through and shoot like
does Earth’s tidal force on you compare with a projectile out the other side. Defend or
the moon's? oppose the reasoning of your friend.

197
31. If you stand on a shrinking planet, so that in DEBT PRESRE RAE oo eo 5es SE SS

effect you get closer to its center, your weight Think and Solve
will increase. But if you instead burrow into Develop Problem-Solving Skills
the planet and get closer to its center, your
weight will decrease. Explain. 39. The mass of Earth is about 80 times that of
the moon and its radius is about 3.7 times
32. If you were unfortunate enough to be ina that of the moon. Calculate the acceleration
freely falling elevator, you might notice the due to gravity at the surface of the moon.
bag of groceries you were carrying is hovering Express your answer in g’s.
in front of you, apparently weightless. Cite
the frames of reference in which the groceries 40. If you drop a 1-kg mass just above Earth's sur-
are falling, and those in which they are face, it accelerates downward at 9.8 m/s’. But
not falling. the force that pulls the 1-kg mass downward is
also the force that pulls the 6 x 10*4-kg Earth
33. When would the moon be its fullest—just upward. Calculate the acceleration of Earth as
before a solar eclipse or just before a lunar it “races upward” to meet the 1-kg mass.
eclipse? Defend your answer.
41. The mass of Saturn is 95 times that of Earth
34. The sun exerts almost 200 times more force and its radius is 9 times that of Earth.
on the oceans of Earth than the moon does. Calculate the acceleration due to gravity at the
Why then, is the moon mote effective in surface of Saturn. Express your answer in g’s.
raising tides?
42. What would be the weight of a 1-kg mass on
35. From a point of view at the sun, does the the surface of Mars? The mass of Mars is 0.11
moon circle Earth, or does Earth circle that of Earth, and its radius 0.53 that of Earth.
the moon?
43. Many people mistakenly believe that the
36. What would be the effect on Earth’s tides if astronauts that orbit Earth are “above grav-
the diameter of Earth were larger than it is? If ity.” Calculate g for space shuttle territory,
Earth were as it presently is, but the moon 200 km above Earth’s surface. Assume Earth’s
were larger—with the same mass? mass is 6.0 x 104 kg, and its radius is
37. The human body is more than 50% water. Is 6.38 x 10° m (6380 km). Your answer is what
it likely that the moon's gravitational pull percentage of 9.8 m/s7?
causes any significant biological tides—cyclic 44. On the small and good planet Ballonius in a
changes in water flow among the body’s fluid distant solar system, suppose we find the
compartments? (Hint: Is any part of your
radius of the good planet to be 200 000 m. We
body appreciably closer to the moon than
also drop a rock and find that it travels 1.5 m
any other part? Is there a difference in lunar
in the first second of free fall, which means it
pulls?)
accelerates at 3 m/s*. Estimate the mass of
38. A black hole is no more massive than the star Ballonius.
from which it collapsed. Why then, is gravita-
45. Choose any of the planets and calculate its
tion so intense near a black hole?
tidal force on you. Compare your answer with
your answer to Plug and Chug exercise 24.
Then communicate your result to any of your
friends who say the planets exert tidal forces
on people and in so doing influence their lives!

198 Chapter 13 Gravitational Interactions

Satellite Motion

:fyou drop a stone, it will fall in a straight-

line path to the ground below. If you move
your hand horizontally as you drop the
stone, it will follow a curved path to the ground.
If you move your hand faster, the stone will
land farther away and the curvature of the path
will be less pronounced. What would happen if . .
the curvature of the path matched the curvature of Earth? The answer All bodies in space are falling
is simple enough: Without air resistance, you'd have an Earth satellite! around other bodies.

Figure 14.1 A
The greater the stone’s horizontal motion when released, the wider the arc
of its curved path.

ER TIS TS
14.1 Earth Satellites
Simply put, an Earth satellite is a projectile that falls around Earth
rather than into it. Imagine yourself on a planet that is smaller than Figure 14.2 A
Earth (Figure 14.2). Because of the planet’s small size and low mass, If you toss the stone horizontally
you would not have to throw the stone very fast to make its curved with the proper speed, its path
path match the surface curvature of the planet. If you threw the will match the surface curvature
stone just right, it would follow a circular orbit. of the asteroid.

199
 How fast would the stone have to be thrown horizontally for it to
orbit Earth? The answer depends on the rate at which the stone falls
and the rate at which Earth curves. Recall from Chapter 2 that a
stone dropped from rest accelerates 10 m/s? and falls a vertical dis-
tance of 5 meters during the first second (more precisely, these fig-
ures are 9.8 m/s* and 4.9 m respectively). Also recall from Chapter 3
that the same is true of any projectile as it starts to fall. Recall that in
the first second a projectile will fall a vertical distance of 5 meters
below the straight-line path it would have taken without gravity. (It
may be helpful to refresh your memory and review Figure 3.10.)

Figure 14.3 A
Throw a stone at any speed and one second later it will have fallen 5 m
below where it would have been without gravity.

A geometric fact about the curvature of our Earth is that its

surface drops a vertical distance of nearly 5 meters for every
8000 meters tangent to its surface (Figure 14.4). This means that if
you were swimming in a calm ocean, you would be able to see only
the very top ofa 5-m-tall mast on a ship that is 8 kilometers away.

<_—
| 80007)

Figure 14.4 A
Earth’s curvature (not to scale).

Can you see that a stone thrown fast enough to go a horizontal

distance of 8 kilometers during the time (1 second) it takes to fall
5 meters, will follow the curvature of Earth? Isn’t this speed simply
8 kilometers per second? So we see that the orbital speed for close
orbit about Earth is 8 km/s. If this doesn’t seem to be very fast, con-
vert it to kilometers per hour; you'll see it is an impressive
29 000 km/h (or 18 000 mi/h), At that speed, atmospheric friction
would burn an object to a crisp. That’s why a satellite must stay about
150 kilometers or more above Earth’s surface—to keep from burning
up against the friction of the atmosphere like a “falling star.”

200 Chapter 14 —_ Satellite Motion

 ) | 3 H
IT FALLS STRAIGHT
DOWN BECAUSE OF
YOU SAY YOU DON’T UNDERSTAND $6. : ee
WHY SATELLITES ORBIT -- WATCH THIS --
TELL ME ues! YOU SEE WHEN | DROP

CORRECT? WHEN | DO IT AGAIN AND MOVE

MY HAND EVEN FASTER WHEN | DROP IT,
SIDEWAYS WHEN | =—/THIS TIME IT WHAT DO YOU OBSERVE7
DROP IT-- WHAT DO {| FOLLOWS A
YOU OBSERVE? 4 CURVED PATH.

EXCELLENT’ NOW WHERE WOULD IT LAND

IF IT MOVES FAST ENOUGH SO THE CURVED
TWO THINGS: PATH IT TRACES MATCHES THE CURVATURE
| OBSERVE IT OF THE EARTH ?
FALLS FARTHER
DOWN RANGE,
AND IT TRACES
A WIDER CURVED
PATH?

ae Ue ISA. Yes ? THERE ARE

EGET tT WILL REALLY THAT | VARIATIONS TO CONSIDER
STILL BE FALLING, SIMPLE ? BUT THE BASIC PHYSICS
BUT DUE TO THE OF SATELLITE MOTION 4
MATCHING CURVE IS THAT SIMPLE.
- siat -
OF THE EARTH, IT
WILL FALL ARQUND
THE EARTH RATHER
| THAN INTO IT. [T WILL
"\_\ BE AN EARTH SATELLITE!
 T
RN a A
14.2 Circular Orbits
Interestingly enough, in circular orbit the speed of a circling satellite
is not changed by gravity. We can understand this by comparing a
satellite in circular orbit to a bowling ball rolling along a bowling
alley. Why doesn't the gravity that acts on the bowling ball change its
speed? The answer is that gravity is pulling neither forward nor
backward—it pulls straight downward, perpendicular to the ball’s
motion. The bowling ball has no component of gravitational force
along the direction of the alley.

Figure 14.5 > ~

DIRECTION OF MOTION S
(Left) The force of gravity on the .
bowling ball does not affect its .
speed because there is no com- y 4
ponent of gravitational force
horizontally. (Right) The same is
true for the satellite in circular
orbit. In both cases, the force of
gravity is at right angles to the
direction of motion.

The same is true for a satellite in circular orbit. Here a satellite is

always moving perpendicular to the force of gravity. It doesn’t move
in the direction of gravity, which would increase its speed, nor does
it move in a direction against gravity, which would decrease its
speed. Instead, the satellite exactly “criss-crosses” gravity, so that
no change in speed occurs—only a change in direction. A satellite
in circular orbit around Earth is always moving perpendicular
to gravity and parallel to Earth’s surface at constant speed.
For a satellite close to Earth, the time for a complete orbit
around Earth, its period, is about 90 minutes. For higher altitudes,
the orbital speed is less and the period is longer.* The moon is far-
ther away, and has a 27.3-day period. Communications satellites are
located in orbit 6.5 Earth radii from Earth’s center, so that their
period is 24 hours. This period matches Earth’s daily rotation. They
are launched to orbit in the plane of Earth’s equator, so they are
always above the same place on the equator.
Figure 14.6 A
A satellite in circular orbit close
to Earth Oves tangentially at * If you continue with your study of physics and take a follow-up course, you'll learn that
8 km/s. During each second, it the tangential speed vof a satellite in circular orbit is given by v= VGM/d, and the
falls 5 m beneath each succes- period Tof satellite motion is given by T= 2nd 3/GM, where Gis the universal gravi-
sive 8-km tangent. tational constant (see Chapter 12), M is the mass of Earth (or whatever body the
satellite orbits), and d is the altitude of the satellite measured from the center of Earth
or parent body.

202 Chapter 14 _ Satellite Motion

 1. There are usually alternate explanations for things. Is the fol-
lowing explanation valid? Satellites remain in orbit instead of
falling to Earth because they are beyond the main pull of
Earth’s gravity.
2. Satellites in close circular orbit fall about 5 m during each sec-
ond of orbit. How can this be if the satellite does not get closer
to Earth?

Recall from Chapter 12 that Isaac Newton understood satellite

motion from his investigation of the moon’s motion. He foresaw the
launching of artificial satellites, for he reasoned that without air resis-
tance, a cannonball could circle Earth and coast indefinitely if it had
sufficient speed. He calculated this speed to be the same as 8 km/s.
Since such speed was impossible then, he was not optimistic about
people launching satellites. What Newton did not consider was mul-
tistage rockets—the idea of rockets carried piggyback style on other
rockets to reach orbital speed by a succession of rocket firings.

RR aE a aE TAD RT
14.3 Elliptical Orbits
A projectile just above the atmosphere at a horizontal speed some-
what more than 8 km/s will overshoot a circular path and trace an
oval-shaped path—an ellipse.
An ellipse is a specific curve: the closed path taken by a point
that moves in such a way that the sum of its distances from two fixed
points (called foci) is constant. For a satellite orbiting a planet, the
center of the planet is at one focus and the other focus could be
inside or outside the planet. An ellipse can be easily constructed by
using a pair of tacks, one at each focus, a loop of string, and a pencil,
as shown in Figure 14.7. The closer the tacks, the closer the ellipse is
to a circle. When the foci are together, the ellipse isa circle. A circle is
a special case of an ellipse.

nn Ee

H Answers
Figure 14.7 A
1. No, no, a thousand times no! No mass can be beyond the pull of gravity. If any moving A simple method of constructing
object were, it would move in a straight line and would not curve around Earth. an ellipse.
Satellites remain in orbit because they are being pulled by gravity, not because they
are beyond it.

2. In each second, the satellite falls about 5 m below the straight-line tangent it would
have taken if there were no gravity. Earth’s surface curves 5 m below an 8-km straight-
line tangent. Since the satellite moves at 8 km/s, it “falls” at the same rate Earth
“curves.”

203
Figure 14.8 >
The shadows of the ball are all
ellipses with one focus where
the ball touches the table.

Satellite speed, which is constant in a circular orbit, varies in an

elliptical orbit. When the initial speed is more than 8 km/s, the sat-
ellite overshoots a circular path and moves away from Earth, against
the force of gravity. It therefore loses speed. Like a rock thrown into
the air, the satellite slows to a point where it no longer recedes, and

Figure 14.9 > Ee. aS

Elliptical orbit. When the satel- 7 y" \
lite exceeds 8 km/s, it over- / / \
shoots a circle (left) and travels / \
away from Earth against gravity. | \
At its maximum separation |
(center), it starts to come back |
toward Earth. The speed it lost
in going away is gained in
returning, and (right) the cycle
repeats itself.

begins falling back toward Earth. The speed lost in receding is

regained as it falls back. The satellite then rejoins its path with the
same speed it had initially (Figure 14.9). The procedure repeats over
and over, and an ellipse is traced each cycle.

PHYSICS

Drawing Ellipses
Draw an ellipse with a loop of string, two tacks, and a pen or pen-
cil, as shown in Figure 14.7. Try different tack spacings for a vari-
ety of ellipses. Or draw an ellipse by tracing the edge of the
1 Explore | 2 Develop} 3 Apply shadow cast by a circular disk on a flat surface. How can you
move the disk to get different ellipses?
1 Laboratory Manual 39, 40

204 Chapter 14 _—_ Satellite Motion

 BH Question
The orbit of a satellite is shown in the sketch. In which of the posi-
tions A through D does the satellite have the greatest speed? Least BeCNC
speed? «*—Enginee
| Satellites play an impo
tant role in conducting
scientific research, a
obtaining environmental |
data, and providing com- _
munications services.
Satellite design engi-
neers are employed by
the United States gov-
ernment through NASA
and by commercial com-
munications companies.
a Ts A TT The goal of a satellite
design engineer is to
14.4 Energy Conservation and design satellites that will
= = orbit at specific distances
Satellite Motion fron Esrhacuty the
necessary equipment,
Recall from Chapter 8 that moving objects have kinetic energy (KE). and withstand the condi-
An object above Earth’s surface has potential energy (PE) due to its tions to which they will
position. Everywhere in its orbit, a satellite has both KE and PE. The be exposed—all of this
sum of the KE and PE everywhere is constant. within a controlled
monetary budget.

PE+KE

PE+KEs PETKE

sacl ae

Figure 14.10 A
The force of gravity on the satellite is always toward the center of the body
it orbits. For a satellite in circular orbit, no component of force acts along
the direction of motion. The speed, and thus the KE, cannot change.

Eyal

BH Answer

The satellite has its greatest speed as it whips around A. It has its least speed at C. Beyond
C, it gains speed as it falls back to A to repeat its cycle.

205
 «PE In a circular orbit the distance between a planet’s center and the
satellite's center is constant. This means that the PE of the satellite is
the same everywhere in orbit. So, by the law of conservation of
energy, the KE is also constant. Thus, the speed is constant in any
circular orbit.
KE+PE In an elliptical orbit the situation is different. Both speed and
distance vary. The PE is greatest when the satellite is farthest away
(at the apogee) and least when the satellite is closest (at the perigee).
<— PERIGEE Correspondingly, the KE will be least when the PE is most; and the
KE will be most when the PE is least. At every point in the orbit, the
K E +PE
sum of the KE and PE is constant.
Figure 14.11 A At all points on the orbit—except at the apogee and perigee—
The sum of KE and PE for a there is a component of gravitational force parallel to the direction
satellite is a constant at all of satellite motion. This component changes the speed of the satel-
points along an elliptical orbit. lite. Or we can say: (this component of force) x (distance moved) =
change in KE. Either way we look at it, when the satellite gains alti-
tude and moves against this component, its speed and KE decrease.
THIS COMPONENT OF
FORCE DOES WORK
The decrease continues to the apogee. Once past the apogee, the
ON THE SATELLITE satellite moves in the same direction as the component, and the
speed and KE increase. The increase continues until the satellite
whips past the perigee and repeats the cycle.

‘Ml Questions ©
1. The orbital path of a satellite is shown in the sketch. In which of
___ the positions A through D
does the satellite have the most KE?
__ Most PE? Most total energy?
_ 2. Why does the force of gravity change the speed of a satellite when
ye eS in anelliptical orbit, but not when it is in a circular orbit?
Figure 14.12 A
In elliptical orbit, a component
of force exists along the direc-
tion of the satellite’s motion.
This component changes the
speed and, thus, the KE. (The
perpendicular component
changes only the direction.)

EEE

BH Answers

1. The KE is maximum at A; the PE is maximum at C;the total energy is the same any-
where in the orbit.
2. At any point on its path, the direction of motion of a satellite is always tangent to its
path. If a component of force exists along this tangent, then there is a corresponding
acceleration along this tangent—the satellite's tangential speed changes. In circular orbit
1 Explore the gravitational force is everywhere perpendicular to the satellite’s direction of motion,
just as every part of the circumference of a circle is perpendicular to the radius. So in cir-
2 Concept-Development cular orbit there is no component of gravitational force along the tangent, and only the
Practice Book 74-1 direction of motion changes—not tangential speed. From a work-energy point of view,
only a force parallel to motion can change KE, which occurs only for elliptical orbits.

206 Chapter 14 Satellite Motion

DE EEE
14.5 Escape Speed
When a payload is put into Earth-orbit by a rocket, the speed and
direction of the rocket are very important. For example, what would
happen if the rocket were launched vertically and quickly achieved a
speed of 8 km/s? Everyone had better get out of the way, because it
would soon come crashing back at 8 km/s. To achieve orbit, the pay-
load must be launched horizontally at 8 km/s once above air resis-
tance. Launched vertically, the old saying “What goes up must come
down” becomes a sad fact of life.
But isn't there some vertical speed that is sufficient to ensure
that what goes up will escape and not come down? The answer is
yes. Neglecting air resistance, fire anything at any speed greater than
11.2 km/s, and it will leave Earth, going more and more slowly, but
never stopping.* Let's look at this from an energy point of view.
How much work is required to move a payload against the force
of Earth’s gravity to a distance very, very far (“infinitely far”) away?
We might think that the PE would be infinite because the distance is
infinite. But gravity diminishes rapidly with distance via the inverse-
square law. The force of gravity is strong only when close to Earth.
Most of the work done in launching a rocket, for example, occurs
near Earth. It turns out that the value of PE for a 1-kilogram mass
infinitely far away is 62 million joules (MJ). So to put a payload infi-
nitely far from Earth’s surface requires at least 62 MJ of energy per
kilogram of load. We won't go through the calculation here, but a KE
per unit mass of 62 MJ/kg corresponds to a speed of 11.2 km/s. This
is the value of the escape speed from the surface of Earth.** Figure 14.13 A
If we give a payload any more energy than 62 MJ/kg at the sur- The initial thrust of the rocket
face of Earth or, equivalently, any greater speed than 11.2 km/s, then, lifts it vertically. Another thrust
neglecting air resistance, the payload will escape from Earth never to tips it from its vertical course.
return. As it continues outward, its PE increases and its KE decreases. When it is moving horizontally, it
Its speed becomes less and less, though it is never reduced to zero. is boosted to the required speed
The payload outruns the gravity of Earth. It escapes. for orbit.
The escape speeds of various bodies in the solar system are shown
in Table 14.1. Note that the escape speed from the sun is 620 km/s at
the surface of the sun. Even at a distance equaling that of Earth's orbit,
the escape speed from the sun is 42.2 km/s. The escape speed values
in the table ignore the forces exerted by other bodies. A projectile fired
from Earth at 11.2 km/s, for example, escapes Earth but not necessar-
ily the moon, and certainly not the sun. Rather than recede forever, it
will take up an orbit around the sun.

* In later physics courses you will learn how the value of escape speed v, from any
planet or any body, is given by v= V2GM/d, where Gis the universal gravitational
constant, M is the mass of the attracting body, and d is the distance from its
center. (At the surface of the body d would simply be the radius of the body.)

** Interestingly enough, this might well be called the maximum falling speed. Any object,
however far from Earth, released and allowed to fall to Earth only under the influence
of Earth’s gravity would not exceed 11.2 km/s. (With air friction, it would be less.)

207
Figure 14.14 >
Pioneer 10, launched from Earth
in 1972, escaped from the solar
system in 1984 and is wandering
in interstellar space.

The first probe to escape the solar system, Pioneer 10, was
launched from Earth in 1972 with a speed of only 15 km/s. The escape
was accomplished by directing the probe into the path of oncoming
Jupiter. It was whipped about by Jupiter’s great gravitational field,
picking up speed in the process—just as the speed of a ball encoun-
tering an oncoming bat is increased when it departs from the bat. Its
speed of departure from Jupiter was increased enough to exceed the
sun's escape speed at the distance of Jupiter. Pioneer 10 passed the
orbit of Pluto in 1984. Unless it collides with another body, it will con-
tinue indefinitely through interstellar space. Like a note in a bottle
cast into the sea, Pioneer 10 contains information about Earth that
might be of interest to extraterrestrials, in hopes that it will one day
wash up and be found on some distant “seashore.”
It is important to point out that the escape speeds for different
bodies refer to the initial speed given by a brief thrust, after which
there is no force to assist motion. But we could escape Earth at any
sustained speed greater than zero, given enough time. Suppose a

Table 14.1 Escape Speeds at the Surface of Bodies

in the Solar System

Ratrouoniloal 7 Mose ads Eecape Speed

Body (Earth masses) - (Earth radii) (km/s)
Bun 0 tO
Sun (at a distance - = Be - ee . &
of Earth's orbit) 333000 23 500 e Yio)
Jupiter 38 a 60.2
‘Satu’ = = ona ae
Neptune > As 3.47
Uranus oe 45 37
Bath a | 5100 0d
Venus - 062 005 =
Mars es : Oi. 0.53 :
Mercury — ae 20.056: 0.38 : aS
~Moon oe 00193 O27

208 Chapter 14 _ Satellite Motion

 orbit, dish antennas on the equator may tilt
ae into space to carry television east or west, but they don’t tilt north or south.
eon or telephone conversations travel in An equatorial dish right under a communica-
straight lines. In times tions satellite is looking
past these straight-line straight up. If it held
(often called line-of- water, it would resem-
sight) communications ble a birdbath filled to
required tall receiving the brim. Antennas
antenna towers and sig- north of the equator
nal-boosting relay sta- must be tilted to the
tions on high buildings south (and perhaps
or mountains. Today east or west, too).
many television and Those south of the
telephone signals equator must be tilted
bounce to us from satellites. These communi- to the north, and likely east or west as well.
cations satellites are in equatorial orbits with Unless you live on the equator, all of the
24-hour periods. Because they revolve once antennas that you see look like partly emptied
each time Earth rotates once, they appear sta- bowls. In Antarctica or near the North Pole, a
tionary when we look up at them. dish antenna is tipped so far over that it could
Dish-shaped antennas almost anywhere hold no water at all.
on Earth are on a line of sight from one or Critical Thinking Explain why it is not
more communications satellites. Because possible for a single communications satel-
communications satellites are in equatorial lite to serve all parts of Earth.

rocket is going to a destination such as the moon. If the rocket engines

burn out while still close to Earth, the rocket will need a minimum
speed of 11.2 km/s. But if the rocket engines can be sustained for long
periods of time, the rocket could go to the moon without ever attaining
11.2 km/s.
It is interesting to note that the accuracy with which an unpiloted
rocket reaches its destination is accomplished not by staying on a pre-
planned path, or by getting back on that path if it strays off course. No
attempt is made to return the rocket to its planned path. Instead, by
communication with the control center, the rocket in effect asks,
“Where am I now, and where do I want to go? What is the best way to
get there from here, given my present situation?” With the aid of high-
speed computers, the answers to these questions are used to find a
new path. Corrective thrusters put the rocket on this new path. This
process is repeated continuously along the way until the rocket
reaches its destination.
1 Explore
Is there a lesson to be learned here? Suppose you find that you are
“off course.” You may, like the rocket, find it more fruitful to take a 3 Problem-Solving
course that leads to your goal as best plotted from your present position Exercises in A
and circumstances, rather than try to get back on the course you plotted Physics 7-3
from a previous position and in, perhaps, different circumstances.
 Chapter Assessment

2. What do the distances 8000 m and 5 m have

For: Study and Review to do with a line tangent to Earth’s surface?
(G
Go @nline Visit: PHSchool.com (14.1)
HSchool.com Wat Code: csd-1140 . How does the direction of motion of a satel-
lite in circular orbit compare with the curve
of Earth’s surface? (14.2)

Concept Summary . Why doesn’t gravitational force change the

speed of a satellite in circular orbit? (14.2)
An Earth satellite is a projectile that moves fast
enough tangentially that it falls around Earth . Does the period of a satellite in a circular
rather than into it. orbit increase or decrease as its distance from
Earth increases?
m The speed ofa satellite in a circular orbit is
not changed by gravity. . Describe an ellipse. (14.3)
m The speed of a satellite in an elliptical orbit 7. Why does gravitational force change the
decreases as it recedes from Earth and speed of a satellite in elliptical orbit? (14.4)
increases as it approaches Earth.
. a. Where in an elliptical orbit is the speed of a
m Thesum ofthe kinetic and potential energies satellite maximum?
is constant in any orbit.
b. Where is it minimum? (14.4)
m Ifan object is launched from Earth at a speed
. The sum of PE and KE for a satellite in a cir-
exceeding 11.2 km/s, or equivalently, with
cular orbit is constant. Is this sum also con-
more than 62 MJ of kinetic energy per kilo-
stant for a satellite in an elliptical orbit? (14.4)
gram of mass, it will escape Earth (overlook-
ing the effect of air resistance). 10. Why does the force of gravity do no work on a
satellite in circular orbit, but does do work on
a satellite in an elliptical orbit? (14.4)

Key Terms 11. Neglecting air resistance, what will happen to

a projectile that is fired vertically at 8 km/s? At
apogee (14.4) focus (pl. foci) (14.3) 12 km/s? (14.5)
ellipse (14.3) perigee (14.4)
12. a. How fast would a particle have to be
escape speed (14.5) period (14.2)
ejected from the sun to leave the solar
system?
b. What speed would be needed if an ejected
Review Questions Check Concepts particle started at a distance from the sun
1. If we drop a ball from rest, how far will it fall equal to Earth’s distance from the sun? (14.5)
vertically in the first second? If we instead 13. What is the escape speed on the moon? (14.5)
move our hand horizontally and drop it
14. Although the escape speed from the surface
(throw it), how far will it fall vertically in the
first second? (14.1) of Earth is 11.2 km/s, couldn't a rocket with
enough fuel escape at any speed? Why
or why not? (14.5)

210 Chapter14 Satellite Motion

 ee BE
ahs If Earth somehow acquired more mass,
Think and Explain Think Critically with no change in its radius, would escape
speed be less than, equal to, or more than
15. A satellite can orbit at 5 km above the moon, 11.2 km/s? Why?
but not at 5 km above Earth. Why?
16. Does the speed of a satellite around Earth . This question reviews several concepts of
depend on its mass? Its distance from Earth? mechanics. A satellite travels the elliptical
The mass of Earth? path shown below. At which of the indicated
positions A through D does the satellite expe-
17. If a cannonball is fired from a tall mountain, rience the maximum (a) gravitational force?
gravity changes its speed all along its trajec- (b) speed? (c) velocity? (d) momentum?
tory. But if it is fired fast enough to go into (e) kinetic energy? (f) gravitational potential
circular orbit, gravity does not change its energy? (g) total energy? (h) acceleration?
speed at all. Why? (i) angular momentum?
18. Does gravity do any net work on a satellite in 6
an elliptical orbit during one full orbit?
Explain your answer.
19. If you stopped an Earth satellite dead in its
tracks, it would simply crash into Earth. Why,
A e,
then, don't the communications satellites
that “hover motionless” above the same spot
on Earth crash into Earth?
20. Would you expect the speed of a satellite in D
close circular orbit about the moon to be less
than, equal to, or greater than 8 km/s? Why?
21. Why do you suppose that sites close to the Think and Solve
equator are preferred for launching satellites? Develop Problem-Solving Skills
(Hint: Look at the spinning Earth from above
29. Calculate the speed in m/s at which Earth
either pole and compare it to a spinning
revolves around the sun. Note: The orbit is
turntable.)
nearly circular.
22. Why do you suppose that a space shuttle is
. Calculate the speed in m/s at which the moon
sent into orbit by firing it in an easterly direc-
revolves around Earth. Note: The orbit is
tion (the direction in which Earth spins)?
nearly circular.
23. If an astronaut in an orbiting space shuttle
. Escape speed at a distance d from the center
wished to drop something to Earth, how
of a body of mass M is
could this be accomplished?
24. Why does most of the work done in launch- y=
escape
[2GM
d
ing a rocket take place when the rocket is still
close to Earth’s surface? Calculate the escape speed from the
moon's surface (moon radius = 1.74 x 10° m,
25. What is the maximum possible speed of
moon mass = 7.35 x 1072 kg). Check your
impact upon Earth's surface for a far-away
answer with Table 14.1.
object initially at rest that falls to Earth due
only to Earth's gravity?
26. If Pluto were somehow stopped short in its
orbit, it would fall into the sun rather than
around it. About how fast would it be moving
when it hit the sun?
 Special
Relativity—
Space and Time

veryone knows that we move in time, at

the rate of 24 hours per day. And everyone
knows that we can move through space, at
rates ranging from a snail’s pace to those of super-
sonic aircraft and space shuttles. But relatively few
people know that motion through space is related
# to motion in time.
Space and time are related. The first person to understand the relationship between space
and time was Albert Einstein.* Einstein went beyond common sense
when he stated in 1905 that in moving through space we also change
our rate of proceeding into the future—time itself is altered. This
view was introduced to the world in his special theory of relativity.
This theory describes how time is affected by motion in space at
constant velocity, and how mass and energy are related. Ten years
later Einstein announced a similar theory, called the general theory
of relativity, which encompasses accelerated motion as well. These
theories have enormously changed the way scientists view the work-
ings of the universe. This book discusses only the special theory and
leaves the general theory for follow-up study later in your education.
This chapter will serve merely to acquaint you with the basic
ideas of special relativity as they relate to space and time. Chapter 16
will continue with the relationship between mass and energy. These
ideas, for the most part, are not common to your everyday experi-
ence. As a result, they don't agree with common sense. So please be
patient with yourself if you find that you do not understand them.
Perhaps your children or grandchildren will find them very much a
part of their everyday experience. If so, they should find an under-
standing of relativity considerably less difficult.

* The concerns of Albert Einstein (1879-1955) were not limited to physics. As a German
citizen in Nazi Germany he spoke out against Hitler's racial and political policies, which
prompted his resignation from the University of Berlin. He fled Germany in 1933 and
became an American citizen in 1940.

Chapter 15 Special Relativity—Space and Time

VENETIAN Sk a ed
15.1 Space-Time
Newton and other investigators before Einstein thought of space as
an infinite expanse in which all things exist. We are in space, and we
move about in space. It was never clear whether the universe exists
in space, or space exists within the universe. Is there space outside
the universe? Or is space only within the universe? The same ques-
tion could be raised for time. Does the universe exist in time, or
does time exist only within the universe? Was there time before the
universe came to be? Will there be time if and when the universe
ceases to exist? Einstein’s answer to these questions is that both
space and time exist only within the universe. There is no time or
space “outside.”

< Figure 15.1

The universe does not exist in
a certain part of infinite space,
nor does it exist during a certain
era in time. It is the other way
around: space and time exist
within the universe.

Einstein reasoned that space and time are two parts of one
whole called space-time. To begin to understand this, consider your
present knowledge that you are moving through time at the rate of
24 hours per day. This is only half the story. To get the other half,
convert your thinking from “moving through time” to “moving
through space-time.” From the viewpoint of special relativity, you
travel through a combination of space and time. You travel through
space-time. When you stand still, then all your traveling is through
time. When you move a bit, then some of your travel is through
space and most of it is still through time. If you were somehow able
to travel through space at the speed of light, what changes would
213
 you experience in time? The answer is that all your traveling would
be through space, with no travel through time! You would be as age-
less as light, for light travels through space only (not time) and is
timeless. From the frame of reference of a photon traveling from one
part of the universe to another, the journey takes no time at all!
Motion in space affects motion in time. Whenever we move
through space, we to some degree alter our rate of moving into the
future. This is time dilation, a stretching of time that occurs ever so
slightly for everyday speeds, but significantly for speeds approaching
the speed of light. If spacecraft of the future reach sufficient speed,
people will be able to travel noticeably in time. They will be able to
jump centuries ahead, just as today people can jump from Earth to
Figure 15.2 A the moon. To understand time dilation and how this can be, you first
When you stand still, you are
need to understand several ideas: the relativity of motion and the
traveling at the maximum rate in
fundamental assumptions (postulates) of special relativity.
time: 24 hours per day. If you
traveled at the maximum rate
through space (the speed of
light), time would stand still. i 3s 2S
15.2 Motion Is Relative
Recall from Chapter 2 that whenever we discuss motion, we must
specify the position from which the motion is being observed and
measured. For example, you may walk along the aisle of a moving
bus at a speed of 1 km/h relative to your seat, but at 100 km/h rela-
tive to the road outside. Speed is a relative quantity. Its value
depends upon the place—the frame of reference—where it is
observed and measured. An object may have different speeds rela-
tive to different frames of reference.
Suppose your friend always pitches a baseball at the same speed
of 60 km/h. Neglecting air resistance and other small effects, the ball
is moving at 60 km/h when you catch it. Now suppose your friend
pitches the ball to you from the flatbed of a truck that moves toward
you at 40 km/h. How fast does the ball meet you? You'll have to be
sure to wear a Catcher's mitt, because the speed of the ball will be
Figure 15.3 A 100 km/h (the 60 km/h relative to the truck plus the 40 km/h relative
The bag of groceries has an to the ground). Speed is relative.
appreciable speed in the frame
of reference of the building, but
in the frame of reference of the
freely falling elevator it has no
speed at all.

Figure 15.4 A
Your speed is 1 km/h relative to your seat, and 100 km/h relative to the road.

214 Chapter 15 Special Relativity—Space and Time

 <4 Figure 15.5
The ball is always pitched at
60 km/h relative to the truck.
(a) When both you and the truck
are at relative rest the ball is
traveling at 60 km/h when you
catch it. (b) When the truck
moves toward you at 40 km/h,
the ball is traveling at 100 km/h
when you catch it. (c) When the
truck moves away from you at
the same speed, the ball is travel-
ing at 20 km/h when you catch it.

TRUCK MOVES AWAY FROM YOU

Suppose the truck moves away from you at 40 km/h and your
friend again pitches the ball to you. This time you will need no glove
at all, for the ball will reach you at a speed of 20 km/h (since 60 km/h
minus 40 km/h is 20 km/h). This is not surprising, for you expect that
the ball will be traveling faster when the truck approaches you and
that the ball will be traveling more slowly when the truck recedes.
The idea that speed is a relative quantity goes back to Galileo
and was known long before the time of Einstein. As you will learn in
this chapter, Einstein expanded the relativity of speed to include the
relativity of things that seem unchangeable.

SE eres FE EE
15.3 The Speed of Light Is Constant
Suppose you actually caught baseballs thrown off a moving truck out
in a parking lot and found that no matter what the speed or direc-
tion of the truck, the ball always got to you at only one speed—
60 km/h. That is to say, if the truck zoomed toward you at 50 km/h
and your friend pitched the ball at his speed of 60 km/h, you would
catch the ball with the same speed as if the truck were not moving at
all. Furthermore, if the truck moved away from you at whatever
speed, the ball would still get to you at 60 km/h. This all seems quite
impossible, for it is contrary to common experience. And if you did
experience this, you would have to reevaluate your whole notion of
reality. To put it mildly, you would be quite confused.
Baseballs do not behave this way. But it turns out that light does!
Every measurement of the speed of light in empty space gives the

215
 same value of 300 000 km/s, regardless of the speed of the source or
the speed of the receiver.* We do not ordinarily notice this because
light travels so incredibly fast.
The fact that light has only one speed in empty space was dis-
covered at the end of the last century.** Light from an approaching
source reaches an observer at the same speed as light from a reced-
ing source. And the speed of light is the same whether we move
toward or away from a light source. How did the physics community
regard this finding? They were as perplexed as you would be if you
caught baseballs at only one speed no matter how they were thrown.
Experiments were done and redone, and always the results were the
same. Nothing could vary the speed of light. Various interpretations
were proposed, but none were satisfactory. The foundations of
physics were on shaky ground.
Albert Einstein looked at the speed of light in terms of the defini-
tion of speed. What is speed? It is the amount of space traveled com-
pared to the time of travel. Einstein recognized that the classical
ideas of space and time were suspect. He concluded that space and
Figure 15.6 A
The speed of light is found
time were a part of a single entity—space-time. The constancy of the
to be the same in all frames speed of light, Einstein reasoned, unifies space and time.
of reference. The special theory of relativity that Einstein developed rests on
two fundamental assumptions, or postulates.

15.4 The First Postulate

of Special Relativity
Einstein reasoned that there is no stationary hitching post in the
universe relative to which motion should be measured. Instead, all
motion is relative and all frames of reference are arbitrary. A space-
ship cannot measure its speed relative to empty space, but only
relative to other objects. If, for example, spaceship A drifts past
spaceship B in empty space, spaceman A and spacewoman B will
each observe only the relative motion. From this observation each
will be unable to determine who is moving and who is at rest, if
either.

* The presently accepted value for the speed of light is 299 792 km/s, which we round off
to 300 000 km/s. This corresponds to 186 000 mi/s.

* *
In 1887 two American physicists, A. A. Michelson and E. W. Morley, performed an
experiment to determine differences in the speed of light in different directions. They
thought that the motion of Earth in its orbit about the sun would cause shifts in the
speed of light. They thought that the speed of light should have been faster when it was
going in the direction Earth was moving and slower when it was going opposite to the
direction Earth was moving. Using a device called an interferometer, they found that the
speed seemed to be the same in all directions. For Michelson’s many experiments on
the speed of light, he was the first American honored with a Nobel Prize.

Chapter 15 Special Relativity—Space and Time

 Vy
i
liu
|

Figure 15.7 A
Spaceman A considers himself at rest and sees spacewoman B pass by. But
spacewoman B considers herself at rest and sees spaceman A pass by. Who
is moving and who is at rest?

This is a familiar experience to a passenger in a car at rest wait-

ing for the traffic light to change. If you look out the window and see
the car in the next lane begin moving backward, you may be sur-
prised to find that the car you're observing is really at rest—your car
is moving forward. If you could not see out the windows, there
would be no way to determine whether your car was moving with
constant velocity or was at rest.
In a high-speed jetliner we flip a coin and catch it just as we
would if the plane were at rest. Coffee pours from the flight atten-
dant’s coffee pot as it does when the plane is standing on the run-
way. If we swing a pendulum, it will move no differently when the
plane is moving uniformly (constant velocity) than when not moving
at all. There is no physical experiment we can perform to determine
our state of uniform motion. Of course, we can look outside and see Figure 15.8 A
Earth whizzing by, or send a radar signal out. However, no experi- A person playing pool ona
ment confined within the cabin itself can determine whether or not smooth and fast-moving ocean
there is uniform motion. The laws of physics within the uniformly liner does not have to make
moving cabin are the same as those in a stationary laboratory. adjustments to compensate for
These examples illustrate one of the two building blocks of spe- the speed of the ship. The laws
of physics are the same for the
cial relativity. It is Einstein's first postulate of special relativity:
ship whether it is moving uni-
All the laws of nature are the same in all uniformly formly or is at rest.
moving frames of reference.
Any number of experiments can be devised to detect accelerated
motion, but none can be devised, according to Einstein, to detect
the state of uniform motion.

15.5 The Second Postulate

of Special Relativity
One of the questions that Einstein as a youth asked himself was,
“What would a light beam look like ifyou traveled along beside
it?” According to classical physics, the beam would be at rest to
such an observer. The more Einstein thought about this, the more

217
 convinced he became of its impossibility. He came to the conclusion
that ifan observer could travel close to the speed of light, he would
measure the light as moving away from him at 300 000 km/s.
This is the idea that makes up Einstein's second postulate of
special relativity: -
The speed of light in empty space will always have the
same value regardless of the motion of the source or
the motion of the observer.
The speed of light in all reference frames is always the same.
Consider, for example, a spaceship departing from the space station
shown in Figure 15.9. A flash of light is emitted from the station at
300 000 km/s—a speed we'll simply call c. No matter what the speed
of the spaceship relative to the space station is, an observer on the
spaceship will measure the speed of the flash of light passing her as
c. If she sends a flash of her own to the space station, observers on
the station will measure the speed of these flashes as c. The speed of
the flashes will be no different if the spaceship stops or turns around
and approaches. All observers who measure the speed of light will
find it has the same value, c.

Figure 15.9 >

The speed of a light flash emit-
ted by either the spaceship or
the space station is measured as
c by observers on the ship or
the space station. Everyone who
measures the speed of light will
get the same value c.

The constancy of the speed of light is what unifies space and

time. And for any observation of motion through space, there is a
corresponding passage of time. The ratio of space to time for light is
the same for all who measure it. The speed of light is a constant.

Time TRE =
SCACED Or Ap
G
IRS
38S
Figure 15.10 A
All space and time measure- 15.6 Time Dilation
ments of light are unified by c.
Pretend you are in a spaceship at rest in a part of your “hometown”
where a large public clock is displayed. Suppose the clock reads “12
noon.” To say it reads “12 noon” is to say that light reflects from the
clock and carries the information “12 noon” toward you in the direc-
tion of your line of sight. If you suddenly move your head to the side,
instead of meeting your eye, the light carrying the information will
continue past, presumably out into space. Out there an observer who
later receives the light could say, “Oh, it’s 12 noon on Earth now.” But
from your point of view it isn’t. You and the distant observer will see
12 noon at different times. Now suppose your spaceship is moving as
fast as the speed of light (just pretending). Then you'd keep up with
the clock’s information that says “12 noon.” Traveling at the speed of
light, then, tells you its always 12 noon back home. Time at home is

218 Chapter15 — Special Relativity—Space and Time

frozen! So if your spaceship is not moving, you will see the home-
town clock move into the future at the rate of 60 seconds per minute;
if you could move at the speed of light, you'd see seconds on the
clock taking infinite time. These are the two extremes. What's in
between? How would the time readings appear to you moving at less
than the speed of light? A little thought will show that the clock will
be seen to run somewhere between the rate 60 seconds per minute
and 60 seconds per an infinity of time if your speed is between zero MIRROR
and the speed of light. From your high-speed (but less than c) mov-
ing frame of reference, the clock and all events in the reference
frame of the clock will be seen in slow motion. Time will be
stretched. How much depends on speed. This is time dilation. wel GrH i
Special relativity turns around some of our conceptions about
the world. We agree that speed is relative, that it depends on the
FLASH
speeds of the source and the observer. Yet, one speed, the speed of
light, is absolute—independent of the speeds of the source or
observer. Time, on the other hand, is usually thought of as absolute.
It seems to pass at the same rate regardless of what is happening.
Yet, our imaginary spaceship experience shows this is not true.
Einstein proposed that time depends on the motion between the __ MIRROR
observer and the events being observed.
We measure time with a clock. A clock can be any device that
measures periodic intervals, such as the swings of a pendulum, the Figure 15.11 A
oscillations of a balance wheel, or the vibrations of a quartz crystal. A stationary light clock. Light
We are going to consider a “light clock,” a rather impractical device, bounces between parallel mir-
but one that will help to describe time dilation. rors and “ticks off” equal inter-
Imagine an empty tube with a mirror at each end (Figure 15.11). VS OTe.
A flash of light bounces back and forth between the parallel mirrors.
The mirrors are perfect reflectors, so the flash bounces indefinitely. If
the tube is 300 000 km in length, each bounce will take 1 s in the
frame of reference of the light clock. If the tube is 3 km long, each
bounce will take 0.00001 s.
Suppose we view the light clock as it whizzes past us in a high-
speed spaceship (Figure 15.12). We see the light flash bouncing up
and down along a longer diagonal path.

Figure 15.12 A
moving
(a) An observer moving with the spaceship observes the light flash
vertically between the mirrors of the light clock. (b) An observer who is
the flash moving along a diagonal path.
passed by the moving ship observes
 But remember the second postulate of relativity: The speed will
be measured by any observer as c. Since the speed of light will not
increase, we must measure more time between bounces! For us,
looking in from the outside, one tick of the light clock takes longer
than it takes for occupants of the spaceship. The spaceship’s clock,
according to our observations, has slowed down—although, for
occupants of the spaceship, it has not slowed at all!

Figure 15.13 P&

The longer distance taken by the
light flash in following the diag-
onal path must be divided by a
correspondingly longer time
interval to yield an unvarying
value for the speed of light.

supmseregs AUP eth 1S TA Nile E

ela Vie ilies}
ME
The slowing of time is not peculiar to the light clock. It is time
itself in the moving frame of reference, as viewed from our frame
of reference, that slows. The heartbeats of the spaceship occupants
will have a slower rhythm. All events on the moving ship will be
observed by us as slower. We say that time is “dilated.”
How do the occupants on the spaceship view their own time? Do
they perceive themselves moving in slow motion? Do they experi-
ence longer lives as a result of time dilation? As it turns out, they
notice none of these things. Time for them is the same as when they
do not appear to us to be moving at all. Recall Einstein’s first postu-
late: All laws of nature are the same in all uniformly moving frames
of reference. There is no way the spaceship occupants can tell uni-
form motion from rest. They have no clues that events on board are
seen to be dilated when viewed from other frames of reference.
How do occupants on the spaceship view our time? Do they see
our time as speeded up? The answer is no—motion is relative, and

|
' PATH OF LIGHT AS SEEN
| FROM A POSITION OF REST
wie
'
i}
|
i Cle
1
|
'
ee oo ee |

MIRRORS AT MIRRORS AT MIRRORS AT

POSITION 1 POSITION 2 POSITION 3

Figure 15.14 A
Mathematical detail of Figure 15.13.

220 Chapter15 — Special Relativity—Space and Time

 The Time Dilation Equation*

\Ae7@ Figure 15.14 shows three successive positions of the light

clock as it moves to the right at constant speed v. The
diagonal lines represent the path of the light flash as it starts
from the lower mirror at position 1, moves to the upper mirror
at position 2, and then back to the lower mirror at position 3.
The symbol t, represents the time it takes for the flash to
move between the mirrors as measured from a frame of refer-
ence fixed to the light clock. This is the time for straight up or
down motion. Since the speed of light is always c, the light flash
is observed to move a vertical distance ct, in the frame of refer-
ence of the light clock. This is the distance between mirrors and
is at right angles to the horizontal motion of the light clock. This
vertical distance is the same in both reference frames.
The symbol trepresents the time it takes the flash to move
from one mirror to the other as measured from a frame of refer-
ence in which the light clock moves to the right with speed v.
Since the speed of the flash is c and the time to go from position
1 to position 2 is f, the diagonal distance traveled is ct. During
this time ¢, the clock (which travels horizontally at speed v)
moves a horizontal distance vt from position 1 to position 2.
These three distances make up a right triangle in the figure, in
which ctis the hypotenuse, and ct, and vt are legs. A well-known
theorem of geometry (the Pythagorean theorem) states that the
square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of
the other two sides. If we apply this to the figure, we obtain

(cf)? = (ct,)? + (vo?

(cf)?- (vt)? = (ct,)?

t2(1 —(v2/c2)] = t,2
are f°
1 —(v2/c?)

E(@)
t =
V1 —(v2/C?)

* The mathematical derivation of this equation for time dilation is included here
mainly to show that it involves only a bit of geometry and elementary algebra. It
is not expected that you master it! (If you take a follow-up physics course, you
can master it then.)

TE

221
1 Explore
B@ Questions
3 Problem-Solving
E 3 é
ye
iN
1. Does time dilation mean that time really passes more slowly in
xercises in moving systems or that it only seems to pass more slowly?
Physics 8-7
2. If you were moving in a spaceship at a high speed relative to
Earth, would you notice a difference in your pulse rate? In the
pulse rate of the people back on Earth?
3. Will observers A and B agree on measurements of time if A
moves at half the speed of light relative to B? If both A and B
move together at 0.5c relative to Earth?

from their frame of reference it appears that we are the ones who are
moving. They see our time running slow, just as we see their time
running slow. Is there a contradiction here? Not at all. It is physically
impossible for observers in different frames of reference to refer to
one and the same realm of space-time. The measurements in one
frame of reference need not agree with the measurements made in
another reference frame. There is only one measurement they will
always agree on: the speed of light.

CN Te FMS ORS EE EEA, RAS IRI an LT

15.7 The Twin Trip
A dramatic illustration of time dilation is afforded by identical twins,
one an astronaut who takes a high-speed round-trip journey while
the other stays home on Earth. When the traveling twin returns, he is
younger than the stay-at-home twin. How much younger depends
on the relative speeds involved. If the traveling twin maintains a
4c W2e 43/4c OC
speed of 50% the speed of light for one year (according to clocks
aboard the spaceship), 1.15 years will have elapsed on Earth. If the
Speed
traveling twin maintains a speed of 87% the speed of light for a year,
then 2 years will have elapsed on Earth. At 99.5% the speed of light,
Figure 15.15 A
The graph shows how 1 second
on a stationary clock is stretched
out, as measured on a moving B® Answers
clock. Note that the stretching
1. The slowing of time in moving systems is not merely an illusion resulting from motion.
becomes significant only at
Time really does pass more slowly in a moving system compared with one at relative
speeds near the speed of light.
rest, as we Shall see in the next section. Read on!

2. There would be no relative speed between you and your own pulse, so no relativistic
effects would be noticed. There would be a relativistic effect between you and people
back on Earth. You would find their pulse rate slower than normal (and they would find
your pulse rate slower than normal). Relativity effects are always attributed to “the
other guy.”
3. When A and B have different motions relative to each other, each will observe a slow-
ing of time in the frame of reference of the other. So they will not agree on measure-
ments of time. When they are moving in unison, they share the same frame of
reference and will agree on measurements of time. They will see each other's time as
passing normally, and each one will see events on Earth in the same slow motion.

222 Chapter 15 Special Relativity—Space and Time

 < Figure 15.16
The traveling twin does not age
as fast as the stay-at-home twin.

10 Earth years would pass in one spaceship year. At this speed the
traveling twin would age a single year while the stay-at-home twin
ages 10 years.
The question arises, since motion is relative, why isn’t it just as
well the other way around—why wouldn't the traveling twin return
to find his stay-at-home twin younger than himself? We will show
that from the frames of reference of both the Earthbound twin and
the traveling twin, it is the Earthbound twin who ages more.

eae ss \ \ \ \ ‘ \

\ \ yi \ , :
7 ~ >ROCKET SHIP AT REST iSins 54 andes
{RELATIVE TO EARTH) idghovsutent-A3h We
\
pas
es y)
i
ae ricien Pair F Ip sy Poe eR
,
!
'
!
; !
We

Bee ENDO FLAG EVER 1 | SEES FLASH

Ve WINGTES Oh) rt EVERY
Vy e / mT ES NINOTES Oe:
cnt bag ed eae / os / / I
/ / é /

Figure 15.17 A
When no motion is involved, the light flashes are received as frequently as
the spaceship sends them.

First, consider a spaceship hovering at rest relative to a distant 1 Explore

planet. Suppose the spaceship sends regularly spaced brief flashes of
light to the planet (Figure 15.17). Some time will elapse before the 2 Concept-Development
flashes get to the planet, just as 8 minutes elapses before sunlight Practice Book 75-7
gets to Earth. The light flashes will encounter the receiver on the

223
 planet at speed c. Since there is no relative motion between the
sender and receiver, successive flashes will be received as frequently
as they are sent. For example, if a flash is sent from the ship every 6
minutes, then after some initial delay, the receiver will receive a flash
every 6 minutes. With no motion involved, there is nothing unusual
about this.
When motion is involved, the situation is quite different. It is
important to note that the speed of the flashes will still be c, no matter
how the ship or receiver may move. How frequently the flashes are
seen, however, very much depends on the relative motion involved.
When the ship travels toward the receiver, the receiver sees the
flashes more often—that is, more frequently. This happens not only
because time is altered due to motion, but mainly because each suc-
ceeding flash has less distance to travel as the ship gets closer to the
receiver. If the spaceship emits a flash every 6 minutes, the flashes
will be seen at intervals of less than 6 minutes. Suppose the ship is
traveling fast enough for the flashes to be seen twice as frequently.
Then they are seen at intervals of 3 minutes. Note in Figure 15.18 that
the flashes for approach are closer together and equally spaced.

i i x 2 ne My y \
Figure 15.18 >
When the sender moves toward
as Fig as a8, : \ i
;
the receiver, the flashes are M @ = - \ i. : \

seen more frequently.

! ! ; \ \ \ }
!
| | =i 8 4 RAM
: \ : =i) ! q Line sing
\ \ a Ch 71 We Ga) oe
\ SENDS FLASH EVERY |’ / SEES FLASH
. a 6 MINUTES’ EVERY
‘ =a highs avied ania ANNOTES
\ an % e ey Yi/ ,é
\

If the ship recedes from the receiver at the same speed and still
emits flashes at 6-min intervals, these flashes will be seen half as fre-
quently by the receiver, that is, at 12-min intervals (Figure 15.19).
This is mainly because each succeeding flash has a longer distance
to travel as the ship gets farther away from the receiver.
The effect of moving away is just the opposite of moving closer
to the receiver. So if the flashes are received twice as frequently when
the spaceship is approaching (6-min flash intervals are seen every 3
min), they are received half as frequently when it is receding (6-min
flash intervals are seen every 12 min).*

—_—_——————————————————— ees

* The frequencies for approach and for recession are reciprocals of each other. That is,
flashes that are seen 2 times as frequently for approach are seen 3 as frequently for
recession. If seen 3 times as frequently for approach, the flashes are seen 3 as fre-
quently for recession, and so on for higher speeds. This reciprocal relationship does
not hold for waves that require a medium. In the case of sound waves, for example,
a speed that results in a doubling of emitting frequency for approach produces the
emitting frequency for recession.

224 Chapter 15 Special Relativity—Space and Time

 <4 Figure 15.19
When the sender moves away
from the receiver, the flashes are
| i | /
spaced farther apart and are
(Sy j
ey seen less frequently.
| = # * #

SENDS FLASH EVERY

Laie \ bas ' )

6 MINUTES ~~ - / SEES FLASH

(EVERY
Ores _7 42 MINUTES
- ve ro tom 4es ae
\ SS 7

The light flashes make up a light clock, or timer. In the frame of

reference of the receiver, something like taking a bath or cooking
pancakes that takes 6 min in the spaceship, is seen to take 12 min
when the spaceship recedes, and only 3 min when the ship is
approaching.

®@ Questions Z
1. Here’s a simple arithmetic question: If a spaceship travels for
one hour and emits a flash every 6 min, how many flashes will
be emitted?
2. A spaceship sends equally spaced flashes while approaching a
receiver at constant speed. Will the flashes be equally spaced
when they encounter the receiver?
3. Aspaceship emits flashes every 6 min for one hour. If the
receiver sees these flashes at 3-min intervals, how much time
will occur between the first and the last flash (in the frame of
reference of the receiver)?

Let’s apply this doubling and halving of flash intervals to the

twins. Suppose the traveling twin recedes from the Earthbound
twin at the same high speed for one hour, and then quickly turns
around and returns in one hour. The traveling twin takes a round
trip of two hours, according to all clocks aboard the spaceship.
This trip will not be seen to take two hours from Earth’s frame of
reference, however. We can see this with the help of the flashes
from the ship’s light clock.

@ Answers

1. Ten flashes, since (60 min)/(6 min/flash) = 10 flashes.

2. Yes, as long as the ship moves at constant speed, the equally spaced flashes will be
seen equally spaced but more frequently. (If the ship accelerated while sending flashes,
then they would not be seen at equally spaced intervals.)
3. All 10 flashes will be seen in 30 min [(10 flashes) x (3 min/flash) = 30 min].
 |
Sah ~_ SENDS FLASH EVERY
\ \ . oe) 1 & MINUTES
SEES ‘FLASH EVERY |
{2 MINUTES 5 paler hee!
\ ->-- roe a
\ Sa =" ‘ 7 / dy ae

| | | : : / Z \ ’

|
! and
,’ 0- ~~.
STILL RECEIVING FLASHES AT 12-MINUTE or; inet \ \
| ¢ INTERVALS FROM RECEDING SHIP vce baa |
¥ ¥ ! \ an a a
' ime a- SBD Tee |
' SHIP ON WAY BACK - as ee |
; | STILL SENDING FLASH ; /
; EVERY 6 MINUTES, Ag /
\ \ \ anne /

tek, ve ri \ \ \

ates, te! STILL SENDING FLASH

oe EVERY 6 MINUTES ) !
\ : ss : : {

SEES. FLASHES FROM |

, APPROACHING SHIP 7 /
\ EVERY 3 MINUTES_- /
Figure 15.20 A
The spaceship emits flashes each 6 minutes during a two-hour trip. During
the first hour, it recedes from Earth. During the second hour, it approaches
Earth.

As the ship recedes from Earth, it emits a flash of light every

6 min. These flashes are received on Earth every 12 min. During the
hour of going away from Earth, a total of 10 flashes are emitted.
If the ship departs from Earth at noon, clocks aboard the ship will
read 1 p.m. when the tenth flash is emitted. What time will it be on
Earth when this tenth flash reaches Earth? The answer is 2 p.m. Why?
Because the time it takes Earth to receive 10 flashes at 12-min
intervals is (10 flashes) x (12 min/flash), or 120 min (= 2 h).
Suppose the spaceship is somehow able to suddenly turn
around in a negligibly short time and return at the same high speed.
During the hour of return it emits 10 more flashes at 6-min intervals.
These flashes are received every 3 min on Earth, so all 10 come in 30
min. A clock on Earth will read 2:30 p.m. when the spaceship com-
pletes its two-hour trip. We see that the Earthbound twin has aged a
half hour more than the twin aboard the spaceship!

226 Chapter15 Special Relativity—Space and Time

 if ‘ / 5 dae <q Figure 15.21
ip / / "EARTH FRAME OF REFERENCE: The trip that takes 2 hours in the
frame of reference of the space-
10 FLASHES @ 12 MIN = 120 MIN ship takes 2.5 hours in Earth’s
10 FLASHES @ 3 MIN = MIN
30 _ frame of reference.
150 MIN
2% HOURS
SPACESHIP FRAME OF REFERENCE:
= 20 FLASHES@ 6 MIN = 120 MIN
2
HOURS.

The result is the same from either frame of reference. Consider

the same trip again, only this time with flashes emitted from Earth
at regularly spaced 6-min intervals in Earth time. From the frame
of reference of the receding spaceship, these flashes are received at
12-min intervals (Figure 15.22a). This means that 5 flashes are seen
by the spaceship during the hour of receding from Earth. During the
spaceship’s hour of approaching, the light flashes are seen at 3-min
intervals (Figure 15.22b), so 20 flashes will be seen.

= : \ \ <q Figure 15.22

/ be mn A \ \ Flashes sent from Earth at 6-min
4 Re Or ENESENDSUEEASH EVERY 1 intervals are seen at 12-min inter-
Re SODA SEMINUTES } |
Wy
‘
in
|
vals by the ship when it recedes,
and at 3-min intervals when it

ah atti im approaches.

/ | |
yA / { /

_” SEES FLASH EVERY

42 MINUTES,
“a ve /
rae

7 N
¢ »s \ \ \

\ \ : \
»~~ ~ . SENDS FLASH EVERY \
4 \ 6 MINUTES ° \
l ]
poh eae
/ /
/ ‘
/ / ! /
/” SEES FLASH EVERY
“3, MINUTES,
a bi ri

227
 oe —=. EARTH FRAME OF REFERENCE:
/ . 25 FLASHES @ 6 MIN = 150 MIN
\ . ‘ 2% HOURS
ve: 3
ee ¥
| i]

‘SPACESHIP FRAME OF REFERENCE :

LINK TO TECHNOLOGY = ee. 5 FLASHES @ 12 MIN = 60 MIN
—S 60
, ZO FLASHES @ 3 MIN =MIN.
. i / ‘ 4120 MIN |
16 SP © 2 / 2 HOURS

Figure 15.23 A
A time interval of 2.5 hours on Earth is seen to be 2 hours in the spaceship’s
frame of reference.

Hence, the spaceship receives a total of 25 flashes during its

two-hour trip. According to clocks on Earth, however, the time
it took to emit the 25 flashes at 6-min intervals was (25 flashes) x
(6 min/flash), or 150 min (= 2.5 h). This is shown in Figure 15.23.
So both twins agree on the same results, with no dispute as to
who ages more than the other. While the stay-at-home twin remains
in a single reference frame, the traveling twin has experienced two
pinpoint positions on.
0
different frames of reference, separated by the acceleration of the
- Earth to within meters,
~ scientists and engineers = gl spaceship in turning around. The spaceship has in effect experi-
had to accommodate for— enced two different realms of time, while Earth has experienced a
relativistic time dilation. If still different but single realm of time. The twins can meet again at
they didn’t, GPS could not the same place in space only at the expense of time.
precisely locate positions
on Earth. Time dilation is
a fact of everyday life to RENN
Tec <2
scientists and engineers—
especially those who 15.8 Space and Time Travel
design equipment for
global navigation work.
Before the theory of special relativity was introduced, it was argued
that humans would never be able to venture to the stars. It was
thought that our life span is too short to cover such great distances—
at least for the distant stars. Alpha Centauri is the nearest star to
Earth, after the sun, and it is 4 light-years away.* It was therefore
thought that a round-trip even at the speed of light would require
8 years. The center of our galaxy is some 30 000 light-years away,
so it was reasoned that a person traveling even at the speed of light
would have to survive for 30 000 years to make such a voyage! But
these arguments fail to take into account time dilation. Time for a
person on Earth and time for a person in a high-speed spaceship
are not the same.

*
A light-year is the distance that light travels in one year (9.46 x 10'2 km).

228 Chapter15 —_ Special Relativity—Space and Time

 A person's heart beats to the rhythm of the realm of time it is in.
One realm of time seems the same as any other realm of time to the
person, but not to an observer who is located outside the person’s
frame of reference—for she sees the difference. As an example, astro-
nauts traveling at 99% the speed of light could go to the star Procyon
(11.4 light-years distant) and back in 23.0 years in Earth time. It would
take light itself 22.8 years in Earth time to make the same round trip.
Because of time dilation, it would seem that only 3 years had gone by
for the astronauts. All their clocks would indicate this, and biologically
they would be only 3 years older. It would be the space officials greet-
ing them on their return who would be 23 years older.
At higher speeds the results are even more impressive. At a speed
of 99.99% the speed of light, travelers could travel slightly more than
70 light-years in a single year of their own time. At 99.999% the
speed of light, this distance would be pushed appreciably farther
than 200 years. A 5-year trip for them would take them farther than
light travels in 1000 Earth-time years.
Such journeys seem impossible to us today. The amounts of Figure 15.24 A
energy involved to propel spaceships to such relativistic speeds are From Earth’s frame of reference,
billions of times the energy used to put the space shuttles into orbit. light takes 30 000 years to travel
The problems of shielding radiation induced by these high speeds from the center of the Milky Way
seems formidable. The practicalities of such space journeys are pro- galaxy to our solar system. From
the frame of reference of a high-
hibitive, so far.
speed spaceship, the trip takes
If and when these problems are overcome and space travel
less time. From the frame of ref-
becomes routine, people might have the option of taking a trip and erence of light itself, the trip takes
returning in future centuries of their choosing. For example, one might no time. There is no time ina
depart from Earth in a high-speed ship in the year 2150, travel for speed-of-light frame of reference.
5 years or so, and return in the year 2500. One might live among
Earthlings of that period for a while and depart again to try out the
year 3000 for style. People could keep jumping into the future with
some expense of their own time, but they could not trip into the past.
They could never return to the same era on Earth that they bid
farewell to.
Time, as we know it, travels only one way—forward. Here on
Earth we constantly move into the future at the steady rate of
24 hours per day. An astronaut leaving on a deep-space voyage
must live with the fact that, upon her return, much more time
will have elapsed on Earth than she has experienced on her voyage.
Star travelers will not bid “so long, see you later” to those they leave
behind but, rather, a permanent “good-bye.”
We can see into the past, but we cannot go into the past. When
we look at stars in the night skies, the starlight we see left those stars
dozens, hundreds, even millions of years ago. What we see is the
stars as they were long ago. We are thus eyewitnesses to ancient his-
tory. We can only speculate about what may have happened to the
stars since then.
When we think of time and the universe, we may wonder what
went on before the universe began. We wonder what will happen if
the universe ceases to exist in time. But the concept of time applies
to events within the universe. Time is “in” the universe; the universe
is not “in” time. Without the universe, there is no time; no before, no
after. Likewise, space is “in” the universe; the universe is not ein. a
region of space. There is no space “outside” the universe. We see that
space-time exists within the universe. Think about that!
229
 Chapter Assessment

. Does light travel through space? Through

For: Study and Review time? Through both space and time? (15.1)
(Go @nline Visit: PHSchool.com
. What is time dilation? (15.1)
HSchool.com Web Code: csd-1150
. What does it mean to say that motion is
relative? (15.2)

. The speed of a ball you catch that is thrown

Concept Summary from a moving truck depends on the speed
According to Einstein's special theory of relativity, and direction of the truck. Does the speed of
time is affected by motion in space at constant light caught from a moving source similarly
depend on the speed and direction of the
velocity.
source? Explain. (15.3)
m Time appears to pass more slowly in a frame
of reference that is moving relative to the . What does it mean to say that the speed of
observer. light is a constant? (15.3)

All the laws of nature are the same in all uni- . What is the first postulate of special relativity?
formly moving frames of reference. (15.4)

m= No experiment can be devised to detect . What is the second postulate of special

whether the observer is moving at constant relativity? (15.5)
velocity. 10. The ratio of velocity gain to time for a freely
The speed of light in empty space is the same in falling body is g. Similarly, what is the ratio of
all frames of reference. distance to time for light waves? (15.5)

m The speed of light has the same value regard- Li. The path of light in a vertical “light clock” ina
less of the motion of the source or the motion high-speed spaceship is seen to be longer
of the observer. when viewed from a stationary frame of refer-
ence. Why, then, does the light not appear to
be moving faster? (15.6)
12 . If we view a passing spaceship and see that
Key Terms the inhabitants’ time is running slow, how do
first postulate of special relativity (15.4) they see our time running? (15.6)
postulate (15.3) 13. When a flashing light source approaches you,
second postulate of special relativity (15.5) does the speed of light, or the frequency of
space-time (15.1) arrival of light flashes, or both, increase?
special theory of relativity (15.0) (15.7)
time dilation (15.1) 14. a. How many frames of reference does the
stay-at-home twin experience in the twin
trip?

Review Questions Check Concepts b. How many frames of reference does the
traveling twin experience? (15.7)
1. What is space-time? (15.1)
15. Is it possible for a person with a 70-year life
2. Can you travel while remaining in one place span to travel farther than light travels in 70
in space? Explain. (15.1) years? Explain. (15.8)

230 Chapter15 — Special Relativity—Space and Time

 22. Light travels a certain distance in, say, 10 000
Plug and Chug Use Equations years. Can an astronaut travel more slowly
than the speed of light and yet travel the
16. Ifa spaceship moves away from you at half the same distance in a 10-year trip? Explain.
speed of light and fires a rocket away from you
at half the speed of light relative to the space- 23. Can you get younger by traveling at speeds
ship, common sense may tell you the rocket near the speed of light? Explain.
moves at the speed of light relative to you. But 24. Explain why it is that when we look out into
it doesn't! The relativistic addition of velocities the universe, we see into the past.
(not covered in the chapter) is given by
25. One of the fads of the future might be “cen-
V, + VU»
tury hopping,” where occupants of high-
V= is Dva
speed spaceships would depart from Earth
for a few years and return centuries later.
Substitute 0.5c for both v, and v, and show What are the present-day obstacles to such
that the velocity V of the rocket relative to you a practice?
is 0.8c.
26. If you were in a high-speed spaceship travel-
17. If the spaceship of the previous question ing away from Earth at a speed close to that
somehow travels at c relative to you, and it of light, would you measure your normal
somehow fires its rocket at c relative to itself, pulse to be slower, the same, or faster? How
use the equation to show that the speed of would your measurements of pulses of
the rocket relative to you is still c! friends back on Earth be if you could monitor
18. Substitute small values of v, and v, in the them from your ship? Explain.
preceding equation and show for everyday 27. Is it possible for a person to be biologically
speeds that Vis practically equal to v, + vp. older than one’s parents? Explain.

Think and Explain Think Critically Think and Solve

19. If you were in a smooth-riding train with no Develop Problem-Solving Skills
windows, could you sense the difference 28. Jose and Josie are twins. Suppose Josie takes a
between uniform motion and rest? Between ride in a spaceship to a distant star some 4
accelerated motion and rest? Explain how you light-years distant, traveling at a constant
could do this with a bowl filled with water. speed of 0.8c. After arriving at the star Josie
20. Suppose you're playing catch with a friend in quickly turns around and immediately comes
a moving train. When you toss the ball in the back at the same speed.
direction the train is moving, how does the a. How much older is Jose when Josie returns?
speed of the ball appear to an observer stand-
ing at rest outside the train? (Does it increase b. How much older is Josie when she returns?
or appear the same as if the observer were c. Why isn’t the reverse true, that Josie is older
riding on the train?) than Jose?
21. Suppose you're shining a light while riding on 29. Joe Burpy is 30 years old and has a daughter
a train. When you shine the light in the direc- who is 6 years old. Joe leaves on a Greyhound
tion the train is moving, how would the speed space bus and takes a 5-year (space-bus time)
of light appear to an observer standing at rest round-trip at 0.99c. How old will he and his
outside the train? (Does it increase or appear daughter be when he returns?
the same as if the observer were riding with
the train?)

231
 Special Relativity
—Length,
Momentum, and
Energy
he speed of light is the speed limit for all
: matter. Suppose that two spaceships are
both traveling at nearly the speed of light
and they are moving directly toward each other.
The realms of space-time for each spaceship differ
in such a way that the relative speed of approach
Mass converts to energy and is still less than the speed of light! For example, if both spaceships
vice versa. are traveling toward each other at 80% the speed of light with respect
to Earth, an observer on each spaceship would measure the speed
of approach of the other spaceship as 98% the speed of light. There
are no circumstances where the relative speeds of any material
objects surpass the speed of light.
Why is the speed of light the universal speed limit? To under-
stand this, we must know how motion through space affects the
length, momentum, and energy of moving objects.

NNN
2S 9
16.1 Length Contraction

s
SFL

For moving objects, space as well as time undergoes changes. When

viewed by an outside observer, moving objects appear to contract
along the direction of motion. The amount of contraction is related
to the amount of time dilation. For everyday speeds, the amount
of contraction is much too small to be measured. For relativistic
speeds, the contraction would be noticeable. A meter stick aboard a
Figure 16.1 A spaceship whizzing past you at 87% the speed of light, for example,
A meter stick traveling at 87% would appear to you to be only 0.5 meter long. If it whizzed past at
the speed of light relative to an 99.5% the speed of light, it would appear to you to be contracted to
observer would be measured as one tenth its original length. The width of the stick, perpendicular to
only half as long as normal. the direction of travel (Figure 16.1), doesn’t change. As relative speed
gets closer and closer to the speed of light, the measured lengths of
objects contract closer and closer to zero.

232 Chapter16 = Special Relativity—Length, Momentum, and Energy

 Do people aboard the spaceship also see their meter sticks—and
everything else in their environment—contracted? The answer is no.
People in the spaceship see nothing at all unusual about the lengths
of things in their own reference frame. If they did, it would violate
the first postulate of relativity. Recall that all the laws of physics are
the same in all uniformly moving reference frames. Besides, there is
no relative speed between the people on the spaceship and the
things they observe in their own reference frame. However, there is a
relative speed between themselves and our frame of reference, so
they will see our meter sticks contracted—and us as well. A rule of
relativity is that changes due to alterations of space-time are always
seen in the frame of reference of the “other guy.”

Figure 16.2 A
In the frame of reference of the meter stick, its length is 1 meter. Observers
from this frame see our meter sticks contracted. The effects of relativity are
always attributed to “the other guy.”

The contraction of speeding objects is the contraction of space

itself. Space contracts in only one direction, the direction of motion.
Lengths along the direction perpendicular to this motion are the
same in the two frames of reference. So if an object is moving hori-
zontally, no contraction takes place vertically (Figure 16.3).

y=0.8Tc y=0.995¢ 4 =0.999c v=C(*)

Figure 16.3 A Ass ania

motion increases.
As relative speed increases, contraction in the direction of
Lengths in the perpendi cular direction do not change.

233
 Relativistic length contraction is stated mathematically:
Lea laV le (ec)
In this equation, v is the speed of the object relative to the observer,
| LINK TO BIOLOGY cis the speed of light, L is the length of the moving object as mea-
sured by the observer, and L, is the measured length of the object
at rest.*
Suppose that an object is at rest, so that v = 0. When 0 is substi-
tuted for v in the equation, we find L = Lo, as we would expect. It was
stated earlier that if an object were moving at 87% the speed of light,
it would contract to half its length. When 0.87c is substituted for vin
the equation, we find L = 0.5L,. Or when 0.995c is substituted for v,
we find L=0.1Lp, as stated eater If the object could reach the speed
c, its length would contract to zero. This is one of the reasons that the
speed of light is the upper limit for the speed of any material object.

lle

_ Aspacewoman travels by a spherical planet so fast that it appears”

"~ to her to bean ellipsoid(egg shaped). Ifshe sees the short diameter
a_as halfthe longdiameter, what is herspeed relative to the planet?
; a Lo
igth contraction |ake
. dramatically shortens. aes
their distance to Earth. ©
You are hit by hundreds
of muons every second! ©
Muon impact, like that of 16.2 Momentum and Inertia
all high-speed elementary in Relativity
particles, causes biologi-
cal mutations. So we see
If we push an object that is free to move, it will accelerate. If we
a link between the effects
maintain a steady push, it will accelerate to higher and higher
of relativity and the evo-
speeds. If we push with a greater and greater force, we expect the
lution of living creatures
acceleration in turn to increase. It might seem that the speed should
on Earth.
increase without limit, but there is a speed limit in the universe—
the speed of light. In fact, we cannot accelerate any material object
enough to reach the speed of light, let alone surpass it.
We can understand this from Newton’s second law, which
Newton originally expressed in terms of momentum: F= Amv/At
(which reduces to the familiar F= ma, or a= F/m). The momentum
form, interestingly, remains valid in relativity theory. Recall from
Chapter 7 that the change of momentum of an object is equal to the

@ Answer

The spacewoman passes the spherical planet at 87% the speed of light.

* This equation (and those that follow) is simply stated as a “guide to thinking” about
the ideas of special relativity. The equations are given here without any explanation as
to how they are derived.

234 Chapter 16 —_Special Relativity—Length, Momentum, and Energy

impulse applied to it. Apply more impulse and the object acquires
more momentum. Double the impulse and the momentum doubles.
Apply ten times as much impulse and the object gains ten times as
much momentum. Does this mean that momentum can increase
without any limit, even though speed cannot? Yes, it does.
We learned that momentum equals mass times velocity. In equa-
tion form, p= mv (we use p for momentum). To Newton, infinite
momentum would mean infinite speed. Not so in relativity. Einstein
showed that a new definition of momentum is required. It is
mv

ae V1—-(v2/c?2)

where vis the speed of an object and cis the speed of light. Notice
that the square root in the denominator looks just like the one in the
formula for time dilation in the previous chapter. It tells us that the
relativistic momentum of an object of mass m and speed vis larger
than mv by a factor of 1/V 1 - (v2/c?2).
At relativistic speed, momentum increases dramatically. As v
approaches c, the denominator of the equation approaches zero.
This means that the momentum approaches infinity! An object
pushed to the speed of light would have infinite momentum and
would require an infinite impulse, which is clearly impossible. So
nothing that has mass can be pushed to the speed of light, much
less beyond it. Here is another reason that cis the speed limit in the
universe.
What if vis much less than c? Then the denominator of the
equation is nearly equal to 1 and pis nearly equal to mv. Newton's
definition of momentum is valid at low speed.
We often say that a particle pushed close to the speed of light
acts as ifits mass were increasing, because its momentum—its “iner-
tia in motion’—increases more than its speed increases. The quan-
tity min the equation above is called the rest mass of the object. It is
a true constant, a property of the object no matter what speed it has.
Subatomic particles are routinely pushed to nearly the speed of
light. The momenta of such particles may be thousands of times
more than the Newton expression mv predicts. One way to look at
the momentum of a high-speed particle is in terms of the “stiffness”
of its trajectory. The more momentum it has, the harder it is to
deflect it—the “stiffer” is its trajectory. If it has a lot of momentum, it
more greatly resists changing course.

< Figure 16.4

If the momentum of the elec-
trons were equal to the
Newtonian value mv, the beam
would follow the dashed line.
But because the relativistic
momentum, or inertia in motion,
is greater, the beam follows the
“stiffer” trajectory shown by the
ELECTRON BEAM solid line.

235
 This can be seen when a beam of electrons is directed into a mag-
netic field. Charged particles moving in a magnetic field experience a
force that deflects them from their normal paths. For a particle with a
small momentum, the path curves sharply. For a particle with a large
momentum, the path curves only a little—its trajectory is “stiffer”
(Figure 16.4). Even though one particle may be moving only a little
faster than another one—say 99.9% of the speed of light instead of
99% of the speed of light—its momentum will be considerably greater
and it will follow a straighter path in the magnetic field. Through such
experiments, physicists working with subatomic particles at atomic
accelerators verify every day the correctness of the relativistic defini-
tion of momentum and the speed limit imposed by nature.

RARE SW ar
16.3 Equivalence of Mass and Energy
The most remarkable insight of Einstein’s special theory of relativity
is his conclusion that mass is simply a form of energy. A piece of
matter, even if at rest and even if not interacting with anything else,
has “energy of being.” This is called its rest energy. Einstein con-
cluded that it takes energy to make mass and that energy is released
when mass disappears. Rest mass is, in effect, a kind of potential
energy. Mass stores energy, just as a boulder rolled to the top of a hill
stores energy. When the mass of something decreases, as it can do in
nuclear reactions, energy is released, just as the boulder rolling to
the bottom of the hill releases energy.
The amount of rest energy E, is related to the mass m by the
most celebrated equation of the twentieth century,
E, == mc 2

where c is again the speed of light. This equation gives the total
energy content of a piece of stationary matter of mass m.
In ordinary units of measurement, the speed of light cis a large
quantity and its square is even larger. This means that a small
amount of mass stores a large amount of energy. The quantity c? is
a “conversion factor.” It converts the measurement of mass to the
measurement of equivalent energy. Or it is the ratio of rest energy to
mass: E,/m = c?. Its appearance in either form of this equation has
nothing to do with light and nothing to do with motion. The magni-
tude of c* is 90 quadrillion (9 x 10!6) joules per kilogram. One kilo-
gram of matter has an “energy of being” equal to 90 quadrillion
joules. Even a speck of matter with a mass of only 1 milligram has
a rest energy of 90 billion joules.
Rest energy, like any form of energy, can be converted to other
forms. When we strike a match, for example, a chemical reaction
occurs and heat is released. Phosphorus atoms in the match head
rearrange themselves and combine with oxygen in the air to form new
molecules. The resulting molecules have very slightly less mass than
the separate phosphorus and oxygen molecules. From a mass stand-
point, the whole is slightly less than the sum of its parts, but not by

236 Chapter 16 Special Relativity—Length, Momentum, and Energy

 < Figure 16.5
Saying that a power plant delivers
90 million megajoules of energy
to its consumers is equivalent to
saying that it delivers 1 gram of
energy to its consumers, because
mass and energy are equivalent.

very much—by only about one part in a billion. For all chemical reac-
tions that give off energy, there is a corresponding decrease in mass.
In nuclear reactions, the decrease in rest mass is considerably
more than in chemical reactions—about one part in a thousand. This
decrease of mass in the sun by the process of thermonuclear fusion
eo E
bathes the solar system with radiant energy and nourishes life. The
present stage of thermonuclear fusion in the sun has been going on
for the past 5 billion years, and there is sufficient hydrogen fuel for Femot
fusion to last another 5 billion years. It is nice to have such a big sun!
The equation E, = mc? is not restricted to chemical and nuclear
reactions. A change in energy of any object at rest is accompanied
by a change in its mass. The filament of a lightbulb has more mass
when it is energized with electricity than when it is turned off. A hot
cup of tea has more mass than the same cup of tea when cold. A Figure 16.6 A
wound-up spring clock has more mass than the same clock when In one second, 4.5 million tons of
unwound. But these examples involve incredibly small changes in rest mass are converted to radi-
mass—too small to be measured by conventional methods. No won- ant energy in the sun. The sun is
der the fundamental relationship between mass and energy was not so massive, however, that in a
discovered until this century. million years only one ten-mil-
lionth of the sun’s rest mass will
The equation £, = mc? is more than a formula for the conversion
have been converted to radiant
of rest mass into other kinds of energy, or vice versa. It states that
energy.
energy and mass are the same thing. Mass is simply congealed
energy. If you want to know how much energy is in a system, mea-
sure its mass. For an object at rest, its energy is its mass. Shake a
massive object back and forth; it is energy itself that is hard to shake.

— Question
Can we look at the equation E, = mc? in another way and say that
matter transforms into pure energy when it is traveling at the
speed of light squared?

BH Answer

No, no, no! Matter cannot be made to move at the speed of light, let alone the speed of
light squared (which is not a speed!). The equation E, = mc? simply means that energy
and mass are “two sides of the same coin.”

237
 Inn 2
16.4 Kinetic Energy in Relativity
Einstein dealt also with the energy of moving matter. His formula for
the total energy of a moving piece of matter of mass m™m is
7 mc?
~ VW1-(v2/c2)

Notice the by-now familiar square root in the denominator. If the

object is at rest, we can set v equal to 0 and find that the denomina-
tor is then equal to 1, leading to the famous rest-mass formula
E, = mc?*. But if the object is moving, the denominator is less than
1 and the total energy Fis greater than mc?.
Consider what happens when a subatomic particle—or some
possible future spacecraft—moves at a speed close to the speed of
light. Then the denominator becomes quite small and the total
energy E becomes much greater than the rest energy mc’. If the
speed v could be pushed to the speed of light, Ewould become infi-
nite. Once again we see why no piece of matter can be made to travel
at the speed of light. It would take infinite energy to do it. No scien-
tist can imagine how the “warp speeds” of science fiction will ever
become reality.
Since the revised formula for total energy applies to objects that
are moving, it is natural to associate kinetic energy with the difference
between total energy and rest energy. So kinetic energy is
m 2
Baa eiiGent ays
" V1-(v2/c?)

This equation looks a bit complicated and certainly quite different

from the equation KE = 5 mv”. Yet it can be demonstrated mathemat-
ically that, for ordinary low speeds, this relativistic equation for
kinetic energy reduces to the familiar KE = + mv?. But at higher
speeds, the actual kinetic energy is greater than + mv”.
There are two important points in the discussion of the last few
pages.
(1) Even at rest, an object has energy, which is locked
in its mass.

(2) As the speed of an object approaches the speed of

light, both its momentum and its energy approach
infinity, so there is no way that the speed of light can
1 Explore be reached.*
2 Concept-Development
Practice Book 76-7
3 Problem-Solving * At least one thing reaches the speed of light—light itself! But light has no rest mass.
Exercises in Al The equations that apply to it are different. The theory of relativity tells us that light
Physics 8-2 travels always at the same speed. A material particle can never be brought to the
speed of light. Light can never be brought to rest.

238 Chapter 16 Special Relativity—Length, Momentum, and Energy

RE SSE NT
16.5 The Correspondence Principle
If a new theory is to be valid, it must account for the verified results
of the old theory. New theory and old must overlap and agree in the
region where the results of the old theory have been fully verified.
This requirement is known as the correspondence principle. It was
advanced as a principle by Niels Bohr earlier in this century when
Newtonian mechanics was being challenged by both quantum the-
ory and relativity. If the equations of special relativity (or any other
new theory) are to be valid, they must correspond to those of
Newtonian mechanics—classical mechanics—when speeds much
less than the speed of light are considered.
The relativity equations for time dilation, length contraction,
and momentum are
ly

V1-(v2/c?)

io I L,V1 - (v2/c?)
mv

a V1-(v2/c?)

We can see that each of these equations reduces to a Newtonian

value for speeds that are very small compared with c. Then, the ratio
(vic)? is very small, and for everyday speeds may be taken to be zero.
The relativity equations become

p= at

p= = MV

So for everyday speeds, the time scales and length scales of moving
objects are essentially unchanged. Also, the Newtonian equation
for momentum holds true (and so does the Newtonian equation for
kinetic energy). But when the speed of light is approached, things
change dramatically. Near the speed of light Newtonian mechanics
change completely. The equations of special relativity hold for all
speeds, although they are significant only for speeds near the speed
of light.
So we see that advances in science take place not by discarding
the current ideas and techniques, but by extending them to reveal
new implications. Einstein never claimed that accepted laws of
physics were wrong, but instead showed that the laws of physics
implied something that hadn't before been appreciated.

239
 re

Scientists and SocialResponsibility _

he atomic bomb was an outcome of.
Einstein’s physics. Einstein and other sci-
entists were horrified by the bomb’s destruc-
tive power, and they spoke out about it.
Their work resulted in the bomb, so they felt
partly responsible for its creation and use.
Many scientists today feel responsible for
the social consequences of their work.
But other scientists feel the scientist’s
role is to focus on science alone. They say
scientists have no particular expertise in
matters of public policy and that society is
best served when scientific investigation
remains unrestricted.

The power of science to change the

world is vast. That power can be used
wisely or foolishly, which often involves
distinguishing between short-range and
long-range benefits, policies, and goals.
The scientist is the channel through which
the power of science flows.
Critical Thinking '0 what extent do you
think scientists are obligated to consider
social consequences of their work? Should
Dr. J. R. Oppenheimer (left) (director of the Los
scientists be considered more qualified than
Alamos lab during the atomic bomb project) and
Major General Leslie Groves (right) view the test
other citizens to guide public policy?
site of the first atomic bomb explosion.

Einstein's theory of relativity has raised many philosophical

questions. What, exactly, is time? Can we say it is nature’s way of see-
ing to it that everything does not all happen at once? And why does
time seem to move in one direction? Has it always moved forward?
Are there other parts of the universe where time moves backward?
Perhaps these unanswered questions will be answered by the physi-
° cists of tomorrow. How exciting!

240 Chapter 16 —_Special Relativity—Length, Momentum, and Energy

 Chapter Assessment

For: Study and Review Review Questions Check Concepts

(G
Go @n line Visit: PHSchool.com
chool.com Web Code: csd-1160 1 . If we witness events in a frame of reference
moving past us, time appears to be stretched
out (dilated). How do the lengths of objects in
that frame appear? (16.1)
Concept Summary - How long would a meter stick appear if it
were thrown like a spear at 99.5% the speed
When an object moves at very high speed relative
of light? (16.1)
to an observer, its measured length in the direc-
tion of motion is contracted. . How long would a meter stick appear if it
were traveling at 99.5% the speed of light, but
When an object moves at very high speed relative
with its length perpendicular to its direction
to an observer, its momentum—its “inertia of
of motion? (Why are your answers to this and
motion’—is greater than the Newtonian value mv.
the last question different?) (16.1)
Mass and energy are equivalent—anything with
. If you were traveling in a high-speed space-
mass also has energy. Rest energy is given by the
ship, would meter sticks on board appear
equation E, = mc?.
contracted to you? Defend your answer. (16.1)
Only when the release of energy is very great is
. What would be the momentum of an object if
the release of mass large enough to be detected.
it were pushed to the speed of light? (16.2)
During any reaction, the total energy remains
. What is meant by rest mass? (16.2)
constant if the energy equivalent of the change in
rest mass is accounted for. 7. What relativistic effect is evident when a
beam of high-speed charged particles bends
When the speed of an object approaches the
in a magnetic field? (16.2)
speed of light, both the momentum and the total
energy of the object approach infinity. . What is meant by the equivalence of mass
and energy? That is, what does the equation
According to the correspondence principle, the
E, = mc? mean? (16.3)
equations of relativity must agree with the well-
tested equations of Newtonian mechanics when . What is the numerical quantity of the ratio
the speed involved is small compared with the rest energy/rest mass? (16.3)
speed of light. 10. Does the equation E, = mc? apply only to reac-
tions that involve the atomic nucleus? Explain.
(16.3)
Key Terms 11. What evidence is there for the equivalence of
mass and energy? (16.3)
correspondence principle (16.5)
relativistic momentum (16.2) 12. What effect does solar energy have on the
rest energy (16.3) mass of the sun? (16.3)
rest mass (16.2) 13. An object at rest has an “energy of being,”
E, = mc”. When the same object is moving, is
its total energy the same as, more than, or
less than E, = mc?? (16.4)

241
14. Does the relativistic equation for kinetic energy 24. The electrons that illuminate your TV screen
mathematically reduce to the Newtonian equa- travel at about 0.25c. At this speed, relativity
tion for kinetic energy at low speeds? Explain. gives them an extra momentum that can be
(16.4) interpreted as an effective mass increase of
about 3%. Does this relativistic effect tend to
15. How much kinetic energy would a particle
increase, decrease, or have no effect on your
have if it could move at the speed of light?
electric bill?
(16.4)
25. Since there is an upper limit on the speed ofa
16. What is the correspondence principle? (16.5)
particle, does it follow that there is therefore
17. What results when low everyday speeds are an upper limit on its kinetic energy or
used in the relativistic equations for time and momentum? Defend your answer.
length? (16.5)
26. A friend says that the equation E, = mc? has
18. Do the equations of Newton and Einstein relevance to nuclear power plants, but not to
overlap, or is there a sharp break between fossil fuel power plants. Another friend looks
them? (16.5) to see if you agree. What do you say?
27. Is this label on a consumer product cause for
alarm? CAUTION: The mass of this product
Think and Explain Think Critically contains the energy equivalent of3 million
tons of TNT per gram.
19. Suppose your spaceship passes Earth at
nearly the speed of light, and Earth observers 28. Give three reasons why we say that there is a
tell you that your ship appears to be con- speed limit for particles in the universe.
tracted. Comment on the idea of checking
their observation by measuring the space-
ship yourself.
Think and Solve
20. From Earth, the distance to the center of our Develop Problem-Solving Skills
galaxy is 24 000 light-years. From the frame of
reference of a photon of light traveling from 29. Josie takes a ride in a spaceship moving at 0.8c
Earth to the center of our galaxy, what is this to a star 4 light-years away. From Josie’s frame
distance? of reference, what distance in light-years does
she travel to the distant star?
21. According to Newton's laws, if you apply an
impulse to an object, acceleration occurs. 30. An electron, with a rest mass of 9.11 x 10! kg,
What prevents an acceleration to and beyond shoots down a 1-km-long accelerator at an
the speed of light? average speed of 0.95c.

22. The two-mile-long linear accelerator at a. From the electron’s frame of reference, how
Stanford University in California is less than a long is the accelerator?
meter long to the electrons that travel in it. b. From the electron’s frame of reference, how
Explain. long does it take to make the trip?
23. Pretend you can travel with the electrons in 31. A 100-watt lightbulb consumes 100 joules of
the Stanford accelerator after they are acceler- energy every second. How long could you
ated and are coasting toward their target at burn that lightbulb from the energy in one
nearly the speed of light. penny, which has a mass of 0.003 kg? (Assume
a. What would the momentum of an electron
all the penny’s mass is converted to energy.)
be in your frame of reference? Its energy?
b. What could you say about the length of the
accelerator in your frame of reference? What
could you say about the motion of the target?

242 Chapter 16 Special Relativity—Length, Momentum, and Energy

 Atoms are so tiny that | inhale billions of trillions with
each breath, nearly a trillion times more atoms than the total
population of people since time zero! Every time | breathe in,
[ inhale atoms exhaled by every person who ever lived, except
for newborn babies far away. Every time | breathe out, or sweat,
| release atoms to the air that spread everywhere and become part
of everybody else. New babies and all who follow will be made
of the atoms that are now part of me. So we’re all one!

For: Articles on properties

of matter
Visit: PHSchool.com
Web Code: cse-2000
 The Atomic
Nature of Matter

uppose you break apart a large boulder

with a heavy sledgehammer. You break the
boulder into rocks. Then you break the
rocks into stones, and the stones into gravel. You
keep going and break the gravel into sand, and the
sand into a powder of fine crystals. Each fine crys-
Atoms in the air you breathe tal is composed of many billions of smaller particles called atoms.
become part of you. Atoms you Atoms are the building blocks of most matter. Everything you see,
exhale become part of every- hear, touch, taste, feel, or smell in the world around you is made of
one else. atoms. Shoes, ships, mice, lead, and people are all made of atoms.*

17.1 Elements
Just as dots of light of only three colors combine to form almost
every conceivable color on a television screen, only about 100 dis-
tinct kinds of atoms combine to form all the materials we know
about. Atoms are the building blocks of matter, yet atoms are not all
alike. Atoms of the same kind make up what is called an element.
To date about 115 elements are known. Of these, about 90 occur
in nature. The others are made in the laboratory with high-energy
atomic accelerators and nuclear reactors. These laboratory-produced
elements are too unstable (radioactive) to occur naturally in apprecia-
ble amounts.
From a pantry containing less than 100 elements, we have the
atoms that make up almost every simple, complex, living, or nonliv-
ing substance in the known universe. More than 99% of the material

* The word atom comes from a Greek word meaning “indivisible.” But atoms are not
truly indivisible. Under extreme conditions, such as in particle accelerators or in the cen-
ter of the sun, atoms can be further broken down into smaller, “subatomic” particles.

244 Chapter 17 The Atomic Nature of Matter

on Earth is formed from only about a dozen of the elements. The
majority of elements are relatively rare. Living things, for example,
are composed primarily of five elements: oxygen (O), carbon (C),
hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N), and calcium (Ca). The letters in paren-
theses represent the chemical symbols for these elements. Table 17.1
lists the 16 most common elements on Earth. Most of these ele-
ments, not just the five most common ones, are critical for life.

Table 17.1 The 16 Most Common Elements on Earth

Aluminum (Al) Nitrogen (N)

Calcium (Ca) Oxygen (O)
Carbon (C) Phosphorus (P)
Chlorine (Cl) Potassium (K)
Fluorine (F) Silicon (Si)
Hydrogen (H) Sodium (Na)
Iron (Fe) Sulfur (S)
Magnesium (Mg) Titanium (Ti)

The lightest element of all is hydrogen. In the universe at large, it

is the most abundant element—over 90% of the atoms in the known
universe are hydrogen. Helium, the second-lightest element, makes up
most of the remaining atoms in the universe, although it is rare on
Earth. The heavier, naturally formed atoms that we find about us were
manufactured by hydrogen fusion reactions in the hot, high-pressure
cauldrons deep within stars. The heaviest elements are formed when
huge stars implode and then explode—supernovas—and mainly when
pairs of their super-dense cores, neutron stars, collide. Nearly all the
elements on Earth are remnants of stars that exploded long before the
solar system came into being.

Figure 17.1
Both Leslie and you are made of
stardust—in the sense that the
carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, and
other atoms that make up your
body originated in the deep inte-
rior of ancient stars, which have
long since exploded.

245
 SRNR
eee 20D
17.2 Atoms Are Recyclable
Atoms are much older than the materials they compose. Some atoms
are nearly as old as the universe itself. Most atoms that make up our
world are at least as old as the sun and Earth.
Atoms in your body have been around since long before the solar
system came into existence. They cycle and recycle among innumer-
able forms, both living and nonliving. Every time you breathe, for
example, only some of the atoms that you inhale are exhaled in your
next breath. The remaining atoms are taken into your body to
become part of you, and most leave your body sooner or later—to
become part of everything else.
Strictly speaking, you don't “own” the atoms that make up your
body—your'e simply their present caretaker. There will be many oth-
ers who later will care for the atoms that presently compose you. We
all share from the same atom pool, as atoms migrate around, within,
and throughout us. So some of the atoms in the ear you scratch
today may have been part of your neighbor’s breath yesterday!
Most people know we are all made of the same kinds of atoms.
But what most people don't know is that we are made of the same
atoms—atoms that cycle from person to person as we breathe and
as Our perspiration is vaporized.

,
nl Question Ta.
World population grows
g eachyear. Does this mean the mass of
Earth iincreases eachh year?

SR
S 935 T
17.3 Atoms Are Small
There are about 1075 atoms in a gram of water (a thimbleful). The
number 109 is an enormous number, more than the number of
drops of water in all the lakes and rivers of the world. So there are
more atoms in a thimbleful of water than there are drops of water in
the world’s lakes and rivers. Atoms are so small that there are about

ees

B& Answer

The mass of Earth does increase by the incidence of roughly 40 000 tons of interplanetary
dust each year. But the increasing number of people does not increase the mass of Earth.
The atoms that make up our bodies are the same atoms that were here before we were
born—we are but dust, and unto dust we shall return. Human cells are merely rearrange-
ments of material previously present. The atoms that make up a forming baby in the
mother’s womb must be supplied by the food she eats. And those atoms were formed
in
stars that have long since exploded (Figure 17.1).

246 Chapter 17 The Atomic Nature of Matter

 FRYSICA
ae

Into any small container of water put some drops of food coloring,
ink, or any colored liquid. Notice that the colored drops dilute and
spread to all parts of the water in a fairly short time. The atoms or
molecules in the drop, like the HO molecules of the water, are per-
petually moving. The faster they move, the greater the rate of migra-
tion. Repeat using hot water. What happens to the migration rate?

as many atoms in the air in your lungs at any moment as there are
breathfuls of air in the atmosphere of the whole world.
Atoms are perpetually moving. They also migrate from one loca-
tion to another. In solids the rate of migration is low, in liquids it is
greater, and in gases migration is greatest. Drops of food coloring in
a glass of water soon spread to color the entire glass of water. Like-
wise for a cupful of toxic material thrown into an ocean that spreads
around and is later found in every part of the world’s oceans. The
same is true of materials released into the atmosphere.
It takes about six years for one of your exhaled breaths to
become evenly mixed in the atmosphere. At that point, every person
in the world inhales an average of one of your exhaled atoms in a
single breath. And this occurs for each breath you exhale! When you Figure 17.2 A
There are as many atoms in a
take into account the many thousands of breaths that people exhale,
normal breath of air as there are
at any time—like right now—you have hordes of atoms in your lungs breathfuls of air in the atmos-
that were once in the lungs of every person who ever lived. We are phere of the world.
literally breathing one another’s breaths.
Atoms are too small to be seen—at least with visible light. You
could connect microscope to microscope and never “see” an atom.
This is because light is made up of waves, and atoms are smaller
than the wavelengths of visible light. The size of a particle visible
under the highest magnification must be larger than the wavelength
of light. (More about this in Chapter 31.)

;. Question ee, Sera 7

:-Does your brain contain atoms that were once part psAlbert Einstein? »

BH Answer

Yes, and of Charlie Chaplin too. However, these atoms are combined differently than they
were before. The next time you have one of those days when you feel like you'll never
1 Explore
amount to anything significant, take comfort in the thought that many of the atoms that
now compose you will be part of the bodies of all the people on Earth who are yet to be! 1 Laboratory Manual 47

247
 Te ee res Ter |
17.4 Evidence for Atoms
The first fairly direct evidence for the existence of atoms was
unknowingly discovered in 1827. A Scottish botanist, Robert Brown,
was studying pollen grains under a microscope. He noticed that the
grains were in a constant state of agitation, always jiggling about. At
first, Brown thought that the grains were some sort of moving life
forms. Later, he found that inanimate dust particles and grains of
soot also showed this kind of motion. The perpetual jiggling of parti-
cles that are just large enough to be seen is called Brownian motion.
Brownian motion is now known to result from the motion of neigh-
boring atoms and molecules.
More direct evidence for the existence of atoms is available
Figure 17.3 A today. An image of individual atoms is shown in Figure 17.3.
The strings of dots are chains of The image was made not with visible light but with an electron
thorium atoms imaged with a beam. A familiar example of an electron beam is the one that sprays
scanning electron microscope by
the picture on your television screen. Although an electron beam is a
researchers at the University of
stream of tiny particles (electrons), it has wave properties. It so hap-
Chicago's Enrico Fermi Institute.
pens that a high-energy electron beam has a wavelength more than
a thousand times smaller than the wavelength of visible light. With
such a beam, atomic detail can be seen. The historic (1970) image in
Figure 17.3 was taken with a very thin electron beam in a scanning
electron microscope. It is the first such image of clearly distinguish-
able atoms.
In the mid-1980s, researchers developed a different kind of
microscope—the scanning tunneling microscope, small enough to
be held in your hand. In Figure 17.4, you can see individual atoms.
Even greater detail is possible with newer types of imaging devices
that are presently revolutionizing microscopy.

Figure 17.4
Scanning tunneling microscope
image of uranium atoms.

248 Chapter17 The Atomic Nature of Matter

 EE RE OT Re
1 Explore
17.5 Molecules 3 Laboratory Manual 42

Atoms can combine to form larger particles called molecules. For

example, two atoms of hydrogen (H) combine with a single atom of
oxygen (O) to form a water molecule (H,0). The gases nitrogen and
oxygen, which make up most of the atmosphere, are both made of
simple two-atom molecules (N, and O,). In contrast, the double
helix of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), the blueprint of life, is com-
posed of millions of atoms.
Matter that is a gas or liquid at room temperature is usually made
of molecules. Matter made of molecules may contain all the same
kind of molecule, or it may be a mixture of different kinds of mole-
cules. Purified water contains almost entirely H,O molecules, whereas
clean air contains molecules belonging to several different substances.

Figure 17.5 A
Models of the simple molecules O, (oxygen gas), NH3 (ammonia), and CH,
(methane). The atoms that compose a molecule are not just mixed together,
but are bonded in a well-defined way.

But not all matter is made of molecules. Metals and crystalline

minerals (including common table salt) are made of atoms that are
not joined in molecules.
Like atoms, individual molecules are too small to be seen with
optical microscopes.* More direct evidence of tiny molecules is seen
in electron microscope photographs. The photograph in Figure 17.6
is of virus molecules, each composed of thousands of atoms. These
giant molecules are visible with a short-wavelength electron beam,
but are still too small to be seen with visible light.
We are able to detect molecules through our sense of smell.
Noxious gases such as sulfur dioxide, ammonia, and ether are clearly
sensed by the organs in our nose. The smell of perfume is the result
of molecules that rapidly evaporate from the liquid and jostle
around completely haphazardly in the air until some of them acci-
dentally get close enough to our noses to be inhaled. The perfume pirate k
molecules are certainly not attracted to our noses! They wander aim- pores Secaiine
: ? A ene n electron microscope photo-
lessly in all directions from the liquid perfume to become a small prep rrciribaliawiniemoleccles
fraction of the randomly jostling molecules in the air. TROT orer ora atone
erupting on the surface of an
; infected cell.
* An exception is DNA, a macromolecule that can be seen with an optical microscope.
More dramatically, a diamond may be regarded as one huge carbon molecule, and this
can be seen with the naked eye!
 SEUNG! i RRR Ss REE
17.6 Compounds
A compound is a substance that is made of atoms of different ele-
ments combined in a fixed proportion. The chemical formula of the
compound tells the proportions of each kind of atom. For example,
in the gas carbon dioxide, the formula CO, indicates that for every
carbon (C) atom there are two oxygen (O) atoms. Water, table salt,
and carbon dioxide are all compounds. Air, wood, and salty water are
not compounds, because the proportions of their atoms vary.
A compound may or may not be made of molecules. Water and
carbon dioxide are made of molecules. On the other hand, table salt
(NaCl) is made of different kinds of atoms arranged in a regular pat-
tern. (We'll soon see that the atoms in NaCl are actually ions.) Every
chlorine atom is surrounded by six sodium atoms (see Figure 17.7).
In turn, every sodium atom is surrounded by six chlorine atoms. As a
Figure 17.7 A
whole, there is one sodium atom for each chlorine atom, but there are
Table salt (NaCl) is a compound
that is not made of molecules. no separate sodium-chlorine groups that can be labeled molecules.
The sodium and chlorine ions Compounds have different properties from the elements of
are arranged in a repeating which they are made. At ordinary temperatures, water is a liquid,
pattern. Each ion is surrounded whereas hydrogen and oxygen are both gases. Table salt is an edible
by six ions of the other kind. solid, whereas chlorine is a poisonous gas.

CE SS STE EE SE EEE AT
17.7 The Atomic Nucleus
An atom is mostly empty space. Almost all its mass is packed
into the central region called the nucleus. The New Zealander physi-
cist Ernest Rutherford discovered this in 1911 in his now-famous
gold foil experiment. Rutherford’s group directed a beam of electri-
cally charged particles (alpha particles) from a radioactive source
through a very thin gold foil. They measured the angles at which the
particles were deflected from their straight-line paths when they
emerged. This was accomplished by noting spots of light on a zinc-
sulfide screen that nearly surrounded the gold foil (Figure 17.8). Most

Alpha particles
Gold foil

Radium in
lead | block

Beam of a
alpha particles

Zinc sulfide
screen
Gold foil magnified

Figure 17.8 A
The occasional large-angle scattering of alpha particles from the gold atoms
led Rutherford to the discovery of the small, very massive nuclei at their
centers.

Chapter 17 The Atomic Nature of Matter

particles continued in a more or less straight-line path through the
thin foil. But, surprisingly, some particles were widely deflected. = LINK TO CHEMISTR
Some were even scattered back almost along their incoming path. It
was as surprising, Rutherford said, as firing a 15-inch artillery shell
at a piece of tissue paper and having it come back and hit you.
Rutherford reasoned that within the atom there had to be a posi-
tively charged object with two special properties. It had to be very
small compared with the size of the atom, and it had to be massive
enough to resist being shoved aside by heavy alpha particles.
Rutherford had discovered the atomic nucleus.
Although the mass of an atom is primarily concentrated in the
nucleus, the nucleus occupies less than a trillionth of the volume of
an atom. Atomic nuclei (plural of nucleus) are extremely compact
and extremely dense. If bare atomic nuclei could be packed against
one another into a lump 1 cm in diameter (about the size of a small
grape), the lump would weigh about a billion tons!
Huge electrical forces of repulsion prevent such close packing
of atomic nuclei because each nucleus is electrically charged and
repels the other nuclei. Only under special circumstances are the
nuclei of two or more atoms squashed into contact. When this hap-
pens, the violent reaction known as nuclear fusion takes place.
Fusion occurs in the core of the sun and in a hydrogen bomb.
The principal building blocks of the nucleus are nucleons.*
Nucleons in an electrically neutral state are neutrons. Nucleons in
an electrically charged state are protons. All neutrons are identical;
they are copies of one another. Similarly, all protons are identical.
Atoms of various elements differ from one another by their numbers
of protons. Atoms with the same number of protons all belong to
the same element.
For a given element, however, the number of neutrons will vary.
Atoms of the same element having different numbers of neutrons are and g
thirsty.You protbably |
mni

called isotopes of that element. The nucleus of the common hydro- oF

gen atom has a single proton. When this proton is accompanied by a wouldn't like the taste of |
neutron, we have deuterium, an isotope of hydrogen. When two neu-
- pure water, for some dis- |
solved substances give
trons are in a hydrogen nucleus, we have the isotope tritium. Every
element has a variety of isotopes. Lighter elements usually have an
water a pleasing taste and
promote good health. As —
equal number of protons and neutrons, and heavier elements usually
much as 10% of our daily
have more neutrons than protons. requirement of iron,
Atoms are classified by atomic number. The atomic number is the potassium, calcium, and
number of protons in the nucleus. The nucleus of a hydrogen atom magnesium is obtained
has one proton, so its atomic number is 1. Helium has two protons, so from ordinary drinking
its atomic number is 2. Lithium has three protons, so its atomic num- water. Bottoms up!
ber is 3, and so on, in sequence up to the heaviest elements.
Electric charge comes in two kinds, positive and negative.
Protons in the atom’s nucleus are positive, and electrons orbiting the
nucleus are negative. Positive and negative refer to a basic property of
matter—electric charge. (Much more about electric charge in Unit V.)
Like kinds of charge repel one another and unlike kinds attract one

* Nucleons are composed of still smaller particles called quarks, which are discussed in
Chapter 39.
 another. Protons repel protons but attract electrons. Electrons repel
electrons but attract protons. Inside the nucleus, protons are held
together by a strong nuclear force. This force is extremely intense
but acts only across tiny distances. (More about the strong nuclear
force in Chapter 39.)

MEN ©= 30
17.8 Electrons in the Atom
Electrons that orbit the atomic nucleus are the same kind of
electrons that flow in the wires of electric circuits. They are nega-
tively charged subatomic particles. A proton or neutron has about
1800 times the mass of an electron, so electrons do not significantly
contribute to the atom’s mass.
In an electrically neutral atom, the number of negatively charged
electrons always equals the number of positively charged protons in
the nucleus. When the number of electrons is more, or less, than the
number of protons in an atom, the atom is no longer neutral and has
a net charge. It is an ion.

Figure 17.9 A
private corporations. The classic model of the atom consists of a tiny nucleus surrounded by orbit-
ing electrons.
- Most chemists hold
undergraduate degrees
in chemistry along with
advanced degrees in Attraction between a proton and an electron can cause a bond
more specific fields such between atoms to form a molecule. For example, two atoms can be
as biochemistry, nuclear held together by the sharing of electrons (covalent bond). Atoms can
chemistry, or analytical also be held together when electrons are transferred between atoms.
chemistry. In this case (ionic bond), ions of opposite charge are formed, and
these ions are held together by simple electric forces.

252 Chapter17 The Atomic Nature of Matter

 Hydrogen - One electron
in one shell
Aluminum - Thirteen
electrons in
three shells

Lithium - Three
electrons in
two shells

Helium - Two electrons

in one shell

Figure 17.10 A
The shell model of the atom pictures the electrons orbiting in concentric,
spherical shells around the nucleus.

Just like our solar system, the atom is mostly empty space. The
nucleus and surrounding electrons occupy only a tiny fraction of the
atomic volume. Yet the electrons, because of their wave nature, form
a kind of cloud as they cruise throughout the atom. Compressing
this electron cloud takes great energy and means that when two
atoms come close together, they repel each other. If it were not for
this repulsive force between atoms, solid matter would be much
more dense than it is. We and the solid floor are mostly empty space,
because the atoms making up these and all materials are themselves
mostly empty space. But we don’t fall through the floor. The forces of
repulsion keep atoms from caving in on one another under pressure.
To explain how atoms of different elements interact to form
compounds, scientists have produced the shell model of the atom.
Electrons are pictured as orbiting in spherical shells around the
nucleus. There are seven different shells and each shell has its own
capacity for electrons. For example, the first and innermost shell has
a capacity for 2 electrons while the seventh and outermost shell has
a capacity for 32 electrons. The arrangement of electrons in the
shells about the atomic nucleus dictates such properties as melting
and freezing temperatures, electrical conductivity, and the taste, tex-
ture, appearance, and color of substances. The arrangement of elec-
trons quite literally gives life and color to the world.
The periodic table is a chart that lists atoms by their atomic num-
ber and by their electron arrangements (see Figure 17.11). As you
read across from left to right, each element has one more proton and
electron than the preceding element. As you go down, each element
has one more shell filled to its capacity than the element above.
Elements in the same column have similar chemical properties,
reacting with other elements in similar ways to form new com- 1 Explore
pounds and materials. Elements in the same column are said to
belong to the same group of elements. Elements of the same group 2 Concept-Development
have similar chemical properties because their outermost electrons Practice Book 77-7
are arranged in a similar fashion.

253
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|
17.9 The Phases of Matter
Matter exists in four phases. You are familiar with the solid, liq-
uid, and gaseous phases. In the plasma phase, matter consists of pos-
itive ions (atoms that are missing some electrons) and free electrons.
The plasma phase exists only at high temperatures. Although the
plasma phase is less common to our everyday experience, it is the
predominant phase of matter in the universe. The sun and other stars
as well as much of the intergalactic matter are in the plasma phase.
Closer to home, the glowing gas in a fluorescent lamp is a plasma.
In all phases of matter, the atoms are constantly in motion. In
the solid phase, the atoms and molecules vibrate about fixed posi-
tions. If the rate of molecular vibration is increased enough, mole-
cules will shake apart and wander throughout the material, jostling
in nonfixed positions. The shape of the material is no longer fixed
but takes the shape of its container. This is the liquid phase. If more
energy is put into the material so that the molecules move about at
even greater rates, they may break away from one another and
assume the gaseous phase.
All substances can be transformed from one phase to another.
We often observe this changing of phase in the compound H,O.
When solid, it is ice. If we heat the ice, the increased molecular
motion jiggles the molecules out of their fixed positions, and we
have water. If we heat the water, we can reach a stage where contin-
ued increase in molecular motion results in a separation between
water molecules, and we have steam. Continued heating causes the
molecules to separate into atoms. If we heat these to temperatures
exceeding 2000°C, the atoms themselves will be shaken apart, mak-
ing a gas of ions and free electrons. Then we have a plasma.
The following three chapters treat the solid, liquid, and gaseous
phases in turn.

< Figure 17.12

The aurora borealis. High-altitude
gases in the northern sky are
transformed into glowing plas-
mas by the bombardment of
charged particles. Less spectacu-
lar plasmas are found in glowing
fluorescent lamps and advertis-
ing signs.
 Chapter Assessment

For: Study and Review Key Terms

| Go @nline Visit: PHSchool.com
School.com atom (17.0) molecule (17.5)
Web Code: csd-2170
atomic number (17.7) neutron (17.7)
Brownian motion (17.4) nucleon (17.7)
chemical formula (17.6) nucleus (17.7)
Concept Summary compound (17.6) periodic table (17.8)
element (17.1) plasma (17.9)
Most matter is made from only about 100 different
group (17.8) proton (17.7)
kinds of atoms.
ion (17.8) shell model of the
m Each kind of atom belongs to a different atom (17.8)
isotope (17.7)
element.
= Most atoms were recycling through matter
even before the solar system came into being.
Review Questions Check Concepts
m Atoms are too small to see with visible light
but can be imaged with an electron micro- 1. Approximately how many elements are
scope. known today? (17.1)

A compound is a substance made of different 2. Which element has the lightest atoms? (17.1)
elements combined in a fixed proportion. 3. How does the age of most atoms compare
= Some compounds are made of molecules, with the age of the solar system? (17.2)
which are particles made of atoms joined 4. What is meant by the statement that you
together. don't “own” the atoms that make up your
m Other compounds are made of different kinds body? (17.2)
of atoms arranged in a regular pattern. 5. How does the approximate number of atoms
The atom is mostly empty space. Its mass is in the air in your lungs compare with the
almost entirely in its nucleus. number of breaths of air in the atmosphere of
the whole world? (17.3)
The nucleus is made of protons and neutrons.
6. How do the sizes of atoms compare with the
m The number of protons determines the
wavelengths of visible light? (17.3)
element to which the atom belongs.
7. What causes dust particles to move with
An electrically neutral atom has electrons outside Brownian motion? (17.4)
the nucleus equal in number to the protons
inside the nucleus. 8. Individual atoms cannot be seen with visible
light; yet there is an image of individual
m@ The shell model of the atom pictures electrons
atoms in Figure 17.3. Explain. (17.4)
in spherical shells around the nucleus.
9. Distinguish between an atom and a molecule.
The periodic table is a chart of elements arranged
(ir)
according to atomic structure and properties.

256 Chapter17 The Atomic Nature of Matter

10. a. How many elements compose pure water?
b. How many individual atoms are there in a Think and Explain Think Critically
water molecule? (17.5) 26. Identify which of the following chemical for-
11. a. Cite an example of a substance that is mulas represent pure elements: H,, H,O, He,
made of molecules. Na, NaCl, Au, U.

b. Cite a substance that is made of atoms

27. Which are older, the atoms in the body of an
rather than molecules. (17.5) elderly person, or those in the body of a baby?

12. True or false: We smell things because certain 28. Suppose you smell the shaving lotion your
molecules are attracted to our noses. (17.5)
brother is wearing almost immediately after
he walks into the room. From an atomic
13. a. What is a compound? point of view, exactly what is happening?
b. Cite the chemical formulas for at least 29. In what way does the number of protons in
three compounds. (17.6) an atomic nucleus dictate the chemical prop-
erties of the element?
14. What did Rutherford discover when his group
bombarded a thin foil of gold with subatomic 30. Atoms are mostly empty space, and struc-
particles? (17.7) tures such as a floor are composed of atoms
and are therefore also empty space. Why don't
15. How does the mass of an atomic nucleus com-
you fall through the floor?
pare with the mass of the whole atom? (17.7)
31. What element will result if a proton is added
16. How does the size of an atomic nucleus com-
to the nucleus of carbon? (See periodic table.)
pare with the size of the whole atom? (17.7)
32. What element will result if two protons and
17. What are the two kinds of nucleons? (17.7)
two neutrons are ejected from a uranium
18. a. What is an isotope? nucleus?
b. Give two examples of isotopes. (17.7) 33. You could swallow a capsule of the element
germanium without harm. But if a proton were
19. How does the atomic number of an element
added to each of the germanium nuclei, you
compare with the number of protons in its would not want to swallow the capsule. Why?
nucleus? With the number of electrons that
normally surround the nucleus? (17.7) 34. What does the addition or subtraction of heat
have to do with whether or not a substance is
20. How does the mass of an electron compare a solid, liquid, gas, or plasma?
with the mass of a nucleon? (17.8)
21. a. What is an ion?
b. Give two examples of ions. (17.8) Think and Solve Ve

22. At the atomic level, a solid block of iron is Develop Problem-Solving Skills
mostly empty space. Explain. (17.8) 35. How many grams of O are there in 18 grams
23. What is the periodic table of the elements? (178) of water?

24. According to the shell model of the atom, 36. How many grams of H are there in 16 grams
how many electron shells are there in the of methane (CH,) gas?
hydrogen atom? The lithium atom? The alu- 37. Gas A is composed of diatomic molecules
minum atom? (17.8) (two atoms to a molecule) of a pure element.
25. What are the four phases of matter? (17.9) Gas B is composed of monatomic molecules
(one atom to a "molecule") of another pure
element. Gas A has three times the mass of an
equal volume of gas B at the same tempera-
ture and pressure. How do the atomic
masses of elements A and B compare?

257
 ie umans have been classifying and using
solid materials for many thousands of
years. The names Stone Age, Bronze Age,
and Iron Age tell us the importance of solid mate-
rials in the development of civilization. Wood and
clay were perhaps the first materials important to
H,O can be in the form of a early peoples, and gems were put to use for art and adornment.
solid, liquid, or gas. © While the number and uses of materials multiplied over the cen-
turies, there was little progress in understanding their true nature.
Not until recent times did the discovery of atoms and their interac-
tions make it possible to understand the structure of materials. We
have progressed from being finders and assemblers of materials to
actual makers of materials. In today’s laboratories chemists, metal-
lurgists, and materials scientists routinely design and produce new
materials to meet specific needs. Solid-state physicists explore solids
such as semiconductors and tailor them to meet the needs of an
information society.

LS EE
18.1 Crystal Structure
When we look at samples of minerals such as quartz, mica, or
galena, we see many smooth, flat surfaces at angles to one another
within the mineral. The mineral samples are made of crystals, or
regular geometric shapes. Each sample is made of many crystals,
assembled in various directions. The samples themselves may have
very irregular shapes, as if they were tiny cubes or other small units
glued together to make a free-form solid sculpture.
Not all crystals are evident to the naked eye. Their existence
in many solids was not discovered until X-rays became a tool of
research early in the twentieth century. The X-ray pattern caused
by the crystal structure of common table salt (sodium chloride) is

Chapter 18 Solids
shown in Figure 18.1. Rays from the X-ray tube are blocked by a lead
screen except for a narrow beam that hits the crystal of sodium chlo-
ride. The radiation that penetrates the crystal produces the pattern
shown on the photographic film beyond the crystal. The white spot
in the center is caused by the main unscattered beam of X-rays. The
size and arrangement of the other spots indicate the arrangement
of sodium and chlorine atoms in the crystal. All crystals of sodium
chloride produce this same design. Every crystalline structure has
its own unique X-ray pattern.
The patterns made by X-rays on photographic film show that
the atoms in a crystal have an orderly arrangement. For example,
in a sodium chloride crystal, the atoms are arranged like a three-
dimensional chess board or a child’s jungle gym (Figure 18.2).

Figure 18.1 A
X-ray pattern caused by the crys-
tal structure of common table
salt (sodium chloride).

Figure 18.2 A
Model of a sodium chloride crystal. The large spheres represent chloride
ions. The small ones represent sodium ions.

Metals such as iron, copper, and gold have relatively simple

crystal structures. Tin and cobalt are only a little more complex.
You can see metal crystals if you look carefully at a metal surface
that has been cleaned (etched) with acid. You can also see them
Figure 18.3 A
on the surface of galvanized iron that has been exposed to the
Crystal structure is quite evident
weather, or on brass doorknobs that have been etched by the on galvanized (zinc-coated) metals.
perspiration of hands.
 SENN
©8020
18.2 Density
One of the properties of solids, as well as liquids and even gases, is
the measure of how tightly the material is packed together: density.
Density is a measure of how much matter is squeezed into a given
space; it is the amount of mass per unit volume:
mass
density = ————
volume
What happens to the density of a chocolate bar when you break
it in two? The answer is, nothing. Each piece may have half the mass,
but each piece also has half the volume. Density is not mass and it is
not volume. Density is a ratio; it is the amount of mass per unit vol-
ume. A pure iron nail has the same density as a pure iron frying pan.
The frying pan may have 100 times as many iron atoms and have 100
times as much mass, but its atoms will take up 100 times as much
space. The mass per unit volume for the iron nail and the iron frying
pan is the same.

Figure 18.4 A
When the loaf of bread is squeezed, its volume decreases and its density
increases.

Both the masses of atoms and the spacing between atoms

determine the density of materials. Osmium, a hard bluish-white
metallic element, is the densest substance on Earth, even though
the individual osmium atom is less massive than individual atoms
of gold, mercury, lead, and uranium. The close spacing of osmium
atoms in an osmium crystal gives it the greatest density. A cubic
centimeter of osmium contains more atoms than a cubic centimeter
of gold or uranium.

Chapter 18 Solids
 f "Table 18.1 Densities of a Few Substances
Density Density
Material (g/cm?) Material (g/cm?)
Solids Liquids
Osmium 22.6 Mercury 13.6
Platinum 21.4 Glycerin 1.26
Gold 19.3 Sea water 1.03
Uranium 19.0 Water at 4°C 1.00
Lead se Benzene 0.90
Silver 10.5 Ethyl alcohol 0.81
Copper 8.9
Brass 8.6
lron 7.8
Steel 7.8
Tin 7.3
Diamond 3.5
Aluminum 2.7
Graphite 2.25
Ice 0.92
Pine wood 0.50
Balsa wood 0.12

The densities of a few materials, in units of grams per cubic

centimeter, are given in Table 18.1.* Density varies somewhat with
temperature and pressure, so, except for water, densities are given
at 0°C and atmospheric pressure. Note that water at 4°C has a den-
sity of 1.00 g/cm. The gram was originally defined as the mass of a
cubic centimeter of water at a temperature of 4°C. A gold brick, with
a density of 19.3 g/cm®, is 19.3 times more massive than an equal
volume of water.
A quantity known as weight density can be expressed by the
amount of weighta body has per unit volume:
weight
weight density =
volume
Weight density is commonly used when discussing liquid pressure
(see next chapter).**

* Densities in kg/m? are 1000 times greater. For instance, the density of water is
1000 kg/m and the density of osmium is 22 600 kg/m%.

** Weight density is common to British units, where one cubic foot of fresh water (almost
7.5 gallons) weighs 62.4 pounds. So fresh water has a weight density of 62.4 Ib/ft?. Salt
water is a bit denser, 64 |b/ft?.
 A standard measure of density is specific gravity—the ratio of the
mass (or weight) of a substance to the mass (or weight) of an equal
volume of water. For example, if a substance weighs five times as
much as an equal volume of water, its specific gravity is 5. Or put
another way, specific gravity is a ratio of the density of a material to
the density of water. So specific gravity has no units (density units
divided by density units cancel). If you want to know the specific
gravity of any material listed in Table 18.1, it’s there. The magnitude
of its density is its specific gravity.

HM Questions
1. Which has the greater density—1 kg of water or 10 kg of water?
2. Which has the greater density—5 kg of lead or 10 kg
of aluminum?
3. Which has the greater density—1 g of uranium or the
planet Earth?
4. The density of gold is 19.3 g/cm%. What is its specific gravity?

The Value of a Simple Computation

One of the reasons gold was used as money was that it is

one of the densest of all substances and could therefore be
easily identified. A merchant suspicious that gold was diluted with
a less valuable substance had only to compute its density by mea-
suring its mass and dividing by its volume. The merchant would
then compare this value with the density of gold, 19.3 g/cm%.
Consider a gold nugget with a mass of 57.9 g and a volume of
3.00 cm®. Is the nugget pure gold? We compute its density as follows:
mass _5/7.9¢
density = = = 19.3 g/cm?
Be volume 3.00 cm?

Its density matches that of gold, so the nugget can be presumed

to be pure gold. (It is possible to get the same density by mixing
gold with a platinum alloy, but this is unlikely since platinum has
several times the value of gold.) In the next chapter, you'll learn an
easy way to measure the volume of an irregularly shaped solid.

@ Answers

— . The density of any amount of water (at 4°C) is 1.00 g/cm’.

1 Explore ~ Any amount of lead always has a greater density than any amount of aluminum. The
amount of material is irrelevant.
3 Problem-Solving
Exercises in ee Any amount of uranium is more dense than Earth. The average density of Earth is actu-
Physics 9-7 ally 5.5 g/cm, much less than the density of uranium (19.0 g/cm’).
> Gold's specific gravity = density of gold/density of water = 19.3 g/cm3/1.0 g/cm? = 19.3.

262 Chapter 18 Solids

18.3 Elasticity
When we hang a weight on a spring, the spring stretches. When we
add additional weights, the spring stretches still more. When we
remove the weights, the spring returns to its original length. We say
the spring is elastic.
When a batter hits a baseball, he temporarily changes the ball’s
shape. When an archer shoots an arrow, she first bends the bow,
which springs back to its original form when the arrow is released.
The spring, the baseball, and the bow are examples of elastic objects.
Elasticity is that property of a body by which it experiences a change
in shape when a deforming force acts on it, and by which it returns
to its original shape when the deforming force is removed.
Not all materials return to their original shape when a deforming
force is applied and then removed. Materials that do not resume
their original shape after being distorted are said to be inelastic. Figure 18.5 A
Clay, putty, and dough are inelastic materials. Lead is also inelastic, The bow is elastic. When the
since it is easy to distort it permanently. deforming force is removed, the
By hanging a weight on a spring, we are applying a force to the Bow fetus to) epee diets eee,
spring. It is found that the stretch is directly proportional to the
applied force (Figure 18.6).

eaters on < Figure 18.6

The stretch of the spring is
S>
S> directly proportional to the

|
S
applied force. When the weight

TL
SUT >
cS
is doubled, the spring stretches
twice as much.

ANNAN
S
=>

This relationship was noted by the British physicist Robert

Hooke, a contemporary of Isaac Newton, in the midseventeenth cen-
tury. It is called Hooke’s law. The amount of stretch (or compression),
x, is directly proportional to the applied force F Double the force and
we double the stretch; triple the force and we get three times the
stretch, and so on. In equation form,
F~x

If an elastic material is stretched or compressed more than a cer-

tain amount, it will not return to its original state. Instead, it will
remain distorted. The distance at which permanent distortion occurs
1 Explore [2
Devoe]
is called the elastic limit. Hooke’s law holds only as long as the force
1 Laboratory Manual 43

does not stretch or compress the material beyond its elastic limit.
263
 @ Questions
1. Acertain tree branch is found to obey Hooke’s law. When a
20-kg load is hung from the end of it, the branch sags a dis-
tance of 10 cm. If, instead, a 40-kg load is hung from the same
place, by how much will the branch sag? How about if a 60-kg
load were hung from the same place? (Assume that none of
these loads makes the branch sag beyond its elastic limit.)
2. Ifa force of 10 N stretches a certain spring 4 cm, how much
stretch will occur for an applied force of 15 N?

[SSS
ELE
18.4 Compression and Tension
Steel is an excellent elastic material. It can be stretched and it can be
compressed. Because of its strength and elastic properties, it is used
to make not only springs but also construction girders. Vertical gird-
ers of steel used in the construction of tall buildings undergo only
slight compression. A typical 25-meter-long vertical girder used in
tion to build high-rise construction is compressed about a millimeter when it car-
: and more
ries a 10-ton load. Most deformation occurs when girders are used
| resilient bridges, tunnels,
horizontally, where the tendency is to sag under heavy loads.
and highways. Civil engi-
_ neers rely heavily on their A horizontal beam supported at one or both ends is under stress
knowledge of physics from the load it supports, including its own weight. It undergoes a
principles when designing stress of both compression and tension (stretching). Consider the
these structures. Civil beam supported at one end in Figure 18.7. It sags because of its own
engineers work in private weight and because of the load it carries at its end.
engineering firms and Can you see that the top part of the beam is stretched? Atoms are
in the public sector on tugged away from one another. The top part is slightly longer. And
government-funded can you see that the bottom part of the beam is compressed? Atoms
projects. there are pushed toward one another, making the bottom part
slightly shorter. So the top part of the beam is stretched, and the bot-
tom part is compressed. A little thought will show that somewhere in

@ Answers

1. A 40-kg load has twice the weight of a 20-kg load. In accord with Hooke’s law, F ~ x,
two times the applied force will result in two times the stretch, so the branch should
sag 20 cm. The weight of the 60-kg load will make the branch sag three times as much,
or 30 cm. (When the elastic limit is exceeded, the amount of sag cannot be predicted
with the information given.)

2. The spring will stretch 6 cm. By ratio and proportion,

10N _ 15N
4cm x
which is read “10 N is to 4 cm as 15 N is to x.” Solving for x gives x = (15 N) x
(4 cm)/(10 N) = 6 cm. In the lab you will learn that the ratio of force to stretch is called
the spring constant k (in this case k = 2.5 N/cm), and Hooke’s law is expressed as the
equation F = kx.

264 Chapter18 — Solids

 Figure 18.7 A
The top part of the beam is stretched and the bottom part is compressed.
What happens in the middle portion, between top and bottom?

between the top and bottom, there will be a region where there is
neither stretching nor compression. This is the neutral layer.
Consider the beam shown in Figure 18.8. It is supported at both
ends, and carries a load in the middle. This time the top of the beam
is in compression and the bottom is in tension. Again, there is a neu-
tral layer along the middle portion of the length of the beam.

Figure 18.8 A
The top part of the beam is compressed and the bottom part is stretched.
Where is the neutral layer (the part that is not under stress due to compres-
sion or stretching)?

Have you ever wondered why the cross section of many steel
girders has the form of the letter I (Figure 18.9)? Most of the material
in these I-beams is concentrated in the top and bottom parts, called
the flanges. The piece joining the bars, called the web, is thinner.
Why is it shaped like this?
The answer is that the stress is predominantly in the top and
bottom flanges when the beam is used horizontally in construction.
One flange tends to be stretched while the other tends to be com- Figure 18.9 A
pressed. The web between the top and bottom flanges is a region hese lie col he raith
of low stress that acts principally to hold the top and bottom some of the steel scooped from
flanges apart. Heavier loads are supported by wider-apart flanges. its middle where it is needed
For this purpose, comparatively little material is needed. An I-beam least. The beam is therefore
is nearly as strong as if it were a solid bar, and its weight is consid- lighter for nearly the same
erably less. strength.
 PHYSICS :

Constructing Triangles =~ 7:
The triangle is the strongest shape for building. Youhave
probably noticed triangular shapes in steel bridges, sports
domes, and the framed corners of homes. The triangle is
the only shape that does not twist and collapse when under
pressure. Let's verify the structural merits of the triangle.
Nail or bolt three sticks together as shown. Now nail or bolt
four sticks together. Compare how the two shapes resist
collapse when you apply pressure to them.

x\

ee
ara
4
$

”
|_| i=) & ®0 *= § é 2 9 .

_ bore
it through the top,
- \ a '
the middle, or the bottom?
‘a a ‘ . 4 _ % 4 a —s ‘ ‘

B Answer

Drill the hole in the middle, through the neutral layer. Wood fibers in the top part of the
branch are being stretched, and if you drill the hole there, tension in that part may pull the
branch apart. Fibers in the lower part are being compressed, and a hole there might crush
under compression. In between, in the neutral layer, the hole will not affect the strength of
the branch because fibers there are being neither stretched nor compressed,

266 Chapter18 Solids

ERENCE eT
18.5 Scaling
Did you ever notice how strong an ant is for its size? An ant can carry
the weight of several ants on its back, whereas a strong elephant
couldn't even carry one elephant on its back. How strong would an
ant be if it were scaled up to the size of an elephant? Would this
“super ant” be several times stronger than an elephant? Surprisingly,
the answer is no. Such an ant would not be able to lift its own weight
off the ground. Its legs would be too thin for its greater weight and
would likely break.
Ants have thin legs and elephants have thick legs for a reason.
The proportions of things in nature are in accord with their size. The
study of how size affects the relationship between weight, strength,
and surface area is known as scaling. As the size of a thing increases,
it grows heavier much faster than it grows stronger. You can support
a toothpick horizontally at its ends and you'll notice no sag. But sup-
port a tree of the same kind of wood horizontally at its ends and
you'll see a noticeable sag. The tree is not as strong per unit mass as
the toothpick is.

LENGTH OF SIDE= 2 cm
CROSS-SECTION AREA = 4 cm?
VOLUME (2x22) = 8 em?
MASS = 8UNITS

Ne

LENGTH OF SIDE= 14cm i}

CROSS-SECTION AREA=1cm*
VOLUME (1x1x1) = 1¢m?
MASS = 1UNIT 3

LENGTH OF SIDE=4em
LENGTH OF SIDE=3cm = CROSS-SECTION AREA= 16 cm?
CROSS-SECTION AREA=9cm? ~3 VOLUME (4x44) = 64 cm?
VOLUME (33x3)= 27 cm? 3 MASS = 64 UNITS
MASS = 27 UNITS WY OS
Figure 18.10 A
If the linear dimensions of an object are multiplied by some number, then
the area will grow by the square of the number, and the volume (and mass
of
and weight) will grow by the cube of the number. If the linear dimensions
the cube grow by 2, the area will grow by 22 = 4, and the volume will grow
32 = 9,
by 23 = 8. If the linear dimensions grow by 3, the area will grow by
and the volume will grow by 3° = 27.

267
 Weight depends on volume, and strength comes from the area of
the cross section of limbs—tree limbs or animal limbs. To under-
stand this weight-strength relationship, let’s consider the simple case
of a solid cube of matter, 1 centimeter on a side.
A 1-cubic-centimeter cube has a cross section of 1 square cen-
timeter. That is, if we sliced through the cube parallel to one of its
faces, the sliced area would be 1 square centimeter. Compare this to
a cube that has double the linear dimensions, a cube 2 centimeters
on each side. Its cross-sectional area will be 2 x 2 (or 4) square cen-
timeters and its volume will be 2 x 2 x 2 (or 8) cubic centimeters. If it
had the same density it would be eight times more massive. Careful
investigation of Figure 18.10 shows that when linear dimensions are
enlarged, the cross-sectional area (as well as the total surface area)
grows as the square of the enlargement, whereas volume and weight
grow as the cube of the enlargement.
The volume (and weight) increases much faster than the corre-
sponding enlargement of cross-sectional area. Although the figure
demonstrates the simple example of a cube, the principle applies to
an object of any shape. Consider an athlete who can lift his weight
with one arm. Suppose he could somehow be scaled up to twice his
size—that is, twice as tall, twice as broad, his bones twice as thick
and every linear dimension enlarged by a factor of 2. Would he be
twice as strong? Would he be able to lift himself with twice the ease?
The answer to both questions is no. Since his twice-as-thick arms
would have four times the cross-sectional area, he would be four
times as strong. At the same time, his volume would be eight times
as great, so he would be eight times as heavy. So, for comparable

malSeite a cube 1cm Jong on each side were scaled up to a

iceube 10 cm long on each edge. What would be the volume of
p a:ea scaled--up cube? What would be its cross-sectional surface
area? Itstotal‘Surface area?
= ar e)| ‘ph

fuit tfan athlete were somehow scaled up proportionally to twice

+ >

. Ss e, would he be puonuce or weaker?

@ Answers

1. The volume of the scaled-up cube would be (length of side)?= (10 cm)3, or 1000 cm3.
Its cross-sectional surface area would be (length of side)?= (10 cm)2, or 100 cm?. Its total
surface area= 6 sides x area of side= 600 cm?.
2. The scaled-up athlete would be four times as strong, because the cross-sectional area of
his twice-as-thick bones and muscles increases by a factor of four. He could lift a maximum
load four times as heavy as before. But his own weight is eight times as much as before,
so he would be weaker in relation to his weight. Having four times the strength while car-
rying eight times the weight gives him a strength-to- -weight ratio of only half its former
value. This means that if he could just lift his own weight before, he could now lift
only
half his new weight. In sum, while his actual strength would increase, his strength-to-
weight ratio would decrease.

Chapter 18 Solids
effort, he could lift only half his weight. In relation to his weight, he
would be weaker than before.
The fact that volume (and weight) grows as the cube of linear
enlargement, while strength (and surface area) grows as the square
of linear enlargement is evident in the disproportionately thick legs
of large animals compared with those of small animals. Consider
the different legs of an elephant and a deer, or a tarantula and a
daddy longlegs.
So the great strengths attributed to King Kong and other fictional
giants cannot be taken seriously. The fact that the consequences of
scaling are conveniently omitted is one of the differences between
science and science fiction.

THE SURFACE AREA OF A

4m? VOLUME (SHOWN OPENED
UP) 1S 6 cm? : THE RATIO OF
SURFACE AREA _ 6
VOLUME at

WHEN THE CUBE IS 3*3%3

WHEN THE VOLUME OF A CUBE | (27cm*), T A 1S 54 cm:
IS 2*2*2 (8cm*) THE SURFACE |
AREA |S 24cm? : THE RATIO OF} ------ THE RATIC ee wt
Cpe
SURFACE AREA _ 24 _ 3 |
VOLUME 8 1

Figure 18.11 A
As an object grows proportionally in all directions, there is a greater
increase in volume than in surface area. As a result, the ratio of surface area
to volume decreases.

Important also is the comparison of total surface area with vol-

ume. A study of Figure 18.11 shows that as the linear size of an object
increases, the volume grows faster than the total surface area. (Vol-
ume grows as the cube of the enlargement, and both cross-sectional
area and total surface area grow as the square of the enlargement.)
So as an object grows, its surface area and volume grow at different
rates, with the result that the surface area to volume ratio decreases.
In other words, both the surface area and the volume of a growing
object increase, but the growth of surface area relative to the growth
of volume decreases. Not many people really understand this idea.
The following examples may be helpful.
An experienced cook knows that more skin results when peeling
5 kg of small potatoes than when peeling 5 kg of large potatoes.
 Smaller objects have more surface area per kilogram. Since cooling
occurs at the surfaces of objects, crushed ice will cool a drink much
faster than a single ice cube of the same mass. This is because
crushed ice presents more surface area to the beverage.
The rusting of iron is also a surface phenomenon. The greater
the amount of surface exposed to the air, the faster rusting takes
place. That’s why small filings, or iron in the form of “steel wool,”
which have large surfaces compared with their volumes, are soon
eaten away. The same mass of iron packed in a solid cube or sphere
would undergo little rusting in comparison.
Chunks of coal burn, while coal dust explodes when ignited.
Thin French fries cook faster in oil than fat fries. Flat hamburgers
cook faster than meatballs of the same mass. Large raindrops fall
faster than small raindrops, and large fish swim faster than small
fish. These are all consequences of the fact that volume and area are
not in direct proportion to each other.
The big ears of elephants are not for better hearing, but for cool-
ing. They are nature's way of making up for the small ratio of surface
area to volume for these large animals. The heat that an animal dissi-
pates is proportional to its surface area. If an elephant did not have
large ears, it would not have enough surface area to cool its huge
Figure 18.12 A mass. The large ears of the African elephant greatly increase overall
The African elephant has less surface area, and enable it to cool off in hot climates.
surface area compared with its At the biological level, living cells must contend with the fact that
weight than other animals. It the growth of volume is faster than the growth of surface area. A cell
compensates for this with its
obtains nourishment by diffusion through its surface. As it grows,
large ears, which significantly
surface area enlarges, but not fast enough to keep up with volume.
increase the surface area
For example, when the surface area increases four times, the corre-
through which heat is dissipated,
and promote cooling. sponding volume increases eight times. Eight times the mass must
be sustained by only four times the nourishment. This puts a limit
on the growth of a living cell. So cells divide, and there is life as we
know it. That’s nice.
Not so nice is the fate of large animals when they fall. The state-
ment “the bigger they are, the harder they fall” holds true and is a
consequence of the small ratio of surface area to weight. Air resis-
tance to movement through the air depends on the surface area of
the moving object. If you fell off a cliff, even with air resistance, your
speed would increase at the rate of very nearly 1 g. You wouldn't have
enough surface area relative to your weight—unless you wore a para-
chute. Small animals need no parachute. They have plenty of surface
area relative to their small weights. An insect can fall from the top of
a tree to the ground below without harm. The surface area per
weight ratio is in the insect’s favor—in a sense, the insect is its own
parachute.
1 Explore 2 Develop |3 Apply It is interesting to note that the rate of heartbeat in a mammal
is related to the size of the mammal. The heart of a tiny shrew beats
1 Laboratory Manual 44 about twenty times as fast as the heart of an elephant. In general,
2 Concept-Development small mammals live fast and die young; larger animals live at a
Practice Book 78-7, 18-2 leisurely pace and live longer. Don’t feel bad about a pet hamster that
3 Problem-Solving doesn’t live as long as a dog. All warm-blooded animals have about
Exercises in A the same life span—not in terms of years, but in the average number
Physics 9-2 of heartbeats (about 800 million). Humans are the exception: we live
two to three times longer than other mammals of our size.

270 Chapter 18 Solids

 Chapter Assessment

For: Study and Review Review Questions Check Concepts

Go @nline Visit: PHSchool.com
HSchool.com Web Code: csd-2180 1. How does the arrangement of atoms differ in
a crystalline and a noncrystalline substance?
(18.1)
What evidence do we have for the micro-
Concept Summary scopic crystal nature of some solids? (18.1)
Many solids are made of crystals. What evidence do we have for the visible
crystal nature of some solids? (18.1)
m The atoms in a crystal have an orderly
alrangement. What happens to the density of a uniform
piece of wood when we cut it in half? (18.2)
One property of solids is density, the amount of
mass per unit volume. Uranium is the heaviest atom found in
nature. Why isn’t uranium metal the most
m Density is related both to the masses of the
dense material? (18.2)
atoms and the spacing between atoms.
Which has the greater density—a heavy bar of
m Weight density is weight per unit volume.
pure gold or a pure gold ring? (18.2)
Another property of solids is elasticity.
Does the mass of a loaf of bread change when
m Elastic solids return to their original shape you squeeze it? Does its volume change? Does
when a deforming force is applied and its density change? (18.2)
removed, as long as they are not deformed
. What is the difference between mass density
beyond their elastic limit.
and weight density? (18.2)
m_ By Hooke’s law, stretch or compression is
a. What is the evidence for the claim that
proportional to the applied force (within the
steel is elastic?
elastic limit).
b. That putty is inelastic? (18.3)
m Inelastic materials remain distorted after the
force is removed. . What is Hooke’s law? (18.3)

Scaling is the study of how size affects the rela- . What is an elastic limit? (18.3)
tionships among weight, strength, and surface.
. A 2-kg mass stretches a spring 3 cm. How far
does the spring stretch when it supports 6 kg?
(Assume the spring has not reached its elastic
limit.) (18.3)
Key Terms
crystal (18.1) Hooke’s law (18.3) . Is a steel beam slightly shorter when it stands
density (18.2) inelastic (18.3) vertically? (18.4)
elastic (18.3) scaling (18.5) . Where is the neutral layer in a horizontal
elastic limit (18.3) specific gravity (18.2) beam that supports a load? (18.4)
elasticity (18.3) weight density (18.2) 15. Why is the cross section of a metal beam
I-shaped and not rectangular? (18.4)
16. What is the weight-strength relationship in
scaling? (18.5)

271
17. a. If the linear dimensions of an object are 27. Consider a model steel bridge that is 1/100 the
doubled, how much does the total area exact scale of the real bridge that is to be built.
increase?
a. If the model bridge weighs 50 N, what will
b. How much does the volume increase? the real bridge weigh?
(18.5)
b. If the model bridge doesn’t appear to sag
18. True or false: As the volume of an object under its own weight, is this evidence that the
increases, its surface area also increases, but real bridge, if built exactly to scale, will not
the ratio of surface area to volume decreases. appear to sag either? Explain.
Explain. (18.5)
28. If you use a batch of cake batter for cupcakes
19. Which will cool a drink faster—a 10-gram ice instead of a cake and bake them for the time
cube or 10 grams of crushed ice? (18.5) suggested for baking a cake, what will be the
result?
20. a. Which has more skin—an elephant or a
mouse? 29. Explain, in terms of scaling, why it is an
advantage that natives of the hot African
b. Which has more skin per body weight—an
desert tend to be relatively tall and slender,
elephant or a mouse? (18.5)
and natives of the Arctic region tend to be
short and stout. (Hint:A piece of wire will
cool faster when stretched out than when
Think and Explain Think Critically rolled up into a ball.)
21. Which has more volume—a kilogram of lead 30. Animals lose heat through the surface areas of
or a kilogram of aluminum? their skin. A small animal, such as a mouse,
22. Which has more weight—a liter of ice or a uses a much larger proportion of its energy to
liter of water? keep warm than does a large animal, like an
elephant. Why is the rate of heat loss per unit
23. A certain spring stretches 1 cm for each kilo- area greater in a small animal than a large one?
gram it supports. If the elastic limit is not
reached, how far will it stretch when it sup-
ports a load of 8 kg?
Think and Solve
24. Suppose the spring in the preceding question Develop Problem-Solving Skills
is placed next to an identical spring so the
31. A one-cubic centimeter cube has sides 1 cm
two side-by-side springs equally share the
8-kg load. How far will each spring stretch? in length. What is the length of the sides of a
cube of volume two cubic centimeters?
25. Metal beams are not “solid” like wooden
beams, but are “cut out” in the middle so that 32. Consider eight one-cubic-centimeter sugar
their cross section has an I-shape. What are cubes stacked two-by-two to form a single
the advantages of this shape? bigger cube. What will be the volume of the
combined cube? How does its surface area
26. Compression and tension stress occurs in a compare to the total surface area of the eight
beam that supports a load (even when the separate cubes?
load is its own weight). Show by means of a
33. Consider eight little spheres of mercury, each
simple sketch an example where a horizontal
load-carrying beam is in tension at the top with a diameter of 1 millimeter. When they
and compression at the bottom. Then show a
coalesce to form a single sphere, how big will
case where the opposite occurs: compression
it be? How does its surface area compare to
at the top and tension at the bottom. the total surface area of the previous eight
little spheres?

272 Chapter 18 Solids

 Liquids

e live on the only planet in the solar

system covered mostly by a liquid.
Earth's oceans are made of H,O in
the liquid phase. If Earth were a little closer to
the sun, the oceans would turn to vapor. If
Earth were a little farther away, most of its surface, not just its polar
regions, would be solid ice. It’s nice that Earth is where it is.
In the liquid phase, molecules can flow freely from position to
position by sliding over one another. A liquid takes the shape of
its container.

19.1 Liquid Pressure

A liquid in a container exerts forces on the walls and bottom of the
container. To investigate the interaction between the liquid and a
surface, it is useful to discuss the concept of pressure. Recall from
Chapter 5 that pressure is defined as the force per unit area on
which the force acts.*
pressure =
force
area

The pressure that a block exerts on a table is simply the weight

of the block divided by its area of contact. Similarly, for a liquid in a
cylindrical container like the one shown in Figure 19.1, the pressure Figure 19.1 A
The liquid exerts a pressure
the liquid exerts against the bottom of the container is the weight of
against the bottom of its con-
tainer, just as the block exerts
a pressure against the table.
* Pressure may be measured in any unit of force divided by any unit of area. The stan-
dard international (SI) unit for pressure is newtons per square meter, called the pascal
(Pa), named after the seventeenth-century theologian and scientist Blaise Pascal.
A pressure of 1 Pa is very small, about that of a dollar bill resting flat on a table.
Scientists more often use kilopascals (1 kPa = 1000 Pa).

273
 the liquid divided by the area of the container bottom. (We'll ignore
for now the additional atmospheric pressure.)
How much a liquid weighs, and thus how much pressure it exerts,
depends on its density. Consider two identical containers, one filled
with mercury and the other filled to the same depth with water. For
the same depth, the denser liquid exerts more pressure. Mercury is
13.6 times as dense as water. So for the same volume of liquid, the
weight of mercury is 13.6 times the weight of water. Thus, the pres-
sure of mercury on the bottom is 13.6 times the pressure of water.
For liquids of the same density, the pressure will be greater at
the bottom of the deeper liquid. Consider the two containers in
Figure 19.2. If the liquid in the first container is twice as deep as the
liquid in the second container, then as with two blocks one atop the
other, liquid pressure at the bottom of the first container will be
twice that of the second container.

Figure 19.2 A
The two blocks exert twice as much pressure on the table as one block.
Similarly, the liquid in the first container is twice as deep, so the pressure
on the bottom is twice that exerted by the liquid in the second container.

It turns out that the pressure of a liquid at rest depends only on

the density and the depth of the liquid, not on the shape of the con-
tainer or the size of its bottom surface. Liquids are practically incom-
pressible, so except for changes in temperature, the density of a
liquid is normally the same at all depths. The pressure created by
a liquid* is
pressure due to liquid = weight density x depth

CC OO rr

* This relationship is derived from the definitions of pressure and density. Consider an
area at the bottom of a container of liquid. Pressure is produced by the weight of the
column of liquid directly above this area. From the definition of weight density as
weight divided by volume, this weight of liquid can be expressed as weight density
times volume. The volume of the column is simply the area multiplied by the depth.
Then we get
pressure = force _ weight _ Weight density x volume
area area area

= weight density x aree-x depth = weight density x depth

274 Chapter 19 Liquids

 PHYSICS

Noting Blood Pressure _

Note how your veins stand out on the back of your hands when
you hold them as low as you can—perhaps when you bend over
so your hands are the lowest
part of your body, or when
doing handstands. Then note
the difference when you hold
your hands above your head.
This is “pressure depends on
depth” in action. Why is your
blood pressure measured in
your upper arm, level with
your heart?

At a given depth, a given liquid exerts the same pressure against

any surface—the bottom or sides of its container, or even the surface
of an object submerged in the liquid to that depth. The pressure a
liquid exerts depends on its density and depth.
If you press your hand against a surface, and somebody else
presses against your hand in the same direction, then the pressure
against the surface is greater than if you pressed alone. Likewise with
the atmospheric pressure that presses on the surface of a liquid. The
total pressure of a liquid, then, is weight density x depth plus the
pressure of the atmosphere. When this distinction is important we
will use the term total pressure. Otherwise, our discussions of liquid
pressure refer to pressure in addition to the normally ever-present
atmospheric pressure. (More about atmospheric pressure in the
next chapter.)
It may surprise you that the pressure of a liquid does not depend
on the amount of liquid. Neither the volume nor even the total
weight of liquid matters. For example, if you sampled water pressure
at 1 meter beneath the surface of a large lake and 1 meter beneath
the surface of a small pool, the pressures would be the same.*

* What would that pressure be? The density of fresh water is 1 gram per cubic centime-
ter, which equals 1000 kilograms per cubic meter in SI units. Since the weight (mg) of
1000 kilograms is (1000 kg) x (9.8 N/kg) = 9800 N, the weight density of water is
9800 newtons per cubic meter (9800 N/m3). Water pressure in a pool or lake is simply
equal to the product of the weight density of fresh water and the depth in meters. So at
a depth of 1 meter, water pressure in a large lake or small pool is (9800 N/m) x (1 m) =
9800 N/m2. In SI units, pressure is measured in pascals (1 Pa = 1 N/m?), so our result
would be 9800 Pa or, in the frequently used unit of kilopascals, 9.8 kPa. (This would be
10 kPa in seawater, which has a weight density of 10 000 N/m3.) For the total pressure
in these cases, add the pressure of the atmosphere, 101.3 kPa.

275
Figure 19.3 >
The water pressure is greater at
the bottom of the deeper lake, not
the lake with the most water. The
dam holding back water twice as
deep must withstand greater
average water pressure, regard-
less of the total volume of water.

The dam that must withstand the greater pressure is the dam with
the deepest water behind it, not the most water (Figure 19.3).
The fact that water pressure depends on depth and not on vol-
ume is nicely illustrated with “Pascal’s vases” (Figure 19.4). Note that
the water's surface in each of the connected vases is at the same level.
This occurs because the pressures at equal depths beneath the sur-
faces are the same. At the bottom of each vase, for example, the pres-
sures are equal. If they were not, liquid would flow until the pressures
were equalized. This is why we say “water seeks its own level.”

Figure 19.4 p>

The pressure of the liquid is the
same at any given depth below
the surface, regardless of the
shape of the container.

At any point within a liquid, the forces that produce pressure are
exerted equally in all directions. For example, when you are swim-
ming underwater, no matter which way you tilt your head, you feel
the same amount of water pressure on your ears.

H@ Questions
1. Is there more pressure at the bottom of a bathtub of water
30 cm deep or at the bottom of a pitcher of water 35 cm deep?
2. A brick mason wishes to mark the back of a building at the
exact height of bricks already laid at the front of the building.
How can he measure the same height using only a garden hose
and water?
ee

@ Answers

1. There is more pressure at the bottom of the pitcher, because the water in it is deeper.
The fact that there is more water in the bathtub does not matter.

2. To measure the same height, the brick mason can extend a garden hose that is open
at
both ends from the front to the back of the house, and fill it with water until the water
level reaches the height of bricks in the front. Since water seeks its own level, the
level
of water in the other end of the hose will be the same!

276 Chapter19 Liquids

 When the liquid is pressing against a surface, there is a net force
directed perpendicular to the surface (Figure 19.5 top). If there is a
hole in the surface, the liquid initially will move perpendicular to the
surface (Figure 19.5 bottom). Gravity, of course, causes the path of
the liquid to curve downward. At greater depths, the net force is
greater and the velocity of the escaping liquid is greater.

ANNES SDR Ao pers PST

19.2 Buoyancy
If you have ever lifted a submerged object out of water, you are
familiar with buoyancy, the apparent loss of weight of objects when
submerged in a liquid. It is a lot easier to lift a boulder submerged on
the bottom of a riverbed than to lift it above the water's surface. The
reason is that when the boulder is submerged, the water exerts an
upward force that is opposite in direction to gravity. This upward
force is called the buoyant force.
To understand where the buoyant force comes from, look at
Figure 19.6. The arrows represent the forces within the liquid that pro- Figure 19.5 A
(Top) The forces in a liquid that
duce pressure against the submerged boulder. The forces are greater at
produce pressure against a sur-
greater depth. The forces acting horizontally against the sides cancel face add up to a net force that is
each other, so the boulder is not pushed sideways. But the forces act- perpendicular to the surface.
ing upward against the bottom are greater than those acting down- (Bottom) Liquid escaping
ward against the top because the bottom of the boulder is deeper. through a hole initially moves
The difference in upward and downward forces is the buoyant force. perpendicular to the surface.
When the weight of a submerged object is greater than the buoy-
ant force, the object will sink. When the weight is equal to the buoy-
ant force, the submerged object will remain at any level, like a fish.
When the weight is less than the buoyant force, the object will rise to
the surface and float.
To further understand buoyancy, it helps to think more about
what happens when an object is placed in water. If a stone is placed
in a container of water, the water level will rise (Figure 19.7). Water is
said to be displaced, or pushed aside, by the stone. A little thought
will tell us that the volume—that is, the amount of space taken up or
the number of cubic centimeters—of water displaced is equal to the
Figure 19.6 A
The upward forces against the
THIS VOLUME OF bottom of a submerged object are
LIQUID = VOLUME greater than the downward forces
OF THE STONE against the top. There is a net
a upward force, the buoyant force.

1 Explore
Figure 19.7 A
1 Laboratory Manual 45
When an object is submerged, it displaces a volume of water equal to the
volume of the object itself.

277
 THIS VOLUME OF
LIQUID = VOLUME
OF THE STONE

Figure 19.8 A
When an object is submerged in a container that is initially brim full, the
volume of water that overflows is equal to the volume of the object itself.

volume of the stone. A completely submerged object always displaces

a volume of liquid equal to its own volume.
This gives us a good way to determine the volume of an irregu-
larly shaped object. Simply submerge it in water in a measuring cup
and note the apparent increase in volume of the water. That increase
is equal to the volume of the submerged object. You'll find this tech-
nique handy whenever you want to determine the density of things
like rocks that have irregular shapes.

AIMEE SCA oyOST

19.3 Archimedes’ Principle
The relationship between buoyancy and displaced liquid was discov-
ered in ancient times by the Greek philosopher Archimedes (third
century B.c.). It is stated as follows:
An immersed object is buoyed up by a force equal to
the weight of the fluid it displaces.
This relationship is called Archimedes’ principle. It is true for liquids
and gases, which are both fluids.
Immersed means “either completely or partially submerged.” For
example, if we immerse a sealed 1-liter container halfway into water,
it will displace half a liter of water and be buoyed up by the weight of
Figure 19.9 A half a liter of water. If we immerse it all the way (submerge it), it will
A liter of water occupies 1000 cubic be buoyed up by the weight of a full liter of water (9.8 newtons).
centimeters, has a mass of 1 kilo- Unless the completely submerged container becomes compressed,
gram, and weighs 9.8 N. Any object the buoyant force will equal the weight of 1 liter of water at any
with a volume of 1 liter will experi- depth.* Why? Because the container will displace the same volume
ence a buoyant force of 9.8 N when of water, and hence the same weight of water, at any depth. The
fully submerged in water. weight of this displaced water (not the weight of the submerged
object!) is the buoyant force.
A 300-gram brick weighs about 3 N in air. Suppose the brick dis-
places 2 N of water when it is submerged (Figure 19.10). The buoyant
force on the submerged brick will also equal 2 N. The brick will seem to
1 Explore weigh less under water than above water. In the water, its apparent
2 Concept-Development
Practice Book 79-7 * Water is practically incompressible. A liter of water under great pressure far below the sur-
face still weighs almost the same as a liter of water near the surface, approximately 9.8 N.

278 Chapter 19 Liquids

 <4 Figure 19.10
A brick weighs less in water than
in air. The buoyant force on the
submerged brick is equal to the
weight of the water displaced.
So the brick appears lighter
under water by an amount equal
to the weight of water (2 N) that
has spilled into the smaller con-
tainer. The apparent weight of
the brick under water equals its
weight will be 3 N minus the 2-N buoyant force, or 1 N. The apparent weight in air minus the buoyant
weight of a submerged object is its weight in air minus the buoyant force. force (3N-2N=1N).
You can summarize Archimedes’ principle by way of a numerical
example. Show that the upward force due to water pressure on the
bottom of a submerged block, minus the downward force due to water
pressure on the top, equals the weight of liquid displaced. As long as
the block is submerged, depth makes no difference. Why? Because
although there is more pressure at greater depths, the difference in
pressures on the bottom and top of the block is the same at any depth
(Figure 19.11). Whatever the shape of a submerged object, the buoyant
force equals the weight of liquid displaced.

BH Questions | ra rae ene ant a

1. A 1-liter (L) container filled with mercury has amass of 13.6ka;
and weighs 133 N. When it is BePmeibea! in water,what iis the |
buoyant force on it? ' 84 ae.
2. A block is held suspended beneath the water iinine threepost ,
A tions, A, B, and C, shown in Figure 19. 11. In whichposition is
the buoyant force on it greatest? “= a? 24 :.;
3. A-stone is thrown into a deep lake. As it sinks deeper.and
deeper into the water, does the buoyant force on it increase, _
decrease, orremain unchanged? ‘a +

B Answers

1. The buoyant force equals the weight of 1 L of water (about 10 N) because the volume
of displaced water is 1 L. The mass or weight of mercury is irrelevant; 1 L of anything
submerged in water displaces 1 L of water and is buoyed upward with a force of 10 N.
Or look at it this way: when the container is put in the water, it pushes 1 L of water out
of the way by its presence. In accordance with Newton’s law of action and reaction, the
water pushes back on the container with a force equal to the weight of 1 L of water. If
the container had twice the volume, it would displace 2 L of water and be buoyed up Figure 19.11 A
with a force equal to the weight of 2 L of water. (The concepts involved with buoyant The difference in the upward and
force are best dealt with if you visualize what is going on—conceptual physics!) downward force acting on the
2. The buoyant force is the same at all three positions. Why? Because the amount of submerged block is the same at
water displaced is the same in each case. Buoyant force equals the weight of displaced any depth.
water, which is the same at positions A, B, and C.
3. As in the previous question, the volume of displaced water is the same at any depth.
Water is practically incompressible, so its density is the same at any depth, and equal
volumes of water weigh the same. The buoyant force on the stone remains unchanged
as it sinks deeper and deeper.

279
 ne RR ee er |
LINK TO GEOLOGY
19.4 Does It Sink, or Does It Float?
We have learned:that the buoyant force on a submerged object
depends on the object’s volume. A smaller object displaces less
water so a smaller buoyant force acts on it. A larger object displaces
more water so a larger buoyant force acts on it. The submerged
object’s volume—not its weight—determines buoyant force. (A mis-
understanding of this idea is at the root of a lot of confusion that
you or your friends may have about buoyancy!)
So far we've focused on the weight of displaced fluid, not the
weight of the submerged object. Now we consider its role.
| Just as most of a floating Whether an object sinks or floats (or does neither) depends on
| iceberg is below the
both its buoyant force (up) and its weight (down)—how great the
- water's surface, most
of a mountainis below buoyant force is compared with the object’s weight. Careful thought
ground level. Mountains — will show that when the buoyant force exactly equals the weight of
“float” too! About 15% of a completely submerged object, then the object’s weight must equal
a mountain is above the — the weight of displaced water. Since the volumes of the object and
surrounding ground level. of the displaced water are the same, the density of the object must
The rest extends deep equal the density of water.
| into Earth, resting on the This is true for a fish, whose density equals the density of water.
dense semiliquid mantle. The fish is “at one” with the water—it doesn’t sink or float. If the fish
If we could shave off the were somehow bloated up, it would be less dense than water, and
top of an iceberg, the ice- would float to the top. If the fish swallowed a stone and became
berg would be lighter and more dense than water, it would sink to the bottom.
float higher. Similarly,
when mountains erode
they float higher. That's PHYSICS
why it takes so long for
mountains to weather
away. As the mountain
wears away, it floats
higher, pushed up from
below. When a mile of _ the reading if you lightly touch the surfaceof the water with your
mountain erodes away,
| finger? If you push the water downward, even slightly, will the
85% of it comes back.
scale record this “push”? Is
your push on the water com-
municated to the beaker and
thus to the scale? How does
displacing some water affect
the depth of the water? How
does this affect the pressure on
the bottom? What effect will
this have on the scale? Think.
Discuss. Predict. Then try it
and see!

280 Chapter19 Liquids

 This can be summed up in three simple rules.
=" An object more dense than the fluid in which it is immersed
sinks.
i). An object less dense than the fluid in which it is immersed floats.
ise) . An object with density equal to the density of the fluid in which it
is immersed neither sinks nor floats.

From these rules, what do we say about people who, try as they
may, cannot float?* They’re simply too dense! To float more easily,
you must reduce your density. Since weight density is weight divided Figure 19.12 A
by volume, you must either reduce your weight or increase your vol- The wood floats because it is
less dense than water. The rock
ume. Taking in a lung full of air can increase your volume (temporar-
sinks because it is more dense
ily!). A life jacket does the job better. It increases volume while
than water. The fish neither rises
adding little to your weight. nor sinks because it has the
The density of a submarine is controlled by the flow of water into same density as water.
and out of its ballast tanks. In this way the weight of the submarine
can be varied to achieve the desired average density. A fish regulates
its density by expanding or contracting an air sac that changes its vol-
ume. The fish can move upward by increasing its volume (which
decreases density) and downward by contracting its volume (which
increases density). A crocodile increases its density when it swallows
stones. From 4 to 5 kg of stones have been found lodged in the front
part of the stomach in large crocodiles. With its increased density, the
crocodile swims lower in the water and exposes less of itself to its prey.

Figure 19.13
(Left) A crocodile coming toward
you in the water. (Right) A croco-
dile with a belly full of stones
coming toward you in the water.

Hf Question + ge — Te Shas
We know that ifa fish ‘makes itself more dense, it will Shahifitkes
this so? >
is.
_ itself less dense, it will rise. In terms of buoyant force, why | o q
ph

@ Answer

When the fish increases its density by decreasing its volume, it displaces less water, so the
buoyant force decreases. When the fish decreases its density by expanding, it displaces
more water, and the buoyant force increases.

* Interestingly enough, the people who can't float are, 9 times out of 10, males. Most
males are more muscular and slightly denser than females.
 SARS ARO a SI
19.5 Flotation
Primitive peoples'‘made their boats of wood. Could they have con-
ceived of an iron ship? We don't know. The idea of floating iron might
have seemed strange. Today it is easy for us to understand how a
ship made of iron can float.
Consider a solid 1-ton block of iron. Iron is nearly eight times as
dense as water, so when it is submerged, it will displace only 1/8 ton
of water. The buoyant force will be far from enough to keep it from
sinking. Suppose we reshape the same iron block into a bowl shape,
as shown in Figure 19.14. The iron bowl still weighs 1 ton. If you
lower the bowl into a body of water, it displaces a greater volume of
water than before. The deeper the bowl is immersed, the more water
is displaced and the greater is the buoyant force exerted on the bowl.
When the weight of the displaced water equals the weight of the
bowl, it will sink no farther. It will float because the buoyant force
now equals the weight of the bowl.

BUOYANT FORCE

AAI

Figure 19.14 A
A solid iron block sinks, while the same block shaped to occupy at least eight
times as much volume floats.

Figure 19.15 A
The weight of a floating object equals the weight of the water displaced by
the submerged part.

282 Chapter19 _—_Liquids

 This is an example of the principle of flotation, which states,*
A floating object displaces a weight of fluid equal to its
own weight.
Every ship must be designed to displace a weight of water equal
to its own weight. Thus, a 10 000-ton ship must be built wide enough
to displace 10 000 tons of water before it sinks too deep below the
surface.
Think about a submarine beneath the surface. If it displaces a
weight of water greater than its own weight, it will rise. If it displaces
less, it will go down. If it displaces exactly its weight, it will remain at Figure 19.16 A
A floating object displaces a
constant depth. Water has slightly different densities at different
weight of liquid equal to its own
temperatures, so a submarine must make periodic adjustments as
weight.
it moves through the ocean. As the next chapter shows, a hot-air
balloon obeys the same rules.

Figure 19.17 A
The same ship empty and loaded. How does the weight of its load compare
with the weight of extra water displaced?

cali tA CLES hte

*
H Questions . rt Bae
Complete the following statements by choosing the correct word
for each. . nee Lavra
1. The volume of a submerged object is equal to the _?_ ofliquid ns
displaced. FOGUTS
2. The weight of a floating object is equal to the _? of liquid © :ba
displaced. er" 4

@ Answers
1 Explore
1. volume

2. weight 1 Laboratory Manual 46

2 Concept-Development
* Note that this is a general statement for all fluids rather than just liquids. As the next Practice Book 79-2
chapter shows, the same principle applies to gases as well.

283
 aaaNMANG 26s a A I
19.6 Pascal's Principle
Push a stick against a wall and you can exert pressure at a distance.
Interestingly enough, we can do the same with a fluid. Whenever we
change the pressure in one part of a fluid, this change is transmitted
to other parts. For example, if the pressure of city water is increased
at the pumping station by 10 units of pressure, the pressure every-
where in the pipes of the connected system will be increased by 10
units of pressure (when water is not moving). This rule is called
Pascal's principle:
Changes in pressure at any point in an enclosed fluid
at rest are transmitted undiminished to all points in
the fluid and act in all directions.
Pascal's principle was discovered in the seventeenth century by
Blaise Pascal, for whom the SI unit of pressure is named. Pascal's
principle is employed in a hydraulic press. If you fill a U-shaped tube
with water and place pistons at each end, as shown in Figure 19.18,
pressure exerted against the left piston will be transmitted through-
out the liquid and against the bottom of the right piston. (The pis-
tons are simply “plugs” that fit snugly but can freely slide inside the
Figure 19.18 A tube.) The pressure the left piston exerts against the water will be
The force exerted on the left pis- exactly equal to the pressure the water exerts against the right piston
ton increases the pressure in the
if the levels are the same.
liquid and is transmitted to the
This is nothing to get excited about. But suppose you make the
right piston.
tube on the right side wider and use a piston of larger area; then the
result is impressive. In Figure 19.19 the piston on the left has an area
of 1 square centimeter, and the piston on the right has an area fifty
times as great, 50 square centimeters. Suppose there is a 1-newton
load on the left piston. Then an additional pressure of 1 newton per
square centimeter (1 N/cm?) is transmitted throughout the liquid
and up against the larger piston. Here is where the difference
between force and pressure comes in. The additional pressure of
1 N/cm? is exerted against every square centimeter of the larger
piston. Since there are 50 square centimeters, the total extra force
exerted on the larger piston is 50 newtons. Thus, the larger piston
will support a 50-newton load. This is fifty times the load on the
smaller piston!
This is quite remarkable, for we can multiply forces with such a
device—1 newton input, 50 newtons output. By further increasing
the area of the larger piston (or reducing the area of the smaller pis-
ton), we can multiply forces to any amount. Pascal’s principle under-
lies the operation of the hydraulic press.
The hydraulic press does not violate energy conservation, for
Figure 19.19 A the increase in force is compensated for by a decrease in distance
A 1-N load on the left piston will moved. When the small piston in the last example is moved down-
support 50 N on the right piston. ward 10 cm, the large piston will be raised only one-fiftieth of this,
or 0.2 cm. Very much like a mechanical lever, the input force multi-
plied by the distance it moves is equal to the output force multiplied
by the distance it moves. The hydraulic press is a “machine,” much
like those discussed in Section 8.7.
284 Chapter 19 Liquids
 Pascal's principle applies to all fluids (gases and liquids). A typi-
cal application of Pascal’s principle for gases and liquids is the auto-
mobile lift seen in many service stations (Figure 19.20). Compressed
air exerts pressure on the oil in an underground reservoir. The oil in
turn transmits the pressure to a cylinder, which lifts the automobile.
The relatively low pressure that exerts the lifting force against the
piston is about the same as the air pressure in the tires of the auto-
mobile, because a low pressure exerted over a relatively large area
produces a considerable force.

AIR COMPRESSOR
PISTON
——

RESERVOIR

Figure 19.20 A
Pascal's principle in a service station.

BH Question : qa
As the automobile in Figure 19.20 is being lifted, how does the _ ”
change in oil level in the reservoir compare with the distance the ¥\
automobile moves? \ BSE
SS
1 Explore

3 Problem-Solving ie
E pele All
B Answer xercises in
piston is Physics 9-3
The car moves up a greater distance than the oil level drops, since the area of the
smaller than the surface area of the oil in the reservoir.
 Chapter Assessment

LEAR a SS

For: Study and Review Key Terms

(Go @nline Visit: PHSchool.com
Archimedes’ principle (19.3)
HSchool.com Wat Code: csd-2190
buoyancy (19.2)
buoyant force (19.2)
displacement (19.2)
Concept Summary Pascal’s principle (19.6)
Pressure is the force per unit area on which the principle of flotation (19.5)
force acts.
m Liquids exert pressure equally in all directions
at all points within the liquid.
Review Questions Check Concepts
m The pressure exerted by a liquid at any point is
proportional to the density of the liquid times 1. Distinguish between pressure and force. (19.1)
the depth of that point below the liquid surface. 2. What is the relationship between liquid pres-
m= The total pressure at any given point in a liq- sure and depth of a liquid? Between liquid
uid is the pressure exerted by the liquid plus pressure and density? (19.1)
the pressure of the air above it.
3. a. By how much does the water pressure on a
Buoyancy is the apparent loss of weight of an submarine change when the submarine dives
object immersed in a fluid. to double its previous depth (neglect the very
m Animmersed object displaces some of the real effect of atmospheric pressure above)?
fluid in which it is immersed. b. If the submarine operated in fresh water,
m Acompletely submerged object always dis- would the pressure it feels be greater or less
places a volume of fluid equal to its own vol- than at the same depth in salt water? (19.1)
ume. 4. How does water pressure 1 meter below the
m According to Archimedes’ principle, an surface of a small pond compare with water
immersed object is buoyed up by a force pressure 1 meter below the surface of a huge
equal to the weight of the fluid it displaces. lake? (19.1)
m When an object is more dense than the fluid 5. If you immerse a tin can with a small hole in
in which it is immersed, it sinks. it in water so that water spurts through the
m When an object is less dense than the fluid in hole, what will be the direction of water flow
which it is immersed, it floats. where the hole is? (19.1)
m When an object is as dense as the fluid in 6. Why does the buoyant force act upward for
which it is immersed, it can remain suspended an object submerged in water? (19.2)
in the fluid, neither sinking nor floating.
7. How does the buoyant force that acts on a fish
m A floating object displaces a weight of fluid compare with the weight of the fish? (19.2)
equal to its own weight.
8. Why does the buoyant force on submerged
According to Pascal’s principle, changes in pres- objects not act sideways? (19.2)
sure at any point in an enclosed fluid at rest are
transmitted undiminished to all points in the 9. How does the volume of a completely sub-
fluid and act in all directions. merged object compare with the volume of
water displaced? (19.2)
m The hydraulic press, based on Pascal’s principle,
multiplies forces.

286 Chapter 19 —_Liquids

10. When an object is said to be immersed in
water, does this mean it is completely sub-
Plug and Chug Use Equations
merged? Does it mean it is partially sub-
merged? Does the word immersed apply to 21. Calculate the water pressure at the base of
either case? (19.3) Hoover Dam. The depth of water behind the
dam is 220 m. (Neglect the pressure due to
|b What is the mass of 1 liter of water in kilo-
the atmosphere.)
grams? What is its weight in newtons? (19.3)
22. The top floor of a building is 30 m above the
12 . a. Does the buoyant force on a submerged
basement. Calculate how much greater the
object depend on the weight of the object water pressure is in the basement compared
itself or on the weight of the fluid displaced with the pressure at the top floor.
by the object?
23. An 8.6-kg piece of metal displaces 1 liter of
b. Does it depend on the weight of the object water when submerged. Calculate its density.
itself or on its volume? Defend your answer.
9-3) 24. A 4.7-kg piece of metal displaces 0.6 liter of
water when submerged. Calculate its density.
13. When the buoyant force on a submerged
object is equal to the weight of the object,
how do the densities of the object and water
compare? (19.4) Think and Explain Think Critically
14. When the buoyant force on a submerged 25. Why does water seek its own level?
object is more than the weight of the object,
how do the densities of the object and water 26. Suppose you wish to see whether a point at
the front of your house is at the same eleva-
compare? (19.4)
tion as a point around the back. How can you
15. When the buoyant force on a submerged use a garden hose filled with water to deter-
object is less than the weight of the object, mine whether the elevations are equal?
how do the densities of the object and water
27. There is a legend of a Dutch boy who bravely
compare? (19.4)
held back the whole Atlantic Ocean by plug-
16. a. How is the density of a submarine controlled? ging a hole in a dike with his finger. Is this
possible and reasonable? Estimate the force if
b. How is the density of a fish controlled? (19.4) the hole were about 1 square centimeter in
ig Does the buoyant force on a floating object area and | meter below the water level.
depend on the weight of the object itself or 28. Why is it inaccurate to say that heavy objects
on the weight of the fluid displaced by the sink and light objects float?
object? Or are these both the same for the
special case of floating? (19.5) 29. A 1-kg block of iron and a 1-kg block of alu-
minum are submerged in water. Upon which
18. What is the buoyant force that acts on a 100- does the greater buoyant force act? Why?
ton ship? (To make things simple, give your
answer in tons.) (19.5)
30. Compared with an empty ship, would a ship
loaded with a cargo of foam insulation sink
19. According to Pascal’s principle, what happens deeper into water or rise in water? Explain.
to the pressure in all parts of a confined fluid
31. The density of a rock doesn't change when it
when you produce an increase in pressure in
is submerged in water, but your density does
one part? (19.6)
change when you are submerged. Why?
20. When the pressure in a hydraulic press is 32. A fire truck carrying a load of firefighters and
increased by an additional 10 N/cm?, how
a large tank of water is about to cross a bridge
much extra load will the output piston sup- that may not support the load. The chief sug-
port when its cross-sectional area is 50 square gests that some of the people aboard get into
centimeters? (19.6) the tank and thereby lighten the load. Is this a
good idea, or a poor idea? Explain.

287
33. A balloon is weighted so it is barely able to 39. A 1-kg rock suspended above water weighs
float in water. If it is pushed beneath the sur- 9.8 N. When suspended beneath the surface
face, will it come back to its starting point, of the water, its apparent weight is 7.8 N.
stay at the depth to which it is pushed, or
sink? Explain. (Hint: What change in density,
if any, does the balloon undergo?)
34. If you were to float in the Dead Sea, you
would float appreciably higher than in fresh
water because of the water’s greater density.
Would the buoyant force on you be greater
also? Why or why not?
35. a. A half-filled bucket of water is on a spring
scale. If a live fish is placed in it, what hap-
pens to the reading on the scale?
a. What is the buoyant force on the rock?
b. Would your answer be different if the
bucket were initially filled to the brim? b. If the container of water on a bathroom-
type scale weighs 9.8 N, what is the scale
reading when the rock is suspended beneath
the surface of the water?
Think and Solve
Develop Problem-Solving Skills c. What is the scale reading when the
rock is released and rests at the bottom
You may need the following information for some of the container?
of the Think and Solve problems that follow.
40. Calculate the approximate volume of a per-
The density p of fresh water is 1000 kg/m’, or son of mass 100 kg who can just barely float
equivalently 1.00 kg/liter. Weight density p,, in fresh water.
is 9800 N/m’, or equivalently, 9.80 N/liter. For
sea water, these values are 1030 kg/m’, or 1.03 41. A0.5-m? cube just barely floats in water. What
kg/liter, and 10 094 N/m‘*, or 10.094 N/liter. is the mass of the cube?

36. Which do you suppose produces more pressure 42. A scuba diver dives to a depth of 20 min
on the ground, an elephant or a lady standing ocean water. If the circular glass plate on the
on high heels? Make reasonable assumptions diver’s face mask has a diameter of 16 cm,
and approximate a rough calculation for each. what force does the water exert on it?
37. Assume the density of blood is nearly the 43. A bathyscaph descends to a depth of 11,000
same as that of water. m (nearly 7 miles!) in the Mariana Trench in
the Pacific Ocean.
a. How much greater is blood pressure in
your feet than in your brain when standing a. What is the pressure at that depth?
up? (Assume a height of 1.5 m.)
b. How much force is exerted by the water on a
b. Why are damaged veins (such as varicose circular observation window of diameter 16cm?
veins) common in lower legs and rare in ears?
c. How much greater is the force compared
38. An open U-tube contains mercury. When with the force on the diver’s mask in the pre-
water is poured into one end of the tube, vious question?
mercury in the other end rises 4 cm. What
column height of water does this? (The den- 44. A gravel barge, rectangular in shape, is 4 m
sity of mercury is 13.6 g/cm*.) wide and 10 m long. When loaded, it sinks
2 m in the water. What is the weight of gravel
in the barge?

288 Chapter19 Liquids

45. A 0.6 kg piece of metal displaces 1 liter of
water when submerged. What is its density?
Activities Performance Assessment
46. A certain block of plastic is 0.6 as dense as
51. Try to float an egg in water. Then dissolve salt
water and therefore floats in water. What in the water until the egg floats. How does the
weight of water will be displaced by a 100-kg density of an egg compare with that of tap
floating block of this plastic? What additional water? Salt water? How do you know?
force would be required to poke it beneath
the surface so it is completely submerged? 52. Make a Cartesian diver like the one shown
below. Completely fill a large, pliable plastic
47. Oak is 0.8 as dense as water and therefore
bottle with water. Partially fill a small pill bot-
floats in water.
tle so that it just barely floats when capped,
a. What weight of water will be displaced by a turned upside down, and placed in the large
50-kg floating oak beam? bottle. (You may have to experiment to get it
just right.) Once the pill bottle is barely float-
b. What additional force would be required to ing, secure the lid or cap on the large bottle
poke the oak beneath the surface so it is com- so that it is airtight. When you press the sides
pletely submerged? of the large bottle, the pill bottle sinks; when
48. A king’s crown, presumed to be pure gold, has you release it, the bottle returns to the top.
a mass of 1.00 kg. When submerged in water Experiment by squeezing the bottle different
its apparent mass is measured to be 0.92 kg. ways to get different results. Explain the
behavior you see.
a. What is the buoyant force in newtons?
b. What volume of water (in liters) is displaced?
c. Is the crown made of pure gold
(p = 19.3 kg/liter)?
49. The cross-sectional area of the output piston
in a hydraulic device is ten times the input
piston’s area.
a. By how much will the device multiply the
input force? 53. Punch a couple of holes in the bottom of a
water-filled container, and water will spurt
b. How far will the output piston move com- out because of water pressure (left of figure).
pared with the distance the input piston is Now drop the container and watch what hap-
moved? (Does this satisfy F,d, = F,d,, the pens. Explain your observations. (Hint: What
equation for conservation of energy?) happens to g, and hence weight, and hence
50. Suppose the piston in the hydraulic lift of weight density, and hence pressure in the ref-
Figure 19.20 has a cross-sectional area of erence frame of the falling container?)
0.10 m*.
a. What air pressure must be produced by the
air compressor to support 10 000 N, the com-
bined weight of car and lift?
b. How does this pressure compare with nor-
mal atmospheric pressure (100 kPa)?
c. Why is the area of the liquid surface in the
reservoir irrelevant, yet the cross-sectional
area of the piston very relevant?
 ases are similar to liquids in that they
flow; hence both are called fluids. The
primary difference between gases and
liquids is the distance between molecules. In a
liquid, the molecules are close together, where
they continually experience forces from the sur-
H,O in its gaseous form is rounding molecules. These forces strongly affect the motion of the
invisible; when it condenses molecules. In a gas, the molecules are far apart, allowing them to
to liquid it can be seen. move freely between collisions. When two molecules in a gas collide,
if one gains speed in the collision, the other loses speed, such that
their total kinetic energy is unchanged.
A gas expands to fill all space available to it and takes the shape
of its container. Only when the quantity of gas is very large, such as
in Earth’s atmosphere or in a star, does gravitation determine the
shape of the gas.

EEE
cE 3002.
20.1 The Atmosphere
We don't have to look far to find a sample of gas. We live in an ocean
of gas, our atmosphere. Molecules in the air occupy space and
extend many kilometers above Earth’s surface. The molecules are
energized by sunlight and kept in continual motion. Without Earth’s
gravity, they would fly off into outer space. And without the sun’s
Figure 20.1 A energy, the molecules would just end up as matter on the ground.
Molecules in the gaseous state Fortunately, there is an energizing sun and there is gravity, so we
are far apart, are in continuous have an atmosphere.
motion, bounce off one another Unlike the ocean, which has a very definite surface, Earth’s
without net change in energy, atmosphere has no definite surface. Unlike the uniform density of a
and fill up and take the shape
liquid at any depth, the density of the atmosphere decreases with
of their container.
altitude. Air is more compressed at sea level than at higher altitudes.

290 Chapter 20 Gases

The atmosphere is like a huge pile of feathers, where those at the
bottom are more squashed than those nearer the top. The air gets
thinner and thinner (less dense) the higher one goes; it eventually
thins out into space.
Even in the vacuous regions of interplanetary space there is a gas
density of about one molecule per cubic centimeter. This is primar-
ily hydrogen, the most plentiful element in the universe.
Figure 20.2 shows how thin our atmosphere is. Note that 50% of
the atmosphere is below 5.6 kilometers (18 000 ft), 75% of the atmos-
phere is below 11 kilometers (56 000 ft), 90% is below 17.7 kilome-
ters, and 99% of the atmosphere is below an altitude of about 30
kilometers. Compared with Earth’s radius, 30 kilometers is very
small. To give you an idea of how small, the “thickness” of the
atmosphere relative to the size of the world is like the thickness of
condensed breath on a cold billiard ball. Our atmosphere is a deli-
cate and finite life-sustaining thin shell of air; that’s why we should
care for it.

>"of physies a a
40 km |g surements 0 segs
ture, pressure, windee a =
| velocity, and humidity. J
| They then rrely‘on com-— ae
"puters to analyze |their Ss
~ data and develop mathe-

uw
99°% OF THE ATMOSPHERE J 30 km “matical models. aei
_ Meteorologists are :
ir Pb: employed by news and —
a ‘weather agencies.

fe)
<
@
& ES Sec 20 km
O% CE THE ATMOSPHERE
( oe S BELOW HERE )

ie
ATMOSPLIERE
10 km ‘'s BELOW
4 11 km
a 50% OF THE
2) ATMOSPHERE
° IS BELOW
Oo 5.6 km
a
t—-

Figure 20.2 A
The atmosphere. Note how the temperature of the atmosphere drops as one
goes higher (until it rises again at very high altitude).

291
 RRS
MT TANT Te]
20.2 Atmospheric Pressure
We live at the bottom of an ocean of air. The atmosphere, much like
water in a lake, exerts pressure. And just as water pressure is caused
by the weight of water, atmospheric pressure is caused by the weight
of air. We are so accustomed to the invisible air that we sometimes
forget it has weight. Perhaps a fish “forgets” about the weight of
water in the same way.

yr)
+)(= 4 | poner otsVarious Gases
Sor
- Donelty (kg/m)
Figure 20.3 A ae Chests
You don’t notice the weight of a | 7 ee |
bag of water while you’re sub-
merged in water. Similarly, you 1a
don’t notice the weight of air as : & Le
you walk around in it.

At sea level, 1 cubic meter of air at 20°C has a mass of about

1.2 kg. Calculate the number of cubic meters in your room, multiply
by 1.2 kg/m, and you'll have the mass of air in your room. Don’t be
surprised if it has more mass than your kid sister. Air is heavy if you
have enough of it. If your kid sister doesn't believe air has weight,

1 Explore

1 Laboratory Manual 47 Figure 20.4 A

It takes more than 1000 kg of additional air to fully pressurize
a 777 jumbo jet.

Chapter 20 Gases
maybe its because she’s surrounded by air all the time. Hand her a
plastic bag of water and she'll tell you it has weight. But hand her the
same bag of water while she’s submerged in a swimming pool, and
she won't feel its weight because the bag is surrounded by water.
Consider a superlong bamboo pole that reaches up through the
atmosphere for 30 kilometers. Suppose the inside cross-sectional
area of the hollow pole is 1 square centimeter. If the density of air
inside the pole matches the density of air outside, the enclosed mass
of air would be about 1 kilogram. The weight of this much air is
about 10 newtons. So air pressure at the bottom of the bamboo pole
would be about 10 newtons per square centimeter (10 N/cm7?). Of
course, the same is true without the bamboo pole.
There are 10 000 square centimeters in 1 square meter, so a
column of air 1 square meter in cross section that extends up .
Ne
through the atmosphere has a mass of about 10 000 kilograms. The
weight of this air is about 100 000 newtons (10° N). This weight pro- Figure 20.5 A
duces a pressure of 100 000 newtons per square meter, or equivalently, The mass of air that would
100 000 pascals, or 100 kilopascals. More exactly, the average atmos- occupy a bamboo pole that
pheric pressure at sea level is 101.3 kilopascals (101.3 kPa).* extends to the “top” of the
The pressure of the atmosphere is not uniform. Aside from atmosphere is about 1 kg.
variations with altitude, there are variations in atmospheric pressure This air has a weight of 10 N.
at any one locality due to moving air currents and storms. Measure-
ment of changing air pressure is important to meteorologists in pre-
dicting weather.

¢ 4
HB Questions
1. About how many kilograms of air occupy a classroom that has iL
a 200-square-meter floor area and a 4-meter-high ceiling?
2. Why doesn’t the pressure of the atmosphere break windows?

B Answers

1. 960 kg. The volume of air is (200 m?) x (4 m) = 800 m%. Each cubic meter of air has a
mass of about 1.2 kg, so (800 m3) X (1.2 kg/m) = 960 kg.
Figure 20.6 A
both
2. The atmospheric pressure doesn’t normally break windows because it acts on The weight of air that bears
sides of a window. So no net force is exerted by the atmosphere on the windows. down on a 1-square-meter sur-
face at sea level is about 100 000
* The average pressure at sea level used to be called one atmosphere. This term is
still newtons. So atmospheric pres-
aver-
commonly used, but it is no longer acceptable with SI units. In British units, the sure is about 100 000 newtons
age atmospheric pressure at sea level is 14.7 pounds/inch?. per square meter (10° N/m2),
or about 100 kPa.

293
 NSN 2° 0 CU eae
20.3 The Simple Barometer
An instrument used for measuring the pressure of the atmosphere
is called a barometer. A simple mercury barometer is illustrated in
Figure 20.7. A glass tube, longer than 76 cm and closed at one end,
is filled with mercury and tipped upside down in a dish of mercury.
The mercury in the tube runs out of the submerged open bottom
until the level falls to about 76 cm. The empty space trapped above,
except for some mercury vapor, is a vacuum. The vertical height of
the mercury column remains constant even when the tube is tilted,
unless the top of the tube is less than 76 cm above the level in the
dish, in which case the mercury completely fills the tube.

Figure 20.7 A
A simple mercury barometer. Variations above and below the average
column height of 76 cm are caused by variations in atmospheric pressure.

Why does mercury behave this way? The explanation is similar to

the reason a simple see-saw balances when the weights of people at
its two ends are equal. The barometer “balances” when the weight of
liquid in the tube exerts the same pressure as the atmosphere out-
side. Whatever the width of the tube, a 76-cm column of mercury
weighs the same as the air that would fill a supertall 30-km tube of
the same width. If the atmospheric pressure increases, then it will
push the mercury column higher than 76 cm. The mercury is literally
pushed up into the tube of a barometer by atmospheric pressure.
Could water be used to make a barometer? The answer is yes,
but the glass tube would have to be much longer—13.6 times as
long, to be exact. You may recognize this number as the density of
mercury relative to that of water. A volume of water 13.6 times that of
mercury is needed to provide the same weight as the mercury in the
tube (or in the imaginary tube of air outside). So the height of the
tube would have to be at least 13.6 times taller than the mercury col-
umn. A water barometer would have to be 13.6 X (0.76 m), or 10.3 m
high—too tall to be practical.
1 Explore The operation of a barometer is similar to the process of drinking
through a straw. By sucking, you reduce the air pressure in the straw
3 Laboratory Manual 48 that is placed in a drink. Atmospheric pressure on the liquid’s surface
pushes liquid up into the reduced-pressure region. Strictly speaking,

294 Chapter 20 Gases

 PHYSICS

Liquid Transfer Technique

Lower a narrow glass tube or drinking straw in water, and place your.
finger over the top of the tube. Lift the tube from the water. Why does
the water not fall out? Then lift your finger from the top of the tube.
What happens? (You'll do this often if you enroll in a chemistry lab.)

the liquid is not sucked up; it is pushed up by the pressure of the

atmosphere. If the atmosphere is prevented from pushing on the sur-
face of the drink, as in the party trick bottle with the straw through
the airtight cork stopper, one can suck and suck and get no drink.

Figure 20.8 A
You cannot drink soda through the straw unless the atmosphere exerts a
pressure on the surrounding liquid.

If you understand these ideas, you can understand why there

is a 10.3-meter limit on the height water can be lifted with vacuum
pumps. The old-fashioned farm-type pump (Figure 20.9) operates
by producing a partial vacuum in a pipe that extends down into the
water below. The atmospheric pressure exerted on the surface of the
water simply pushes the water up into the region of reduced pres-
sure inside the pipe. Can you see that even with a perfect vacuum,
the maximum height to which water can be lifted is 10.3 meters?

< Figure 20.9

The atmosphere pushes water
from below up into a pipe that is
evacuated of air by the pumping
action.
1 Explore
RERRRNE Oc S
2 Concept-Development 20.4 The Aneroid Barometer
Practice Book 20-2
A popular classroom demonstration to illustrate atmospheric pressure
is crushing a can with atmospheric pressure. A can containing a little
water in it is heated until steam forms. Then the can is capped
securely and removed from the source of heat. There is now less air
inside the can than before it was heated. (Why? Because when the
water boils and changes to steam, the steam pushes air out of the
can.) When the sealed can cools, the pressure inside is reduced
because steam inside the can condenses to a liquid when it cools. The
greater pressure of the atmosphere outside the can then proceeds to
crush the can (Figure 20.10). The pressure of the atmosphere is even
more dramatically shown when a 50-gallon drum is crushed by the
same procedure.

Figure 20.10 A
When the air pressure inside is reduced, the greater atmospheric pressure
outside crushes the can.

A much more subtle application of atmospheric crushing is used

in an aneroid (“without liquid”) barometer. This small portable
instrument (Figure 20.11) is more prevalent than the mercury
barometer. It uses a small metal box that is partially exhausted of air
and has a slightly flexible lid that bends in or out as atmospheric-
pressure changes. The pressure difference between the inside and
outside is less drastic than that of the crushed can of Figure 20.10.
Motion of the lid is indicated on a scale by a mechanical spring-and-
lever system. Since atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing
altitude, a barometer can be used to determine the elevation. An
aneroid barometer calibrated for altitude is called an altimeter (“alti-
Figure 20.11 A tude meter”). Some of these instruments are sensitive enough
An aneroid barometer. to indicate changes in elevation of less than a meter.

296 Chapter 20 Gases

NNN: CRETE SPRGTII RIE r= ERY ere
20.5 Boyle's Law
The air pressure inside the inflated tires of an automobile is consid-
erably more than the atmospheric pressure outside. The density of
air inside is also more than that of the air outside. To understand the
relationship between pressure and density, think of the molecules of
air* inside the tire.
Inside the tire, the molecules behave like tiny Ping-Pong® balls,
perpetually moving helter-skelter and banging against the inner walls.
Their impacts on the inner surface of the tire produce a jittery force
that appears to our coarse senses as a steady push. This pushing force
averaged over a unit of area provides the pressure of the enclosed air.
Suppose there are twice as many molecules in the same volume
(Figure 20.12)—then the air density is doubled. If the molecules
move at the same average speed—or, equivalently, if they have the
same temperature—then to a close approximation, the number of
collisions will double. This means the pressure is doubled. So pres-
sure is proportional to density.

Figure 20.12 A
When the density of the air in the tire is increased, the pressure is increased.

The density of the air can also be doubled by simply compress-

ing the air to half its volume. We increase the density of air in a bal-
loon when we squeeze it, and likewise increase air density in the

Figure 20.13 A
When the volume of gas is decreased, the density—and therefore pressure—
are increased.

argon
* Air is composed of a mixture of gases—mainly nitrogen and oxygen, with some
molecules of air, we are referring to any
and a little carbon dioxide. When we speak of
of the different kinds of molecules found in air.

297
 cylinder of a tire pump when we push the piston downward.
Consider the cylinder with the movable piston in Figure 20.13. If the
piston is pushed downward so that the volume is half the original
volume, the density of molecules will be doubled, and the pressure
will correspondingly be doubled. Decrease the volume to a third its
original value, and the pressure will be increased by three, and so on.
Notice from these examples that the product of pressure and vol-
ume is the same for any given quantity of a gas. For example, a dou-
bled pressure multiplied by a halved volume gives the same value as
a tripled pressure multiplied by a one-third volume. In general, we
can say that the product of pressure and volume for a given mass of
gas is a constant as long as the temperature does not change.
“Pressure X volume” for a quantity of gas at one time is equal to any
“different pressure x different volume” at any other time. In equa-
tion form,
P\V, = P,V,
where P, and V, represent the original pressure and volume, respec-
tively, and P, and V, the second, or final, pressure and volume. This
relationship is called Boyle's law, after Robert Boyle, the seventeenth-
century physicist who is credited with its discovery.*

- Questions -
‘48 Ifyou squeeze |a balloon to one-third its volume, by how much
a will the pressuree inside increase?
2 ft piston in anairtight pump iis withdrawn sso that the volume of
the air chamber iis increased five times.- What|is the change in
pressure? aan
a A scuba diver A0/3. m deep Breanes compressed air. If she
holds her breath while. returning to the surface, by how much
; does the volume ofher lungs tend to increase?
F an .

@ Answers

1. The pressure in the balloon is increased three times. No wonder balloons break when
you squeeze them!
2. The pressure in the piston chamber decreases to 1/5. This is the principle behind a
mechanical vacuum pump.
3. Atmospheric pressure can support a column of water 10.3 m high, so the pressure in
water due to the weight of the water alone equals atmospheric pressure at a depth of
10.3 m. Taking the pressure of the atmosphere at the water's surface into account, the total
pressure at this depth is twice atmospheric pressure. Unfortunately for the scuba diver, her
lungs will tend to inflate to twice their normal size if she holds her breath while rising
to
the surface. A first lesson in scuba diving is not to hold your breath when ascending. To
do
so can be fatal.

* A general law that takes temperature changes into account is P, V,/T,= P,V>/T>, where
T, and T, represent the initial and final absolute temperatures, measured in
SI units
called kelvins (Chapter 21).

Chapter 20 Gases
NEI
ETE ES
20.6 Buoyancy of Air
In the last chapter you learned about buoyancy in liquids. All the
rules for buoyancy were stated in terms of fluids rather than liquids.
The reason is simple enough: the rules hold for gases as well as liq-
uids. The physical laws that explain a dirigible aloft in the air are the
same that explain a fish “aloft” in water. We can state Archimedes’
principle for air:
An object surrounded by air is buoyed up by a force
equal to the weight of the air displaced. Figure 20.14 A
The dirigible and the fish both
Recall that a cubic meter of air at ordinary atmospheric pressure
hover at a given level for the
and room temperature has a mass of about 1.2 kg, so its weight is same reason.
about 12 N. Therefore any 1-cubic-meter object in air is buoyed up
with a force of 12 N. If the mass of the 1-cubic-meter object is
greater than 1.2 kg (so that its weight is greater than 12 N), it will fall
to the ground when released. If an object this size has a mass less
than 1.2 kg, it will rise in the air. Any object that has a mass less than
the mass of an equal volume of surrounding air will rise. Another
way to say this is, any object less dense than the air around it will
rise. Gas-filled balloons that rise in the air are less dense than the
surrounding air.
When you next see a large dirigible airship aloft in the air, think
of it as a giant fish. Both remain aloft as they swim through their flu-
ids for the same reason; they both displace their own weights of
fluid. When in motion, the dirigible may be raised or lowered by
means of horizontal rudders or “elevators.”

BH Questions
1. ls there a buoyant force acting on you? If there is, why are you ot
not buoyed up by this force? Figure 20.15 A
Everything is buoyed up by a
2. Two balloons are inflated to the same size, one with air and the force equal to the weight of the
other with helium. Which balloon experiences the greater buoy- air it displaces. Why, then, is n't
ant force? Why does the air-filled balloon sink and the helium- everything held aloft like this
filled balloon float? balloon?
— ____________.__ eee

®@ Answers

1. There is a buoyant force acting on you, and you are buoyed upward by it. You don’t
notice it only because your weight is so much greater.

2. Both balloons are buoyed upward with the same buoyant force because they displace
the same weight of air. The reason the air-filled balloon sinks in air is because it is
heavier than the buoyant force that acts on it. The helium-filled balloon is lighter than
the buoyant force that acts on it. Or put another way, the air-filled balloon is slightly
more dense than the surrounding air (principally because it is filled with compressed
air). Helium, even somewhat compressed, is appreciably less dense than air.

299
 1 Explore |2 Develop Rea rat ORC Sead eettema ne te eRe
2 Concept-Development 20.7 Bernoulli's Principle
Practice Book 20-7
The discussion of fluid pressure thus far has been confined to sta-
tionary fluids. Motion produces an additional influence.
Most people think that atmospheric pressure increases in a gale,
tornado, or hurricane. Actually, the opposite is true. High-speed
winds may blow the roof off your house, but the pressure within the
winds is actually less than for still air of the same density. As strange
as it may first seem, when the speed of a fluid increases, its pressure
decreases. This is true for all fluids—liquids and gases alike.
Consider a continuous flow of water through a pipe. Because
water doesn't “bunch up,” the amount of water that flows past any
given section of the pipe is the same as the amount that flows past
any other section of the same pipe. This is true whether the pipe
widens or narrows. As a consequence of continuous flow, the water
in the wide parts will slow down, and in the narrow parts, it will
speed up. You can observe this when you put your finger over the
outlet of a water hose.
Daniel Bernoulli, a Swiss scientist of the eighteenth century,
advanced the theory of water flowing through pipes. He found that
the greater the speed of flow, the less is the force of the water at right
angles (sideways) to the direction of flow. The pressure at the walls of
the pipes decreases when the speed of the water increases. Bernoulli
found this to be a principle of both liquids and gases. Bernoulli’s
principle in its simplest form states,
When the speed of a fluid increases, the pressure drops.
Bernoulli’s principle is a consequence of the conservation of
energy. For a steady flow of an ideal fluid free of internal friction
there are three kinds of energy: kinetic energy due to motion, work
associated with pressure forces, and gravitational potential energy
Figure 20.16 A due to elevation. In a steady fluid flow where no energy is added or
Because the flow is continuous, taken away, whatever work is done by one part of the fluid on
water speeds up when it flows another part makes its appearance as kinetic and potential energy.
through the narrow and/or shal- Then the sum of the three energy terms remains constant.* If the ele-
low part of the brook. vation of the flowing fluid does not change, then an increase in
speed means a decrease in pressure, and vice versa.
The decrease of fluid pressure with increasing speed may at first
seem surprising, particularly if we fail to distinguish between the
pressure in the fluid and the pressure exerted by the fluid on some-
thing that interferes with its flow. The pressure within the fast-mov-
ing water in a fire hose is relatively low, whereas the pressure that the
water can exert on anything in its path to slow it down may be huge.
-_-
Sh

* In mathematical form: mv2 + pV + mgh = constant, where m is the mass of some

small volume V, vits speed, p its pressure, g the acceleration due to gravity, and h its
elevation. If mass m is expressed in terms of density p, where p = m/V, and each term
is divided by V, Bernoulli’s equation takes the form pv? + p+ pgh = constant. Then all
three terms have units of pressure. If h does not change, then an increase in v means a
decrease in p, and vice versa.

300 Chapter 20 = Gases

 In steady flow, one small bit of fluid follows along the same path
as a bit of fluid in front of it. The motion of a fluid in steady flow fol-
lows streamlines, which are represented by dashed lines in Figure
20.17 and later figures. Streamlines are the smooth paths, or trajecto-
ries, of the bits of fluid. The lines are closer together in the narrower
regions, where the flow is faster and pressure is less.

<4 Figure 20.17

A fluid speeds up when it flows
into the narrow region. The con-
stricted streamlines indicate
increased speed and decreased
internal pressure.

Bernoulli's principle holds only for steady flow. If the flow speed
is too great, the flow may become turbulent and follow a changing,
curling path known as an eddy. In that case, Bernoulli’s principle
does not hold.

ra
eR RR EET a
20.8 Applications of Bernoulli's Principle
Bernoulli’s principle partly accounts for the flight of birds and air-
craft. The shape and orientation of the wings ensure that air passes
somewhat faster over the top surface of the wing than beneath the
lower surface. Pressure above the wing is less than pressure below
the wing. The difference between these pressures produces a net
upward force, appropriately called lift.* Even a small pressure differ-
ence multiplied by a large wing area can produce a considerable
force. When lift equals weight, horizontal flight is possible. The lift is

Figure 20.18 A
The paper rises.

Figure 20.19 A
Air pressure is less above the wing than below it.

* Pressure differences are only one way to understand wing lift. Another way uses 1 Explore
Newton's third law. The wing forces air downward (action) and the air forces the wing
upward (reaction). Air is deflected downward by the wing tilt, called the angle of attack. 3 Problem-Solving re
When riding in a car, place your hand out the window and pretend it's a wing. Tip it up Exercises in All
slightly so air is forced downward. Up goes your hand! Air lift provides a nice example to Physics 9-4
remind us that often there is more than one way to explain the way nature behaves.

301
 =~
greater for higher speeds and larger wing areas. Hence, low-speed
gliders have very large wings relative to the size of the fuselage.
The wings of faster-moving aircraft are relatively small.
We began our discussion of Bernoulli’s principle by stating that
atmospheric pressure decreases in a strong wind. As Figure 20.20
shows, air pressure above a roof is less than air pressure inside the
Figure 20.20 A building when a wind is blowing. This produces a lift that may result
In high winds, air pressure above
in the roof being blown off. Roofs are usually constructed to with-
a roof can drastically decrease.
stand increased downward loads, the weight of snow for example,
but not for increased upward forces. Unless the building is well
vented, the stagnant air inside can push the roof off.
Bernoulli’s principle is also partly involved in the curved path of
spinning balls. When a moving baseball, tennis ball, or any kind of
ball spins, unequal air pressures are produced on opposite sides of
the ball. Note in Figure 20.21 (right) that the streamlines are closer at
B than at A for the direction of spin shown. Air pressure is greater at
A, and the ball curves as indicated. Curving may be increased by
threads or fuzz, which help to drag a thin layer of air with the ball
and produce further crowding of streamlines on one side.

—<— oS

aa
Sera
fai me rE
NO SPIN SPIN

Figure 20.21 A
(Left) The streamlines are the same on either side of a nonspinning ball.
(Right) A spinning ball produces a crowding of streamlines. It is pushed to
one side, causing it to curve.

You can demonstrate Bernoulli’s principle quite interestingly in

your kitchen sink (Figure 20.22). Tape a Ping-Pong ball to a string
and allow the ball to swing into a stream of running water. You'll see
that it will remain in the stream even when tugged slightly to the
side, as shown. The pressure of stationary air on the ball is greater
than the pressure of moving water. The ball is pushed into the region
of reduced pressure by the atmosphere.
A similar thing happens to a bathroom shower curtain when the
shower water is turned on full blast. Air near the water stream flows
into the lower-pressure stream and is swept downward with the
Figure 20.22 A falling water. Air pressure inside the curtain is thus reduced, and the
Pressure is greater in the station- atmospheric pressure outside pushes the curtain inward (providing
ary fluid (air) than in the moving an escape route for the downward-swept air). This effect is small
fluid (water). The atmosphere compared with the convection produced by temperature differences,
pushes the ball into the region of but nevertheless, the next time you're taking a shower and the cur-
reduced pressure. tain swings in against your legs, think of Daniel Bernoulli!

302 Chapter 20 = Gases

 Chapter Assessment

(Go @nline For: Study and Review

Visit: PHSchool.com
Review Questions Check Concepts
School.com Web Code: csd-2200 {5 a. What is the energy source for the motion of
gases in the atmosphere?
b. What prevents atmospheric gases from fly-
ing off into space? (20.1)
Concept Summary
- How does the density of gases at different ele-
Earth’s atmosphere is an ocean of air extending vations in the atmosphere differ from the
about 30 km above Earth’s surface, with thinner density of liquids at different depths? (20.1)
air extending even higher.
3. What causes atmospheric pressure? (20.2)
m Airis more compressed at sea level than at
. What is the mass of a cubic meter of air at
higher altitudes.
20°C at sea level? (20.2)
m Air exerts pressure on everything; the pres-
. a. What is the mass of a column of air that
sure at sea level is about 100 kPa.
has a cross-sectional area of 1 square cen-
m= Simple barometers measure atmospheric timeter and that extends from sea level to the
pressure in terms of how high a column of top of the atmosphere?
mercury in a closed tube can be supported by
b. What is the weight of this air column?
atmospheric pressure.
c. What is the pressure at the bottom of this
m Aneroid barometers work without liquids and
column? (20.2)
measure the position of a movable lid against
a box with low pressure inside. . Is the value for atmospheric pressure at the
surface of Earth a constant? Explain. (20.2)
Boyle's law states that at constant temperature,
the pressure times the volume of an enclosed gas . How does the pressure at the bottom of the
is constant; if one increases, the other decreases. 76-cm column of mercury in a barometer
compare with the pressure due to the weight
Bernoulli’s principle states that the pressure of a
of the atmosphere? (20.3)
fluid flowing horizontally decreases as the speed
of the fluid increases. . When you drink liquid through a straw, it is
more accurate to say the liquid is pushed up
m Bernoulli’s principle holds only for steady
the straw rather than sucked up the straw.
flow, in which the flow follows streamlines.
What exactly does the pushing? Explain. (20.3)
m Bernoulli’s principle explains lift forces.
. Why will a vacuum pump not operate for a
well that is deeper than 10.3 m? (20.3)
10. The atmosphere does not ordinarily crush
Key Terms cans. Yet it will crush a can after it has been
heated, capped, and cooled. Why? (20.4)
aneroid barometer (20.4)
barometer (20.3) 11. Why can an aneroid barometer be used to
Bernoulli’s principle (20.7) measure altitude? (20.4)
Boyle's law (20.5) 12. When air is compressed, what happens to its
eddy (20.7) density? (20.5)
lift (20.8)
streamline (20.7)

303
13. a. How great is the buoyant force on a balloon 24. If there were a liquid twice as dense as mer-
that weighs 1 N when it is suspended by cury, and if it were used to make a barometer,
buoyancy in air? how tall would the column be?
b. What happens if the buoyant force ae Do. Why do your ears “pop” when you ascend to
decreases? higher altitudes?
c. What happens if the buoyant force 26. Small bubbles of air are released by a scuba
increases? (20.6) diver deep in the water. As the bubbles rise,
do they become larger, smaller, or stay about
14. When the speed of a fluid flowing in a hori-
the same size? Explain.
zontal pipe increases, what happens to the
internal pressure in the fluid? (20.7) 27. It is easy to breathe when snorkeling with only
your face beneath the surface of the water,
15. a. What are streamlines?
but quite difficult to breathe when you are
b. Is the pressure greater or less in regions submerged nearly a meter, and nearly impos-
where streamlines are crowded? (20.7) sible when you are more than a meter deep
(even if your snorkel tube reaches to the sur-
16. Does Bernoulli's principle provide a complete
face). Figure out why, and explain carefully.
explanation for wing lift, or is there some
other significant factor? (20.8) 28. From Table 20.1, which filling would be more
effective in making a balloon rise—helium or
17. Why does a spinning ball curve in flight? (20.8)
hydrogen? Why?
29% An inflated balloon sufficiently weighted with
rocks will sink in water. What will happen to
Plug and Chug Use Equations the size of the balloon as it sinks? Compared
18. The “height” of the atmosphere is about with its volume at the surface, what volume
30 km. The radius of Earth is 6400 km. What will it have when it is 10.3 m below the surface?
percentage of Earth’s radius is the height of 30. Would a balloon rise in an atmosphere where
the atmosphere? the pressure was somehow the same at all
19. The weight of the atmosphere above 1 square altitudes? Would a balloon rise in the com-
meter of Earth’s surface is 100 000 newtons. plete absence of atmospheric pressure, for
If the density of the atmosphere were a con- example at the surface of the moon?
stant 1.2 kg/m3, calculate where the top of 31. The buoyant force of air is considerably
the atmosphere would be. greater on an elephant than on a small
20. Calculate the approximate weight of air in helium-filled balloon. Why, then, does the
your classroom. elephant remain on the ground, while the
balloon rises?
EES ES ESET PE I EE TE LOSE LE DA BEI ST TST 32. Estimate the buoyant force that the atmos-
phere exerts on you. (To do this, you can esti-
Think and Explain Think Critically mate your volume by knowing your weight
21. Which would weigh more—a bottle filled with and by assuming that your weight density is a
helium gas, or the same bottle evacuated? bit less than that of water.)
22. How would the density of air at the bottom of 33. Why is it that when cars pass each other at
a deep mine shaft compare to the density of high speeds on the road, they tend to be
the atmosphere at the surface of the ground? “drawn” to each other?
23. Relative to sea level, would it be slightly more 34. Why does the fire in a fireplace burn more
difficult or somewhat easier to drink through briskly on a windy day?
a straw at the bottom of a deep mine? At the
top of a high mountain? Explain.

304 Chapter 20 Gases

35. In a department store, an airstream from a
hose connected to the exhaust of a vacuum
Activities Performance Assessment
cleaner blows upward at an angle and sup-
ports a beach ball in midair. Does the air blow 43. Try this in the bathtub or while washing
under or over the ball to provide support? dishes. Lower a glass, mouth downward, over
a small floating object as shown. What hap-
36. The diameter of a fire hose varies with the
pens? How deep would the glass have to be
flow rate of water inside. The hose may be rel-
pushed to compress the enclosed air to half
atively narrow, and at another time puffed up
its volume? (Hint: You can’t do this in your
like a fat snake. In which case is water flowing
bathtub unless it’s 10.3 m deep!)
fast, and when is water hardly flowing at all?
37. You overhear a conversation between two
physics types. One says that birds couldn't fly
before the time of Bernoulli. The other says,
not so. That birds could fly before the time of
Bernoulli, but couldn't fly before the time of
Newton. Humor aside, what points are they
making?

44, Place a card over the

open top ofa glass filled
Think and Solve to the brim with water,
Develop Problem-Solving Skills and invert it. What
happens? Why? Try
38. Estimate the volume of a hydrogen-filled

a
turning the glass
balloon that will carry a 300-kg load in air.
sideways as shown
Assume the density of hydrogen is 0.09
on the right.
kg/m, and the density of the surrounding
air 1.30 kg/m‘°.
45. Fill a bottle with water and hold it partially
39. An automobile is supported by four tires under water so that its mouth is beneath the
inflated to a gauge pressure of 180 kPa. The surface. What happens to the water in the bot-
area of contact of each of the tires (ignoring tle? Explain. How tall would the bottle have to
the effects of tread thickness) is 190 cm? be before water ran out? (Hint: You can't do this
(which means the total area of tire contact indoors unless you have a ceiling 10.3 m high!)
is 0.076 m’). Find the mass of the car in
46. Hold a spoon ina
kilograms.
stream of water, as
40. Estimate the ratio of the atmospheric buoyant shown. Describe and
force per unit of body weight for an average explain the effect in
person. terms of the differ-
ences in pressure.
41. The density of liquid air at standard tempera-
ture and pressure is about 900 kg/m’. What
will be the volume of 1 m° of liquid air when
it turns to its gaseous form?
42. How many newtons of lift are exerted on the
wings of an airplane that have a total area of
100 m? when the difference in air pressure
below and above the wings is 5% of atmos-
pheric pressure?

305
 On a cold morning, the pavement feels colder than the
lawn to my bare feet. More heat energy goes from my foot to
the pavement than to the lawn. At first thought, | tend to think the
pavement has a lower temperature than the lawn—but does it? And
on a hot afternoon the pavement feels much hotter than the lawn.
Does it have a higher temperature than the lawn, or is there some
other physics going on here? Perhaps differences in heat
conductivities? | wonder about such things, and it’s nice to
find explanations in my physics book. It’s even nicer
to find | can understand them!

For: Articles on heat

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Temperature,
Heat, and
Expansion

ll matter—solid, liquid, and gas—is

composed of continually jiggling atoms
or molecules. Because of this random
motion, the atoms and molecules in matter have
kinetic energy. The average kinetic energy of
these individual particles causes an effect we can
sense—warmth. Whenever something becomes warmer, the kinetic The pie cools—the air warms.
energy of its atoms or molecules has increased.
It’s easy to increase the kinetic energy in matter. You can warm
a penny by striking it with a hammer—the blow causes the mol-
ecules in the penny to jostle faster. If you put a flame to a liquid, the
liquid also becomes warmer. Rapidly compress air in a tire pump
and the air becomes warmer. When the atoms or molecules in mat-
ter move faster, the matter gets warmer. Its atoms or molecules have
more kinetic energy. For brevity in this chapter, rather than saying
atoms and molecules, we'll simply say molecules—by which we
mean either.
So when you warm up by a fire on a cold winter night, you are
increasing the molecular kinetic energy in your body.

TETRA
21.1 Temperature
The quantity that tells how hot or cold something is compared with
a standard is temperature. We express temperature by a number that
corresponds to a degree mark on some chosen scale.
Nearly all matter expands when its temperature increases and
contracts when its temperature decreases. A common thermometer
measures temperature by showing the expansion and contraction of
a liquid—usually mercury or colored alcohol—in a glass tube using
a scale.

307
 On the most widely used temperature scale, the international
scale, the number 0 is assigned to the temperature at which water
freezes, and the number 100 to the temperature at which water boils
(at standard atmospheric pressure). The gap between freezing and
boiling is divided-into 100 equal parts, called degrees. This tempera-
ge1 ture scale is the Celsius scale.*
180° On the temperature scale used commonly in the United States,
the number 32 designates the temperature at which water freezes,
and the number 212 is assigned to the temperature at which water
boils. This temperature scale is called the Fahrenheit scale. The
§ Fahrenheit scale will become obsolete if and when the United States
goes metric.
The scale used in scientific research is the SI scale—the Kelvin
scale. Its degrees are the same size as the Celsius degree and are
called “kelvins.” On the Kelvin scale, the number 0 is assigned to the
ol
Belg
is
a
Der
tied
Baoareaa lowest possible temperature—absolute zero. At absolute zero a sub-
stance has no kinetic energy to give up. Zero on the Kelvin scale, or
absolute zero, corresponds to —273°C on the Celsius scale. We will
learn more about the Kelvin scale in Chapter 24.
Arithmetic formulas can be used for converting from one tem-
perature scale to another and are often popular in classroom exams.
Such arithmetic exercises are not really physics, so we will not be
concerned with them here. Besides, a conversion from Celsius to
Figure 21.1 A Fahrenheit, or vice versa, can be very closely approximated by sim-
Fahrenheit and Celsius scales on ply reading the corresponding temperature from the side-by-side
a thermometer. scales in Figure 21.1.

Temperature and Kinetic Energy

Temperature is related to the random motions of the molecules in
a substance. In the simplest case of an ideal gas, temperature is pro-
portional to the average kinetic energy of molecular translational
motion (that is, motion along a straight or curved path). In solids
and liquids, where molecules are more constrained and have poten-
tial energy, temperature is more complicated. But it is still true that
temperature is closely related to the average kinetic energy of trans-
lational motion of molecules. So the warmth you feel when you
touch a hot surface is the kinetic energy transferred by molecules
in the surface to molecules in your fingers.
Figure 21.2 A Note that temperature is not ameasure of the total kinetic
There is more molecular kinetic
energy of all the molecules in a substance. There is twice as much
energy in the bucketful of warm
kinetic energy in 2 liters of boiling water as in 1 liter. But the temper-
water than in the small cupful of
higher-temperature water. atures of both liters of water are the same because the average
kinetic energy of molecules in each is the same.

ee eeeesSsS—

* The Celsius scale is named in honor of the man who first suggested it, the Swedish
astronomer Anders Celsius (1701-1744). It used to be called the centigrade scale, from
centi (“hundredth”) and gradus (“degree”). The Fahrenheit scale is named after the
German physicist Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686-1736), and the Kelvin scale, after the British
physicist Lord Kelvin (1824-1907).

308 Chapter 21 Temperature, Heat, and Expansion

 PHYSICS

Can You Trust Your Senses?

Put some hot water, warm water, and cold water in three open con-
tainers. Place a finger in the hot water and a finger of the other hand
in the cold water. After a few seconds, place them both in the warm
water. How do they feel? Do you see the value of a thermometer for
measuring temperature?

MENS SS SE ee
21.2 Heat
If you touch a hot stove, energy will enter your hand from the
stove because the stove is warmer than your hand. But if you touch
ice, energy will pass out of your hand and into the colder ice. The
direction of spontaneous energy transfer is always from a warmer
substance to a cooler substance. The energy that transfers from one
object to another because of a temperature difference between them
is called heat.
It is common—but incorrect with physics types—to think that
matter contains heat. Matter contains energy in several forms, but it
does not contain heat. Heat is energy in transit from a body of higher
temperature to one of lower temperature. Once transferred, the
energy ceases to be heat.* In Chapter 8 we called the energy resulting Figure 21.3 A
Just as water will not flow uphill
from heat flow thermal energy, to make clear its link to heat and tem-
by itself, regardless of the rela-
perature. In this and following chapters, we will use the term that
tive amounts of water in the
scientists prefer, internal energy. reservoirs, heat will not flow
When heat flows from one object or substance to another it is from a cooler substance into a
in contact with, the objects or substances are said to be in thermal hotter substance by itself.
contact. Given thermal contact, heat flows from the higher-tempera-
ture substance into the lower-temperature substance. However, heat
will not necessarily flow from a substance with more total molecular
kinetic energy to a substance with less total molecular kinetic energy.
For example, there is more total molecular kinetic energy in a large
bowl of warm water than there is in a red-hot thumbtack. Yet, if the
tack is immersed in the water, heat does not flow from the water,
which has more total kinetic energy, to the tack, which has less. It
flows from the hot tack to the cooler water. Heat flows according to
1 Explore
temperature differences—that is, average molecular kinetic energy
differences. Heat never flows on its own from a cooler substance into 2 Concept-Development
a hotter substance. We will return to this concept in Chapter 24 when Practice Book 27-7
we look at thermodynamics.

* Similarly, work is also energy in transit. A body does not contain work. It does work or
has work done on it.

309
 CSOSA SR aS 2Se eee Ea
Y LINK
| 21.3 Thermal Equilibrium
After objects in thermal contact with each other reach the same
temperature, no heat flows between them—we say the objects are
in thermal equilibrium.
To read a thermometer we wait until it reaches thermal equilib-
rium with the substance being measured. When a thermometer is in
contact with a substance, heat flows between them until they have
the same temperature. We then know the temperature of the ther-
psec ce mometer is also the temperature of the substance. So a thermome-
- The surface temperatures _ ter, interestingly enough, shows only its own temperature.
~of some deserts in Africa A thermometer should be small enough that it does not appre-
| andcentral Asiareach ciably alter the temperature of the substance being measured. If you
— 60°C (140°F). This is hot, a are measuring the temperature of room air, then the heat absorbed
but nottoohotfora by the thermometer will not lower the air temperature noticeably.
| species of ant (Cataglyphis) — But if you are trying to measure the temperature of a drop of water,
that thrives at this searing _ the temperature of the drop after thermal contact may be quite dif-
temperature. These desert _ ferent from its initial temperature.
ants
can forage for food
at temperatures too high _
for lizards who eat them.
Resistanttoheat, these
ants can withstand higher
“temperatu resthanany
othercreaturesinthe =
desert. They scavenge the ©
desert surface for corpses"
of those who did not find —
cover intime, touching
the hot sand as little as |
possible while often Figure 21.4 A
sprinting on four legs Somewhat like water in the pipes seeking a common level (for which the
with two high in the air. pressures at equal elevations are the same), the thermometer and its imme-
Although their foraging diate surroundings reach a common temperature (at which the average
paths zigzag over the kinetic energy per particle is the same for both).
desert floor, their return
paths are almost straight
lines to their nest holes.
They attain speeds of 100 21.4 internal Energy
body lengths per second.
During an average six-day In addition to the translational kinetic energy of jostling molecules
life, most of these ants in a substance, there is energy in other forms. There is rotational
retrieve 15 to 20 times
kinetic energy of molecules and kinetic energy due to internal move-
their weight in food.
ments of atoms within molecules. There is also potential energy due
to the forces between molecules. The grand total of all energies
inside a substance is called internal energy. A substance does not
contain heat—it contains internal energy.
When a substance takes in or gives off heat, any of these ener-
gies may change. Thus, as a substance absorbs heat, this energy may
or may not make the molecules jostle faster. In some cases, as when
ice is melting, a substance absorbs heat without an increase in tem-
perature. The substance changes phase, the subject of Chapter 23.

310 Chapter 21 Temperature, Heat, and Expansion

EEE SO SO Eee RR
21.5 Measurement of Heat
So we see that heat is energy transferred from one substance to
another by a temperature difference. The amount of heat transferred
can be determined by measuring the temperature change of a
known mass of water that absorbs the heat.
When a substance absorbs heat, the resulting temperature
change depends on more than just the mass of the substance. The
quantity of heat that brings a cupful of soup to a boil might raise the
temperature of a pot of soup by only a few degrees. To quantify heat,
we must specify the mass and kind of substance affected.
The unit of heat is defined as the heat necessary to produce
some standard, agreed-on temperature change for a specified mass
of material. The most commonly used unit for heat is the calorie.
The calorie is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 gram of water by 1°C.
The kilocalorie is 1000 calories (the heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 kilogram of water by 1°C). The heat unit used in rat-
ing foods is actually a kilocalorie, although it’s often referred to as the
calorie. To distinguish it from the smaller calorie, the food unit is
sometimes called a Calorie (written with a capital C).
It is important to remember that the calorie and Calorie are units
of energy. These names are historical carryovers from the early idea
that heat was an invisible fluid called caloric. We now know heat is a
form of energy. The United States is in a period of transition to the
International System of Units (SI), where quantity of heat is mea-
sured in joules, the SI unit for all forms of energy. The relationship
between calories and joules is that 1 calorie equals 4.184 J. In this
book we'll learn about heat with the conceptually simpler calorie—
but in the lab you may use the joule equivalent, where an input of
4.184 joules raises the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1°C.*

<4 Figure 21.5

Although the same quantity of
heat is added to both containers,
the temperature of the container
with the smaller amount of water
increases more.

The energy value in food is determined by burning the food and

measuring the energy that is released as heat. Food and other fuels
are rated by how much energy a certain mass of the fuel gives off as
heat when burned.

* Still another unit of heat is the British thermal unit (Btu). The Btu is defined as the
quantity of heat required to change the temperature of 1 pound of water by 1°F. One
Btu is equal to 1054 J.

311
 Computational Example: Dimensional Analysis

V2 A woman with an average diet consumes and expends

Al about 2000 Calories per day. The energy used by her body
is eventually given off as heat. How many joules per second does
her body give off? Or, in other words, what is her average ther-_
mal power output?
We find this by converting 2000 Calories per day to joules
per second. We use the information that 1 Calorie = 4184 joules,
1 day = 24 hours, and 1 hour = 3600 seconds. The conversion is
then set up as follows:
CAL UE CRCRA RRL OR BeUA ESN SER ETYS NT
La 244% 3600s 1 Gat
Notice that the original quantity (2000 Cal/d) is multiplied by a
set of fractions in which the numerator equals the denominator.
Since each fraction has the value 1, multiplying by it does not
Figure 21.6 A change the value of the original quantity. The rule for choosing
To the weight watcher, the which quantity to put in the numerator is that the units should
peanut contains 10 Calories; to cancel and reduce to those of the end result. (We call this tech-
the physicist, it releases 10 000 nique “dimensional analysis.”) So, on the average, the woman
calories (or 41 840 joules) of emits heat at the rate of 96.8 J/s, which is 96.8 watts. This is
ee eames oe ordigested. nearly the same as a glowing 100-W lamp! It’s easy to see why a
crowded room soon becomes warm! (Don't confuse the 96.8
watts given off by the woman with her internal temperature of
98.6°E The closeness of the numerical values is a coincidence. A
body’s temperature and its rate of expending heat are entirely
different from each other.)

BH Question
Suppose you use a flame to add a certain quantity of heat to 1 liter
of water, and the water temperature rises by 2°C. If you add the
same quantity of heat to 2 liters of water, by how much will its
temperature rise?

AT=2°C

B Answer

Its temperature will rise by 1°C, because there are twice as many molecules in 2 liters of
water and each molecule receives only half as much energy on average. So average
kinetic energy, and temperature, increase by half as much.

312 Chapter 21 Temperature, Heat, and Expansion

HNN
SOESRUERRMAT
aTNa
21.6 Specific Heat Capacity
Almost everyone has noticed that some foods remain hot much
longer than others. Boiled onions and moist squash on a hot dish,
for example, are often too hot to eat while mashed potatoes may be
just right. The filling of hot apple pie can burn your tongue while the
crust will not, even when the pie has just been taken out of the oven.
The aluminum covering on a frozen dinner can be peeled off with
your bare fingers as soon as it is removed from the oven. (But be
careful of the food beneath it!)
Different substances have different capacities for storing internal
energy. If we heat a pot of water on a stove, we may find that it
requires 15 minutes to raise it from room temperature to its boiling Figure 21.7 A
temperature. But if we were to put an equal mass of iron on the same You can touch the aluminum pan
flame, we would find that it would rise through the same tempera- of the frozen dinner soon after it
ture range in only about 2 minutes. For silver, the time would be less has been taken from the hot
than a minute. We find that specific materials require specific quan- oven, but you'll burn your fingers
tities of heat to raise the temperature of a given mass of the material if you touch the food it contains.
by a specified number of degrees.
Absorbed energy can affect substances in different ways.
Absorbed energy that increases the translational speed of molecules
is responsible for increases in temperature. Absorbed energy may
also increase the rotation of molecules, increase the internal vibra-
tions within molecules, or stretch intermolecular bonds and be
stored as potential energy. These kinds of energy, however, are not
measures of temperature. Temperature is a measure only of the
kinetic energy of translational motion. Generally, only part of the
energy absorbed by a substance raises its temperature.
Whereas a gram of water requires | calorie of energy to raise the
temperature 1°C, it takes only about one eighth as much energy to
raise the temperature of a gram of iron by the same amount. Iron
atoms in the iron lattice primarily shake back and forth in transla-
tional fashion, while water molecules soak up a lot of energy in rota-
tions, internal vibrations, and bond stretching. So water absorbs
more heat per gram than iron for the same change in temperature.
We say water has a higher specific heat capacity (sometimes simply
called specific heat).

Bae =

@ Answer

Water has a greater heat capacity than sand. Water is much slower to warm in the hot sun
and slower to cool in the cold night. Water has more thermal inertia. Sand’s low heat
capacity, as evidenced by how quickly the surface warms in the morning sun and how
quickly it cools at night, affects local climates.

313
 The specific heat capacity of any substance is defined
as the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature
of a unit mass of the substance by 1 degree.
We can think of specific heat capacity as thermal inertia. Recall
that inertia is a term used in mechanics to signify the resistance of
an object to change in its state of motion. Specific heat capacity is
like a thermal inertia since it signifies the resistance of a substance
to change in its temperature.

Computational Example: Heating Water

When we know the specific heat capacity, c, for a

particular substance, the quantity of heat, Q, involved
when the mass, m, of the substance undergoes a temperature
change, AT; is Q= mcAT. In words, heat transferred =
mass X specific heat capacity x temperature change.
Suppose we wish to know the number of calories needed to
raise the temperature of 1 liter of water by 15°C. The specific heat
capacity for water, c, is 1 cal/g°C, and the mass of 1 liter of water
is 1 kilogram, which is 1000 grams. Since cis expressed in calories
per gram °C, we express the mass of water, m, in grams. Then,
Q= mcAT
Q= (1000 g)(1 cal/g°C) (15°C) = 15 000 calories
Suppose we deliver this energy to the water with a 1000-watt
immersion heater. How long will it take to heat the water? We
know that 1000 watts delivers energy at the rate 1000 joules per
second. Converting calories to joules,
15 000 cal x 4.184 J/cal = 62 760 joules

At the rate of 1000 joules per second, can you see that the time
required for heating the water by 15°C is somewhat more than
a minute?

A SPE SS ART LE BO SPE RS ERT

21.7 The High Specific Heat Capacity

of Water
Water has a much higher capacity for storing energy than most com-
mon materials. A relatively small amount of water absorbs a great
1 Explore deal of heat for a correspondingly small temperature rise. Because of
this, water is a very useful cooling agent, and is used in cooling sys-
1 Laboratory Manual tems in automobiles and other engines. If a liquid of lower specific
49, 50, 51 heat capacity were used in cooling systems, its temperature would
rise higher for a comparable absorption of heat. (Of course, if the

314 Chapter 21 Temperature, Heat, and Expansion

temperature of the liquid rises to the temperature of the engine, no
further cooling will take place.) Water also takes longer to cool, a use-
ful fact to your great-grandparents, who on cold winter nights likely
used foot-warming hot-water bottles in their beds.
This property of water to resist changes in temperature improves
the climate in many places. The next time you are looking at a world
globe, notice the high latitude of Europe. If water did not have a high
heat capacity, the countries of Europe would be as cold as the north-
eastern regions of Canada, for both Europe and Canada get about the
same amount of the sun’s energy per square kilometer. The Atlantic
current known as the Gulf Stream brings warm water northeast from
the Caribbean. It holds much of its internal energy long enough to
Figure 21.8 A
reach the North Atlantic off the coast of Europe, where it then cools. Water has a high specific heat
The energy released (one calorie per degree for each gram of water that and is transparent, so it takes
cools) is carried by the westerly winds over the European continent. more energy to heat up than
Similarly, the climates differ on the east and west coasts of North land does. Why would its tra ns-
America. The winds in the latitudes of North America are westerly. On parency be a factor?
the west coast, air moves from the Pacific Ocean to the land. Because
of water's high heat capacity, ocean temperature does not vary much
from summer to winter. The water is warmer than the air in the winter,
and cooler than the air in the summer. In winter, the water warms the
air that moves over it and warms the western coastal regions of North
America. In summer, the water cools the air and the western coastal
regions are cooled. On the east coast, air moves from the land to the
Atlantic Ocean. Land, with a lower specific heat capacity, gets hot in
summer but cools rapidly in winter. As a result of water's high heat
capacity and the wind directions, the west coast city of San Francisco
is warmer in the winter and cooler in the summer than the east coast
city of Washington, D.C., which is at about the same latitude.
The central interior of a large continent usually experiences
extremes of temperature. For example, the high summer and low win-
ter temperatures common in Manitoba and the Dakotas are largely
due to the absence of large bodies of water. Europeans, islanders, and
people living near ocean air currents should be glad that water has
such a high specific heat capacity. San Franciscans are!

DeROSIER SS
21.8 Thermal Expansion
When the temperature of a substance is increased, its molecules jiggle
faster and normally tend to move farther apart. This results in an
expansion of the substance. With few exceptions, all forms of matter—
solids, liquids, and gases—expand when they are heated and contract
when they are cooled. For comparable pressures and comparable
changes in temperature, gases generally expand or contract much
more than liquids, and liquids expand or contract more than solids.*

* This rule is valid if the solid, liquid, and gas expand against constant pressure. A gas
in a container can be prevented from expanding, but then its pressure is not constant.

315
 If concrete sidewalks and highway paving were laid down in one
continuous piece, cracks would appear due to the expansion and
contraction brought about by the difference between summer and
winter temperatures. To prevent this, the surface is laid in small sec-
tions, each one being separated from the next by a small gap that is
filled in with a substance such as tar. On a hot summer day, expan-
sion often squeezes this material out of the joints.
The expansion of materials must be allowed for in the construc-
tion of structures and devices of all kinds. A dentist uses filling mate-
rial that has the same rate of expansion as teeth. The aluminum
pistons of an automobile engine are enough smaller in diameter
than the steel cylinders to allow for the much greater expansion rate
of aluminum. A civil engineer uses steel of the same expansion rate
as concrete for reinforcing concrete. Long steel bridges often have
one end fixed while the other rests on rockers that allow for expan-
sion. The roadway itself is segmented with tongue-and-groove-type
gaps called expansion joints (Figure 21.9).

Figure 21.9 A
This gap is called an expansion joint, and allows the bridge to expand and
contract.

PHYSICS

: | expans ; hemetallidby obits

it
FE ‘ina stream a hotucts or momentarily placingit
it on a hot stove.
The metal lid will expand —
more than the glass. Presto!
Can you see why a slight
twist then opens the jar? Can
you explain why this works?
What's the physics here?

316 Chapter21 Temperature, Heat, and Expansion

 Different materials expand at different rates. In a bimetallic strip,
two strips of different metals, say one of brass and the other of iron,
are welded or riveted together (Figure 21.10). When the strip is
heated, the difference in the amounts of expansion of brass and iron
ROOM TEMPERATURE
shows up easily. One side of the double strip becomes longer than
the other, causing the strip to bend into a curve. On the other hand, BRASS ,
when the strip is cooled, it bends in the opposite direction, because
the metal that expands the most also contracts the most. The move- d IRON7
ment of the strip may be used to turn a pointer, regulate a valve, or
operate a switch.
A thermostat is a practical application of a bimetallic strip Figure 21.10 A
(Figure 21.11). The back-and-forth bending of the bimetallic coil A bimetallic strip. Brass expands
opens and closes an electric circuit. When the room becomes too (or contracts) more when heated
cold, the coil bends toward the brass side, and in so doing it closes (or cooled) than does iron, so the
an electric switch that turns on the heat. When the room becomes strip bends as shown.
too warm, the coil bends toward the iron side, which opens the
switch and turns off the heating unit. Refrigerators are equipped
with special thermostats to prevent them from becoming too hot or
too cold. Bimetallic strips are used in oven thermometers, electric
toasters, automatic chokes on carburetors, and other devices.
The amount of expansion of a substance depends on its change
in temperature. If one part of a piece of glass is heated or cooled
more rapidly than adjacent parts, the expansion or contraction that
results may break the glass. This is especially true for thick glass.
Heat-resistant glass is specially formulated to expand very little with
increasing temperature.
Liquids expand appreciably with increases in temperature. When
the gasoline tank of a car is filled at a gas station and the car is then
parked for a while, the gasoline often overflows the tank. This occurs Figure 21.11 A
as the cold gasoline from the underground storage tanks warms up A thermostat. When the bimetallic
as it sits in the car’s tank. As the gasoline warms, it expands and over- coil expands, the mercury rolls
flows the gas tank. Similarly, an automobile radiator filled to the away from the electrical contacts
brim with cold water overflows when heated. and breaks the circuit. When the
coil contracts, the mercury rolls
In most cases, the expansion of liquids is greater than the expan-
against the contacts and com-
sion of solids. The gasoline overflowing a car’s tank on a hot day is
pletes the electric circuit.
evidence for this. Similarly, a pot filled to the brim with water soon
overflows when heated. Also, mercury rises in a thermometer when
heated because the liquid mercury expands more than the glass.

@ Question
Why is it advisable to allow telephone lines to sag when stringing
them between poles in summer?

BH Answer

Telephone lines are longer in summer, when they are warmer, and shorter in winter, when
they are cooler. They therefore sag more on hot summer days than in winter. If the tele- Figure 21.12 A
phone lines are not strung with enough sag in summer, they might contract too much and Place a dented Ping-Pong ball in
snap during the winter. boiling water, and you'll remove
the dent. Why?

317
 Computational Example: Ratio and Proportion

Steel changes in length about 1 part in 100 000 for each

Celsius degree change in temperature. This is a ratio,

100 000

For different lengths of steel, expansion would follow the

same proportion. For short lengths of steel, expansion may be
negligible. But consider the expansion of a make-believe snugly
fitting steel pipe that completely encircles the earth. How much
longer would this 40-million-meter pipe be if its temperature
increased by 1°C?
The ratio of its change in length X to its full size is the same
as the ratio above, so for a 1°C temperature change we say
eee xm
100000 40000 000 m
A little computation will show that the change in length X is
400 m. Here’s the interesting part: If such a pipe were elongated
by this 400 m, then there would be a gap between it and Earth’s
surface. Would the gap be big enough to put this book under? To
crawl under? To drive a truck under? How big would this gap be?
We can find the gap by ratio and proportion. The ratio of cir-
cumference C to diameter D for any circle is equal to x (about
3.14). The ratio of the change in circumference AC to the
change in diameter AD also has the same value. Inserting val-
ues, we have

eee 14
AD AD
Solving for AD gives

Ap = 400M _ 1974m
3.14
This 127.4 m is the increase in diameter of the circular pipe.
The size of the gap between Earth’s surface and the expanded
pipe is equal to the increase in radius, which is half the increase
in diameter, or 63.7 m.
So if a steel pipe that fits snugly against Earth were
increased in temperature by 1°C, perhaps by people all along
its length breathing hard on it, the pipe would expand and
1 Explore stand an amazing 63.7 meters off the ground! Using ratio and
3 Laboratory Manual 53 proportion is a straightforward way to solve many problems.
3 Problem-Solving Mor
Another way to solve for the expansion of a material involves a
Exercises in formula (L = aL,AT). You will encounter this formula in the lab
Physics 70-7, 10-2 part of your course.
iT
RR

318 Chapter 21 Temperature, Heat, and Expansion

EERIE a a aC ae ey
21.9 Expansion of Water
Almost all liquids will expand when they are heated. Ice-cold water,
however, does just the opposite! Water at the temperature of melting
ice, 0°C (or 32°F), contracts when the temperature is increased. This
is most unusual. As the water is heated and its temperature rises, it
continues to contract until it reaches a temperature of 4°C. With fur-
ther increase in temperature, the water then begins to expand; the
expansion continues all the way to the boiling point, 100°C. This odd
behavior is shown graphically in Figure 21.13.

1.0016 rks

1.0014

1.0012

= 1.0008
S
= 1.000 6
3

7 1.0004,
«
1.000
SS w
1.0000 —o
0° OORT iy ne
TEMPERATURE (‘C)
Figure 21.13 A
The change in volume of water with increasing temperature.

A given amount of water has its smallest volume—and thus its

greatest density—at 4°C. The same amount of water has its largest
volume—and smallest density—in its solid form, ice. (Remember, ice
floats in water, so it must be less dense than water.) The volume of ice
at 0°C is not shown in Figure 21.13. (Ifit were plotted to the same exag-
gerated scale, the graph would extend far beyond the top of the page.)
After water has turned to ice, further cooling causes it to contract.
The explanation for this behavior of water has to do with the odd
crystal structure of ice. The crystals of most solids are structured so
that the solid state occupies a smaller volume than the liquid state.
Ice, however, has open-structured crystals (Figure 21.14). These crys-
tals result from the angular shape of the water molecules, plus the
fact that the forces binding water molecules together are strongest
at certain angles. Water molecules in this open structure occupy a
greater volume than they do in the liquid state. Consequently, ice is
less dense than water.

319
Figure 21.14 »
Water molecules in their crystal
form have an open-structured,
six-sided arrangement. As a
result, water expands upon freez-
ing, and ice is less dense than
water.

H,O Liquid H,O Solid

The reason for the dip in the curve of Figure 21.13 is that two
types of volume changes are taking place. A decrease in volume
occurs due to the melting of ice crystals. Between 0°C and 10°C,
water—a “microscopic slush”—contains microscopic ice crystals. At
about 10°C all the ice crystals have collapsed. The left-hand graph in
Figure 21.15 shows how the volume of cold water changes due to the
collapsing of the microscopic ice crystals.

VOLUME DECREASES | VOLUME INCREASES COMBINED

BECAUSE ICE CULES EFFECT
CRYSTALS COLLAPSE
+

VOLUME

pa Sey A mt ee IA lm
Figure 21.15 A
The collapsing of ice crystals (left) plus increased molecular motion with
increasing temperature (center) combine to make water most dense at
4°C (right).

While crystals are collapsing as the temperature increases

between 0°C and 10°C, increased molecular motion results in ex-
pansion. This effect is shown in the center graph in Figure 21.15.
Whether ice crystals are in the water or not, increased vibrational
motion of the molecules increases the volume of the water.
When we combine the effects of contraction and expansion, the
curve looks like the right-hand graph in Figure 21.15 (or Figure 21.13).
This behavior of water is of great importance in nature. Suppose that
the greatest density of water were at its freezing point, as is true of
most liquids. Then the coldest water would settle to the bottom,
and ponds would freeze from the bottom up. Pond organisms
would then be destroyed in winter months. Fortunately, this does
not happen. The densest water, which settles at the bottom ofa

320 Chapter21 Temperature, Heat, and Expansion

pond, is 4 degrees above the freezing temperature. Water at the
freezing point, 0°C, is less dense and “floats,” so ice forms at the
surface while the pond remains liquid below the ice.
Let’s examine this in more detail. Most of the cooling in a pond
takes place at its surface, when the surface air is colder than the
water. As the surface water is cooled, it becomes denser and sinks to
the bottom. Water will “float” at the surface for further cooling only if
it is as dense or less dense than the water below.
Consider a pond that is initially at, say, 10°C. It cannot possibly
be cooled to 0°C without first being cooled to 4°C. And water at 4°C
cannot remain at the surface for further cooling unless all the water
below has at least an equal density—that is, unless all the water
below is at 4°C. If the water below the surface is any temperature
other than 4°C, any surface water at 4°C will be denser and sink
before it can be further cooled. So before any ice can form, all the
water in a pond must be cooled to 4°C. Only when this condition is
met can the surface water be cooled to 3°, 2°, 1°, and 0°C without
sinking. Then ice can form.

-10°C

Figure 21.16 A
As water is cooled at the surface, it sinks until the entire lake is 4°C. Only
then can the surface water cool to 0°C without sinking.

Thus, the water at the surface is first to freeze. Continued cooling

of the pond results in the freezing of the water next to the ice, so a
pond freezes from the surface downward. In a cold winter the ice will
be thicker than in a milder winter.
Very deep bodies of water are not ice-covered even in the coldest
of winters. This is because all the water in a lake must be cooled to
4°C before lower temperatures can be reached, and the winter is not
long enough for all the water to be cooled to 4°C. If only some of the 1 Explore
water is 4°C, it will lie on the bottom. Because of water's high specific
heat and poor ability to conduct heat, the bottom of deep lakes in 2 Concept-Development
cold regions is a constant 4°C the year round. Fish should be glad Practice Book 21-2
that this is so.

321
 Chapter Assessment

For: Study and Review Key Terms

(G
Go @n line Visit: PHSchool.com
chool.com Web Code: csd-3210 absolute zero (21.1)
bimetallic strip (21.8)
calorie (21.5)
Celsius scale (21.1)
Concept Summary Fahrenheit scale (21.1)
Temperature is the measurement that tells how heat (21.2)
warm or cold something is. internal energy (21.4)
m= Temperature is directly proportional to the Kelvin scale (21.1)
average translational kinetic energy of the kilocalorie (21.5)
molecules within an ideal gas. specific heat capacity (21.6)
Heat is energy that transfers between two things temperature (21.1)
due to a temperature difference. thermal contact (21.2)
thermal equilibrium (21.3)
m= Matter does not contain heat; rather, it con-
tains internal energy. thermostat (21.8)

Specific heat is a measure of how much heat is

required to raise the temperature of a unit mass
of a substance by one degree. Review Questions Check Concepts
m Water has a much higher specific heat than 1. How is temperature commonly measured?
other common substances. (ZL

Matter tends to expand when heated and to con- 2. How many degrees are between the melting
tract when cooled. point of ice and boiling point of water on the
Celsius scale? Fahrenheit scale? (21.1)
m Liquids usually expand slightly more than solids.
3. Why is it incorrect to say that matter contains
m Gases expand much more than liquids or
heat? (21.2)
solids for comparable increases in tempera-
ture (and comparable pressure). 4. In terms of differences in temperature
between objects in thermal contact, in what
m Water is highly unusual in that it contracts as
direction does heat flow? (21.2)
it warms from 0°C to 4°C and its solid form
(ice) is less dense than its liquid form. 5. What is meant by saying that a thermometer
measures its own temperature? (21.3)
6. What is thermal equilibrium? (21.3)
7. What is internal energy? (21.4)
8. What is the difference between a calorie and
a Calorie? (21.5)

9. What does it mean to say that a material has

a high or low specific heat capacity? (21.6)

322 Chapter 21 Temperature, Heat, and Expansion

10. Do substances that heat up quickly normally 24. When a 50-gram piece of aluminum at 100°C
have high or low specific heat capacities? (21.6) is placed in water, it loses 735 calories of heat
i. How does the specific heat capacity of water while cooling to 30°C. Calculate the specific
compare with that of other common sub- heat capacity of the aluminum.
stances? (21.7)
12. Why is the North American west coast
warmer in winter months and cooler in sum-
Think and Explain Think Critically
mer months than the east coast? (21.7) 25. If you drop a hot rock into a pail of water, the
13. Why does a bimetallic strip curve when it is temperature of the rock and the water will
change until both are equal. The rock will
heated (or cooled)? (21.8)
cool and the water will warm. Does the same
14. Which expands most for increases in temper- principle hold true if the rock is dropped into
ature: solids, liquids, or gases? (21.8) a large lake? Explain.
15. At what temperature is the density of water 26. If you stake out a plot of land with a steel tape
greatest? (21.9) measure using map measurements on a very
hot day, will you enclose more or less land
16. Ice is less dense than water because of its
than on a very cold day?
open crystalline structure. But why is water at
0°C less dense than water at 4°C?2 (21.9) 27. A metal ball is just able to pass through a
metal ring. When the ball is heated, thermal
17. Why do lakes and ponds freeze from the top
expansion will not allow it to pass through
down rather than from the bottom up? (21.9)
the ring. What would happen if the ring,
18. Why do shallow lakes freeze quickly in winter, rather than the ball, were heated? Would the
and deep lakes not at all? (21.9) ball pass through the heated ring? Does the
size of the hole in the ring increase, decrease,
or stay the same?

Plug and Chug Use Equations

Heat transfer in calories is given by Q= mcAT,
where mis mass in grams, c is specific heat
capacity in cal/g°C, and ATis in °C.
19. Calculate the number of calories of heat
needed to change 500 grams of water by
50 Celsius degrees.
20. Calculate the number of calories given off
28. A snugly fitting steel pipe circling the world
by 500 grams of water cooling from 50°C to
would stand about 64 meters off the ground if
20°C.
its temperature were increased by 1°C. What
(A A 30-gram piece of iron is heated to 100°C would be the result if the pipe were instead
and then dropped into cool water where the cooled by 1°C?
iron’s temperature drops to 30°C. How many
29. After a machinist slips a
calories does it lose to the water? (The spe-
hot, snugly fitting iron ring
cific heat capacity of iron is 0.11 cal/g°C.)
over a cold brass cylinder,
22s Suppose the same 30-gram piece of iron is the ring becomes “locked”
dropped into another container of water and in position and can't be
gives off 165 calories in cooling. Calculate the removed even by subse-
iron’s temperature change. quent heating. This proce-
dure is called “shrink fitting.” How does it
23: What mass of water will give up 240 calories
occur? Can you conclude anything about the
when its temperature drops from 80°C to 68°C?
thermal expansion rates of iron and brass?

323
30. If you take a bite of hot pizza, the sauce may 39. If water had a lower specific heat capacity,
burn your mouth while the crust, at the same would lakes be more likely or less likely to
temperature, will not. Explain. freeze in the winter?
31. In the old days, on a cold winter night it was
common to bring a hot object to bed with mrp
EE ELLIE SE IES

you. Which would be better—a 10-kilogram Think and Solve

iron brick or a 10-kilogram jug of hot water at Develop Problem-Solving Skills
the same temperature? Explain.
40. If you wished to warm 100 kg of water by
32. On a hot day you remove from a picnic cooler 15°C for your bath, how much heat would be
a chilled watermelon and some chilled sand- required? (Give your answer in calories and
wiches. Which will remain cool for a longer joules.)
time? Why?
41. What would be the final temperature if you
33. Iceland, so named to discourage conquest by mixed a liter of 20°C water with 2 liters of
expanding empires, is not at all ice-covered 40°C water?
like Greenland and parts of Siberia, even
though it is nearly on the Arctic Circle. The 42. What would be the final temperature if you
average winter temperature of Iceland is con- mixed a liter of 40°C water with 2 liters of
siderably higher than regions at the same lati- 20°C water?
tude in eastern Greenland and central 43. What would be the final temperature of the
Siberia. Why is this so? mixture of 50 g of 20°C water and 50 g of
34. Why is it important to protect water pipes so 40°C water?
they don't freeze? 44, What would be the final temperature when
35. Suppose you cut a 100 g of 25°C water is mixed with 75 g of
small gap in a metal i 40°C water?
ring, as shown. If you e 45. What is the specific heat capacity of a 50-gram
heat the ring, will the H piece of 100°C metal that will change
gap become wider or 400 grams of 20°C water to 22°C?
narrower?
46. Suppose that a metal bar 1 m long expands
36. Would a bimetallic strip function if the two 0.5 cm when it is heated. How much would it
different metals happened to have the same expand if it were 100 m long?
rates of expansion? Is it important that they
expand at different rates? Explain. 47. Steel expands | part in 100 000 for each 1°C in-
crease in temperature. If the 1.5-km main span
37. State whether water at the following tempera- of a steel suspension bridge had no expansion
tures will expand or contract when warmed: joints, how much longer would it be for a tem-
OG ACG GC,
perature increase of 20°C?
38. In addition to the overall motion of molecules 48. What will be the final temperature of 100 g of
that is associated with temperature, some
20°C water when 100 g of 40° iron nails are
molecules can absorb large amounts of submerged in it? (The specific heat of iron
energy in the form of internal vibrations and is 0.12 cal/gC°.)
rotations of the molecules themselves. Would
you expect materials composed of such mol-
ecules to have a high or a low specific heat
capacity? Why?

324 Chapter 21 Temperature, Heat, and Expansion

 Heat Transfer

he spontaneous transfer of heat is always

from warmer objects to cooler objects. If
several objects near one another have dif-
ferent temperatures, then those that are warm
become cooler and those that are cool become warmer, until all have Thick adobe walls slow heat
a common temperature. This equalization of temperatures is brought transfer.
about in three ways: by conduction, by convection, and by radiation.

22.1 Conduction
If you hold one end of an iron rod in a flame, before long the rod will
become too hot to hold. Heat has transferred through the metal by
conduction. Conduction of heat can take place within materials and
between different materials that are in direct contact. Materials that
conduct heat well are known as heat conductors. Metals are the best
conductors. Among the common metals, silver is the most conduc-
tive, followed by copper, aluminum, and iron. Figure 22.1 A
Heat from the flame causes
Conduction is explained by collisions between atoms or mole-
atoms and free electrons in the
cules, and the actions of loosely bound electrons. In the iron rod, the
end of the metal to move faster
flame causes the atoms at the heated end to vibrate more rapidly. and jostle against others, which
These atoms vibrate against neighboring atoms, which in turn do in turn do the same and increase
the same. More important, free electrons that can drift through the the energy of vibrating atoms
metal are made to jostle and transfer energy by colliding with atoms down the length of the rod.
and other free electrons within the rod.
Materials composed of atoms with “loose” outer electrons are
good conductors of heat (and electricity also). Because metals have
the “loosest” outer electrons, they are the best conductors of heat
and electricity.
Touch a piece of metal and a piece of wood in your immediate
vicinity. Which one feels colder? Which is really colder? Your answers
should be different. If the materials are in the same vicinity, they

325
 should have the same temperature, room temperature. Thus neither
is really colder. Yet, the metal feels colder because it is a better con-
ductor; heat easily moves out of your warmer hand into the cooler
metal. Wood, on the other hand, is a poor conductor. Little heat
moves out of your hand into the wood, so your hand does not sense
that it is touching something cooler. Wood, wool, straw, paper, cork,
and polystyrene (Styrofoam) are all poor heat conductors. Instead,
they are called good insulators because they delay the transfer of
heat. A poor conductor is a good insulator.
Liquids and gases, in general, are good insulators. Air is a mix-
Figure 22.2 A ture of gases and conducts heat very poorly—air is a very good
The tile floor feels cold to the
insulator. Porous materials having many small air spaces are good
bare feet, while the carpet at the
insulators. The good insulating properties of materials such as wool,
same temperature feels warm.
This is because tile is a better
fur, and feathers are largely due to the air spaces they contain. Birds
conductor than carpet. vary their insulation by fluffing their feathers to create air spaces. Be
glad that air is a poor conductor, for if it were not, you'd feel quite
chilly on a 25°C (77°F) day!
Snowflakes imprison a lot of air in their crystals and are good
insulators. Snow slows the escape of heat from Earth’s surface,
shields Eskimo dwellings from the cold, and provides protection
from the cold to animals on cold winter nights. Snow, like any blan-
ket, is not a source of heat; it simply prevents any heat from escaping
too rapidly.
Heat is energy and is tangible. Cold is not; cold is simply the
absence of heat. Strictly speaking, there is no “cold” that passes
Figure 22.3 A through a conductor or an insulator. Only heat is transferred. We
A “warm” blanket does not pro- don't insulate a home to keep the cold out; we insulate to keep the
vide you with heat; it simply heat in. If the home becomes colder, it is because heat flows out.
slows the transfer of your body It is important to note that no insulator can totally prevent heat
heat to the surroundings. from getting through it. An insulator just reduces the rate at which
heat penetrates. Even the best-insulated warm homes in winter will
gradually cool. Insulation delays heat transfer.

Figure 22.4 A
Snow lasts longest on the roof of a well-insulated house. Thus, the snow
patterns reveal the conduction, or lack of conduction, of heat through the
roof. Can you see how the insulation of these houses varies?

326 Chapter 22 Heat Transfer

 @ Questions
1. If you hold one end of a metal bar against a piece of ice, the
end in your hand will soon become cold. Does cold flow from
the ice to your hand?
2. Wood is a better insulator than glass. Yet fiberglass is com-
monly used to insulate wooden buildings. Why?
3. You can stick your hand into a hot pizza oven for several sec-
onds without harm, whereas you'd never touch the metal inside
surfaces for even a second. Why?

22.2 Convection
Recall that heat transfer by conduction involves the transfer of energy
from molecule to molecule. Energy moves from one place to another,
but the molecules do not. Another means of heat transfer is by move-
ment of the hotter substance. Air in contact with a hot stove ascends
and warms the region above. Water heated in a boiler in the basement
rises to warm the radiators in the upper floors. This is convection,
where heating occurs by currents in a fluid.
A simple demonstration illustrates the difference between con-
duction and convection. With a bit of steel wool, trap a piece of ice at Figure 22.5 A
the bottom of a test tube nearly filled with water. Hold the tube by When the test tube is heated at
the top, convection is prevented
the bottom with your bare hand and place the top in the flame of a
and heat can reach the ice by
Bunsen burner. (See Figure 22.5.) The water at the top will come to a
conduction only. Since water is
vigorous boil while the ice below remains unmelted. The hot water at a poor conductor, the top water
the top is less dense and remains at the top. Any heat that reaches will boil without melting the ice.
the ice must be transferred by conduction, and we see that water is a
poor conductor of heat. If you repeat the experiment, only this time
holding the test tube at the top by means of tongs and heating the
water from below while the ice floats at the surface, the ice will melt
quickly. Heat gets to the top by convection, for the hot water rises to
the surface, carrying its energy with it to the ice.
Convection occurs in all fluids, whether liquid or gas. Whether
we heat water in a pan or heat air in a room, the process is the same.
When the fluid is heated, it expands, becomes less dense, and rises.
Warm air or warm water rises for the same reason that a block of
wood floats in water and a helium-filled balloon rises in air. In effect,

B Answers

i . Cold does not flow from the ice to your hand. Heat flows from your hand to the ice.
The metal is cold to your touch because you are transferring heat to the metal.

~ Fiberglass is a good insulator, many times better than glass, because of the air that is
trapped among its fibers.
3. Air is a poor conductor, so the rate of heat flow from the hot air to your relatively cool 1 Explore
hand is low. But touching the metal parts is a different story. Metal conducts heat very
well, and a lot of heat in a short time is conducted into your hand when thermal contact
1 Laboratory Manual 52
is made.

327
 PHYSICS

Watching Convection
After bringing a beaker full of water to a boil, drop a small amount
of dark dye or food coloring into the water. You'll see that it dis-
perses very rapidly. Watch the flow of the dye carefully. Can you
see that it follows the convection flow? Light a match and then
blow it out. Hold the match still and observe the smoke trail. In
what direction does the smoke travel? Is the smoke’s trail an
example of convection? Explain. Where else can you see the
paths of convection? How about in the air over a hot stove?

convection is an application of Archimedes’ principle, for the

warmer fluid is buoyed upward by denser surrounding fluid. Cooler
fluid then moves to the bottom, and the process continues. In this
way, convection currents keep a fluid stirred up as it heats.

Winds
Convection currents stirring the atmosphere produce winds. Some
parts of Earth’s surface absorb heat from the sun more readily than
others. The uneven absorption causes uneven heating of the air near
the surface and creates convection currents. This phenomenon is
often evident at the seashore. In the daytime the shore warms more
easily than the water. Air over the shore rises, and cooler air from
above the water takes its place. The result is a sea breeze (Figure 22.7).
Figure 22.6 A At night the process reverses as the shore cools off more quickly
(Top) Convection currents in air. than the water—the warmer air is now over the sea. If you build a
(Bottom) Convection currents in fire on the beach you'll notice that the smoke sweeps inward in the
liquid.
day and seaward at night.

Figure 22.7 A
Convection currents are produced by uneven heating. The land is warmer
than the water in the day and cooler than the water at night, so the direction
of air flow reverses from day to night.

328 Chapter 22 Heat Transfer

 PHYSICS

Cool Hand ah
With your mouth open wide, blow on your hand. Notice that your
breath is warm. Now pucker your lips to make a small opening
with your mouth and blow on your
hand again. Does the temperature
of the air on your hand feel the
same? In which case does your
exhaled breath expand more—
when blowing with your mouth
open wide or when blowing with
your lips puckered? When did the
air on your hand feel cooler? Why?

Why Rising Warm Air Cools

Rising warm air, like a rising balloon, expands. Why? Because less
atmospheric pressure squeezes on it at higher altitudes. As the air
expands, it cools—just the opposite of what happens when air is
compressed. If you've ever compressed air with a tire pump, you
probably noticed that the air and pump became quite hot. The
opposite happens when air expands. Expanding air cools.
We can understand the cooling of expanding air by thinking of
molecules of air as tiny balls bouncing against one another. Speed is
picked up by a ball when it is hit by another that approaches with a
greater speed. But when a ball collides with one that is receding, its
rebound speed is reduced (Figure 22.8). Likewise for a Ping-Pong
ball moving toward a paddle; it picks up speed when it hits an
approaching paddle, but loses speed when it hits a receding paddle.
The same idea applies to a region of air that is expanding; molecules
collide, on the average, with more molecules that are receding than
are approaching (Figure 22.9). Thus, in expanding air, the average
speed of the molecules decreases and the air cools.*

Figure 22.8 A
When a molecule collides with a target molecule that is receding, its rebound
speed after the collision is less than it was before the collision.

* Where does the energy go in this case? We will see in Chapter 24 that it goes into work
done on the surrounding air as the expanding air pushes outward.

329
 You can hold your fingers beside the candle flame without harm,
but not above the flame. Why?

Figure 22.9 A
Molecules in a region of expand-
ing air collide more often with NN
2
receding molecules than with
approaching ones. Their rebound 22.3 Radiation
speeds therefore tend to
decrease and, as a result, the Heat from the sun is able to pass through the atmosphere and warm
expanding air cools. Earth’s surface. This heat does not pass through the atmosphere by
conduction, for air is one of the poorest conductors. Nor does it pass
through by convection, for convection begins only after Earth is
warmed. We also know that neither convection nor conduction is
possible in the empty space between our atmosphere and the sun.
The sun’s heat is transmitted by another process—radiation.*

+. ————_ whey LIGHT

earn OE tra 8 ge bart
INFRARED WAVES EES \a
RADIO
WAVES

Figure 22.10 A Any energy, including heat, that is transmitted by radiation is

Types of radiant energy (electro- called radiant energy. Radiant energy is in the form of electromagnetic
magnetic waves). waves. It includes radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, visible
light, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, and gamma rays. These types of radi-
ant energy are listed in order of wavelength, from longest to shortest.**

@ Answer

Heat travels upward by air convection. Since air is a poor conductor, very little heat travels
sideways.

* The word radiation has more than one meaning. Do not confuse heat radiation with
radioactive radiation, which is given off by the nuclei of radioactive atoms such as ura-
nium and radium.

** Infrared (below-the-red) radiation has longer wavelengths than those of visible light.
The longest visible wavelengths are for red light, and the shortest are for violet light.
Ultraviolet (beyond-the-violet) radiation has shorter wavelengths. (More on wavelength
in Chapter 25, and electromagnetic waves in Chapters 27 and 37.)

330 Chapter 22 Heat Transfer

 PHYSICS

Blocking Infrared Radiation

Sit close to a fire in a fireplace and feel the heat on your closed
eyelids. The heat you feel is from infrared radiation, for most of the
air that is heated goes up the chimney. Your eyelids are very sensi-
tive to infrared rays. Now slip
a pair of glasses over your
eyes and your eyes cool—
instant relief. Why? The glass
or plastic lenses transmit the
visible waves, allowing you to
see the fire, but they absorb
the infrared waves, thus block-
ing the heat from the fire.

All objects continually emit radiant energy in a mixture of wave-

lengths. Objects at low temperatures emit long waves, just as long,
lazy waves are produced when you shake a rope with little energy
(Figure 22.11, top). Higher-temperature objects emit waves of
shorter wavelengths. Objects of everyday temperatures emit waves
mostly in the long-wavelength end of the infrared region, which is
between radio and light waves. Shorter-wavelength infrared waves
absorbed by our skin produce the sensation of heat. Thus, when we
speak of heat radiation, we are speaking of infrared radiation.
If an object is hot enough, some of the radiant energy it emits Figure 22.11 A
Shorter wavelengths are pro-
is in the range of visible light. At a temperature of about 500°C an
duced when the rope is shaken
object begins to emit the longest waves we can see, red light. Higher more rapidly.
temperatures produce a yellowish light. At about 1200°C all the dif-
ferent waves to which the eye is sensitive are emitted and we see an
object as “white hot.”
Common sources that give the sensation of heat are the burning
embers in a fireplace, a lamp filament, and the sun. All of these emit
both infrared radiation and visible light. When this radiant energy
falls on other objects, it is partly reflected and partly absorbed. The
part that is absorbed increases the internal energy of the objects.

SEES
EE TS
Figure 22.12 A
22.4 Absorption of Radiant Energy Most of the heat from a fireplace
goes up the chimney by convec-
Absorption and reflection are opposite processes. Therefore, a good tion. The heat that warms us
comes to us by radiation.
absorber of radiant energy reflects very little radiant energy, includ-
ing the range of radiant energy we call light. So a good absorber
appears dark. A perfect absorber reflects no radiant energy and
appears perfectly black. The pupil of the eye, for example, allows

331
 2 Concept-Development
Practice Book 22-7

Figure 22.13 A
Even though the interior of the box has been painted white, the hole looks
black.

Figure 22.14 A radiant energy to enter with no reflection and appears perfectly
Radiant energy that enters an
black. (The red “pupils” that appear in some flash portraits are from
opening has little chance of leav-
ing before it is completely
direct light reflected off the retina at the back of the eyeball.)
Look at the open ends of pipes in a stack. The holes appear
black. Look at open doorways or windows of distant houses in the
daytime, and they too look black. Openings appear black because
the radiant energy that enters is reflected from the inside walls many
times and is partly absorbed at each reflection until very little or
none remains to come back out (Figure 22.14).
Good reflectors, on the other hand, are poor absorbers. Light-
colored objects reflect more light and heat than dark-colored ones.
In summer, light-colored clothing keeps people cooler.

NRE
STEEP
R 20S So
22.5 Emission of Radiant Energy
Good absorbers are also good emitters; poor absorbers are poor
emitters. For example, a radio antenna that is constructed to be a
good emitter of radio waves will also, by its very design, be a good
receiver of radio waves. A poorly designed transmitting antenna will
also be a poor receiver. Interestingly enough, if a good absorber were
not also a good emitter, then black objects would remain warmer
than lighter-colored objects and never come to thermal equilibrium
with them. But objects in thermal contact do come to thermal equi-
librium. Each object is then emitting as much energy as it is absorb-
Figure 22.15 A ing. So a dark object that absorbs a lot must emit a lot as well.*
Anything with a mirrorlike sur-
face reflects most of the radiant
energy it encounters. That’s why
it is a poor absorber of radiant * Outdoors on a hot day, thermal equilibrium is not reached when black materials such
as pavements or automobile bodies remain hotter than their surroundings—until
evening, when they cool faster!

Heat Transfer
 <4 Figure 22.16
When the containers are filled
with hot water, the blackened
one cools faster. If filled with
cold water and exposed to radi-
ant energy, the blackened one
warms faster. Why?

To check this out, find a pair of metal containers of the same

size and shape, one having a white or mirrorlike surface and the
other a blackened surface (Figure 22.16). Fill the containers with hot
water, and place thermometers in the water. You will find that the
black container cools faster. The blackened surface is a better emit-
ter. Coffee or tea will stay hot longer in a shiny mirrorlike pot than
in a blackened one.
You can do the same experiment in reverse. This time fill each
container with ice water and place the containers near a good source
of radiant energy—in front of a fireplace, near a wood stove, or out-
side on a sunny day. You'll find that the black container warms up
faster. A good emitter of radiant energy is also a good absorber.
Whether a surface plays the role of net emitter or net absorber
depends on whether its temperature is above or below the surround-
ings. If the surface is hotter than the surroundings, for example, it
will be a net emitter and will cool. If the surface is colder than the
surroundings, it will be a net absorber and will become warmer.
Every surface, hot or cold, both absorbs and emits radiant energy. If
the surface absorbs more than it emits, it is a net absorber; if it emits
more than it absorbs, it is a net emitter.
On a sunny day Earth’s surface is a net absorber. At night it is a
net emitter. On a cloudless night its “surroundings” are the frigid
depths of space and cooling is faster than on a cloudy night, where
the surroundings are nearby clouds. Record-breaking cold nights
occur when the skies are clear.

H@ Questions
1. If a good absorber of radiant energy were a poor emitter, how
would its temperature compare with its surroundings?
2. Is it more efficient to paint a heating radiator black or silver?
——————— ssa

H Answers

1. Ifa good absorber were not also a good emitter, there would be a net absorption of
radiant energy and the temperature of a good absorber would remain higher than the
temperature of the surroundings. Things around us approach a common temperature
only because good absorbers are, by their very nature, also good emitters. 1 Explore
2. Most of the heat provided by a heating radiator is accomplished by convection, so the
color is not really that important. For optimum efficiency, however, the radiators should
3 Laboratory Manual 55
be painted a dull black so that the contribution by radiation is increased.

333
 The next time you're in the direct heat of the sun, step in and out
of the shade. You'll note the difference in the radiant energy you
receive. Then think about the enormous amount of energy the sun
emits to reach you some 150 000 000 kilometers distant. Is the sun
unusually hot? Not as hot as some welding torches in auto shops.
You feel the sun’s heat not because it is hot (which it is), but primar-
ily because it is big. Really big!

SREMSCRR
LL OT TE TL
22.6 Newton's Law of Cooling
The density of water
depends on its tempera- We know that an object at a temperature different from its surround-
ture. Likewise, the density ings will ultimately come to a common temperature with its sur-
of the two to three tons of roundings. A relatively hot object cools as it warms its surroundings;
oil in a sperm whale’s a cold object warms as it cools its surroundings.
head also depends on The rate of cooling of an object depends on how much hotter the
temperature. A sperm object is than the surroundings. The temperature change per minute
whale can alter the tem- of a hot apple pie will be more if the hot pie is put in a cold freezer
perature of the oil in its than if put on the kitchen table. When the pie cools in the freezer, the
head, and in doing so,
temperature difference is greater. Awarm home will lose heat to the
alter its density. In this way
cold outside at a greater rate when there is a larger difference
it controls its buoyancy
between the inside and outside temperatures. Keeping the inside of
and is able to deal with the
your home at a high temperature on a cold day is more costly than
fluctuations of density in
keeping it at a lower temperature. If you keep the temperature differ-
the water around it. How
about that?
ence small, the rate of cooling will be correspondingly low.
The rate of cooling of an object—whether by conduction, con-
vection, or radiation—is approximately proportional to the tempera-
ture difference AT between the object and its surroundings.
rate of cooling ~ AT
This is known as Newton’s law of cooling. (Guess who is credited
with discovering this?)
Newton's law of cooling also holds for heating. If an object is
cooler than its surroundings, its rate of warming up is also propor-
tional to AT: Frozen food will warm up faster in a warm room than
in a cold room.

Hf Question
Since a hot cup of tea loses heat more rapidly than a lukewarm cup
of tea, would it be correct to say that a hot cup of tea will cool to
room temperature before a lukewarm cup of tea will?
SS
SSS

1 Explore

3 Laboratory Manual 54 @ Answer

3 Probeware Lab El No! Although the rate of cooling is greater for the hotter cup, it has farther to cool to reach
Manual 70 thermal equilibrium. The extra time is equal to the time it takes to cool to the initial tem-
perature of the lukewarm cup of tea. Cooling rate and cooling time are not the same.

334 Chapter 22. Heat Transfer

22.7 Global Warming and the
Greenhouse Effect
An automobile sitting in the bright sun on a hot day with its windows
rolled up can get very hot inside—appreciably hotter than the outside
air. This is an example of the greenhouse effect, so named for the same
temperature-raising effect in florists’ glass greenhouses. Understanding
the greenhouse effect requires knowing about two concepts.
The first concept has been previously stated—that all things
radiate, and the wavelength of radiation depends on the temperature
of the object emitting the radiation. High-temperature objects radi- Figure 22.17 A
ate short waves; low-temperature objects radiate long waves. The PEIN A aise Fe Teaser
second concept we need to know is that the transparency of things pea ata
such as air and glass depends on the wavelength of radiation. Air is Sen Ore acaoe ee
transparent to both infrared (long) waves and visible (short) waves, SSUES eet aaah
unless the air contains excess carbon dioxide and water vapor, in
which case it is opaque to infrared. Glass is transparent to visible
light waves, but is opaque to infrared waves. (The physics of trans-
parency and opacity is discussed in Chapter 27.)
Now to why that car gets so hot in bright sunlight: Compared
with the car, the sun’s temperature is very high. This means the waves
it radiates are very short. These short waves easily pass through both
Earth’s atmosphere and the glass windows of the car. So energy from
the sun gets into the car interior, where, except for reflection, it is
absorbed. The interior of the car warms up. Like the sun, the car
interior radiates its own waves, but unlike the sun, the waves are
longer. This is because the interior’s temperature is much lower. The
reradiated long waves encounter opaque glass windows. So reradi-
ated energy remains in the car, which makes the car's interior even
warmer. As hot as the interior gets, it won't be hot enough to radiate
waves that can pass through glass (unless it glows red or white hot).
The same effect occurs in Earth’s atmosphere, which is transpar-
ent to solar radiation. The surface of Earth absorbs this energy, and
reradiates part of this at longer wavelengths. Energy that Earth radi-
ates is called terrestrial radiation. Atmospheric gases (mainly
carbon dioxide and water vapor) absorb and re-emit much of this

<q Figure 22.18

SOLAR SHORT WAVES Earth’s atmosphere acts as a
WA sort of one-way valve. It allows
TERRESTRIAL visible light from the sun in, but
because of its water vapor and
carbon dioxide content, it pre-
vents terrestrial radiation from
leaving.

335
 SHORT WAVELENGTH RADIATION
Figure 22.19 >
FROM THE SUN IS TRANSMITTED
Shorter-wavelength radiant THROUGH THE GLASS
energy from the sun enters
through the glass roof of the
greenhouse. The soil emits long-
LONG WAVELENGTH
RERADIATED ENERGY
wavelength radiant energy, IS NOT TRANSMITTED
which is unable to pass through OUT THROUGH THE
the glass. Income exceeds GLASS AND (S TRAPPED
outgo, so the interior is warmed. INSIDE A.

long-wavelength terrestrial radiation back to Earth. So the long-

wavelength radiation that cannot escape Earth’s atmosphere warms
Earth. This global warming process is very nice, for Earth would be
a frigid -18°C otherwise. Over the last 500 000 years the average tem-
perature of Earth has fluctuated between 19°C and 27°C and is
presently at the high point, 27°C. Our present environmental concern
is that increased levels of carbon dioxide and other atmospheric gases
in the atmosphere may further increase the temperature and produce
a new thermal balance unfavorable to the biosphere.
Interestingly enough, in the florist’s greenhouse, heating is
mainly due to the ability of glass to prevent convection currents
from mixing the cooler outside air with the warmer inside air. So the
1 they an greenhouse effect plays a bigger role in global warming than it does
changes i in atmospheric : in the warming of greenhouses.
temperatures over time. . Averaged over a few years, the amount of solar radiation that
It is essential for ecolo- ae strikes Earth exactly balances the terrestrial radiation Earth emits
gists to recognize that eae
into space. This balance results in the average temperature of
energy is radiated both.
Earth—a temperature that presently supports life as we know it.
to and from Earth, and
Over a period of centuries, or even decades, Earth’s average temper-
that certain gases in the
atmosphere absorb and
ature can be changed—by natural causes and also by human activ-
re-emit energy back to
ity. Adding certain materials to the atmosphere changes the
Earth. Understanding the absorption and reflection of solar radiation. Burning fossil fuels
relationships between heats the environment. Except where the source of energy is solar,
energy and temperature, wind, or water, increased energy consumption on Earth adds heat.
and between energy and These activities can change the radiative balance and change Earth’s
greenhouse gases, average temperature.
enables ecologists to An important credo is, “You can never change only one thing.”
identify processes that Change one thing, and you change another. A slightly higher Earth
interfere with Earth’s temperature means slightly warmer oceans, which means slightly
natural processes. increased evaporation, which means slightly increased snowfall in
Ecologists can find polar regions. The fraction of Earth presently beneath ice and snow
opportunities in govern- is greater than the total area used for farmlands. These larger white
ment and privately areas reflect more solar radiation, which can lead to a significant
funded projects. drop in global temperature. So overheating Earth today may cool it
tomorrow and trigger the next ice age! Or it might not. We don't
know.
1 Explore
What we do know is that energy consumption is related to popu-
lation size. We are seriously questioning the idea of continued growth.
3 Laboratory Manual 56 (Please take the time to read Appendix E, “Exponential Growth and
Doubling Time”—very important stuff.)

336 Chapter 22 Heat Transfer

 Chapter Assessment

(Go @nline For: Study and Review

Visit: PHSchool.com
Key Terms
HSchool.com Wa Code: csd-3220 conduction (22.1)
conductor (22.1)
convection (22.2)
greenhouse effect (22.7)
Concept Summary insulator (22.1)
Heat transfer by conduction takes place within Newton's law of cooling (22.6)
certain materials and from one material to radiant energy (22.3)
another when in contact. radiation (22.3)
m Metals are good conductors. terrestrial radiation (22.7)

m Poor conductors, such as wood, cork, poly-

styrene, and most liquids and gases, are good
insulators. Review Questions Check Concepts
Heat transfer by convection takes place by the 1. What is the role of “loose” electrons in heat
movement of heated material itself. conductors? (22.1)
m Convection occurs in all fluids (both liquids 2. Why does a piece of room-temperature metal
and gases). feel cooler to the touch than paper, wood, or
m= Winds result from convection currents that cloth? (22.1)
stir the atmosphere. 3. What is the difference between a conductor
and an insulator? (22.1)
Heat transfer by radiation takes place from
everything to everything, even in empty space. 4, Why are materials such as wood, fur, feathers,
m Energy transmitted by radiation is called and even snow good insulators? (22.1)
radiant energy. 5. What is meant by saying that cold is not a
m A good absorber of radiant energy reflects tangible thing? (22.1)
very little radiant energy, including visible 6. How does Archimedes’ principle relate to
light, and thus appears dark. convection? (22.2)
m= Good absorbers of radiant energy are good 7. Why does the direction of coastal winds
emitters. change from day to night? (22.2)
m According to Newton's law of cooling, the 8. How does the temperature of a gas change
rate of cooling (or warming) of an object is when it is compressed? When it expands?
approximately proportional to the tempera- (2222)
ture difference between the object and its
9. Dominoes are placed upright in a row, one
surroundings.
next to another. When one is tipped over, it
knocks against its neighbor, which does the
same in cascade fashion until the whole row
collapses. Which of the three types of heat
transfer is this most similar to? (22.1—22.3)

337
10. What is radiant energy? (22.3) 25. When a space shuttle is in orbit and there
appears to be no gravity in the cabin, why
11. How do the wavelengths of radiant energy can a candle not stay lit?
vary with the temperature of the radiating
source? (22.3) 26. In Montana, the state highway department
spreads coal dust on top of snow. When the
12. Why does a good absorber of radiant energy sun comes out, the snow rapidly melts. Why?
appear black? (22.4)
27. Suppose that a person at a restaurant is served
13. Why do eye pupils appear black? (22.4) coffee before he or she is ready to drink it. In
14. Is a good absorber of radiation a good emitter order that the coffee be hottest when the per-
or a poor emitter? (22.5) son is ready for it, should cream be added to it
right away or just before it is drunk?
15. Which will normally cool faster, a black pot of
hot tea or a silvered pot of hot tea? (22.5) 28. Will a can of beverage cool just as fast in the
regular part of the refrigerator as it will in the
16. Which will undergo the greater rate of cooling,
freezer compartment? (What physical law do
a red-hot poker in a warm oven or a red-hot
you think about in answering this?)
poker in a cold room (or do both cool at the
same rate)? (22.6) 29. If you wish to save fuel on a cold day, and
you're going to leave your warm house for
17. Does Newton's law of cooling apply to warming
a half hour or so, should you turn your ther-
as well as to cooling? (22.6)
mostat down a few degrees, down all the way,
18. What is terrestrial radiation? (22.7) or leave it at room temperature?
19. Solar radiant energy is composed of short 30. If the composition of the upper atmosphere
waves, yet terrestrial radiation is composed of were changed so that it permitted a greater
relatively longer waves. Why? (22.7) amount of terrestrial radiation to escape,
what effect would this have on Earth’s cli-
20. a. What does it mean to say that the green-
mate? Conversely, what would be the effect if
house effect is like a one-way valve?
the upper atmosphere reduced the escape of
b. Is the greenhouse effect more pronounced terrestrial radiation?
for florists’ greenhouses or for Earth’s surface?
(2257)

Activities Performance Assessment

31. If you live where there is snow, do as
Think and Explain Think Critically
Benjamin Franklin did nearly two centuries
21. At what common temperature will both a block ago and lay samples of light and dark cloth
of wood and a piece of metal feel neither hot on the snow. (If you don't live in a snowy area,
nor cool when you touch them with your hand? try this using ice cubes.) Describe differences
22. If you stick a metal rod in a snowbank, the in the rate of melting beneath the cloths.
end in your hand will soon become cold. 32. Wrap a piece of paper around a thick metal
Does cold flow from the snow to your hand? bar and place it in a flame. Note that the
23. Wood is a poor conductor, which means that paper will not catch fire. Can you figure out
heat is slow to transfer—even when wood is why? (Hint: Paper generally will not ignite
very hot. Why can firewalkers safely walk until its temperature reaches about 230°C.)
barefoot on red-hot wooden coals, but not
safely walk barefoot on red-hot pieces of iron?
24. Notice that a desk lamp often has small holes
near the top of the metal lampshade. How do
these holes keep the lamp cool?

338 Chapter 22 Heat Transfer

 fj atter around us exists in three com-
, 3 mon phases—solid, liquid, and gas.
@ @ Matter can change from one phase (or
state, as it is sometimes called) to another. Ice,
for example, is the solid phase of H,O. Add
energy, and the rigid molecular structure breaks
down to the liquid phase, water. Add more
energy, and the liquid changes to the gaseous
phase as the water boils to become steam.
The phase of matter depends upon its temperature and the pres- Phase changes transfer energy.
sure that is exerted upon it. Changes of phase usually involve a
transfer of energy.

oa ee ee

23.1 Evaporation
Water in an open container will eventually evaporate, or dry up. The
liquid that disappears becomes water vapor in the air. Evaporation
is a change of phase from liquid to gas that takes place at the sur-
face of a liquid.
The temperature of anything is related to the average kinetic
energy of its molecules. Molecules in the liquid phase continuously
move about in all directions and bump into one another at different
speeds. Some of the molecules gain kinetic energy while others lose
kinetic energy. Those molecules at the surface of the liquid that gain
kinetic energy by being bumped from below may have enough
energy to break free of the liquid. They can leave the surface and fly
into the space above the liquid. They now comprise a vapor, mol-
ecules in the gaseous phase.
The increased kinetic energy of molecules bumped free of
the liquid comes from molecules remaining in the liquid. This is

339
 “billiard-ball physics”: When balls bump into one another and some
gain kinetic energy, the other balls lose this same amount of kinetic
energy. So the average kinetic energy of the molecules remaining
behind in the liquid is lowered. Thus, evaporation is a cooling process.
A canteen (Figure 23.1) keeps cool by evaporation when the
cloth covering on the sides is kept wet. As the faster-moving water
molecules leave the cloth, the temperature of the cloth decreases.
The cool cloth in turn cools the metal canteen by conduction, which
in turn cools the water inside.
When the human body overheats, sweat glands produce perspi-
ration. Evaporation of perspiration cools us and helps us maintain a
stable body temperature. Animals that lack sweat glands must cool
Figure 23.1 A
themselves in other ways (Figures 23.2 and 23.3).
The cloth covering on the sides
of the canteen promotes cooling
when it is wet.

Figure 23.2 A
Dogs have no sweat glands
(except between the toes). They
cool themselves by panting. In Figure 23.3 A
this way evaporation occurs in Pigs lack sweat glands. They wallow in mud to cool themselves.
the mouth and within the
bronchial tract.

@ Question
Would evaporation be a cooling process if each molecule at the
surface of a liquid had the same kinetic energy before and after
bumping into other molecules?
IEE
E

@ Answer

No. If there were no change in kinetic energy during molecular bumping, there would
be
no change in temperature. The liquid cools only when there is a lowering of average
kinetic energy of molecules in the liquid. This occurs when some molecules (like billiard
balls) gain speed at the expense of others that lose speed. Those that leave (evaporate)
are
gainers while losers remain behind in the liquid and effectively lower the average
kinetic
energy.

340 Chapter 23 Change of Phase

 DMN Trem EEN aR PN RN pe ey
23.2 Condensation
The process opposite to evaporation is condensation—the changing
of a gas to a liquid. The formation of droplets of water on the outside
of a cold soda can is an example. Water vapor molecules collide with
the slower-moving molecules of the cold can surface. The vapor mol-
ecules give up so much kinetic energy that they can’t stay in the
gaseous phase. They condense.
Condensation also occurs when gas molecules are captured by
liquids. In their random motion, gas molecules may strike the sur-
face of a liquid and so lose kinetic energy. Then, attractive forces
exerted on them by the liquid may hold them in the liquid. Gas mol-
ecules thus become liquid molecules.*
Condensation is a warming process. Kinetic energy lost by con-
densing gas molecules warms the surface they strike. A steam burn,
for example, is more damaging than a burn from boiling water of the Figure 23.4 A
same temperature. Steam gives up energy when it condenses to the Heat is given up by steam when
it condenses inside the radiator.
liquid that wets the skin.

Condensation in the Atmosphere

The air always contains some water vapor. At any given temperature,
however, there is a limit to the amount of it in the air. When this
limit is reached, the air is said to be saturated. In weather reports,
the relative humidity indicates how much water vapor is in the air,
compared with the limit for that temperature. It is important to note
that relative humidity is not a measure of how much water vapor is
in the air. On a balmy summer day with a low relative humidity, for
example, there may be more water vapor in the air than on a cold
winter day with a high relative humidity.
At a relative humidity of 100%, the air is saturated. More water
vapor is required to saturate high-temperature air than low-
temperature air. The warm air of tropical regions is capable of
containing much more moisture than cold Arctic air.
For saturation, there must be water vapor molecules in the air
undergoing condensation. When slow-moving molecules collide,
some stick together—they condense. To understand this, think of
a fly making grazing contact with flypaper. At low speed it would
surely get stuck, whereas at high speed it is more able to rebound
into the air. Similarly, when water vapor molecules collide, they are
more likely to stick together and become part of a liquid if they are
moving slowly (Figure 23.5). At higher speeds, they can bounce apart
and remain in the gaseous phase. The faster water molecules move,
the less able they are to condense to form droplets.

* Some solids such as solid carbon dioxide (dry ice) and naphthalene crystals (moth
balls) go directly to the gaseous phase in a process called sublimation. Snow and ice in
dry weather and direct sunlight do the same. The reverse happens as H,O molecules in
cold air form snow.

341
Figure 23.5 >
Molecules of water vapor are
more likely to stick together and
form a liquid at lower speeds
than at higher speeds.

HIGH- SPEED COLLISION

\
\
)'

LOW- SPEED COLLISION

Although condensation in the air occurs more readily at low

temperatures, it can occur at high temperatures also. Recall that
temperature is a measure of average kinetic energy. There are always
some molecules moving faster than average, and some moving
slower. Even at high temperature, there will be enough slow mol-
ecules to cause condensation—provided there is enough water
vapor present. Whatever the temperature, it is the slower molecules
that are more likely to stick.

Fog and Clouds

Warm air rises. As it rises, it expands. As it expands, it cools. As it
cools, water vapor molecules begin sticking together after colliding,
rather than bouncing off one another. If there are larger and slower-
moving particles or ions present, water vapor condenses upon these
particles, and we have a cloud.
Fog is basically a cloud that forms near the ground. Flying
through a cloud is much like driving through fog. Fog occurs in areas
where moist air near the ground cools. For example, moist air that
has blown in from over an ocean or lake may pass over cooler land.
Some of the water vapor condenses out of the air as it cools, and we
have fog.*

* What keeps the droplets of water in a cloud or fog from falling to Earth? If they're very
small, like dust, they have small terminal velocities, typically about 1 cm/s. This means
it takes 100 s to fall 1 m. A slow 1-cm/s updraft keeps the droplets in suspension. As
drops grow, their terminal velocity increases, and when terminal velocity is more than
updraft velocity, drops do fall. This is rain!

342 Chapter 23. Change of Phase

23.3 Evaporation and Condensation
Rates
When you emerge from a shower and step into a dry room, you often
feel chilly because evaporation is taking place quickly. If you stay in the
shower stall, even with the water off, you will not feel as chilly. When
you are in a moist environment, moisture from the air condenses on
your skin and produces a warming effect that counteracts the cooling
effect of evaporation. If as much moisture condenses as evaporates,
you will feel no change in body temperature. That’s why you can dry off
with a towel more comfortably if you remain in the shower area. Figure 23.6 A
If you feel chilly outside the
If you leave a dish of water on a table for several days and no
shower stall, step back inside
apparent evaporation takes place, you might conclude that nothing
and be warmed by the conden-
is happening in the water. You'd be mistaken, for much activity is sation of the excess water vapor
taking place at the molecular level. Evaporation and condensation there.
are occurring continuously at equal rates. The molecules and energy
leaving the liquid’s surface by evaporation are counteracted by as
many molecules and as much energy returning by condensation.
The liquid is in equilibrium—that is, in a state of balance—since
evaporation and condensation have canceling effects.
Evaporation and condensation normally take place at the same
time. If evaporation exceeds condensation, a liquid is cooled. If con-
densation exceeds evaporation, a liquid is warmed. Most often heat 1 Explore | 2 Develop |
is transferred from and to the surroundings, so we do not notice 3 Laboratory Manual 62
cooling and warming due to evaporation and condensation.

NS
SE 22D
23.4 Boiling
Evaporation takes place at the surface of a liquid. A change of phase
from liquid to gas can also take place beneath the surface of a liquid
under the proper conditions. The gas that forms beneath the surface
causes bubbles. The bubbles are buoyed upward to the surface, PRESSURE OF ATMOSPHERE
where they escape into the surrounding air. This change of phase
is called boiling.
The pressure of the vapor within the bubbles in a boiling liquid
must be great enough to resist the pressure of the surrounding water.
Unless the vapor pressure is great enough, the surrounding pressures
will collapse any bubbles that may form. At temperatures below the
boiling point, vapor pressure is not great enough, so bubbles do not
form until the boiling point is reached.
As the atmospheric pressure is increased, the molecules in the
vapor are required to move faster to exert increased pressure within Figure 23.7 A
the bubble in order to counteract the additional atmospheric pres- The motion of molecules in the
sure. So increasing the pressure on the surface of a liquid raises the bubble of steam (much enlarged)
boiling point of the liquid. Conversely, lowered pressure (as at high creates a gas pressure that coun-
altitudes) decreases the boiling point. Thus, boiling depends not teracts the water pressure
only on temperature but on pressure also. against the bubble.

343
 PHYSICS

You Can't See Steam

Watch the spout of a teakettle of boiling water. Notice that
you cannot see the steam that comes from the spout. The
cloud you see farther
away from the spout is
not steam but condensed
water droplets. Steam is
invisible. Now hold a
lighted candle in the
cloud of condensed
steam. Explain your
observations.

A pressure cooker is based on this fact. A pressure cooker has a

tight-fitting lid that does not allow vapor to escape until it reaches a
ENERGY LEAVING certain pressure greater than normal air pressure. As the evaporating

1555
WATER (COOLING) vapor builds up inside the sealed pressure cooker, pressure on the
surface of the liquid is increased, which prevents boiling. This raises
the boiling point. The increased temperature of the water cooks the
food faster.
It is important to note that it is the high temperature of the water
that cooks the food, not the boiling process itself. At high altitudes,
water boils at a lower temperature. In Denver, Colorado, the “mile-high
city,” for example, water boils at 95°C, instead of the 100°C boiling tem-
perature characteristic of sea level. If you try to cook food in boiling
ENERGY ENTERING water of a lower temperature, you must wait a longer time for proper
WATER (HEATING ) cooking. A “three-minute” boiled egg in Denver is runny. If the temper-
ature of the boiling water were very low, food would not cook at all.
Figure 23.8 A Boiling, like evaporation, is a cooling process. This is surprising
Heating and boiling are two dis-
to some people because they associate boiling with heating. Heating
tinct processes. Heating warms
water is one thing; boiling is another. When 100°C water at atmos-
the water, and boiling cools it.
pheric pressure is boiling, heat is taken away as fast as it is added.

@ Question
Since boiling is a cooling process, would it be a good idea to cool
your hot and sticky hands by dipping them into boiling water?

1 Explore
@ Answer
2 Laboratory Manual 58, 59
No, no, no! When we say boiling is a cooling process, we mean that the water (not your
2 Probeware Lab es| hands!) is being cooled relative to the higher temperature it would attain otherwise.
Manual 77
Because of cooling, it remains at 100°C instead of getting hotter. A dip in 100°C water
would be most uncomfortable for your hands!

344 Chapter 23 Change of Phase

 The Egg Test
Physics can help with even the simplest of pocket inside. With heat, the air pressure in
all cooked creations—the boiled egg. Test the pocket increases enough to crack the
the egg for freshness by placing it in water. shell. If you carefully pierce the egg’s big
If it sinks and lies on its side, it’s fresh. If it end with a small, clean pin before boiling, it
floats, it’s rotten. An egg loses density as it wont crack. Finally be sure you actually
ages because it loses moisture through boil the water. You can heat an egg indefi-
pores in its shell, eventually becoming less nitely at lower temperatures, but it doesn't
dense than water. To test that the egg is raw, cook. Cooking requires exceeding a thresh-
spin it on a tabletop. If it wobbles, it’s old temperature so that the long-stranded
uncooked. The wobbling indicates that the molecules of the egg become cross-linked.
yolk is moving within the egg, thus chang- That’s why an egg won't cook by boiling at
ing the egg’s center of gravity. Eggs some- very high altitudes—the boiling water is not
times crack while boiling due to an air hot enough to cook the egg.

Figure 23.8 shows the water is being cooled by boiling as fast as it is

being heated by energy from the heat source. If cooling did not take
place, continued application of heat to a pot of boiling water would
result in a continued increase in temperature. A pressure cooker
reaches higher temperatures because it prevents boiling, which also
prevents cooling.

eR
SACREESSE lM
23.5 Freezing
When energy is continually withdrawn from a liquid, molecular
motion slows until the forces of attraction between the molecules
cause them to get closer to one another. The molecules then vibrate
about fixed positions and form a solid. Water provides a good example
of this process. When energy is extracted from water at a temperature
of 0°C and at atmospheric pressure, ice is formed. The liquid water ni
gives way to the solid ice phase. The change in phase from liquid to
solid is called freezing. ae
Interestingly enough, if sugar or salt is dissolved in the water,
the freezing temperature will be lowered. These “foreign” molecules
or ions get in the way of water molecules that ordinarily would join Figure 23.9 A
together into the six-sided ice-crystal structure. As ice crystals do The open structure of pure ice
form, the hindrance is intensified, for the proportion of foreign crystals that normally fuse at 0°C.
molecules or ions among liquid water molecules increases. Con- When other kinds of molecules
nections become more and more difficult. In general, dissolving or ions are introduced, crystal
anything in water has this result. Antifreeze is a practical application formation is interrupted, and the
of this process. freezing temperature is lowered.

345
 23.6 Boiling and Freezing at the
Same Time
Suppose that a dish of water at room temperature is placed in a vac-
uum jar (Figure 23.10). If the pressure in the jar is slowly reduced by
a vacuum pump, the water will start to boil. The boiling process
VACUUM
takes heat away from the water left in the dish, which cools to a
lower temperature. As the pressure is further reduced, more and
more of the slower-moving molecules boil away. Continued boiling
results in a lowering of temperature until the freezing point of
approximately 0°C is reached. Continued cooling by boiling causes
ice to form over the surface of the bubbling water. Boiling and freez-
ing are taking place at the same time! This must be witnessed to be
appreciated. Frozen bubbles of boiling water are a remarkable sight.
TO VACUUM PUMP —> If some drops of coffee are sprayed into a vacuum chamber, they
too will boil until they freeze. Even after they are frozen, the water
Figure 23.10 A molecules will continue to evaporate into the vacuum until little
Apparatus to demonstrate that crystals of coffee solids are left. This is how freeze-dried coffee is
water will freeze and boil at the
made. The low temperature of this process tends to keep the chemi-
same time in a vacuum. A gram
cal structure of coffee solids from changing. When hot water is
or two of water is placed in a
dish that is insulated from the
added, much of the original flavor of the coffee is restored.
base by a polystyrene cup.

PRR
ESE 2502
23.7 Regelation
The open-structured crystals of ice (Figure 23.9) can be crushed by
the application of pressure. Whereas ice normally melts at 0°C, the
application of pressure lowers the melting point. The crystals are
simply crushed to the liquid phase. At twice standard atmospheric
pressure, the melting point is lowered to —0.007°C. Quite a bit more
pressure must be applied for an observable effect.
When the pressure is removed, refreezing occurs. This phenome-
non of melting under pressure and freezing again when the pressure
is reduced is called regelation. It is one of the properties of water
that make it different from other substances.
You can see regelation in operation if you suspend a fine wire
that supports heavy weights over an ice block, as shown in Figure
23.11. The wire will slowly cut its way through the ice, but its track
will refill with ice. You'll see the wire and weights fall to the floor,
leaving the ice in a single solid piece!
To make a snowball, you use regelation. When you compress the
snow with your hands, you cause a slight melting, which helps to
Figure 23.11 A bind the snow into a ball. Making snowballs is difficult in very cold
Regelation. weather, because the pressure you can apply may not be enough to
melt the snow.
Once, it was thought that an ice skate’s pressure lowered the
freezing point of ice. Now, we know that this is not sufficient to
explain ice-skating. Ice has a thin layer of liquid on its surface even
at very low temperatures.

346 Chapter 23 Change of Phase

 IRA SS SN LN
23.8 Energy and Changes of Phase
If you heat a solid sufficiently, it will melt and become a liquid. If you
heat the liquid, it will vaporize and become a gas. Energy must be
put into a substance to change its phase in the direction from solid
to liquid to gas. Conversely, energy must be extracted from a sub-
stance to change its phase in the direction from gas to liquid to solid
(Figure 23.12).

ENERGY IS ABSORBED WHEN CHANGE OF PHASE < Figure 23.12

IS IN THIS DIRECTION Energy changes with change of
phase.

ENERGY (IS RELEASED WHEN CHANGE OF PHASE

IS IN THIS DIRECTION
SSS SS ES

The general behavior of many substances can be illustrated with

a description of the changes of phase of H,O. To make the numbers
simple, suppose we have a 1-gram piece of ice at a temperature of
—50°C in a closed container, and it is put on a stove to heat. A ther-
mometer in the container reveals a slow increase in temperature up
to 0°C. (It takes about half of a calorie to raise the temperature of ice
by 1°C.) At 0°C, the temperature stops rising, yet heat is continually
added. This heat melts the ice.
In order for the whole gram of ice to melt, 80 calories of heat
energy must be absorbed by the ice. Not until all the ice melts does
the temperature again begin to rise. Each additional calorie
absorbed by the gram increases its temperature by 1°C until it
reaches its boiling temperature, 100°C. Again, as heat is added, the
temperature remains constant while more and more of the gram of
water is boiled away and becomes steam. The water must absorb
540 calories of heat energy to vaporize the whole gram.* Finally,
when all the water has become steam at 100°C, the temperature
begins to rise once more. It continues to rise as long as heat is added
(again taking about a half calorie per gram for each 1°C rise in tem-
perature). This process is shown graphed in Figure 23.13. 1 Explore |2 Develop

1 Laboratory Manual
57, 60, 61
* The value 540 calories per gram (in SI units, 2.26 megajoules/kilogram) required for
vaporization or condensation is known as the heat of vaporization of water. The 80 calo- 1 Probeware Lab Ey
Manual 72
ries per gram (in SI units, 0.335 MJ/kg) required for melting or freezing is known as the
heat of fusion for water. These are energies per mass required to break intermolecular 2 Concept-Development
bonds during vaporization or melting, or equivalently, are energies released when bonds Practice Book 23-7, 23-2
are formed during condensation or freezing. They vary with temperature and pressure.

347
 PHASE CHANGES OF WATER

VAPORIZING
400

KS
MELTING a
(°C)
TEMPERATURE
CyYj a EE
80 >< 100 -|—-—_———_-
HEAT (CALORIES)

Figure 23.13 A
A graph showing the energy BH Questions
involved in the heating and the 1. How much energy is released when a gram of steam at 100°C
change of phase of 1 gram of condenses to water at 100°C?
H,O. (You will produce a similar
graph expressed in joules 2. How much energy is released when a gram of steam at 100°C
instead of calories when you do condenses and then cools to ice water at 0°C?
Activity 60 in the lab manual.)

The phase change sequence is reversible. When the molecules in

a gram of steam condense to form boiling water, they liberate 540
calories of heat to the environment. When the water is cooled from
100°C to 0°C, 100 additional calories are liberated to the environ-
ment. When ice water fuses to become solid ice, 80 more calories of
energy are released by the water.
The 540 calories required to vaporize a gram of water is a rela-
tively large amount of energy—much more than is required to
change a gram of ice at absolute zero to boiling water at 100°C.
Although the molecules in steam and boiling water at 100°C have
the same average kinetic energy, steam has more potential energy,
because the molecules are free of each other and are not held
together in the liquid. Steam contains a vast amount of energy that
can be released during condensation.
The large value of 540 calories per gram explains why under
some conditions hot water will freeze faster than warm water.* This
occurs for water hotter than 80°C. It is evident when the surface area

@ Answers

1. One gram of steam at 100°C releases 540 calories of energy when it condenses to
become water at the same temperature.

2. The same steam releases 640 calories to reach ice water. That's 540 calories to change
phase to water, and 100 more calories at the rate of 1 calorie per degree to cool to 0°C.

Hot water will not freeze before cold water does, but it will freeze before lukewarm
water does. Water at 100°C, for example, will freeze before water warmer than 60°C,
but not before water cooler than 60°C. What's the “trick”? The hot water freezes first
because more of it evaporates leaving less of it to freeze. Try it and see!

348 Chapter 23. Change of Phase

that cools by rapid evaporation is large compared with the amount
of water involved. Examples are a car washed with hot water on a
cold winter day, and a skating rink flooded with hot water to melt
and smooth out the rough spots and refreeze quickly. The rate of
cooling by rapid evaporation is very high because each gram of
water that evaporates draws at least 540 calories from the water left
behind. This is an enormous quantity of energy compared with the
1 calorie per Celsius degree that is drawn for each gram of water that
cools by thermal conduction. Evaporation truly is a cooling process.

@ Question
Figure 23.14 A
Consider 10 grams of water at 100°C. What will be the temperature
When a car is washed on a cold
of the remaining 9 grams of water if 1 gram rapidly evaporates? day, hot water will freeze more
readily than warm water because
of the energy that the rapidly
A refrigerator’s cooling cycle is a good example of the energy evaporating water takes with it.
interchanges that occur with the changes of phase of the refrigeration
fluid. The liquid is pumped into the cooling unit, where it is forced
through a tiny opening to evaporate and draw heat from the things
stored in the food compartment. The gas is then directed outside the
cooling unit to coils located in the back. As the gas condenses in the
coils, appropriately called condensation coils, heat is given off to the
surrounding air. The liquid returns to the cooling unit, and the cycle
continues. A motor pumps the fluid through the system, where it
enters the cyclic processes of vaporization and condensation. The

HEAT IS GIVEN OUT AS << Figure 23.15

VAPOR TURNS TO The refrigeration cycle in a com-
LIQUID (CONDENSES) mon refrigerator.
IN THESE PIPES
HEAT IS TAKEN IN AS wee
LIQUID TURNS TO
VAPOR (VAPORIZES)
IN THESE PIPES
FREEZER COMPARTMENT
(INSIDE)

B Answer

40°C, if we assume all the energy for evaporation is supplied by the remaining water.
Why? Because 540 calories were taken away by the 1 gram that evaporated. This means
that each of the remaining 9 grams gives up 60 calories (since (540 cal) + 9 = 60 cal). Water
cools at a rate of 1 degree Celsius per calorie, which means it drops 60 degrees to 40°C
(since 100°C — 60°C = 40°C).

349
 next time you're near a refrigerator, place your hand near the conden-
sation coils in the back, and you will feel the heat that has been
extracted from within the cooling unit.
An air conditioner employs the same principles. It simply pumps
heat from one part of the unit to another. When the roles of vapor-
ization and condensation are reversed, the air conditioner becomes
a heater. This is appropriately called a heat pump.
A way that some people judge the hotness of a clothes iron is to
touch it briefly with a finger. This is also a way to burn the finger—
unless it is first moistened. Energy that ordinarily would go into burn-
ing the finger goes, instead, into changing the phase of the moisture
on it. The energy converts the moisture to a vapor, which additionally
provides an insulating layer between the finger and the hot surface.

H@ Question
When H,0O in the vapor phase condenses, is the surrounding air
warmed or cooled?

Similarly, you may have seen news photos or heard stories about
people walking barefoot without harm over red-hot coals from fire-
wood. (CAUTION: Never try this on your own; even experienced
“firewalkers” have received bad burns when the conditions were not
just right.) The primary factor here is the low conductivity of wood—
physics of heatis much
more than a classroom
even red-hot wood. Although its temperature is high, relatively little
assignment. It’s a matter heat is conducted to the feet, just as little heat is conducted by air
of staying alive. Job | when you put your hand briefly into a hot pizza oven. If you touch
opportunities exist for metal in the hot oven, OUCH! Similarly, a firewalker who steps on
firefighters with city or a hot piece of metal or another good conductor will be burned.
country fire departments Evaporation can play a role in firewalking too. A secondary factor is
and the national forest skin moisture. Perspiration on the soles of the feet decreases heat
service. transfer to the feet. Much of the heat that would go to the feet
instead goes to vaporizing the moisture—again, like touching a hot
clothes iron with a wetted finger. Temperature is one thing; heat
transfer is another.
In brief, a solid absorbs energy when it melts; a liquid absorbs
energy when it vaporizes. Conversely, a gas emits energy when it
liquefies; a liquid releases energy when it solidifies.

@ Answer

The surrounding air is warmed. Energy is released by the vapor when it turns into liquid
(Figure 23.12). Another way to see that the air is warmed is to return to Figure 23.5 and
our model of molecules in the air (a mixture of gases, including H,0) as tiny billiard balls
bouncing off one another. The total kinetic energy before and after collisions always
remains the same. If one molecule gains kinetic energy in a collision, the other loses the
same amount. Some molecules gain speed; some lose speed. What happens to losers of
kinetic energy when they get near each other? They stick together. They condense from
the air. But before they condense, they will have transferred much of their kinetic energy
to other molecules. So the air is warmed. How much? By about 540 calories for each gram
of H,O that condenses.

350 Chapter 23. Change of Phase

 Chapter Assessment

During phase changes, energy is given off or

For: Study and Review taken in.
Go @nline Visit: PHSchool.com
School.com m While a substance changes phase, its temper-
Web Code: csd-3230
ature does not change.
™ Much more energy is given off when water
vapor condenses than when an equal mass of
Concept Summary water freezes.

During evaporation, a liquid changes phase at its

surface and becomes a gas.
@ Evaporation is a cooling process.
Key Terms
boiling (23.4) phase (23.0)
During condensation, a gas changes phase and
becomes a liquid. condensation (23.2) regelation (23.7)
equilibrium (23.3) relative humidity (23.2)
m Condensation is a warming process.
evaporation (23.1) saturated (23.2)
m Atthe same relative humidity, there is more freezing (23.5)
water vapor in warm air than in cold air.
@ Clouds and fog form when air cools and is
unable to contain as much water vapor.
Review Questions Check Concepts
When evaporation and condensation occur at the
1. Do all the molecules or atoms in a liquid have
same rate, the liquid is in equilibrium and there
about the same speed, or much different
is no change in the liquid’s volume.
speeds? (23.1)
m@ A liquid is in equilibrium when the surround-
2. What is evaporation, and why is it also a cool-
ing air is saturated with its vapor.
ing process? (23.1)
@ In dry air, water evaporates much faster than
3. Why does a dog pant on a hot day? (23.1)
it condenses; in humid air, it evaporates only
slightly faster than it condenses. 4. What is condensation, and why is it also a
warming process? (23.2)
During boiling, a liquid changes phase at any
place within the liquid, and gas bubbles form. 5. Why is being burned by steam more damag-
ing than being burned by boiling water of the
@ The boiling temperature of a liquid depends
same temperature? (23.2)
on the pressure on its surface.
6. Which usually contains more water vapor—
= Boiling, like evaporation, is a cooling process. warm air or cool air? (23.2)
During freezing, a liquid changes phase and 7. Why does warm moist air form clouds when
becomes a solid. it rises? (23.2)
m@ The freezing temperature of a liquid is low- 8. Why do you feel less chilly if you dry yourself
ered by adding other substances to it. inside the shower stall after taking a shower?
™ During regelation, ice melts under pressure (23,3)
and refreezes when the pressure is removed.

351
 9. How can you tell if the rate of evaporation For water, heat of fusion = 80 cal/g; heat of vapor-
equals the rate of condensation? (23.3) ization = 540 cal/g.
10. What is the difference between evaporation 21. Calculate the energy (in calories) absorbed
and boiling? (23.4) by 20 grams of water that warms from 30°C
to 90°C.
11. Why does the temperature at which a liquid
boils depend on atmospheric pressure? (23.4) 22. Calculate the energy needed to melt 50 grams
of 0°C ice.
12. Why is a pressure cooker even more useful
when cooking food in the mountains than 23. Calculate the energy needed to melt 100 grams
when cooking at sea level? (23.4) of 0°C ice and then heat it to 30°C.
13. Why does antifreeze or any soluble substance 24. Calculate the energy absorbed by 20 grams of
put in water lower its freezing temperature? 100°C water that is turned into 100°C steam.
(23.5)
25. Calculate the energy released by 20 grams of
14. How can water be made to both boil and 100°C steam that condenses and then cools
freeze at the same time? (23.6) to 0°C.
15. What is regelation, and what does it have to
do with the open-structured crystals in ice?
(23.7) Think and Explain Think Critically
16. a. How many calories are needed to raise 26. a. Evaporation is a cooling process. What
the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1°C? cools and what warms during evaporation?
b. How many calories are needed to melt b. Condensation is a warming process. What
1 gram of ice at 0°C?
warms and what cools during condensation?
c. How many calories are needed to vaporize
27. You can determine wind direction if you wet
1 gram of boiling water at 100°C? (23.8)
your finger and hold it up into the air. Explain.
17. Does a vapor give off or absorb energy when
28. Give two reasons why pouring a hot cup of
it turns into a liquid? (23.8)
coffee into a saucer results in faster cooling.
18. What is the effect of rapid evaporation on the
29. At a picnic, why would wrapping a bottle ina
temperature of water? (23.8)
wet cloth be a better method of cooling than
19. In a refrigerator, does the food cool when a placing the bottle in a bucket of cold water?
vapor turns to a liquid, or vice versa? (23.8)
30. Why is the constant temperature of boiling
20. Why is it important that a finger be wet water on a hot stove evidence that boiling is a
before it is touched briefly to a hot clothes cooling process? (What would happen to its
iron? (23.8) temperature if boiling were not a cooling
process?)
31. Will potatoes boiling in a pot of water cook
Plug and Chug Use Equations faster if the water is boiling vigorously than if
the water is boiling gently?
Quantity of heat energy required for change of
32. People who live where snowfall is common
phase = (mass) x (heat of fusion or heat of vapor-
ization), or in equation form, will attest to the fact that air temperatures are
ONSr al generally higher on snowy days than on clear
days. Some people get cause and effect mixed
Quantity of heat energy responsible for a temper- up when they say that snowfall cannot occur
ature change = (mass) x (specific heat) x (change on very cold days. Explain.
in temperature), or in equation form,
Q= mcAT

352 Chapter 23 Change of Phase

33. If a large tub of water is kept in a small 42. If a100-g piece of iron is heated to 100°C and
unheated room, even on a very cold day the then dropped into a cavity in a large block of
temperature of the room will not go below ice at 0°C, how much ice will melt? (The spe-
0°C. Why not? cific heat capacity of iron is 0.11 cal/g°C.)
34. On cold winter days the windows of your Answer questions 43-47 in terms of joules rather
warm home sometimes get wet on the inside. than calories.
Why is this so?
43. How much energy is needed to melt 5 kg of
35. On a clear night, why does more dew form in ice at 0° C?
an open field than under a tree or beneath a
park bench? 44. How much energy is given to your body when
0.5 kg of steam condenses on your skin?
45. If that same amount of energy (answer to
Think and Solve question 44) were used to warm 4 kg of water
(8 times as much!) initially at 0° C, what
Develop Problem-Solving Skills
would be the final temperature of the water?
36. How much steam at 100°C must be con-
46. The heat of vaporization of ethyl alcohol is
densed in order to melt 1 gram of 0°C ice and
8.5 X 10° J/kg. If 2 kg of it were allowed to
have the resulting ice water remain at 0°C?2
vaporize in a refrigerator, how much energy
(The answer is not 0.148 grams!)
would be drawn from the air molecules?
37. Calculate the energy released by 1 gram of
47. How much energy is needed to change 1 kg of
100°C boiling water that cools to form ice,
ice at -10° C to steam at 120° C?
and then continues releasing energy until it
reaches absolute zero. (Absolute zero is
—273°C, and the specific heat capacity of ice
over this broad temperature range averages Activity Performance Assessment
about 0.3 cal/g°C.)
48. Boil some water in a pan and note that bub-
38. Calculate the energy released by 1 gram of bles form at particular regions of the pan.
100°C steam condensing to 1 gram of boiling These are nucleation sites—scratched or
water of the same temperature. How does this flawed regions of the pan, or simply bits of
energy compare with the energy released in crud. When water reaches the boiling point
the previous problem? these sites provide havens where microscopic
39. How many calories are given off by 1 gram of bubbles can collect long enough to become
100°C steam that changes phase to 1 gram of big bubbles. Nucleation sites are also impor-
ice at 0°C. tant for phase changes of condensation and
solidification. Snowflakes and raindrops typi-
40. Compare the heat given off by 1 gram of cally form around dust particles, for example.
steam that condenses to boiling water, to the
heat given off by 1 gram of boiling water that
cools to form ice, and then continues giving
off energy all the way to absolute zero. (The
specific heat of ice is 0.5 cal/gram°C.)
41. If 20 grams of hot water at 80°C is poured into
a cavity in a very large block of ice at 0°C,
what will be the final temperature of the
water in the cavity? How much ice must melt
in order to cool the hot water down to this
temperature?

353
 Thermodynamics

hermodynamiics is the study of heat and

: its transformation into mechanical energy.
The word thermodynamics stems from
Greek words meaning “movement of heat.” The
science of thermodynamics was developed in the
mid-1800s, before the atomic and molecular
nature of matter was understood. So far, our study
Tapping Earth’s internal energy. of heat has been concerned with the microscopic behavior of jig-
gling atoms and molecules. Now we will see that thermodynamics
bypasses the molecular details of systems and focuses on the
macroscopic level—mechanical work, pressure, temperature, and
their roles in energy transformation. The foundation of thermody-
namics is the conservation of energy and the fact that heat flows
from hot to cold, and not the other way around. It provides the basic
theory of heat engines, from steam turbines to fusion reactors, and
the basic theory of refrigerators and heat pumps. We begin our study
of thermodynamics with a look at one of its early concepts—a low-
est limit of temperature.

RINNE 225
24.1 Absolute Zero
As thermal motion of atoms increases, temperature increases.
There seems to be no upper limit of temperature. In contrast, there
is a definite limit at the other end of the temperature scale. If we
continually decrease the thermal motion of atoms in a substance,
the temperature will drop. As the thermal motion approaches zero,
1 Explore the kinetic energy of atoms approaches zero, and the temperature
of the substance approaches a lower limit. This limit is the absolute
2 Laboratory Manual 63 zero of temperature. At absolute zero, no more energy can be ex-
tracted from a substance and no further lowering of its temperature

354 Chapter 24 Thermodynamics

is possible. This limiting temperature is 273 degrees below zero on
the Celsius scale.* HYDROGEN BOMB 4
Absolute zero corresponds to zero degrees on the Kelvin, or ther- 100000000 K
modynamic, scale and is written 0 K (short for “zero kelvin”). Unlike
the Celsius scale, there are no negative numbers on the thermody-
namic scale. Degrees on the Kelvin scale are the same size as those
on the Celsius scale. Thus, ice melts at 0°C, or 273 K, and water boils
at 100°C, or 373 K. The Kelvin scale was named after the British
physicist Lord Kelvin, who coined the word thermodynamics and
first suggested such a scale.

@ Questions
1. Which is larger, a Celsius degree or a Kelvin?
2. Achunk of iron has a temperature of 0°C. If a second, identical
chunk of iron is twice as hot (has twice the absolute tempera-
ture), what is its temperature in degrees Celsius? bs
SURFACE 6000 K

(SENATE EELS EESSE ALL MOLEC

HAVE BROKE 4300 K
NO SOLIDSO
24.2 First Law of Thermodynamics CARBON AR 4000 k
In the eighteenth century, heat was thought to be an invisible fluid {800 K
called caloric, which flowed like water from hot objects to cold | MELTS
objects. Caloric was conserved in its interactions, a discovery that
500K
led to the law of conservation of energy. In the 1840s, it became
200°C TIN MELTS
400 K
100°C WATER BOILS
B@ Answers
300 K
1. Neither. They are equal.
orc 273K MELTS
2. The iron twice as hot is 273°C, because the 0°C chunk has an absolute temperature of AMMONIA
273 K, which when doubled is 546 K. To convert to Celsius, simply subtract 273 from BOILS
Kelvin. Can you see why? {00°C
200 K
™ DRY ICE
VAPORIZES
* This value was found in the 1800s by experimenters who discovered that all gases con-
{00k
tract by the same proportion when temperature is decreased. It was found that any gas
200% #OXYGEN
at 0°C, regardless of its initial pressure or volume, changes by 1/273 of its initial volume BOILS
for each 1°C change in temperature, when pressure is held constant. For example, when -273°C =f HELIUM BOILS
the temperature is reduced to -100°C, the volume of gas is reduced by 100/273. More OK
striking, if a gas at 0°C were cooled to -273°C, its volume would be reduced by 273/273
and become zero. Clearly, we cannot have a substance with zero volume. It was also Figure 24.1 A
found that the pressure of any gas in any container of fixed volume would change by Some absolute temperatures.
1/273 for each 1°C change. So gas in a container of fixed volume cooled to -273°C
would have no pressure whatsoever. In practice, every gas liquefies before it gets this
cold. Nevertheless, these decreases of volume and pressure by increments of 1/273
suggested the idea of the lowest temperature: -273°C (more precisely, -273.15°C, and
_459.69° on the Fahrenheit scale). Interestingly enough, even at absolute zero, atoms
still have a small kinetic energy, called the zero-point energy. Helium, for example, has
enough motion at absolute zero to keep it from freezing. The explanation involves quan-
tum theory.

355
 apparent that the flow of heat was nothing more than the flow of
energy itself. The caloric theory of heat was gradually abandoned.*
Today we view heat as a form of energy. Energy can neither be cre-
ated nor destroyed.
When the law of energy conservation is applied to thermal sys-
tems, we call it the first law of thermodynamics. We state it generally
in the following form:
Whenever heat is added to a system, it transforms to
an equal amount of some other form of energy.
By system, we mean any group of atoms, molecules, particles, or
objects we wish to deal with. The system may be the steam in a steam
engine, the whole Earth’s atmosphere, or even the body of a living
creature. It is important to define what is contained within the system
as well as what is outside of it. If we add heat energy to the steam in a
steam engine, to Earth’s atmosphere, or to the body of a living crea-
ture, these systems will be able to do work on external things. This
added energy does one or both of two things: (1) increases the inter-
nal energy of the system if it remains in the system and (2) does exter-
nal work if it leaves the system. So, more specifically, the first law of
thermodynamics states
increase in external work done
Heat added = intemal energy * by the system
Let’s say you put an airtight can filled with air on a hot stove and
heated it up. Warning: Do not actually do this. Since the can has a
fixed volume, nothing moves, so no work is done. All the heat going
into the can increases the internal energy of the enclosed air, so its
temperature rises. This makes sense, for if heat is added to a system
that does no external work, then the amount of heat added will be
equal to the increase in the internal energy of the system. But if the
system does external work, then the increase in internal energy will
be correspondingly less. For example, if the can is fitted with a mov-
able piston, then the heated air can do work as it expands—it can
push the piston outward. Can you see that the temperature of the
enclosed air will be less than if no work were done on the piston?
The first law of thermodynamics makes good sense.
So we see that if a given quantity of heat is supplied to a steam
engine, some of this heat increases the internal energy of the steam
Figure 24.2 A
and the rest is transformed into mechanical work. That is, heat input
Paddle-wheel apparatus first
used to compare heat energy
equals the increase in internal energy plus the work output. The first
with mechanical energy. As the law of thermodynamics is simply the thermal version of the law of
weights fall, they give up poten- conservation of energy:
tial energy and warm the water Adding heat is not the only way to increase the internal energy of
accordingly. This was first a system. If we set the “heat added” part of the first law to zero, we
demonstrated by James Joule, will see that changes in internal energy are equal to the work done
for whom the unit of energy is
named.
ee eessssSsS—s—sFsefh

* Popular ideas, when proven wrong, are seldom suddenly discarded. People tend to
identify with the ideas that characterize their time; hence, it is often the young who are
more prone to discover and accept new ideas and push the human adventure forward.

356 Chapter 24 Thermodynamics

 PHYSICS

Work Your Palms

Briskly rub your palms together. You're doing work on your skin.
What is the effect of the work
done on the temperature of
your palms? You can see that
work can easily be converted to
thermal energy. Is thermal
energy as easily converted into
work?

on or by the system.* If work is done on a system—compressing it,

for example—the internal energy will increase. We have therefore
raised the temperature of the system with no heat input. On the
other hand, if work is done by the system—expanding against its sur-
roundings, for example—the internal energy will decrease. With no
heat extracted, the system cools.
Consider a bicycle pump. When we pump on the handle, the
pump becomes hot. Why? Because we are putting mechanical work
into the system and raising its internal energy. If the process hap-
pens quickly enough, so that very little heat is conducted from the
system during compression, then nearly all of the work input will go
into increasing internal energy, significantly raising temperature.

@ Questions te ak
1. If 10 J of energy is added to a system that does no external {
work, by how much will the internal energy of that system
be raised? \ Dice} *
2. If 10 J of energy is added to a system that does 4J of exierral .
work, by how much will the internal energy of that apy) be +e
raised? , ic? ae

H@ Answers

eet Orc)
2. 6J.We see from the first law that 10J — 4J = 6 J.

* A Heat = A internal energy + work

1 Explore [2
Develo
0 = A internal energy + work 2 Concept-Development
Then we can say Practice Book 24-7
—Work = A internal energy

357
 NOMEN
CoE
24.3 Adiabatic Processes
The process of compression or expansion of a gas so that no heat
enters or leaves a system is said to be adiabatic (Greek for “impassi-
ble”). Adiabatic changes of volume can be achieved by performing
the process rapidly so that heat has little time to enter or leave (as
with a bicycle pump), or by thermally insulating a system from its
surroundings (with Styrofoam, for example).
A common example of a near adiabatic process is the compres-
sion and expansion of gases in the cylinders of an automobile engine
(Figure 24.4), Compression and expansion occur in only a few hun-
dredths of a second, too short a time for appreciable heat energy to
Figure 24.3 A leave the combustion chamber. For very high compressions, like
Do work on the pump by press- those in a diesel engine, the temperatures achieved are high enough
ing down on the piston and you
to ignite a fuel mixture without the use of a spark plug. Diesel
compress the air inside. Adia-
engines have no spark plugs.
batic compression—the air is
warmed. So when work is done on a gas by adiabatically compressing it,
the gas gains internal energy and becomes warmer. When a gas
adiabatically expands, it does work on its surroundings and gives up

INTAKE COMPRESSION IGNITION POWER STROKE EXHAUST

Figure 24.4 A
One cycle of a four-stroke internal combustion engine. (a) A fuel-air mixture
fills the cylinder as the piston moves down. (b) The piston moves up and
compresses the mixture—adiabatically, since no heat transfer occurs. (c) The
spark plug fires, ignites the mixture, and raises its temperature. (d) Adiabatic
expansion pushes the piston downward—the power stroke. (e) The burned
gases are pushed out the exhaust valve, and the cycle repeats.

internal energy, and thus becomes cooler. Recall the activity in

Chapter 22 of blowing on your hand with puckered lips so your
breath expands as it leaves your mouth (repeated here in Figure 24.5).
Your breath is considerably cooler than when blown from your wide-
open mouth without expanding.
Air temperature may be changed by adding or subtracting heat,
by changing the pressure of the air, or by both. Heat may be added by

358 Chapter 24 Thermodynamics

solar radiation, by long-wave Earth radiation, by moisture condensa-
tion, or by contact with the warm ground. Heat may be subtracted by
radiation to space, by evaporation of rain falling through dry air, or by
contact with cold surfaces.
There are many atmospheric processes, usually involving time
scales of a day or less, in which the amount of heat added or sub-
tracted is very small—small enough that the process is nearly
adiabatic. We then have the adiabatic form of the first law:
Change in air temperature ~ pressure change Figure 24.5 A

Adiabatic processes in the atmosphere occur in large masses of Blow warm air onto your hand
air that have dimensions on the order of kilometers. We'll call these irom youl ade Open Inout:
large masses of air blobs. Due to their large size, mixing of different Now reduce the opening
between your lips so the air
temperatures or pressures of air occurs only at their edges and
expands as you blow. Adiabatic
doesn't appreciably alter the overall composition of the blobs. A blob expansion—the air is cooled.
behaves as if it were enclosed in a giant, tissue-light garment bag.
As a blob of air flows up the side of a mountain, its pressure lessens,
allowing it to expand and cool. The reduced pressure results in
reduced temperature. Measurements show that the temperature of a
blob of dry air drops by 10°C for each 1-kilometer increase in altitude
(or for a decrease in pressure due to a 1-kilometer increase in alti-
tude). So dry air cools 10°C for each kilometer it rises (Figure 24.6).
Air flowing over tall mountains or rising in thunderstorms or
cyclones may change elevation by several kilometers. So if a blob
of dry air at ground level with a comfortable temperature of 25°C
rose to 6 kilometers, its temperature would be a frigid —-35°C. On the
other hand, if air at a typical temperature of -20°C at an altitude of
6 kilometers descended to the ground, its temperature would be a
roasting 40°C.
A dramatic example of this adiabatic warming is the chinook—
a wind that blows down from the Rocky Mountains across the Great
Plains. Cold air moving down the slopes of the mountains is com-
pressed by the atmosphere into a smaller volume and is appreciably

- SNe
aE yt
ae ak |
“eS et i
a
r
Hf Questions ;
1. If a blob of air initially at 0°C expands adiabatically ne flow- + :
ing upward alongside a mountain a vertical distance of 1kim a
what will its temperature be? When it has risen 5 km? ——_ *
2. Imagine a giant dry-cleaner’s garment bag full of air ata temper-
ature of -10°C floating likeaballoon with a string hanging from '
it 6km above the ground. ifyou were able to yank it suddenly tom
the ground, what would its approximate temperature be? eae: vei t GROUND 25°C
i - . 7 es pi @ Bes
;

@ Answers
Figure 24.6 A
The temperature of a blob of dry
1. At 1-km elevation, its temperature will be -10°C; at 5 km, -50°C.
air that expands adiabatically
2. If it were pulled down so quickly that heat conduction was negligible, it would be adia-
batically compressed by the atmosphere and its temperature would rise to a piping hot changes by about 10°C for each
50°C (122°F), just as compressed air gets hot in a bicycle pump. kilometer of elevation.

359
 WARM
MOIST AIR

Figure 24.7 A
Chinooks, warm dry winds, occur when high-altitude air descends and is
adiabatically warmed.

warmed. In this way communities in the paths of chinooks experi-

ence relatively warm weather in midwinter. The effect of expansion
or compression on gases is quite impressive.*

NE SSS
24.4 Second Law of Thermodynamics
If we place a hot brick next to a cold brick, the hot brick will cool as
heat flows to the cold brick. The cold brick will warm and the hot
brick will cool until both bricks arrive at a common temperature:
thermal equilibrium. No energy will be destroyed, in accord with the
first law of thermodynamics. But pretend the hot brick takes heat
from the cold brick and becomes hotter. Would this violate the first
law of thermodynamics? Not if the cold brick becomes correspond-
ingly colder so that the total energy of both bricks remains the same.
This would not violate the first law, but it would violate the second
law of thermodynamics. The second law tells us the direction of heat
flow in natural processes. The second law of thermodynamics can be
stated in many ways, but most simply it is this:
Heat will never of itself flow from a cold object to a
hot object.
Figure 24.8 A
A thunderhead is the result of
Heat flows one way, downhill from hot to cold. In winter, heat
the rapid adiabatic cooling of flows from inside a warm heated home to the cold air outside. In
a rising mass of moist air. Its summer, heat flows from the hot air outside into the cooler interior.
energy comes from condensa- The direction of heat flow is from hot to cold. Heat can be made to
tion and freezing of water vapor. flow the other way, but only by imposing external effort—as occurs

* Interestingly enough, when you're flying at high altitudes where outside air tempera-
ture is typically -35°C, you're quite comfortable in your warm cabin—but not because
of heaters. The process of compressing outside air to near sea-level cabin pressure
would normally heat the air to a roasting 55°C (131°F). So air conditioners must be
used to extract heat from the pressurized air.

360 Chapter 24 Thermodynamics

with heat pumps that increase the temperature of air, or air condi-
tioners that reduce air temperature. Without external effort, the
direction of heat flow is from hot to cold.
There is a huge amount of internal energy in the ocean, but all
this energy cannot be used to light a single flashlight lamp without
external effort. Energy will not of itself flow from the lower-tempera-
ture ocean to the higher-temperature lamp filament.

NN
TA SAITO TE
24.5 Heat Engines and the Second Law
It is easy to change work completely into heat—simply rub your
hands together briskly. Or push a crate at constant speed along a
floor. All the work you do in overcoming friction is completely con-
verted to heat. But the reverse process, changing heat completely
into work, can never occur. The best that can be done is the conver-
sion of some heat to mechanical work. The first heat engine to do
this was the steam engine, invented in about 1700.
A heat engine is any device that changes internal energy into
mechanical work. The basic idea behind a heat engine, whether a
steam engine, internal combustion engine, or jet engine, is that
mechanical work can be obtained only when heat flows from a high
temperature to a low temperature. In every heat engine only some of
the heat can be transformed into work.
In considering heat engines, we talk about reservoirs. Heat flows
out of a high-temperature reservoir and into a low-temperature
reservoir. Every heat engine will (1) absorb heat from a reservoir of
higher temperature, increasing its internal energy, (2) convert some
of this energy into mechanical work, and (3) expel the remaining
energy as heat to some lower-temperature reservoir, usually called a
sink (Figure 24.9). In a gasoline engine, for example, (1) the burning
fuel in the combustion chamber is the high-temperature reservoir,
(2) mechanical work is done on the piston, and (3) the expelled
energy goes out as exhaust. The second law tells us that no heat
engine can convert all the heat input to mechanical energy output.
Only some of the heat can be transformed into work, with the
remainder expelled in the process. Applied to heat engines, the sec-
ond law may be stated:
When work is done by a heat engine running between
two temperatures, 7;,,, and T,,)4, only some of the Figure 24.9 A
input heat at T,,, can be converted to work, and the When heat energy flows in
rest is expelled as heat at T,,),. any heat engine from a high-
temperature place to a low-
There is always heat exhaust, which may be desirable or unde- temperature place, part of this
sirable. Hot steam expelled in a laundry on a cold winter day may energy is transformed into work
be quite desirable, while the same steam on a hot summer day output. (If work is put into a heat
is something else. When expelled heat is undesirable, we call it engine, the flow of energy may
thermal pollution. go from a low-temperature to a
Before the second law was understood, it was thought that a very high-temperature place, as ina
low friction heat engine could convert nearly all the input energy to refrigerator or air conditioner.)

361
 useful work. But not so. In 1824 the French engineer Sadi Carnot
carefully analyzed the cycles of compression and expansion in a heat
engine and made a fundamental discovery. He showed that the
upper fraction of heat that can be converted to useful work, even
under ideal conditions, depends on the temperature difference
between the hot reservoir and the cold sink. His equation gives the
ideal efficiency, or Carnot efficiency, of a heat engine.

Ideal efficiency = Tot = Teoia

(Poe
Tot 18 the temperature of the hot reservoir and T,,,, is the tem-
perature of the cold. Ideal efficiency depends only on the tempera-
ture difference between input and exhaust. Whenever ratios of
temperatures are involved, the absolute temperature scale must be
used. So T,,,, and T.,)4 are expressed in kelvins. For example, when
the hot reservoir in a steam turbine is 400 K (127°C) and the sink is
300 K (27°C), the ideal efficiency is

(400 - 300) _ 1
400 4
This means that even under ideal conditions, only 25% of the inter—
nal energy of the steam can be converted into work, while the
remaining 75% is expelled as waste. This is why steam is super-
heated to high temperatures in steam engines and power plants.
The higher the steam temperature driving a motor or turbogenera-
stor, the higher the efficiency of power production. (Increasing oper-
ating temperature in the example to 600 K yields an efficiency of
(600 — 300)/600 = 1/2; twice the efficiency at 400 K.)
We can see the role of temperature difference between heat
reservoir and sink in the operation of the steam-turbine engine in
Figure 24.10. Steam from the boiler is the hot reservoir while the sink

Figure 24.10 p>»

A simplified steam turbine.
BOLE eam pees HIGH- PRESSURE
The turbine turns because high- he, CEE Por} | STEAM
temperature steam from the
boiler exerts more pressure on
the front side of the turbine
blades than the low-temperature
steam exerts on the back side of
the blades. Without a pressure
difference, the turbine would not
turn and deliver energy to an
external load (an electric genera-
tor, for example). The presence
of steam pressure on the back
side of the blades, even in the
absence of friction, prevents an
LOW-PRESSURE
engine from being perfectly STEAM
efficient.
CONDENSER |

362 Chapter 24 Thermodynamics

is the exhaust region after the steam passes through the turbine. The
hot steam exerts pressure and does work on the turbine blades when _ LINK TO TECHNOLOGY ®
it pushes on their front sides. This is nice. But steam pressure is not
confined to the front sides of the blades; steam pressure is also
exerted on the back sides of the blades—countereffective and not so
nice. Pressure on the back sides is reduced most importantly
because steam cools after giving much of its energy to the blades
(and in practice, pressure is further reduced by lowering exhaust
temperature by condensation outside the turbine). Even if friction
were absent, the turbine’s net work output would be the difference in
work done on the blades by hot steam and work done by the blades
on the cooler steam in exhausting it. We know that with confined
steam, temperature and pressure go hand in hand—increase tem-
perature and you increase pressure; decrease temperature and you
decrease pressure. So the pressure difference necessary for the oper-
ation of a heat engine is directly related to the temperature differ-
ence between source and sink. The greater the temperature Ceramics in the form of
difference, the greater the efficiency. baked clay and pottery go ~
Carnot’s equation states the upper limit of efficiency for all heat back thousands of years. —
Like pottery, ceramics
engines. The higher the operating temperature (compared with
exhaust temperature) of any heat engine, whether in an ordinary
have always been brittle
and don’t absorb impacts.
automobile, a nuclear-powered ship, or a jet aircraft, the higher the
well. Technologists today,
efficiency of that engine. In practice, friction is always present in all
however, are making
engines, and efficiency is always less than ideal.* So whereas friction ceramics that are harder, ©
is solely responsible for the inefficiencies of many devices, in the lighter, stiffer, and more
case of heat engines, the overriding concept is the second law of resistant to heat and cor-
thermodynamics; only some of the heat input can be converted to rosion than metals. Once
work—even without friction. the problem of brittleness
is solved, today’s metal
automobile engines may
be a thing of the past.
H Questions Ceramic engines can
1. What is the ideal efficiency of an engine if both its hot reservoir operate at temperatures
and exhaust are the same temperature—say 400 K? that would melt iron,
resulting in greatly in-
2. What is the ideal efficiency of a machine having a hot reservoir
creased Carnot efficien-
at 400 K and a cold reservoir at absolute zero, 0 K?
cies and dispensing with
heat-transferring radia-
tors. Small ceramic
BH Answers engines are already here.
Watch as they gain in
1. Zero efficiency; (400 - 400)/400 = 0. This means no work output is possible for any heat
engine unless a temperature difference exists between the reservoir and the sink.
popularity.

2. (400 — 0)/400 = 1; only in this idealized case is an ideal efficiency of 100% possible.

* The ideal efficiency of an ordinary automobile engine is somewhat more than 50%, but
in practice the actual efficiency is about 25%. Engines of higher operating temperatures
(compared with sink temperatures) would be more efficient, but the melting point of
engine materials limits the upper temperatures at which they can operate. Higher effi-
ciencies await engines made with new materials with higher melting points. Watch for
ceramic engines!

363
 Ame ER a hn eal Nm
24.6 Order Tends to Disorder
The first law of thermodynamics states that energy can be neither
created nor destroyed. The second law adds that whenever energy
transforms, some of it degenerates into waste. The wasted energy is
unavailable and is lost. Another way to say this is that organized
energy (concentrated and therefore usable energy) degenerates into
disorganized energy (nonusable energy). The energy of gasoline is
organized and usable energy. When gasoline burns in an automobile
engine, part of its energy does useful work such as moving the pis-
tons, part of the energy heats the engine and surroundings, and part
of the energy goes out the exhaust. Useful energy degenerates to
nonuseful forms and is unavailable for doing the same work again,
such as driving another automobile.

aol ,
Bes
corecom as«SEP Bove tevee teres tr ‘Race (eegysseege
a6 ‘‘ggese
Osis te 2
Pa iggamasce ) ‘oe
as se

Figure 24.11 A
The Transamerica® Pyramid and some other buildings are heated by electric
lighting, which is why the lights are on most of the time.

Organized energy in the form of electricity that goes into electric

lights in homes and office buildings degenerates to heat energy. This
is a principal source of heating in many office buildings in moderate
climates, such as the Transamerica Pyramid in San Francisco. All of
the electrical energy in the lamps, even the part that briefly exists in
the form of light, turns into heat energy, which is used to warm the
buildings (that explains why the lights are on most of the time). This

364 Chapter 24 Thermodynamics

energy is degenerated and has no further use. All the heat energy in
the buildings cannot be reused to light a single lamp without some
outside organizational effort.
We see that the quality of energy is lowered with each transfor-
mation. Energy of an organized form tends to disorganized forms. In
this broader regard, the second law can be stated another way:
Natural systems tend to proceed toward a state of
greater disorder.
Figure 24.12 A
Imagine an orderly stream of molecules injected into a closed Try to push a heavy crate across
empty bottle. Molecules of gas all moving in harmony make up an a rough floor and all your work
orderly state—and also an unlikely state. The orderly state of mol- will go into heating the floor and
ecules soon becomes disordered. Molecules of gas moving in hap- crate. Work against friction turns
hazard directions and speeds make up a disorderly state—a more into disorganized energy.

random and mote likely state. So, order tends toward disorder. If we
remove the lid of the bottle, the gas molecules will escape into the
room and become even more disordered.
You would not expect the reverse to happen; that is, you would
not expect the gas molecules to spontaneously order themselves
back into the bottle to return to the more ordered containment. This
is because compared with the immense number of ways the mol-
ecules can randomly move, the chance of them returning to such an
ordered state is practically zero. Such processes in which disorderly
states tend toward orderly states are simply not observed.
Disordered energy can be changed to ordered energy only at the
expense of some organizational effort or work input. For example, air
can be ordered into a small region by using a compressor. But with-
out some imposed work input, no increase in order occurs.
In the broadest sense, the message of the second law of thermo-
dynamics is that the tendency of the universe, and all that is in it, Figure 24.13 A
tends to disorder. Molecules of gas go from the
bottle to the air and not the other
way around.

NTA
I SS PT ET
24.7 Entropy
The idea of ordered energy tending to disordered energy is embod-
ied in the concept of entropy.* Entropy is the measure of the amount
of disorder. Disorder increases; entropy increases. The second law
states that for natural processes, in the long run, entropy always
increases. Gas molecules escaping from a bottle move from a rela-
tively orderly state to a disorderly state. Organized structures in time
become disorganized messes. Things left to themselves run down.
Whenever a physical system is allowed to distribute its energy freely,

* Entropy can be expressed as a mathematical equation, stating that the increase in

entropy, AS, in an ideal thermodynamic system is equal to the amount of heat added
to a system, AO, divided by the temperature, T, of the system: AS = AO/T.

365
Figure 24.14 >
Entropy.

it always does so in a manner such that entropy increases while the

available energy of the system for doing work decreases.
Entropy normally increases in physical systems. However, when
there is work input, as in living organisms, entropy decreases. All
living things, from bacteria to trees to human beings, extract energy
from their surroundings and use it to increase their own organiza-
tion. This order in life forms is maintained by increasing entropy
elsewhere, so life forms plus their waste products have a net increase in

INCORPORATED
“INCREASING ENTROPY
1S OUR BUSINess”

Figure 24.15 A
Why is the motto of this contractor—“Increasing entropy is our business”—
so appropriate?

366 Chapter 24 Thermodynamics

 ‘SCIENCE, sda AND Reales eae
am ics
ive CE E

:, tion, since chemical

‘ . ae oY various methods,. The‘onlypee
pol utioneanbe
ic.manage thermalpollution isistospread ‘
ai waste. heat over areas large enough to|
waste one an a iebietEGreedtenice of absorb itwithout significantly increasing
the second law ofthermodynamics. This temperatures. Conservation and efficient rian
waste heat is some- — a technology are
times called thermal * oe E absolutely crucial to the
pollution because, like ty, al te health of our planet.
chemical wastes, it pol- se i ‘
lutes the environment. ae Critical Thinking
Waste heat dis- ne Explain how the second
charged into waterways — : i _- law of thermodynamics
can raise temperatures @ tells us that it is impos-
of aquatic environments | ~ : — 7 sible to produce usable
enough to kill organ- addiah wii §=6energy with zero envi-
isms and disrupt ronmental impact.

entropy.* Energy must be transformed into the living system to support

life. When it is not, the organism soon dies and tends toward disorder.
The first law of thermodynamics is a universal law of nature
for which no exceptions have been observed. The second law,
however, is a probability statement. Given enough time, even the
most improbable states may occur; entropy may sometimes spon—
taneously decrease. For example, the haphazard motions of air
molecules could momentarily become harmonious in a corner of
the room, just as a barrelful of pennies dumped on the floor could
all come up heads. These situations are possible—but not probable.
The second law tells us the most probable course of events—not the
only possible one.
The laws of thermodynamics are sometimes put this way: You
can't win (because you can’t get any more energy out of a system
than you put in), you can’t break even (because you can't even get as
much energy out as you put in), and you can’t get out of the game
(entropy in the universe is always increasing).

* Interestingly enough, the American writer Ralph Waldo Emerson, who lived when the
second law of thermodynamics was the new science topic of the day, philosophically
speculated that not everything becomes more disordered with time. He cited the exam-
ple of human thought. Ideas about the nature of things grow increasingly refined and
organized as they pass through the minds of succeeding generations. Human thought
is evolving toward more order.

367
 Chapter Assessment

For: Study and Review Review Questions Check Concepts

Go @nline Visit: PHSchool.com
NSchool.com Wat Code: csd-3240 1 What is the meaning of the Greek words from
which we get the word thermodynamics? (24.0)
. Is the study of thermodynamics concerned
primarily with microscopic or macroscopic
Concept Summary processes? (24.0)
Thermodynamics is the study of heat and work. . What is the lowest possible temperature on
the Celsius scale? On the Kelvin scale? (24.1)
m= Absolute zero is the lowest possible tempera-
ture that a substance may have; where mol- . What is the temperature of melting ice in
ecules of a substance have minimum kinetic kelvins? Of boiling water? (24.1)
energy.
. How does the law of the conservation of
First law of thermodynamics: The heat added to a energy relate to the first law of thermody-
system equals the sum of the increase in internal namics? (24.2)
energy plus the external work done by the sys-
. What happens to the internal energy of a sys-
tem. This is a restatement of the law of energy
tem when work is done on it? What happens
conservation applied to heat.
to its temperature? (24.2)
m An adiabatic process is one usually of expan-
. What is the relationship between heat added
sion or compression, wherein no heat enters
to a system and the internal energy and exter-
or leaves a system.
nal work done by the system? (24.2)
Second law of thermodynamics: Heat does not
. If work is done adiabatically on a system, will
spontaneously flow from a cold object to a hot
the internal energy of the system increase or
object. No machine can be completely efficient
decrease? If work is done by a system, will the
in converting energy to work; some input energy
internal energy of the system increase or
is dissipated as heat. All systems tend to become
decrease? (24.2)
more and more disordered as time goes by.
Entropy is a measure of the disorder of a system. . What condition is necessary for a process to
be adiabatic? (24.3)
Whenever energy freely transforms from one form
to another, the direction of transformation is 10. What happens to the temperature of air when
toward a state of greater disorder (greater entropy). it is adiabatically compressed? When it adia-
batically expands? (24.3)
ST RS OO SR RT I LE TT ETE
11. What generally happens to the temperature
Key Terms of rising air? (24.3)

absolute zero (24.1) 12. What generally happens to the temperature

adiabatic (24.3) of sinking air? (24.3)
Carnot efficiency (24.5) 13. How does the second law of thermodynamics
entropy (24.7) relate to the direction of heat flow? (24.4)
first law of thermodynamics (24.2) 14. What three processes occur in every heat
heat engine (24.5) engine? (24.5)
second law of thermodynamics (24.4) 15. What is thermal pollution? (24.5)
thermodynamics (24.0)

368 Chapter 24 Thermodynamics

16. If all friction could be removed from a heat 29. In a heat engine driven by ocean temperature
engine, would it be 100% efficient? Explain. differences, the heat source (water near the
(24.5) surface) is at 293 K and the heat sink (deeper
water) is at 283 K. Calculate the ideal effi-
17. What is the ideal efficiency of a heat engine
ciency of the engine.
that operates with its hot reservoir at 500 K
and its sink at 300 K? (24.5)
18. Why are heat engines intentionally run at
high operating temperatures? (24.5) Think and Explain Think Critically
19. Give at least two examples to distinguish 30. A friend said the temperature inside a certain
between organized energy and disorganized oven is 600 and the temperature inside a
energy. (24.6) certain star is 60 000. You're unsure about
whether your friend meant kelvins or degrees
20. How much of the electrical energy trans- Celsius. How much difference does it make in
formed by a common lightbulb becomes heat each case?
energy? (24.6)
31. When you pump a tire with a bicycle pump,
21. With respect to orderly and disorderly states, the cylinder of the pump becomes hot. Give
what do natural systems tend to do? Cana two reasons why this is so.
disorderly state ever transform to an orderly
state? Explain. (24.6) 32. Is it possible to entirely convert a given
amount of heat into mechanical energy? Is it
22. What is the physicist’s term for a measure of possible to entirely convert a given amount of
messiness? (24.7) mechanical energy into heat? Cite examples
23. Under what condition can entropy decrease to illustrate your answers.
in a system? (24.7) 33. We know that warm air rises. So it might
24. What is the relationship between the second seem that the air temperature should be
law of thermodynamics and entropy? (24.7) higher at the top of mountains than down
below. But the opposite is most often the
25. Distinguish between the first and second laws case. Why?
of thermodynamics in terms of whether or
not exceptions occur. (24.7) 34. Will the efficiency of a car engine increase,
decrease, or remain the same if the muffler is
removed? If the car is driven on a very cold
day? Defend your answers.
Plug and Chug Use Equations
35. The combined molecular kinetic energies of
26. Calculate the ideal efficiency of a heat engine molecules in a very large container of cold
that takes in energy at 800 K and expels heat water are greater than the combined molec-
to a reservoir at 300 K. ular kinetic energies in a cup of hot tea.
27. Calculate the ideal efficiency of a ship's boiler Pretend you partially immerse the teacup
when steam comes out at 530 K, pushes in the cold water and that the tea absorbs
through a steam turbine, and exits into a con- 10 joules of energy from the water and
denser that is kept at 290 K by circulating becomes hotter, while the water that gives
seawater. up 10 joules of energy becomes cooler.
Would this energy transfer violate the first
28. Calculate the ideal efficiency of a steam turbine law of thermodynamics? The second law of
that has a hot reservoir of 112°C high-pressure thermodynamics? Explain.
steam and a sink at 27°C.

369
36. A mixture of fuel and air is burned rapidly in a a

Think and Solve

Wa
a combustion engine to push a piston in the
engine that in turn propels the vehicle. In a Develop Problem-Solving Skills
jet engine a mixture of fuel and air is burned
rapidly and, instead of pushing pistons, 44. Helium has the special property that its inter-
pushes the aircraft itself. Which do you sup- nal energy is directly proportional to its
pose is more efficient? absolute temperature. Consider a flask of
helium with a temperature of 10°C. Ifit is
37. Suppose one wishes to cool a kitchen by leav- heated until it has twice the internal energy,
ing the refrigerator door open and closing the what will its temperature be?
kitchen door and windows. What will happen to
the room temperature? Why? . A heat engine takes in 100 kJ of energy from a
source at 800 K and expels 50 kJ to a reservoir
38. In buildings that are being heated electrically, at 300 K. Calculate the ideal efficiency and
is it wasteful to turn on all the lights? Is turn- the actual efficiency of the engine.
ing on all the lights wasteful if the building is
being cooled by air conditioning? Defend . Which heat engine has greater ideal efficiency,
your answers. one that operates between the temperatures
600 K and 400 K or one that operates between
39. Water put into a freezer compartment in your 500 K and 400 K? Explain how your answer
refrigerator goes to a state of less molecular conforms to the idea that a higher operating
disorder when it freezes. Is this an exception temperature yields higher efficiency.
to the entropy principle? Explain.
. To increase the efficiency of a heat engine,
40. On acold 10°C day, your friend who likes cold
would it be better to increase the temperature
weather says she wishes it were twice as cold. of the reservoir while holding the tempera-
Taking this to mean she wishes the air had ture of the sink constant, or to decrease the
half the internal energy, what temperature temperature of the sink while holding the
would this be?
temperature of the reservoir constant? Show
41. Why is "thermal pollution" a relative term? your work.
42. Is it possible to construct a heat engine that . What is the ideal efficiency of an automobile
produces no thermal pollution? Defend your engine wherein fuel is heated to 2700 K and
answel. the outdoor air is 300 K?
43. What happens to the efficiency of a heat . Imagine a giant dry-cleaner’s bag full of air at
engine when the temperature of the reservoir a temperature of -35°C floating like a balloon
into which heat energy is rejected is lowered? with a string hanging from it 10 km above the
ground. Estimate its temperature if you were
able to yank it suddenly to Earth’s surface.

370 Chapter 24 Thermodynamics

TANGMe

Isn't this disc the pits? | mean, there are billions of

them, carefully inscribed in an array that is scanned at millions
of pits per second by a laser beam. Digitized music! Or a whole
encyclopedia! But the beauty of a CD is more than what it holds —
just look at the brilliant spectrum of colors diffracted by the evenly
spaced rows of pits. |find it even more beautiful when | know why
it’s so colorful and why it holds so much music or information.
That’s the physics of it all!

For: Articles on sound

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Web Code: cse-4000
 Vibrations and
Waves

ll around us we see things that wiggle and

jiggle. Even things too small to see, such
as atoms, are constantly wiggling and jig-
gling. A wiggle in time is a vibration. A vibration
cannot exist in one instant, but needs time to
move back and forth. Strike a bell and the vibra-
tions will continue for some time before they die down.
Vibrations carry energy.
A wiggle in space and time is a wave. A wave cannot exist in one
place but must extend from one place to another. Light and sound
are both forms of energy that move through space as waves. This
chapter is about vibrations and waves, and the following chapters
continue with the study of sound and light.

UN 2325
25.1 Vibration of a Pendulum
Suspend a stone at the end of a string and you have a simple pen-
dulum. Pendulums swing back and forth with such regularity that
they have long been used to control the motion of clocks. Galileo
discovered that the time a pendulum takes to swing back and forth
through small angles does not depend on the mass of the pendu-
lum or on the distance through which it swings. The time of a back-
and-forth swing—called the period—depends only on the length of
the pendulum and the acceleration of gravity.*
Figure 25.1 A
Two pendulums of the same
length have the same period
* The exact relationship for the period 7 of a simple pendulum is
regardless of mass.
rent
g

where L is the length of the pendulum, and g is the acceleration of gravity.

372 Chapter 25 ~~Vibrations and Waves

 A long pendulum has a longer period than a shorter pendulum; 1 Explore
that is, it swings back and forth more slowly—less frequently—than
a short pendulum. When walking, we allow our legs to swing with 1 Laboratory Manual 64, 65
the help of gravity, like a pendulum. In the same way that a long 1 Probeware Lab
pendulum has a greater period, a person with long legs tends to walk Manual 73
with a slower stride than a person with short legs. This is most 3 Problem-Solving
noticeable in long-legged animals such as giraffes, horses, and Exercises in A
ostriches, which run with a slower gait than do short-legged animals Physics 77-7, 11-2
such as dachshunds, hamsters, and mice.

A IT IME
25.2 Wave Description
The back-and-forth vibratory motion (often called oscillatory
motion) of a swinging pendulum is called simple harmonic motion.*
The pendulum bob filled with sand in Figure 25.2 exhibits simple
harmonic motion above a conveyor belt. When the conveyor belt is
stationary (left), the sand traces out a straight line. More interest-
ingly, when the conveyor belt is moving at constant speed (right), the
sand traces out a special curve known as a sine curve.

Save

Figure 25.2 A
Frank Oppenheimer, founder of the Exploratorium® science museum in San
Francisco, demonstrates that a pendulum swinging back and forth traces out
a straight line over a stationary surface, and a sine curve when the surface
moves at constant speed.

* The condition for simple harmonic motion, met for many kinds of vibrations, is that the
restoring force is proportional to the displacement from equilibrium. The component of
weight that restores a displaced pendulum to its equilibrium position is directly propor-
tional to the pendulum’s displacement (for small angles)—likewise for a weight attached
to a spring. Recall from Section 18.3, Hooke’s law for a spring: F = kAx, where the force
that stretches (or compresses) a spring is directly proportional to the distance the
spring is stretched (or compressed).

373
 WAVELENGTH

Figure 25.3 A
A sine curve.

The same can be done with a weight attached to a spring under-

going vertical simple harmonic motion, shown in Figure 25.3. A
marking pen attached to the bob traces a sine curve on a sheet of
paper that is moving horizontally at constant speed. A sine curve is a
pictorial representation of a wave. Like a water wave, the high points
are called crests, and the low points are called troughs. The straight
dashed line represents the “home” position, or midpoint of the
vibration. The term amplitude refers to the distance from the mid-
point to the crest (or trough) of the wave. So the amplitude equals
the maximum displacement from equilibrium.
The wavelength of a wave is the distance from the top of one
crest to the top of the next one. Or equivalently, the wavelength is
the distance between successive identical parts of the wave. The
wavelengths of waves at the beach are measured in meters, the
wavelengths of ripples in a pond in centimeters, and the wave-
lengths of light in billionths of a meter (nanometers).
How often a vibration occurs is described by its frequency. The
frequency of a vibrating pendulum, or object on a spring, specifies
the number of back-and-forth vibrations it makes in a given time
(usually one second). A complete back-and-forth vibration is one
cycle. If it occurs in one second, the frequency is one vibration per
Figure 25.4 A second or one cycle per second. If two vibrations occur in one sec-
Electrons in the transmitting
ond, the frequency is two vibrations or two cycles per second.
antenna of a radio station at
The unit of frequency is called the hertz (Hz). A frequency of one
960 kHz on the AM dial vibrate
960 000 times each second and
cycle per second is 1 hertz, two cycles per second is 2 hertz, and so
produce 960-kHz radio waves. on. Higher frequencies are measured in kilohertz (kHz—thousands
of hertz), and still higher frequencies in megahertz (MHz—amillions
of hertz) or gigahertz (GHz—billions of hertz). AM radio waves are
broadcast in kilohertz, while FM radio waves are broadcast in mega-
hertz; radar and microwave ovens operate at gigahertz. A station at
960 kHz on the AM radio dial, for example, broadcasts radio waves
that have a frequency of 960 000 vibrations per second. A station at
101 MHz on the FM dial broadcasts radio waves with a frequency of
101 000 000 hertz. These radio-wave frequencies are the frequencies
at which electrons are forced to vibrate in the antenna of a radio sta-
tion’s transmitting tower.
The source of all waves is something that vibrates. The frequency
of the vibrating source and the frequency of the wave it produces are
the same.

374 Chapter 25 ‘Vibrations and Waves

 If the frequency of a vibrating object is known, its period can be
calculated, and vice versa. Suppose, for example, that a pendulum ‘LINK TO ENTOMOLOGY! j

makes two vibrations in one second. Its frequency is 2 Hz. The time
|
|

needed to complete one vibration—that is, the period of vibration—

is 1/2 second. Or if the vibration period is 3 Hz, then the period is /
1/3 second. As you can see below, frequency and period are inverses
of each other:
frequency = 1
. period
and vice versa,
period = ee
frequency

@ Questions ae
1. What is the frequency in vibrations per second of a 100-Hz at .
wave? - er Ee é
ae
a

2. The Sears® Building in Chicago sways back and forth atais avb n
_ frequency of about 0.1 Hz. What is itsperiod of vibration? Bisa att sound of 225 Hz. The -
~ annoying high-pitched
whine of a mosquito
PEE ENTE Roe eal Galli
flapping at 600 Hz. These
25.3 Wave Motion sounds are produced
by
pressure variations in the
air caused by vibrating
Most of the information around us gets to us in some form of wave. fine
Sound is energy that travels to our ears in the form of one kind of
wave. Light is energy that comes to our eyes in the form of a differ-
ent kind of wave (an electromagnetic wave). The signals that reach
our radio and television sets also travel in the form of electromag-
netic waves.
When energy is transferred by a wave from a vibrating source to
a distant receiver, there is no transfer of matter between the two
points. To see this, think about the very simple wave produced when
one end of a horizontally stretched string is shaken up and down
(Figure 25.5). After the end of the string is shaken, a rhythmic distur-
bance travels along the string. Each part of the string moves up and
down while the disturbance moves horizontally along the length of
the string. It is the disturbance that moves along the length of the LY;
string, not parts of the string itself.
Figure 25.5 A
When the string is shaken up
and down, a disturbance moves
along the length of the string.
@ Answers
1. A 100-Hz wave vibrates 100 times per second.

2. The period is
1 eo VIDASE VID 10's
frequency 0.1Hz 0.1 vib/s
Thus, each vibration takes 10 seconds.

375
 PHYSICS
1 Explore

3 Problem-Solving re Making Waves

E 5 é All
xercises in
Oscillate a marking pen back and forth across a piece of paper as
Physics 72-1
you pull the paper in a direction perpendicular to your oscillation.
You'll get a curve that may resemble a sine curve, and will have a
certain wavelength. What happens to the wavelength when you
pull the paper faster? Next, repeatedly dip your finger into a wide
pan of water to make circular waves on the surface. Will the wave-
length of the waves increase, decrease, or remain the same when
you dip your finger more frequently?

Drop a stone in a quiet pond and you'll produce a wave that

moves out from the center in an expanding circle (Figure 25.6). It is
the disturbance that moves, not the water, for after the disturbance
passes, the water is where it was before the wave passed.
When someone speaks to you from across the room, the sound
wave is a disturbance in the air that travels across the room. The air
molecules themselves do not move along, as they would in a wind. The
air, like the rope and the water in the previous examples, is the medium
through which wave energy travels. The energy transferred from a
vibrating source to a receiver is carried by a disturbance in a medium,
not by matter moving from one place to another within the medium.
Figure 25.6 A
A circular water wave in a still
pond. RRNA
SR SES
25.4 Wave Speed
The speed of a wave depends on the medium through which the
wave moves. Sound waves, for example, move at speeds of about
330 m/s to 350 m/s in air (depending on temperature), and about
four times faster in water. Whatever the medium, the speed,
wavelength, and frequency of the wave are related. Consider the
simple case of water waves. Imagine that you fix your eyes at a sta-
tionary point on the surface of water and observe the waves passing
by this point. If you observe the distance between crests (the wave-
length) and also count the number of crests that pass each second
(the frequency), you can then calculate the horizontal distance a
particular crest moves each second.
Figure 25.7
If the wavelength is 1 meter,
and one wavelength per second
passes the pole, then the speed
of the wave is 1 m/s.

376 Chapter 25 Vibrations and Waves

 For example, if the wavelength is 3 meters and if two crests pass
a stationary point each second, then 3 X 2 meters of waves pass by
in 1 second. The waves therefore move at 6 meters per second. We
can say the same thing this way:
wave speed = wavelength x frequency
Or in equation form
Sa
where v is wave speed, A (Greek letter lambda) is wavelength, and fis
wave frequency. This relationship holds for all kinds of waves, whether
they are water waves, sound waves, radio waves, or light waves.
Table 25.1 shows some wavelengths and corresponding frequencies
of sound in air at the same temperature. Notice that the product of
wavelength and frequency is the same for each example—340 m/s in
this case. During a concert, you do not hear the high notes in a chord
before you hear the low notes. The sounds of all instruments reach you
at the same time. Notice that long wavelengths have low frequencies,
and short wavelengths have high frequencies. Wavelength and
frequency vary inversely to produce the same wave speed for all sounds.

Table 25.1 Sound Waves

Sinema aan

Computational Example

If a train of freight cars, each 10 m long, rolls by you at the

rate of 2 cars each second, what is the speed of the train?
This can be seen in two ways, the Chapter 2 way and the
Chapter 25 way.
From Chapter 2 recall that
y= 4-2X10M _ 29 m/s
t ls
where dis the length of that part of the train that passes you in
time ¢.
Here in Chapter 25 we compare the train to wave motion,
where the wavelength corresponds to 10 m, and the frequency is
2 Hz. Then
wave speed = wavelength x frequency
(10 m) X (2 Hz) = 20 m/s

One of the nice things about physics is that different ways of

looking at things produce the same answer. When this doesn’t
happen, and there is no error in computation, then the validity
of one (or both!) of those ways is suspect.
i TEUEEE
377
 25.5 Transverse Waves
Suppose you create a wave along a rope by shaking the free end up
and down as shown in Figure 25.8. In this case the motion of the
rope (shown by the up and down arrows) is at right angles to the
direction in which the wave is moving. Whenever the motion of the
medium (the rope in this case) is at right angles to the direction in
which a wave travels, the wave is a transverse wave.

‘/)
one ti Co.
‘Seis mologists ¢conduct — Figure 25.8 A
“research from university A transverse wave.
and government Pnss .
such as the National
Earthquake Information — Waves in the stretched strings of musical instruments and upon the
Service (NEIS) in Colorado. surfaces of liquids are transverse. As Chapter 27 will show, the electro-
magnetic waves that make up radio waves and light are also transverse.

MENNNNNINS600SE
25.6 Longitudinal Waves
Not all waves are transverse. Sometimes the particles of the medium
move back and forth in the same direction in which the wave travels.
The particles move along the direction of the wave rather than at
right angles to it. This kind of wave is a longitudinal wave.
Both transverse and longitudinal waves can be demonstrated
with a loosely-coiled spring, or Slinky®, as shown in Figure 25.9.

@ Answers

1. The frequency of the wave is 2 Hz; its wavelength is 1.5 m; and its wave speed is wave-
length x frequency = (1.5 m) x (2 Hz) = 3 m/s.
2. The wavelength of the 340-Hz sound wave must be 1 m. Then wave speed = (1 m) X
(340 Hz) = 340 m/s.

378 Chapter 25 _—_—Vibrations and Waves

 < Figure 25.9
Both waves transfer energy from
left to right. When the end of a
coiled spring is shaken up and
down (top), a transverse wave is
produced. When it is shaken in
and out (bottom), a longitudinal
wave is produced.

A transverse wave is demonstrated by shaking the end of a Slinky up

and down. A longitudinal wave is demonstrated by shaking the end
of the Slinky in and out. In this case we see that the medium vibrates
parallel to the direction of energy transfer. Sound waves are longitu-
dinal waves, and will be discussed in the next chapter.

25.7 Interference
A material object such as a rock will not share its space with another
rock. But more than one vibration or wave can exist at the same time
in the same space. If you drop two rocks in water, the waves pro-
duced by each can overlap and form an interference pattern. Within
the pattern, wave effects may be increased, decreased, or neutralized.
When the crest of one wave overlaps the crest of another, their
individual effects add together. The result is a wave of increased
amplitude. This is called constructive interference, or reinforcement
(Figure 25.10, top). When the crest of one wave overlaps the trough
of another, their individual effects are reduced. The high part of one
wave simply fills in the low part of another. This is called destructive
interference, or cancellation (Figure 25.10, bottom).

ORCEMENT
f\, + iV, = \ /

/ \ i cfm? _ CANCELLATION

1 Explore
Figure 25.10 A
Constructive interference (top) and destructive interference (bottom) ina 2 Laboratory Manual 67
transverse wave.

379
Figure 25.11 Gi a a Se
Two overlapping water waves : E :
produce an interference pattern.

Wave interference is easiest to see in water. Figure 25.11 (right)

shows the interference pattern made when two vibrating objects
touch the surface of water. The gray “spokes” are regions where a
crest of one wave overlaps the trough of another to produce regions
of zero amplitude. At points along these regions, the waves from the
two objects arrive “out of step.” We say that they are out of phase
with one another. The dark- and light-striped regions are where the
crests of one wave overlap the crests of the other, and the troughs
overlap as well. In these regions, the two waves arrive “in step.” They
are in phase with each other.
Interference patterns are nicely illustrated by the overlapping of
concentric circles printed on a pair of clear sheets, as shown in
Figure 25.12. When the sheets overlap with their centers slightly
apart, a so-called moiré pattern is formed that is very similar to the
Figure 25.12 A interference pattern of water waves (or any kind of waves). A slight
Moiré pattern. shift in either of the sheets produces noticeably different patterns. If
a pair of such sheets is available, be sure to try this and see the vari-
ety of patterns for yourself.
Interference is characteristic of all wave motion, whether the
waves are water waves, sound waves, or light waves. The interference
of sound is discussed in the next chapter, and the interference of
light in Chapter 31.

If you tie a rope to a wall and shake the free end up and down, you
will produce a wave in the rope. The wall is too rigid to shake, so the
wave is reflected back along the rope to you. By shaking the rope just
right, you can cause the incident (original) and reflected waves to
form a standing wave. In a standing wave certain parts of the rope,
called the nodes, remain stationary.
1 Explore
Interestingly enough, you could hold your fingers on either side
3 Problem-Solving of the rope at a node, and the rope would not touch them. Other
Exercises in parts of the rope would make contact with your fingers. The posi-
Physics 72-3 tions on a standing wave with the largest amplitudes are known as
antinodes. Antinodes occur halfway between nodes.

380 Chapter 25 _—Vibrations and Waves

 INCIDENT WAVE
ap

ie
~ —
errr
= Ca
~a = =_

( NULL POINT) IN PHASE =

'
REFLECTED WAVE
I INCIDENT WAVE
! —_
l
NODE —_=—
Ss
OUT
PHASE.OF ls WAVE
REFLECTED
INCIDENT WAVE
Ses

REFLECTED WAVE
IN PHASE

Figure 25.13 A
The incident and reflected waves interfere to produce a standing wave. The
nodes are places that remain stationary.

Standing waves are the result of interference. When two waves of

equal amplitude and wavelength pass through each other in oppo-
site directions, the waves are always out of phase at the nodes. The
nodes are stable regions of destructive interference (Figure 25.13).
You can produce a variety of standing waves by shaking the rope
at different frequencies. The easiest standing wave to produce has
one segment (Figure 25.14, top). If you keep increasing the fre-
quency, you'll produce more interesting waves.

< Figure 25.14

(Top) Shake the rope until you
set up a standing wave of one
segment (rope length equals
3 wavelength). (Center) Shake
with twice the frequency and
produce a standing wave with
two segments (rope length
equals 1 wavelength). (Bottom)
Shake with three times the fre-
quency and produce a standing
wave with three segments (rope
length equals 1} wavelengths).

381
 Standing waves are set up in the strings of musical instruments that
are plucked, bowed, or struck. They are set up in the air in an organ pipe
and the air of a soda-pop bottle when air is blown over the top. Standing
waves can be produced in either transverse or longitudinal waves.

BH Questions
1. Is it possible for one wave to cancel another wave so that the
combined amplitude is zero?
2. Suppose you set up a standing wave of three segments, as
shown in Figure 25.14 (bottom). If you shake with twice the fre-
quency, how many wave segments will occur in your new
standing wave? How many wavelengths will there be?

NUNN 86 RUG
25.9 The Doppler Effect
Imagine a bug jiggling its legs and bobbing up and down in the mid-
dle of a quiet puddle, as shown in Figure 25.15. Suppose the bug is
not going anywhere but is merely treading water in a fixed position.
The crests of the wave it makes are concentric circles, because the
wave speed is the same in all directions. If the bug bobs in the water
at a constant frequency, the distance between wave crests (the wave-
length) will be the same for all successive waves. Waves encounter
Figure 25.15 A point A as frequently as they encounter point B. This means that the
Top view of circular water wave frequency of wave motion is the same at points A and B, or anywhere
made by a stationary bug jig- in the vicinity of the bug. This wave frequency is the same as the
gling in still water.
bobbing frequency of the bug.
Suppose the jiggling bug moves across the water at a speed less
than the wave speed. In effect, the bug chases part of the crests it has
produced. The wave pattern is distorted and is no longer concentric,
as shown in Figure 25.16. The center of the outer crest was made
when the bug was at the center of that circle. The center of the next
smaller crest was made when the bug was at the center of that circle,
and so forth. The centers of the circular crests move in the direction
of the swimming bug. Although the bug maintains the same bobbing
frequency as before, an observer at B would encounter the crests
more often. The observer would encounter a higher frequency. This is
because each successive crest has a shorter distance to travel so they
Figure 25.16 A
arrive at B more frequently than if the bug were not moving toward B.
The wave pattern made by a
bug swimming in still water.

@ Answers

1. Yes. This is called destructive interference. In a standing wave in a rope, for example,
parts of the rope have no amplitude—the nodes.
N If you impart twice the frequency to the rope, you'll produce a standing wave with
twice as many segments. You'll have six segments. Since a full wavelength has two
segments, you'll have three complete wavelengths in your standing wave.

382 Chapter 25 Vibrations and Waves

 An observer at A, on the other hand, encounters a lower fre-
quency because of the longer time between wave-crest arrivals. To
reach A, each crest has to travel farther than the one ahead of it due
to the bug’s motion. This apparent change in frequency due to the
motion of the source (or receiver) is called the Doppler effect (after
the Austrian scientist Christian Doppler, 1803-1853). The greater the
speed of the source, the greater will be the Doppler effect.
Water waves spread over the flat surface of the water. Sound and
light waves, on the other hand, travel in three-dimensional space in
all directions like an expanding balloon. Just as circular wave crests
are closer together in front of the swimming bug, spherical sound or
light wave crests ahead of a moving source are closer together than
those behind the source and encounter a receiver more frequently.
The Doppler effect is evident when you hear the changing pitch of
a car horn as the car passes you. When the car approaches, the pitch
sounds higher than normal (that is, higher on the musical scale). This
occurs because the sound wave crests are encountering you more fre-
quently. When the car passes and moves away, you hear a drop in
pitch because the wave crests are encountering you less frequently.

< Figure 25.17

The pitch of sound is higher
when the source moves toward
you, and lower when the source
moves away.

Police make use of the Doppler effect of radar waves in measur-

ing the speeds of cars on the highway. Radar waves are electromag-
netic waves, lower in frequency than light and higher in frequency
than radio waves. Police bounce them off moving cars, and a com-
puter built into the radar system calculates the speed of the car rela-
tive to the radar unit by comparing the frequency of the radar
emitted by the antenna with the frequency of the reflected waves

sine
(Figure 25.18).

Figure 25.18
The police calculate a car’s speed
by measuring the Doppler effect
of radar waves.

1 Explore 2 Develop | 3 Apply

The Doppler effect also occurs for light. When a light source
1 Laboratory Manual 66
approaches, there is an increase in its measured frequency, and
when it recedes, there is a decrease in its frequency. An increase in 2 Concept-Development
frequency is called a blue shift, because the increase is toward the Practice Book 25-7
high-frequency, or blue, end of the color spectrum. A decrease in fre- 3 Problem-Solving
quency is called a red shift, referring to the low-frequency, or red, Exercises in A
end of the color spectrum. Distant galaxies, for example, show a red Physics 72-2
shift in the light they emit. A measurement of this shift enables
383
 astronomers to calculate their speeds of recession. A rapidly spin-
ning star shows a red shift on the side turning away from us and a
blue shift on the side turning toward us. This enables a calculation of
the star’s spin rate.

@ Question
When a source moves toward you, do you measure an increase or
decrease in wave speed?
| requires that police offi-
cers prevent drivers from
speeding. In this way,
police officers protect
pedestrians and people in
vehicles. One way that
police officers prevent
speeding is by using When the speed of the source in a medium is as great as the speed of
radar equipment. Radar the waves it produces, something interesting happens. The waves
equipment sends waves pile up. Consider the bug in the previous example when it swims as
toward a moving vehicle fast as the wave speed. Can you see that the bug will “keep up” with
and uses the Doppler the wave crests it produces? Instead of the crests getting ahead of the
effect to determine the bug, they pile up or superimpose on one another directly in front of
speed of the vehicle. By the bug, as suggested in Figure 25.19. The bug moves right along
knowing how to operate with the leading edge of the waves it is producing.
the device, police officers The same thing happens when an aircraft travels at the speed of
can determine when a
sound. In the early days of jet aircraft, it was believed that this pileup
driver is not obeying the
of sound waves in front of the airplane imposed a “sound barrier”
speed limit.
and that to go faster than the speed of sound, the plane would have
to “break the sound barrier.” What actually happens is that the over-
lapping wave crests disrupt the flow of air over the wings, so that it is
harder to control the plane when it is flying close to the speed of
sound. But the barrier is not real. Just as a boat can easily travel
faster than the speed of water waves, an airplane with sufficient
power can easily travel faster than the speed of sound. Then we say
that it is supersonic—faster than sound. A supersonic airplane flies
into smooth, undisturbed air because no sound wave can propagate
out in front of it. Similarly, a bug swimming faster than the speed of
water waves finds itself always entering into water with a smooth,
unrippled surface.
When the bug swims faster than wave speed, ideally it produces
a wave pattern as shown in Figure 25.20. It outruns the wave crests it
produces. The crests overlap at the edges, and the pattern made by
these overlapping crests is a V shape, called a bow wave, which
appears to be dragging behind the bug. The familiar bow wave gen-
Figure 25.19 A erated by a speedboat knifing through the water is produced by the
The wave pattern made by a bug overlapping of many circular wave crests.
swimming at the wave speed.

&@ Answer

Neither! It is the frequency of a wave that undergoes a change where there is motion of
the source, not the wave speed. Be clear about the distinction between frequency and
speed. How frequently a wave vibrates is altogether different from how fast it moves from
one place to another.

384 Chapter 25 _—-Vibrations and Waves

 < Figure 25.20
The wave pattern made by a bug
swimming faster than the wave
speed.

Figure 25.21 shows some wave patterns made by sources moving

at various speeds. Note that after the speed of the source exceeds the
wave speed, increased speed produces a narrowerV shape.

u LESS THANU, 0 EQUALS U, U GREATER THAN U, “U MUCH GREATER THAN U,

Figure 25.21 A
Patterns made by a bug swimming at successively greater speeds. Overlapping
at the edges occurs only when the source travels faster than wave speed.

25.11 Shock Waves

A speedboat knifing through the water generates a two-dimensional
bow wave. A supersonic aircraft similarly generates a three-dimen-
sional shock wave. Just as a bow wave is produced by overlapping
circles that form a V, a shock wave is produced by overlapping
spheres that form a cone. And just as the bow wave of a speedboat
spreads until it reaches the shore of a lake, the conical shock wave
generated by a supersonic craft spreads until it reaches the ground.
The bow wave of a speedboat that passes by can splash and
douse you if you are at the water's edge. In a sense, you can say that
you are hit by a “water boom.” In the same way, when the conical
shell of compressed air that sweeps behind a supersonic aircraft
reaches listeners on the ground below, the sharp crack they hear is 1 Explore
described as a sonic boom.
We don't hear a sonic boom from a slower-than-sound, or sub- 2 Concept-Development
sonic, aircraft, because the sound wave crests reach our ears one at a Practice Book 25-2, 25-3
time and are perceived as a continuous tone. Only when the craft

385
Figure 25.22
A shock wave from a supersonic
aircraft.

o n :
i ni
LL Ds

moves faster than sound do the crests overlap and encounter the lis-
tener in a single burst. The sudden increase in pressure has much the
same effect as the sudden expansion of air produced by an explosion.
Both processes direct a burst of high-pressure air to the listener. The
ear cannot distinguish between the high pressure from an explosion
and the high pressure from many overlapping wave crests.
A common misconception is that sonic booms are produced at
the moment that an aircraft flies through the “sound barrier’—that
is, just as the aircraft surpasses the speed of sound. This is equivalent
to saying that a boat produces a bow wave only when it first over-
takes its own waves. This is not so. The fact is that a shock wave and
its resulting sonic boom are swept continuously behind an aircraft
traveling faster than sound, just as a bow wave is swept continuously
behind a speedboat. In Figure 25.23, listener B is in the process of
hearing a sonic boom. Listener A has already heard it, and listener C
Figure 25.23 A will hear it shortly. The aircraft that generated this shock wave may
The shock wave has not yet have broken through the sound barrier hours ago!
encountered listener C, but is It is not necessary that the moving source emit sound for it to
now encountering listener B, and
produce a shock wave. Once an object is moving faster than the
has already passed listener A.
speed of sound, it will make sound. A supersonic bullet passing over-
head produces a crack, which is a small sonic boom. If the bullet
were larger and disturbed more air in its path, the crack would be
more boomlike. When a lion tamer cracks a circus whip, the cracking
sound is actually a sonic boom produced by the tip of the whip when
it travels faster than the speed of sound. Snap a towel and the end
can exceed the speed of sound and produce a mini sonic boom. The
bullet, whip, and towel are not in themselves sound sources, but
when traveling at supersonic speeds they produce their own sound
as waves of air are generated to the sides of the moving objects.
On the matter of sound in general: You know that you'll damage
your eyes if you stare at the sun. What many people don’t know is
that you'll similarly damage your ears if you overexpose them to loud
sounds. Do as your author does when in a room with very loud
music—leave. If for any reason you don't want to leave—really enjoy-
able music or good camaraderie with friends—stay, but use ear plugs
of some kind! You're not being a wimp when you give the same care
to your ears that you give to your eyes.
386 Chapter 25 Vibrations and Waves
 Chapter Assessment

The Doppler effect is an observed shift in

(Go @nline For: Study and Review
Visit: PHSchool.com
frequency received due to motion of a vibrating
source toward or away from a receiver.
MSchool.com Wat Code: csd-4250 When an object moves through a medium faster
than the speed of waves in the medium, a bow
wave or shock wave spreads out behind it.

Concept Summary
A vibration is a wiggle in time, and a wave is a
wiggle in time and space.
Key Terms
amplitude (25.2)
m The period of a wave is the time it takes for
one complete back-and-forth vibration. antinodes (25.8)
blue shift (25.9)
m= The wavelength is the distance between suc-
bow wave (25.10)
cessive identical parts of the wave.
constructive interference (25.7)
m A wave carries energy from a vibrating source crest (25.2)
to a receiver without transferring matter from
destructive interference (25.7)
one to the other.
Doppler effect (25.9)
m The wavelength multiplied by the frequency, frequency (25.2)
or the number of vibrations in a given time,
hertz (25.2)
equals the speed of the wave.
in phase (25.7)
In a transverse wave, the medium moves at right interference pattern (25.7)
angles to the direction in which the wave travels.
longitudinal wave (25.6)
m= Electromagnetic waves, such as light and node (25.8)
radio waves, are transverse. out of phase (25.7)
In a longitudinal wave, the medium moves back period (25.1)
and forth parallel to the direction in which the red shift (25.9)
wave travels. shock wave (25.11)
m= Sound waves are longitudinal. simple harmonic motion (25.2)
sine curve (25.2)
Interference patterns occur when waves from dif-
ferent sources arrive at the same point at the sonic boom (25.11)
same time. standing wave (25.8)
transverse wave (25.5)
= Inconstructive interference, crest overlaps
crest, or trough overlaps trough. trough (25.2)
vibration (25.0)
m In destructive interference, a crest overlaps a
wave (25.0)
trough.
wavelength (25.2)
m Inastanding wave, points of complete
destructive interference (at which the
medium does not move) remain at the same
location.

387
 17. How fast must a bug swim to keep up with
the waves it is producing? How fast must a
Review Questions Check Concepts
boat move to produce a bow wave? (25.10)
1. a. What is a wiggle in time called?
18. Distinguish between a bow wave and a shock
b. What is a wiggle in space and time called? wave. (25.10—25.11)
(25.0)
19. a. What is a sonic boom?
2. What is the period of a pendulum? (25.1)
b. How fast must an aircraft fly in order to
3. What is the period of a pendulum that takes produce a sonic boom? (25.11)
one second to make a complete back-and-
20. If you encounter a sonic boom, is that evi-
forth vibration? (25.1)
dence that an aircraft of some sort exceeded
4. Suppose that a pendulum has a period of the speed of sound moments ago to become
1.5 seconds. How long does it take to make supersonic? Defend your answer. (25.11)
a complete back-and-forth vibration? Is this
1.5-second period pendulum longer or shorter
in length than a 1-second period pendulum?
Plug and Chug Use Equations
5. How is a sine curve related to a wave? (25.2)
21. A nurse counts 76 heartbeats in one minute.
6. Distinguish among these different parts of a
What are the period and frequency of the
wave: amplitude, crest, trough, and wave-
heart’s oscillations?
length. (25.2)
22. New York’s 300-m high Citicorp® Tower oscil-
7. Distinguish between the period and the
lates in the wind with a period of 6.80 s.
frequency of a vibration or a wave. How do
Calculate its frequency of vibration.
they relate to one another? (25.2)
23. Calculate the speed of waves in a puddle that
8. Does the medium in which a wave travels
are 0.15 m apart and made by tapping the
move along with the wave itself? Defend your
water surface twice each second.
answer. (25.3)
24. Calculate the speed of waves in water that are
9. How does the speed of a wave relate to its
0.4 m apart and have a frequency of 2 Hz.
wavelength and frequency? (25.4)
25. The lowest frequency we can hear is about
10. As the frequency of sound is increased, does
20 Hz. Calculate the wavelength associated
the wavelength increase or decrease? Give an
with this frequency for sound that travels at
example. (25.4)
340 m/s. How long is this in feet?
11. Distinguish between a transverse wave and a
longitudinal wave. (25.5-25.6)
12. Distinguish between constructive interference
Think and Explain Think Critically
and destructive interference. (25.7)
26. Red light has a longer wavelength than violet
13. Is interference a property of only some types
light. Which has the greater frequency?
of waves or of all types of waves? (25.7)
27. If you triple the frequency of a vibrating
14, What causes a standing wave? (25.8)
object, what will happen to its period?
15. When a wave source moves toward a receiver,
28. How far, in terms of wavelength, does a wave
does the receiver encounter an increase in
travel in one period?
wave frequency, wave speed, or both? (25.9)
16. Does the Doppler effect occur for only some
types of waves or all types of waves? (25.9)

388 Chapter 25 _—_—-Vibrations and Waves

29. The wave patterns seen in Figure 25.6 are 37. If a wave vibrates back and forth three times
composed of circles. What does this tell you each second, and its wavelength is 2 meters,
about the speed of the waves in different what is its frequency? Its period? Its speed?
directions?
38. Radio waves are electromagnetic waves that
30. Ifa wave vibrates up and down twice each travel at the speed of light, 300 000 kilometers
second and travels a distance of 20 m each per second. What is the wavelength of FM
second, what is its frequency? Its wave speed? radio waves received at 100 megahertz on
(Why is this question best answered by care- your radio dial?
ful reading of the question rather than
39. The wavelength of red light is about
searching for a formula?)
700 nanometers, or 7 X 10°’ m. The frequency
31. Astronomers find that light coming from of the red light reflected from a metal surface
point A at the edge of the sun has a slightly and the frequency of the vibrating electron
higher frequency than light from point B at that produces it are the same. What is this
the opposite side. What do these measure- frequency?
ments tell us about the sun’s motion?
40. The crests on a long surface water wave are
32. Would it be correct to say that the Doppler 20 m apart, and in 1 minute 10 crests pass by.
effect is the apparent change in the speed ofa What is the speed of this wave?
wave due to motion of the source? (Why is
41. At one place in a groove of a phonograph
this question a test of reading comprehension
record the “wave” is 0.01 cm long. This travels
as well as a test of physics knowledge?)
past the stylus with a speed of 40 cm/s.
33. Whenever you watch a high-flying aircraft
a. What is the frequency of vibration of
overhead, it seems that its sound comes from
the stylus?
behind the craft rather than from where you
see it. Why is this? b. In an inner groove where the speed is
20 cm/s, what will be the wavelength to give
34. As a supersonic aircraft gains speed, does the
the same frequency as in part (a)?
conical angle of its shock wave become wider,
narrower, or remain constant?
35. Why is it that a subsonic aircraft, no matter
how loud it may be, cannot produce a sonic Activity Performance Assessment
boom?
42. Tie a rubber tube, a spring, or arope toa
fixed support and produce standing waves, as
Figure 25.14 suggests. How many nodes can
(EE EE ES ES eS Se

Think and Solve you produce? How can you change the num-
Develop Problem-Solving Skills ber of nodes?

36. While watching ocean waves at the dock of the

bay, Otis notices that 10 waves pass beneath
him in 30 seconds. He also notices that the
crests of successive waves exactly coincide
with the posts that are 5 meters apart. What
are the period, frequency, wavelength, and
speed of the ocean waves?

389
 m retend an entire room is filled with Ping-
Say Pong table tennis balls, and in the middle of
ie the room is a big paddle. You shake the pad-
dle back and forth. What happens? When you move
the paddle to the right, it hits some Ping-Pong balls
and moves them to the right. They in turn hit oth-
ers, moving them to the right, and so on. You set up
cee as
a “Ping-Pong ripple” that moves across the room.
The process is repeated the next time you move the paddle to the right,
and another Ping-Pong ripple follows the first one. As you keep shak-
ing the paddle back and forth, you keep creating Ping-Pong ripples
that flow across the room. Can you see that what you are doing is mak-
ing a longitudinal wave? At the far side of the room, Ping-Pong
impulses arrive at the same frequency as the vibration of your paddle.
Molecules of air behave like tiny Ping-Pong balls. Place a tuning
fork in the middle of a room and strike it with a rubber hammer.
What happens? The surrounding air molecules are set into motion
just like balls being hit by a paddle. Longitudinal waves flow through
the air with a frequency equal to that of the vibrating prongs of the
tuning fork. We hear these vibrations as sound. There is very little
difference between the idea of a shaking paddle bumping into Ping-
Figure 26.1 4
Pong balls and a vibrating tuning fork bumping into air molecules.
Vibrate a Ping-Pong paddle in the
midst of a lot of Ping-Pong balls,
In both cases vibrations are carried throughout the surrounding
and they will transmit rhythmic medium—the balls or the air.
pulses.

26. 1 The Origin of Sound

1 Explore
: All sounds are produced by the vibrations of material objects. In a
1 Laboratory Manual 68 piano, violin, or guitar, a sound wave is produced by vibrating
strings; in a saxophone, by a vibrating reed; in a flute, by a fluttering

390 Chapter 26 Sound

column of air at the mouthpiece. Your voice results from the vibra-
tion of your vocal chords.
In each of these cases, the original vibration stimulates the
vibration of something larger or more massive—the sounding board
of a stringed instrument, the air column within a reed or wind
instrument, or the air in the throat and mouth of a singer. This
vibrating material then sends a disturbance through a surrounding
medium, usually air, in the form of longitudinal waves. Under ordi-
nary conditions, the frequency of the vibrating source equals the
frequency of sound waves produced.
We describe our subjective impression about the frequency of
sound by the word pitch. A high-pitched sound like that from a pic-
colo has a high vibration frequency, while a low-pitched sound like
that from a fog horn has a low vibration frequency.
A young person can normally hear pitches with frequencies
from about 20 to 20 000 hertz. As we grow older, our hearing range
shrinks, especially at the high-frequency end. Sound waves with
frequencies below 20 hertz are called infrasonic, and those with Figure 26.2 A
frequencies above 20 000 hertz are called ultrasonic. We cannot The source of all sound waves is
hear infrasonic or ultrasonic sound waves. vibration.

26.2 Sound in Air

Clap your hands and you produce a pulse that goes out in all direc-
tions. The pulse vibrates the air somewhat as a similar pulse would
vibrate a coiled spring or a Slinky spring toy. Each particle moves
back and forth along the direction of motion of the expanding wave.

es Aalthy TOMO)
Figure 26.3 A
A compression travels along the spring.

For a clearer picture of this process, consider the long room

shown in Figure 26.4. At one end is an open window with a curtain
over it. At the other end is a door.
When you quickly open the door (top sketch), you can imagine
the door pushing the molecules next to it away from their initial
positions, and into their neighbors. Neighboring molecules, in turn,
push into their neighbors, and so on, like a compression wave mov-
ing along a spring, until the curtain flaps out the window. A pulse of Figure 26.4 A
compressed air has moved from the door to the curtain. This pulse (Top) When the door is opened, a
of compressed air is called a compression. compression travels across the
When you quickly close the door (bottom sketch), the door room. (Bottom) When the door is
pushes neighboring air molecules out of the room. This produces an closed, a rarefaction travels
area of low pressure next to the door. Neighboring molecules then across the room.

391
 move into it, leaving a zone of lower pressure behind them. We say
the air in this zone of lower pressure is rarefied. Other molecules far-
ther from the door, in turn, move into these rarefied regions, resulting
in a pulse of rarefied air moving from the door to the curtain. This is
evident when the lower-pressure air reaches the curtain, which flaps
inward. This time the disturbance is a rarefaction.
For all wave motion, it is not the medium that travels across the
room, but a pulse that travels. In both cases the pulse travels from
the door to the curtain. We know this because in both cases the cur-
tain moves after the door is opened or closed.
If you swing the door open and closed in periodic fashion, you
can set up a wave of periodic compressions and rarefactions that will
make the curtain swing in and out of the window. On a much smaller
but more rapid scale, this is what happens when a tuning fork is
struck. The vibrations of the tuning fork and the waves it produces
are considerably higher in frequency and lower in amplitude than in
the case of the swinging door. You don't notice the effect of sound
waves on the curtain, but you are well aware of them when they
meet your sensitive eardrums.
Consider sound waves in the tube shown in Figure 26.5. For sim-
plicity, only the waves that travel in the tube are shown. When the
Figure 26.5 A prong of the tuning fork next to the tube moves toward the tube, a
Compressions and rarefactions compression enters the tube. When the prong swings away, in the
traveling from the tuning fork opposite direction, a rarefaction follows the compression. It is like
through the tube. the Ping-Pong paddle moving back and forth in a room packed with
Ping-Pong balls. As the source vibrates, a series of compressions and
rarefactions is produced.

2S
Se ee ae

26.3 Media That Transmit Sound

Most sounds you hear are transmitted through the air. But sound
also travels in solids and liquids. Put your ear to the ground as Native
Americans did, and you can hear the hoofbeats of distant horses
through the ground before you can hear them through the air. More
practically, put your ear to a metal fence and have a friend tap it far
away. The sound is transmitted louder and faster by the metal than
by the air.
Or click two rocks together under water while your ear is sub-
merged. You'll hear the clicking sound very clearly. If you've ever
been swimming in the presence of motorized boats, you've probably
noticed that you can hear the boats’ motors much more clearly
under water than above water. Solids and liquids are generally good
Figure 26.6 A conductors of sound—much better than air. The speed of sound dif-
Sound can be heard from the fers in different materials. In general, sound is transmitted faster in
ringing bell when air is inside liquids than in gases, and still faster in solids.
the jar, but not when the air is Sound cannot travel in a vacuum (Figure 26.6). The transmission
removed. of sound requires a medium. If there is nothing to compress and
expand, there can be no sound. There may still be vibrations, but
without a medium there is no sound.

392 Chapter 26 Sound

WERE ETE IEE
26.4 Speed of Sound
Have you ever watched a distant person chopping wood or hammer-
1 Explore
ing, and noticed that the sound of the blow takes time to reach your
ears? You see the blow before you hear it. This is most noticeable in 2 Laboratory Manual 69
the case of lightning. You hear thunder after you see a flash of light- 2 Concept-Development
ning (unless youre at the source). These experiences are evidence Practice Book 26-7
that sound is much slower than light.
The speed of sound in dry air at 0°C is about 330 meters per sec-
ond, or about 1200 kilometers per hour, about one-millionth the speed
of light. Water vapor in the air increases this speed slightly. Increased
temperature increases the speed of sound also. A little thought will
show that this makes sense, for the faster-moving molecules in warm
air bump into each other more often and therefore can transmit a
pulse in less time. For each degree increase in air temperature above
0°C, the speed of sound in air increases by 0.60 m/s. So in air at a nor-
mal room temperature of about 20°C, sound travels at about 340 m/s.
The speed of sound in a material depends not on the material’s
density, but on its elasticity. Elasticity is the ability of a material to
change shape in response to an applied force, and then resume its
initial shape once the distorting force is removed. Steel is very elastic; “tlds TO TECHNOLOGY
putty is inelastic.* In elastic materials, the atoms are relatively close
together and respond quickly to each other’s motions, transmitting
energy with little loss. Sound travels about fifteen times faster in steel
than in air, and about four times faster in water than in air.

7 Question
How far away is a storm if you note a 3-second nla between a 2
pig og flash and the sound of thunder? we

Ss Fe
26.5 Loudness
‘enters he bodyis Hefleted x
The intensity of a sound is proportional to the square of the ampli- more strongly from the |
tude of a sound wave. Sound intensity is objective and is measured _ outside of an organ than
by instruments such as the oscilloscope shown in Figure 26.7. from its inside, and we get
a picture of the outline of |
the organ. When ultra-
BH Answer sound is incident upon
a moving object, the re-
For a speed of sound in air of 340 m/s, the distance is (340 m/s) X (3s) = 1020 m. Time for
flected sound has a slightly
the light is negligible, so the storm is slightly more than 1 km away.
different frequency. Using
this Doppler effect, a physi-
* You may be surprised that steel is considered elastic and putty inelastic. After all, that cian can “see” the beating
stretchy material that keeps our socks up is called elastic, and putty is more stretchy
heart of a developing fetus
than steel. But elasticity is not “stretchability;” it’s the tendency of a material to resume
that is only 11 weeks old.
its initial shape after having been exposed to a distorting force. Some very stiff materi-
als are elastic!

393
 reer )
Table 26.1

‘Source of _Level (dB)

Sound
Jet engine, at 30m 140
“Threshold of pain —-120
_ Loud rock music 115
Old subway train 100 Roeee

Average factory 20 OSCILLOSCOPE

- Busy street traffic 70
Figure 26.7 A
Normal speech 60 The radio loudspeaker at the left is a paper cone that vibrates in rhythm with
Library 40 an electric signal. The sound that is produced sets up similar vibrations in
Close whisper elie the microphone (center), which are displayed on the screen of an oscillo-
aaa scope (right). The shape of the waveform on the oscilloscope reveals infor-
Normal breathing 10 mation about the sound.
Hearing threshold — 0
Loudness, on the other hand, is a physiological sensation sensed
in the brain. It differs for different people. Loudness is subjective but
is related to sound intensity. Despite subjective variations, loudness
varies nearly as the logarithm of intensity (powers of ten). The unit of
intensity for sound is the decibel (dB), after Alexander Graham Bell,
inventor of the telephone. Some common sources and sound levels
are given in Table 26.1.
Starting with zero at the threshold of hearing for a normal ear, an
increase of each 10 dB means that sound intensity increases by a fac-
tor of 10. A sound of 10 dB is 10 times as intense as sound of 0 dB;
20 GB is not twice but 10 times as intense as 10 dB, or 100 times as
intense as the threshold of hearing. A 60-dB sound is 100 times as
intense as a 40-dB sound.
Roughly, the sensation of loudness follows this decibel scale. We
hear a 100-dB sound to be about as much louder than a 70-dB sound
as the 70-dB sound is louder than a 40-dB sound. Because of this, we
say that human hearing is approximately logarithmic.

ERAN SoS
26.6 Forced Vibration
When you strike an unmounted tuning fork, the sound it makes is
faint. Strike a tuning fork while holding its base on a tabletop, and
the sound is relatively loud. Why? This is because the table is forced
to vibrate, and its larger surface sets more air in motion. The table-
top becomes a sounding board, and can be forced into vibration
with forks of various frequencies. This is a case of forced vibration.
The mechanism in a music box is mounted on a sounding board.
Figure 26.8 A Without the sounding board, the sound the music box mechanism
When the string is plucked, the makes is barely audible. The vibration of guitar strings in an acousti-
washtub is set into forced vibra- cal guitar would be faint if they weren't transmitted to the guitar’s
tion and serves as a sounding wooden body. Sounding boards are important in all stringed musical
board. instruments.

394 Chapter26 Sound

 PHYSICS
Water Taps
Pour water into a glass while repeatedly tapping the glass with a
spoon. As the tapped glass is being filled, does the pitch of the
sound increase or decrease? If it increases, the glass (including its
water) is vibrating faster. If the pitch decreases, the glass and water
are vibrating more slowly. Why should adding water change the
natural frequency?

a Aa SET
26.7 Natural Frequency
Drop a wrench and a baseball bat on the floor, and you hear dis-
tinctly different sounds. Objects vibrate differently when they strike
the floor. Tap a wrench, and the vibrations it makes are different
from the vibrations of a baseball bat, or of anything else.
When any object composed of an elastic material is disturbed, it
vibrates at its own special set of frequencies, which together form its
special sound. We speak of an object’s natural frequency, which
depends on factors such as the elasticity and shape of the object. Bells
and tuning forks vibrate at their own characteristic frequencies.
Interestingly enough, most things—from planets to atoms and almost
everything else in between—have a springiness to them and vibrate at Figure 26.9 A
one or more natural frequencies. A natural frequency is one at which The natural frequency of the
minimum energy is required to produce forced vibrations. It is also smaller bell is higher than that of
the frequency that requires the least amount of energy to continue the big bell, and it rings at a
this vibration. higher pitch.

NN ONES OE
26.8 Resonance
When the frequency of a forced vibration on an object matches the
object’s natural frequency, a dramatic increase in amplitude occurs.
This phenomenon is called resonance. Resonance means to re-
sound, or sound again. Putty doesn’t resonate because it isn’t elastic,
and a dropped handkerchief is too limp. In order for something to
resonate, it needs a force to pull it back to its starting position and
enough energy to keep it vibrating.
A common experience illustrating resonance occurs on a swing.
When pumping a swing, you pump in rhythm with the natural fre-
quency of the swing. More important than the force with which you Figure 26.10 A
pump is the timing. Even small pumps, or even small pushes from Pumping a swing in rhythm with
someone else, if delivered in rhythm with the natural frequency of its natural frequency produces
the swinging motion, produce large amplitudes. larger amplitudes.

395
Figure 26.11 >
Stages of resonance. (a) The first
compression meets the fork and
gives it a tiny and momentary
push. The fork bends (b) and
then returns to its initial position
(c) just at the time a rarefaction
arrives. It keeps moving and (d)
overshoots in the opposite direc-
tion. Just when it returns to its
initial position (e), the next com- A common classroom demonstration of resonance uses a pair
pression arrives to repeat the of tuning forks adjusted to the same frequency and spaced about a
cycle. Now it bends farther meter apart. When one of the forks is struck, it sets the other fork
because it is already moving. into vibration. This is a small-scale version of pushing a friend on a
swing—it’s the timing that’s important. When a sound wave impinges
on the fork, each compression gives the prong a tiny push. Since the
frequency of these pushes corresponds to the natural frequency of the
fork, the pushes successively increase the amplitude of vibration. This
is because the pushes occur at the right time and are repeatedly in the
same direction as the instantaneous motion of the fork.
If the forks are not adjusted for matched frequencies, the timing
of pushes will be off and resonance will not occur. When you tune
your radio set, you are similarly adjusting the natural frequency of
the electronics in the set to match one of the many incoming signals.
The set then resonates to one station at a time, instead of playing all
the stations at once.
Resonance is not restricted to wave motion. It occurs whenever
successive impulses are applied to a vibrating object in rhythm with its
natural frequency. English infantry troops marching across a footbridge
in 1831 inadvertently caused the bridge to collapse when they marched
in rhythm with the bridge's natural frequency. Since then, it is custom-
ary for troops to “break step” when crossing bridges. The Tacoma
Narrows Bridge disaster in 1940, Figure 26.12, is attributed to wind-
generated resonance!

Figure 26.12 A
In 1940, four months after being completed, the Tacoma Narrows Bridge in
the state of Washington was destroyed by a 40-mile-per-hour wind. The mild
gale produced a fluctuating force that is said to have resonated with the nat-
ural frequency of the bridge, steadily increasing the amplitude over several
hours until the bridge collapsed.

396 Chapter 26 Sound

The superposition of two identical transverse waves in phase produces a wave
of increased amplitude.

Gea
.
aafse%e,
RS ee
oie
. .

The superposition of two identical longitudinal waves in

te

Two identical longitudinal waves that are out of phase destroy each other when they are superimposed.

Figure 26.13 A
Wave interference for transverse and longitudinal waves.

EE
SSNS
PER
26.9 Interference
Sound waves, like any waves, can be made to interfere. Recall that
wave interference was discussed in the previous chapter. A compari-
son of interference for transverse waves and longitudinal waves is
shown in Figure 26.13. In either case, when the crests of one wave
overlap the crests of another wave, there is constructive interference
and an increase in amplitude. Or when the crests of one wave overlap
the troughs of another wave, there is destructive interference and a
decrease in amplitude. For sound, the crest of a wave corresponds to
a compression, and the trough of a wave corresponds to a rarefac-
tion. Interference occurs for both transverse and longitudinal waves.
Interference affects the loudness of sounds. If you are equally
distant from two sound speakers that simultaneously trigger identi-
cal sound waves of constant frequency (see Figure 26.14, top), the
sound is louder because the waves add. The compressions and rar-
efactions arrive in phase, that is, in step. Figure 26.14 A
If you move to the side so that paths from the speakers differ by MntetiercnoolGre ound waves:
a half-wavelength (see Figure 26.14, bottom), rarefactions from one (Top) Waves arrive in phase.
speaker reach you at the same time as compressions from the other. (Bottom) Waves arrive out of
It’s like the crest of one water wave exactly filling in the trough of phase.

397
 another water wave—destructive interference. (If the speakers emit
many frequencies, not all wavelengths destructively interfere for a
given difference in path lengths.)
Destructive interference of sound waves is usually not a problem
because there is usually enough reflection of sound to fill in canceled
spots. Nevertheless, “dead spots” are sometimes evident in poorly
designed theaters and gymnasiums, where sound waves reflected off
walls interfere with unreflected waves to form zones of low ampli-
tude. Often, moving your head a few centimeters in either direction
can make a noticeable difference.
Destructive sound interference is a useful property in antinoise
technology. Noisy devices such as jackhammers are being equipped
Figure 26.15 A with microphones that send the sound of the device to electronic
Ken Ford tows gliders in quiet microchips. The microchips create mirror-image wave patterns of the
CEMA RNS TORS Cee sound signals. For the jackhammer, this mirror-image sound signal is
noise-canceling earphones. fed to earphones worn by the operator. Sound compressions (or rar-
efactions) from the hammer are neutralized by mirror-image rarefac-
tions (or compressions) in the earphones. The combination of signals
neutralizes the jackhammer noise. Noise-canceling earphones are
already common for pilots. Watch for the antinoise principle applied
to electronic mufflers in cars, where antinoise is blasted through
loudspeakers, canceling about 95% of the original noise.

HEN
6
26.10 Beats
An interesting and special case of interference occurs when two
tones of slightly different frequency are sounded together. A fluctua-
tion in the loudness of the combined sounds is heard; the sound is
loud, then faint, then loud, then faint, and so on. This periodic varia-
tion in the loudness of sound is called beats.
Beats can be heard when two slightly mismatched tuning forks
are sounded together. Because one fork vibrates at a frequency differ-
ent from the other, the vibrations of the forks will be momentarily in
step, then out of step, then in again, and so on. When the combined
waves reach your ears in step—say when a compression from one fork
overlaps a compression from the other—the sound is a maximum.

CONSTRUCTIVE DESTRUCTIVE CONSTRUCTIVE

Figure 26.16 A
The interference of two sound sources of slightly different frequencies
pro-
duces beats.

398 Chapter 26 Sound

A moment later, when the forks are out of step, a compression from \ 2 T4e5 6 1,89 10
one fork is met with a rarefaction from the other, resulting in a mini-
VV AVIVA ROA
mum. The sound that reaches your ears throbs between maximum l | | |
and minimum loudness and produces a tremolo effect. 1423145 6l7 8 911014 12
If you walk side by side with someone who has a different stride, | | |
Time
there will be times when you are both in step, and times when you
are both out of step. Suppose, for example, that you take exactly 70
steps in one minute and your friend takes 72 steps in the same time.
Your friend gains two steps per minute on you. A little thought will
show that you two will be momentarily in step twice each minute. In
general, when two people with different strides walk together, the
number of times they are in step in each unit of time is equal to the Figure 26.17 A
difference in the frequencies of their steps. This applies also to a pair Sinusoidal representations of a
of tuning forks. When one fork vibrates 264 times per second, and 10-Hz sound wave and a 12-Hz
the other fork vibrates 262 times per second, they are in step twice sound wave during a 1-second
each second. A beat frequency of 2 hertz is heard. time interval. When the two
Beats can be nicely displayed on an oscilloscope. When sound waves overlap, they produce a
signals of slightly different frequencies are fed into an oscilloscope, composite wave with a beat fre-
graphical representations of their pressure patterns can be displayed quency of 2 Hz.
both individually and when the sounds overlap. Figure 26.17 shows
the wave forms for two waves separately, and superposed. Although
the separate waves are of constant amplitude, we see amplitude
variations in the superposed wave form. Careful inspection of the
figure shows this variation is produced by the interference of the two
superposed waves. Maximum amplitude of the composite wave
occurs when both waves are in phase, and minimum amplitude

Figure 26.18
The unequal spacings of the
combs produce a moiré pattern
that is similar to beats.

@ Answer

The 262-Hz and 266-Hz forks will produce 4 beats per second, that is, 4 Hz (266 Hz minus
262 Hz). The tone heard will be halfway between, at 264 Hz, as the ear averages the fre-
quencies. The 262-Hz and 272-Hz forks will sound like a tone at 267 Hz beating 10 times per
second, or 10 Hz, which some people cannot hear. Beat frequencies greater than 10 Hz are
normally too rapid to be heard.

399
 | SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOc!
Noise and Your Health
. ost of us try to protect
Ka our eyes from excess devotees, damage caused by
light, but few give the same energetic peaks is somewhat
care to our ears. Near loud- limited by an inadequate
speakers during her first time response of electronic ampli-
at a concert, Meidor was fiers and loudspeakers.
alarmed at the pain in her Similarly for live music where
ears. Her friends meant to most of the sound comes
reassure her when they told from amplifying equipment. If
her she’d get used to it. But amplifying equipment were
what they didn’t tell her was more responsive to sudden
that after the fine tuning of her sound bursts, hearing loss at
ears was blasted, she wouldn't concerts would be more
know the difference. severe.
The impact of hearing loss
Industrial noise is even
more damaging to the ears isn't fully apparent until com-
than amplified music because of its sudden pounded by ike Today's
high-energy peaks. Loud motorcycles, jack- young people will be tomorrow's old people—
hammers, chain saws, and power tools not probably the hardest of hearing ever. Start
only produce steady high-volume sound, but now to care for your ears and prevent further
also produce sporadic peaks of energy that hearing loss!
can destroy tiny hair cells in the inner ear. Critical Thinking Describe some situa-
When these tiny sensory cells in the inner ear tions you might find yourself in that could
are destroyed they can never be restored. cause hearing loss. What can you do to
Noise-induced hearing loss is insidious. protect your hearing?

occurs when both waves are completely out of phase. Like the walk-
ers in the previous example, the waves are in step twice each second,
producing a beat frequency of 2 Hz. The 10- and 12-Hz waves, cho-
sen for convenience here, are infrasonic, so they and their beats are
inaudible. Higher-frequency audible waves behave exactly the same
way and can produce audible beats.
If you overlap two combs of different teeth spacings, you'll see a
moiré pattern that is related to beats. The number of beats per
length will equal the difference in the number of teeth per length for
the two combs (Figure 26.18).
Beats can occur with any kind of wave and are a practical way to
compare frequencies. To tune a piano, a piano tuner listens for beats
produced between a standard tuning fork and a particular string on
the piano. When the frequencies are identical, the beats disappear.
The members of an orchestra tune up by listening for beats between
their instruments and a standard tone produced by an oboe or some
other instrument.

400 Chapter 26 Sound

 Chapter Assessment

For: Study and Review Key Terms

Go @nline Visit: PHSchool.com
School.com Web Code: csd-4260 beats (26.10)
compression (26.2)
forced vibration (26.6)
infrasonic (26.1)
Concept Summary natural frequency (26.7)
Sound waves are produced by the vibrations of pitch (26.1)
material objects. rarefaction (26.2)
m A disturbance in the form of a longitudinal resonance (26.8)
wave travels away from the vibrating source. ultrasonic (26.1)

m High-pitched sounds are produced by sources

vibrating at high frequency, while low-pitched
sounds are produced by low-frequency Review Questions Check Concepts
sources.
1. What is the source of all sounds? (26.1)
Sound waves consist of traveling pulses of high-
pressure zones, or compressions, alternating with 2. How does pitch relate to frequency? (26.1)
pulses of low-pressure zones, or rarefactions. 3. What is the average frequency range of a
m Sound can travel through gases, liquids, and young person's hearing? (26.1)
solids, but not through a vacuum. 4. Distinguish between infrasonic and ultra-
m Sound travels fastest through very elastic sonic sound. (26.1)
materials, such as steel. 5. a. Distinguish between compressions and
Every object vibrates at its own set of natural rarefactions of a sound wave.
frequencies. b. How are compressions and rarefactions
produced? (26.2)
m When an object such as a sounding board is
forced to vibrate by a sound source, the 6. Light can travel through a vacuum, as is evi-
sound becomes louder. denced when you see the sun or the moon.
Can sound travel through a vacuum also?
m When an object is forced to vibrate at one of
Explain why or why not. (26.3)
its own natural frequencies, resonance occurs
and the sound becomes much louder. 7. a. How fast does sound travel in dry air at
room temperature?
Like any waves, two sound waves can exhibit
interference and make sound louder or softer. b. How does air temperature affect the speed
of sound? (26.4)
m Rapid changes in loudness, known as beats,
occur when two tones very close in frequency 8. How does the speed of sound in air compare
are heard at the same time. with its speed in water and in steel? (26.4)
9. Why does sound travel faster in solids and
liquids than in gases? (26.4)
10. Why is sound louder when a vibrating source
is held to a sounding board? (26.6)

401
11. Why do different objects make different 25. When a sound wave propagates past a point
sounds when dropped on a floor? (26.7) in the air, what are the changes that occur in
the pressure of air at this point?
12. What does it mean to say that everything has
a natural frequency of vibration? (26.7) 26. How much more intense is (a) a close whisper
than the threshold of hearing? (b) a close
13. What is the relationship between forced
whisper than normal breathing?
vibration and resonance? (26.8)
27. The signal-to-noise ratio for a tape recorder is
14, Why can a tuning fork or bell be set into reso-
listed at 50 dB, meaning that when music is
nance, while tissue paper cannot? (26.8)
played back, the intensity level of the music is
15. How is resonance produced in a vibrating 50 dB greater than that of the noise from tape
object? (26.8) hiss and so forth. By what factor is the sound
intensity of the music greater than that of the
16. What does tuning in a radio station have to
noise?
do with resonance? (26.8)
28. If the handle of a tuning fork is held solidly
17. Is it possible for one sound wave to cancel
against a table, the sound becomes louder.
another? Explain. (26.9)
Why? How will this affect the length of the
18. Why does destructive interference occur time the fork keeps vibrating? Explain, using
when the path lengths from two identical the law of energy conservation.
sources differ by half a wavelength? (26.9)
29. The sitar, an Indian musical instrument, has a
19. How does interference of sound relate to set of strings that vibrate and produce music,
beats? (26.10) even though they are never plucked by the
player. These “sympathetic strings” are identi-
20. What is the beat frequency when a 494-Hz
cal to the plucked strings and are mounted
tuning fork and a 496-Hz tuning fork are
below them. What is your explanation?
sounded together? (26.10)
30. Suppose three tuning forks of frequencies
260 Hz, 262 Hz, and 266 Hz are available.
What beat frequencies are possible for pairs
Think and Explain Think Critically of these forks sounded together?
21. When watching a baseball game, we often 31. Suppose a piano tuner hears 2 beats per sec-
hear the bat hitting the ball after we actually ond when listening to the combined sound
see the hit. Why? from her tuning fork and the piano note being
22. Why will marchers at the end of a long parade tuned. After slightly tightening the string, she
following a band be out of step with marchers hears 1 beat per second. Should she loosen or
nearer the band? should she further tighten the string?

23. You watch a distant farmer driving a stake 32. Do all people in a group hear the same music
into the ground with a sledgehammer. He hits when they listen to it attentively? Do all see
the stake at a regular rate of one stroke per the same sight when looking at a painting?
second. You hear the sound of the blows Do all taste the same flavor when sampling
exactly synchronized with the blows you see. the same cheddar cheese? Do all perceive the
And then you hear one more blow after you same aroma when smelling the same flower?
see him stop hammering. How far away is the Do all feel the same texture when touching
farmer? the same fabric? Do all come to the same
conclusion when listening to a logical presen-
24. What two physics mistakes occur in a science tation of ideas? Explain.
fiction movie when you see and hear at the
same time a distant explosion in outer space?

402 Chapter 26 Sound

{RPS ese se a EA RS eT
41. If you blow air across the top of a pop bottle,
Think and Solve a puff of air (compression) travels downward,
Develop Problem-Solving Skills bounces from the bottom, and travels back to
the opening. When it arrives (less than a
33. Sound waves travel at approximately 340 m/s. thousandth of a second later), it disturbs the
What is the wavelength of a sound with a fre- flow of air that you are still producing across
quency of 20 Hz (the lowest note we can hear the top. This causes a slightly bigger puff of
as a sound)? What is the wavelength of a air to start again on its way down the bottle.
sound with a frequency of 20 kHz (the highest This happens repeatedly until a very large
note we can hear)? (and loud) vibration is built up and you hear
34. Suppose you wish to produce a sound wave it as sound. The pitch of the sound depends
that has a wavelength of 1 m in room- on the time taken for the back-and-forth trip.
temperature air. What would its frequency How can you change the pitch of the sound?
be? Describe how you could make a musical
instrument on which you can play a tune.
35. An oceanic depth-sounding vessel surveys
the ocean bottom with ultrasonic sound that 42. Wet your finger and rub it slowly around the
travels 1530 m/s in seawater. Find the depth rim of a thin-rimmed stemmed glass while
of the water if the time delay of the echo to you hold its base firmly to a tabletop with
the ocean floor and back is 8 seconds. your other hand. Describe and explain your
observations.
36. Two sounds, one at 240 Hz and the other at
243 Hz, occur at the same time. What beat
frequency do you hear?
37. Two notes are sounding, one of which is
440 Hz. If a beat frequency of 5 Hz is heard,
what is the other note’s frequency?
38. A bat flying in a cave emits a sound pulse and
receives its echo in 1 second. How far away is
the cave wall?
43. If you are ever in a room with a ventilation
39. A rule for estimating the distance in kilome-
ters between an observer and a lightning fan, try to hum at the frequency of the fan.
stroke is to divide the number of seconds in As you approach its frequency, you will hear
the interval between the flash and the thun- beats. Why does this happen?
der by 3. Is this rule correct?

Activities Performance Assessment

40. Suspend the wire grill of a refrigerator or
oven shelf from a string, the ends of which
you hold to your ears. Let a friend gently
stroke the grill with
pieces of broom straw
and other objects.
The effect is best
appreciated if you are
in a relaxed condition
with your eyes closed.
Describe and explain
your observations.

403
 he only thing we can really see is light. But
what is light? We know that during the day
the primary source of light is the sun, and
the secondary source is the brightness of the sky.
Other common sources are flames, white-hot fila-
ments in lamps, and glowing gases in glass tubes.
Light—the only thing we see. Almost everything we see, such as this page, is made visible by the
light it reflects from such sources. Some materials, such as air, water,
or window glass, allow light to pass through. Other materials, such as
thin paper or frosted glass, allow the passage of light in diffused
directions so that we can’t see objects through them. Most materials
do not allow the passage of any light, except through a very thin
layer.
Why do things such as water and glass allow light to pass
through, while things such as wood and steel block it? To answer
these questions, you must know something about light itself.

NAKHEEL
27.1 Early Concepts of Light
Light has been studied for thousands of years. Some of the ancient
Greek philosophers thought that light consisted of tiny particles,
which could enter the eye to create the sensation of vision. Others,
including Socrates and Plato, thought that vision resulted from
streamers or filaments emitted by the eye making contact with an
object. This view was supported by Euclid, when he asked how else
we can explain why we do not see a needle on the floor until our
eyes fall upon it.
Up until the time of Newton and beyond, most philosophers and
scientists thought that light consisted of particles. However, one
Greek, Empedocles, taught that light traveled in waves. One of

404 Chapter 27 Light

 Figure 27.1 A
Some ancients believed that light traveled from our eyes to the objects we
look at, rather than from the objects to our eyes.

Newton's contemporaries, the Dutch scientist Christian Huygens,

also argued that light was a wave.
The particle theory was supported by the fact that light seemed to
move in straight lines instead of spreading out as waves do. Huygens
provided evidence that under some circumstances light does spread
out (this is diffraction, which is covered in Chapter 31). Other scien-
tists later found more evidence to support the wave theory. The wave
theory became the accepted theory in the nineteenth century.
Then in 1905 Einstein published a theory explaining the photo-
electric effect. According to this theory, light consists of particles—
massless bundles of concentrated electromagnetic energy—later
called photons.
Scientists now agree that light has a dual nature, part particle
and part wave. This chapter discusses only the wave nature of light,
and leaves the particle nature of light to Chapter 38.
(ey lo
i JUPITER
EE
ESR
27.2 The Speed of Light
It was not known whether light travels instantaneously or with finite
speed until the latter part of the seventeenth century. Galileo had
tried to measure the time a light beam takes to travel to a distant
mirror and back, but the time was so short he couldn't begin to mea-
sure it. Others tried the experiment at longer distances with lanterns
they blinked on and off between distant mountaintops. All they suc-
ceeded in doing was measuring their own reaction times.
The first demonstration that light travels at a finite speed was
supplied by the Danish astronomer Olaus Roemer about 1675.
Roemer made very careful measurements of the periods of Jupiter’s Figure 27.2 A
Roemer’s method of measuring
moons. The innermost moon, Io, is visible through a small telescope
the speed of light. Light coming
and was measured to revolve around Jupiter in 42.5 hours. Io dis-
from Jupiter’s moon lo takes a
appears periodically into Jupiter’s shadow, so this period could be longer time to reach Earth at
measured with great precision. Roemer was puzzled to find an irreg- position D than at position A.
ularity in the measurements of Io’s observed period. He found that The extra distance that the light
while Earth was moving away from Jupiter, say from position B travels divided by the extra time
to C in Figure 27.2, the measured periods of Io were all somewhat it takes gives the speed of light.

405
 longer than average. When Earth was moving toward Jupiter, say from
position E to K, the measured periods were shorter than average.
Roemer estimated that the cumulative discrepancy between posi-
tions A and D amounted to about 22 minutes. That is, when Earth
was at position D, Io would pass into Jupiter’s shadow 22 minutes late
compared with observations at position A.*
Christian Huygens correctly interpreted this discrepancy. When
Earth was farther away from Jupiter, it was the light that was late, not
the moon. Io passed into Jupiter’s shadow at the predicted time, but
the light carrying the message did not reach Roemer until it had trav-
eled the extra distance across the diameter of Earth’s orbit. There is
some doubt as to whether Huygens knew the value of this distance.
In any event, this distance is now known to be 300 000 000 km. Using
the correct travel time of 1000 s for light to move across Earth’s orbit
makes the calculation of the speed of light quite simple:

speed of light = extra distance

: traveled
P 5 extra time measured

300 000
1000000
s km = 3 300 00000 km Is

The most famous experiment measuring the speed of light was

performed by the American physicist Albert Michelson in 1880.
Figure 27.3 is a simplified diagram of his experiment. Light from an
intense source was directed by a lens to an octagonal mirror initially

OCTAGONAL MIRROR

LIGHT SOURCE

SPINNING TOO stow \ iP

b a
Figure 27.3 A
The mirror arrangement used by Michelson to measure the speed of light.
Light is reflected back to the eyepiece when the mirror is at rest (a).
Reflected light fails to enter the eyepiece when the mirror spins too slowly
(b) or too fast (c). When it rotates at the correct speed (d), light reaches the
1 Explore eyepiece.

3 Problem-Solving
——$—$————
Exercises in
Physics 73-1 * Roemer’s estimate was not quite correct. The correct value is 17 minutes,
or about
1000 seconds.

406 Chapter 27 Light

at rest. The mirror was carefully adjusted so that a beam of light was
reflected to a stationary mirror located on a mountain 35 km away, ; LINK TO TECHNOLOGY =
and then reflected back to the octagonal mirror and into the eye of
an observer. The distance the light had to travel to the distant moun-
tain was carefully surveyed, so Michelson had only to find the time
it took to make a round-trip. He accomplished this by spinning the
octagonal mirror at a high rate.
When the mirror was spun, the light beam scanned across the
horizon with only short bursts of light reaching the mountain mirror
to be reflected back to the spinning octagonal mirror. If the rotating
mirror made exactly one-eighth rotation in the time the light made
the trip to the distant mountain and back, the mirror would be in a
position to reflect light into the eyepiece of the observer. If the mir-
ror was rotated too slowly or too quickly, it would not be in a posi-
tion to reflect light into the eyepiece. When the speed of rotation
of the mirror was adjusted so that the light entered the eyepiece,
Michelson knew that the time for the light to make the round-trip
and the time for the octagonal mirror to make one-eighth of a rota-
tion was the same. He divided the 70-km round-trip distance by this
time. Michelson’s experimental value for the speed of light was
299 920 km/s, which we round to 300 000 km/s. Michelson received
the 1907 Nobel Prize in physics for this experiment. He was the first
American scientist to receive this prize.
We now know that the speed of light in a vacuum is a universal
constant. Light is so fast that if a beam of light could travel around
Earth, it would make 7.5 trips in one second. Light takes 8 minutes
to travel from the sun to Earth, and 4 years from the next nearest
star, Alpha Centauri. The distance light travels in one year is called ide icalspokes. Supo:
a light-year. oo turns four times each
So Alpha Centauri is 4 light-years away. Our galaxy has a diame- F| second. That's 24 spokes..
ter of 100 000 light-years, which means that light takes 100 000 years sc
| eachsecond, and that’s
just to travel across the galaxy. Some galaxies are 10 billion light- p
| - exactly thenumber ofpice
. . . . Re

years from Earth. If one of those galaxies had exploded 5 billion :‘tures the camera takes aae 2
years ago, this information would not reach Earth for another 5 bil- 2 each second So:a picturefey
lion years to come. Light is fast and the universe is big! or the spoke iis always at e
|E the same place on the |
eee
~ screen. ‘What happens: -
when a spoke doesn‘ se
» 4 F quite make it to the eee
tion of the spoke ahead in
Bir, 4
ne 1/24 second? Being a little |
eyepiecewhen Michelso's ot irro further behind, how does
lyone-eighth ete on during thot reflected
stant msmn nbc feulcioht ent ece if the wheel appear to turn?

rotation inthis
tir

B Answer

Nes. light Bele enter the eyepiece whenever the octagonal mirror turned in multiples of
7 rotation—, 4, 1, etc.—in the time the light made its round-trip. What is required is that any
of the eight faces be in place when the reflected flash returns from the mountain. Michelson
did not spin the mirror fast enough, however, for these other possibilities to occur.

407
 Computational Example

a
He i a A Se el A ot a iter
caer al a

27.3 Electromagnetic Waves

Light is energy that is emitted by accelerating electric charges—often
electrons in atoms. This energy travels in a wave that is partly elec-
tric and partly magnetic. Such a wave is an electromagnetic wave.
Light is a small portion of the broad family of electromagnetic waves
that includes such familiar forms as radio waves, microwaves, and
X-rays. The range of electromagnetic waves, or the electromagnetic
spectrum, as it is called, is shown in Figure 27.4.
The lowest frequency of light we can see with our eyes appears
red. The highest visible frequencies are nearly twice the frequency of
red and appear violet. Electromagnetic waves of frequencies lower
than the red of visible light are called infrared. Heat lamps give off
infrared waves. Electromagnetic waves of frequencies higher than
those of violet are called ultraviolet. These higher-frequency waves
are responsible for sunburns.

INFRARED LIGHT X-RAYS

RADIO WAVES =, OIC
QWANE Snub ero eect at a) ULTRA VIC amEGMER s
[mee
Ht
ee
'

H
104 10° 10 10% 10 eb on 10" 10"
ONE MILLION ONE BILLION ONE TRILLION ONE HUNDRED ONE MILLION
TRILLION TRILLION
FREQUENCY IN HERTZ
Figure 27.4 A
The electromagnetic spectrum is a continuous range of waves extending
from radio waves to gamma rays. The descriptive names of the sections
are merely a historical classification, for all waves are the same in nature,
differing principally in frequency and wavelength; all have the same speed.

408 Chapter 27 _ Light

 Is it correct to say that a radio wave is a low-frequency light wave?
Is a radio wave also a sound wave?
een
s

Nr
NS a ee
27.4 Light and Transparent Materials
Light is energy carried in an electromagnetic wave that is generated
by vibrating electric charges. When light is incident upon matter,
electrons in the matter are forced into vibration. In effect, vibrations
in an emitter are transferred to vibrations in a receiver. This is simi-
lar to, but in other ways different from, the way sound is received by
a receiver (see Figure 27.5).

< Figure 27.5

Just as a sound wave can force
a sound receiver into vibration,
a light wave can force charged
particles in materials into
vibration.

Exactly how a receiving material responds when light is incident

upon it depends on the frequency of the light and the natural fre-
quency of electrons in the material. Visible light vibrates at a very high
rate, more than 100 trillion times per second (104 hertz). If a charged
object is to respond to these ultrafast vibrations, it must have very lit-
tle inertia. Electrons have a small enough mass to vibrate this fast.
Glass and water are two materials that allow light to pass through. __ ELECTRONS
They are transparent to light. To understand how light goes through a oe
transparent material such as glass, visualize the electrons in an atom
as connected by imaginary springs (Figure 27.6). When a light wave 7
hits them, they vibrate. ATOMIC
All materials that are springy (elastic) respond more to vibra- NUCLEUS
tions at some frequencies than others. Bells ring at a particular fre-
quency, tuning forks vibrate at a particular frequency, and so do the Figure 27.6 A
electrons in matter. The natural vibration frequencies of an electron 4 :
$2: : The electrons of atoms in glass
depend on how strongly it is attached toa nearby nucleus. Different paribe imagined te be Round'tc
materials have different electric “spring strengths. Het eromig micteus as it cone
nected by springs.

@ Answer

Both a radio wave and a light wave are electromagnetic waves originating from the vibrations
of electrons. Radio waves have much lower frequencies of vibration than light waves, so a
radio wave may be considered to be a low-frequency light wave. A sound wave, on the other
hand, is a mechanical vibration of matter and is not electromagnetic. A sound wave is funda-
mentally different from an electromagnetic wave. Thus, a radio wave is not a sound wave.

409
 Electrons in glass have a natural vibration frequency in the ultra-
violet range. When ultraviolet light shines on glass, resonance occurs
as the wave builds and maintains a large vibration between the elec-
tron and the atomic nucleus, just as a large vibration is built when
pushing someone at the resonant frequency on a swing. The energy
received by the atom can be either passed on to neighboring atoms
by collisions, or reemitted as light. If ultraviolet light interacts with
an atom that has the same natural frequency, the vibration ampli-
tude of its electrons becomes unusually large. The atom typically
holds on to this energy for quite a long time (about | million vibra-
tions or 100 millionths of a second). During this time the atom
makes many collisions with other atoms and gives up its energy in
the form of heat. That’s why glass is not transparent to ultraviolet.
But when the electromagnetic wave has a lower frequency than
ultraviolet, as visible light does, the electrons are forced into vibra-
tion with smaller amplitudes. The atom holds the energy for less
time, with less chance of collision with neighboring atoms, and less
energy is transferred as heat. The energy of the vibrating electrons is
reemitted as transmitted light. Glass is transparent to all the fre-
quencies of visible light. The frequency of the reemitted light passed
from atom to atom is identical to that of the light that produced the
vibration to begin with. The main difference is a slight time delay
between absorption and reemission.
This time delay results in a lower average speed of light through
a transparent material. See Figure 27.7. Light travels at different
average speeds through different materials. In a vacuum the speed of
light is a constant 300 000 km/s; we call this speed of light c. Light
travels very slightly more slowly than this in the atmosphere, but its
speed there is usually rounded off to c. In water light travels at 75%
of its speed in a vacuum, or 0.75c. In glass light travels at about 0.67c,
depending on the type of glass. In a diamond light travels at only
0.40c, less than half its speed in a vacuum. When light emerges from
these materials into the air, it travels at its original speed, c.
Infrared waves, which have frequencies lower than visible light,
vibrate not only the electrons, but also the entire structure of the

Figure 27.7 A
A light wave incident upon a pane of glass sets up vibrations in the atoms
that produce a chain of absorptions and reemissions that pass the light
energy through the material and out the other side. Because of the time
delay between absorptions and reemissions, the average speed of light in
glass is less than c.

410 Chapter 27 Light

 PHYSICS

_ WetterIsDarker = —t™
Note the color of something, and then wet it. ls the color darker?
Light incident on a dry surface bounces directly to your eye, while
light incident on a wet surface bounces around inside the transpar-
ent wet region before it reaches your eye. What happens with
each bounce? Absorption! So more absorption of light occurs in a
wet surface, and the color looks darker.

<4 Figure 27.8

ULTRAVIOLET 7 Glass blocks both infrared and
ultraviolet, but is transparent to
all the frequencies of visible
light.

INFRARED 4

glass. This vibration of the structure increases the internal energy of

the glass and makes it warmer. In sum, glass is transparent to visible
light, but not to ultraviolet and infrared light.

27.5 Opaque Materials

Most materials absorb light without reemission and thus allow no
light through them; they are opaque. Wood, stone, and people are
opaque to visible light. In opaque materials, any coordinated vibra-
tions given by light to the atoms and molecules are turned into ran-
dom kinetic energy—that is, into internal energy. The materials
become slightly warmer.
Metals are also opaque. Interestingly enough, in metals the outer
electrons of atoms are not bound to any particular atom. They are
free to wander with very little restraint throughout the material.
That's why metal conducts electricity and heat so well. When light
shines on metal and sets these free electrons into vibration, their
energy does not “spring” from atom to atom in the material, but is
reemitted as visible light. This reemitted light is seen as a reflection.
That’s why metals are shiny.
Our atmosphere is transparent to visible light and some infrared,
but fortunately, almost opaque to high-frequency ultraviolet waves. Figure 27.9 A
Metals are shiny because light
The small amount of ultraviolet that does get through is responsible
that shines on them forces free
for sunburns. If it all got through, we wouldn't dare go out in the sun
electrons into vibration. These
without protection. Clouds are semitransparent to ultraviolet, which electrons then emit their “own”
is why you can get a sunburn on a cloudy day. Ultraviolet also reflects light waves as a reflection.

411
 1 Explore from sand and water, which is why you can sometimes get a sun-
burn while in the shade of a beach umbrella.
1 Laboratory Manual 70
2 Concept-Development
Practice Book 27-7
= Question
Why is glass transparent to visible light, but opaque to ultraviolet
and infrared?

RENMEI
ee ©25002000
27.6 Shadows
A thin beam of light is often called a ray. Any beam of light—no mat-
ter how wide—can be thought of as made of a bundle of rays. When
light shines on an object, some of the rays may be stopped while
others pass on in a straight-line path. A shadow is formed where
light rays cannot reach. Sharp shadows are produced by a small light
source nearby or by a larger source farther away. However, most
shadows are somewhat blurry. There is usually a dark part on the
inside and a lighter part around the edges. A total shadow is called
an umbra, and a partial shadow a penumbra. A penumbra appears
where some of the light is blocked, but where other light fills in. This
can happen where light from one source is blocked and light from
another source fills in (Figure 27.11). Or a penumbra occurs where
light from a broad source is only partially blocked.

Figure 27.10 A
A large light source produces a softer shadow than a smaller source.
Figure 27.11 A
An object held close to a wall
casts a sharp shadow because
light coming from slightly differ-
@ Answer
ent directions does not spread
much behind the object. As the The natural frequency of vibration for electrons in glass matches the frequency of ultravio-
object is moved farther away, let light, so resonance in the glass occurs when ultraviolet waves shine on it. These ener-
penumbras are formed and cut getic vibrations of electrons generate heat instead of wave reemission, so the glass is
down on the umbra. When it is opaque to ultraviolet. In the range of visible light, the forced vibrations of electrons in the
very far away, no shadow is evi- glass are more subtle, and reemission of light rather than the generation of heat occurs, so
dent because all the penumbras that the glass is transparent. Lower-frequency infrared causes entire atomic structures, not
mix together into a big blur. just electrons, to resonate, so heat is generated and the glass is opaque to infrared.

412 Chapter 27 _—_—Light

 <4 Figure 27.12
An eclipse of the sun.

A dramatic example of this occurs when the moon passes between

Earth and the sun—during a solar eclipse. Because of the large size of the
sun, the rays taper to provide an umbra and a surrounding penumbra
(Figure 27.12). The moon's shadow barely reaches Earth. If you stand in
the umbra part of the shadow, you experience brief darkness during the
day. If you stand in the penumbra, you experience a partial eclipse. The
sunlight is dimmed and the sun appears as a crescent.*
Earth, like most objects in sunlight, casts a shadow. This shadow
extends into space, and sometimes the moon passes into it. When
this happens, we have a lunar eclipse. Whereas a solar eclipse can be
observed only in a small region of Earth at a given time, a lunar
eclipse can be seen by all observers on the nighttime half of Earth
(Figure 27.13).

<4 Figure 27.13

An eclipse of the moon.

Shadows occur when light is bent in passing through a transpar-

ent material such as water. In Figure 27.14 shadows are cast by tur-
bulent, rising warm water. Light travels at slightly different speeds in
warm and in cold water. The difference bends light, just as layers of
warm and cool air in the night sky bend starlight and cause the twin-
kling of stars. Some of the light gets deflected a bit and leaves darker
places on the wall. The shapes of the shadows depend on how the
light is bent. Chapter 29 returns to the bending of light.

B® Question
Why are lunar eclipses more commonly seen than solar eclipses?

Bi Answer

There are usually two of each every year. However, the shadow of the moon on Earth is
very small compared with the shadow of the larger Earth on the smaller moon. Only a Figure 27.14 A
relatively few people are in the shadow of the moon (solar eclipse), while everybody who A heater at the tip of the sub-
views the nighttime sky can see the shadow of Earth on the moon (lunar eclipse). merged J-tube produces convec-

* People are cautioned not to look at the sun at the time of a solar eclipse because the tion currents in the water. They
brightness and ultraviolet radiation of direct sunlight is damaging to the eyes. This good are revealed by shadows cast by
advice is often misunderstood by those who then think that sunlight is more damaging light that is deflected differently
at this special time. But staring at the sun when it is high in the sky is harmful whether
by the water of different temper-
or not an eclipse occurs. In fact, staring at the bare sun is more harmful than when part
atures.
of the moon blocks it! The reason for special caution at the time of an eclipse is simply
that more people are interested in looking at the sun during an eclipse.

413
 Ine i ac eR NO
27.7 Polarization
Light travels in waves. The fact that the waves are transverse—and not
longitudinal—is demonstrated by the phenomenon of polarization.
If you shake the end of a horizontal rope, as in Figure 27.15, a trans-
verse wave travels along the rope. The vibrations are back and forth
in one direction, and the wave is said to be polarized. If the rope is
Figure 27.15 A shaken up and down, a vertically polarized wave is produced; that is,
A vertically polarized wave (left) the waves traveling along the rope are confined to a vertical plane. If
and a horizontally polarized the rope is shaken from side to side, a horizontally polarized wave is
wave (right). produced.
A single vibrating electron emits an electromagnetic wave that is
polarized. A vertically vibrating electron emits light that is vertically
polarized, while a horizontally vibrating electron emits light that is
‘i horizontally polarized (Figure 27.16).
ei A common light source, such as an incandescent or fluorescent
lamp, a candle flame, or the sun, emits light that is not polarized.
This is because the vibrating electrons that produce the light vibrate
Figure 27.16 A in random directions. When light from these sources shines on a
Polarized light lies along the polarizing filter, such as that from which Polaroid® sunglasses are
same plane as that of the vibra- made, the light that is transmitted is polarized. The filter is said to
tions of the electron that emits it. have a polarization axis that is in the direction of the vibrations of
the polarized light wave.

VEEL OA LSID:
ae eS
Figure 27.17 A
Polaroid sunglasses block out horizontally vibrating light. When the lenses
overlap at right angles, no light gets through.

1 Explore
2
Develop] Light will pass through a pair of polarizing filters when their
1 Laboratory Manual 72 polarization axes are aligned, but not when they are crossed at right
2 Concept-Development angles. This behavior is very much like the filtering of a vibrating
Practice Book 27-2 rope that passes through a pair of picket fences, as illustrated in
Figure 27.18.

414 Chapter 27 _—_Light

 NONPOLARIZED LIGHT VIBRATES IN ALL DIRECTIONS
HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL COMPONENTS
VERTICAL COMPONENT PASSES
THROUGH FIRST POLARIZER

AL = ...AND THE SECOND ae * i

VERTICAL COMPONENT
DOES NOT PASS THROUGH
THIS SECOND POLARIZER

WAVE MOTION TRANSMITTED WAVE MOTION BLOCKED

When you skip flat stones across the surface of a pond, stones Figure 27.18 A
with flat sides parallel to the water bounce (“reflect”), but stones with A rope analogy illustrates the
flat sides at right angles to the surface penetrate the water (“refract”). effect of crossed sheets of polar-
izing material.
Light behaves similarly. The flat side of a stone is like the plane of
vibration of polarized light. Light that reflects at glancing angles from
nonmetallic surfaces, such as glass, water, or roads, vibrates mainly in
the plane of the reflecting surface. So glare from a horizontal surface is
horizontally polarized. Do you see why the axes of Polaroid sunglasses
are vertical? In this way glare from horizontal surfaces is eliminated.

Figure 27.19 A
Light is transmitted when the axes of the polarizing filters are aligned (left),
but absorbed when they are at right angles to each other (center).
Interestingly enough, when a third filter is sandwiched between the crossed
ones (right), light is transmitted. Why? (To answer, you'll have to know more
about vectors. See Appendix D, Vector Applications.)

415
 PHYSICS

Favorite Eye
Which eye do you use more? To test which you favor, hold a fin-
ger up at arm’s length. With both eyes open, look past your finger
to a distant object. Close your
right eye. Does your finger jump
to the right? If so, then you use
your right eye more. Check this
by repeating with your left eye.
Check with your friends. Is a left-
handed person more likely to be
left-eyed? Is a right-handed per-
son more likely to be right-eyed?

1 Explore 3 Apply
NNN
12S
2 Laboratory Manual 77 27.8 Polarized Light and 3-D Viewing
2 Probeware Lab 'e|
Manual 74 Vision in three dimensions depends on the fact that both eyes give
impressions simultaneously (or nearly so), each eye viewing a scene
from a slightly different angle. To convince yourself of this, hold an
upright finger at arm’s length and see how it switches position rela-
tive to the background as you alternately close each eye. The view
seen by each eye is different. The combination of views in the
eye-brain system gives depth (Figure 27.20).

Figure 27.20 >»

When your left eye looks at the
Life success is not acquiring Life success is not acquiring
left view of the statement while
your right eye looks at the right
all the things you want, all the things you want,
view, your eye-brain system but becoming the kind of person but becoming the kind of person
combines them to produce you'd like to be. you'd like to be.
depth. The second and fourth
lines appear farther away. To see
this, place your face to the book A pair of photographs or movie frames, taken a short distance
with your nose touching the apart (about average eye spacing), can be seen in 3-D when the left
page. Now very slowly, without
eye sees only the left view and the right eye sees only the right view.
trying to focus your eyes at any
Slide shows or movies accomplish this by projecting the pair of
one point, move away from the
views through polarization filters onto a screen. Their polarization
figure. If you’ve moved 30 cen-
timeters and still haven't seen axes are at right angles to each other (Figure 27.21). The overlapping
the stereo effect, start over. It pictures look blurry to the naked eye. To see in 3-D, the viewer wears
may take a few tries. (If you view polarizing eyeglasses with the lens axes also at right angles. In this
the overlapped images with way each eye sees a separate picture, just as in real life. The brain
crossed eyes, the second and interprets the two pictures as a single picture with a feeling of depth.
fourth lines will appear closer!) (Hand-held stereo viewers produce the same effect.)

416 Chapter 27 _— Light

 < Figure 27.21
A 3-D slide show using polariz-
WY ing filters. The left eye sees only
~ METALLIC polarized light from the left pro-
SCREEN jector; the right eye sees only
polarized light from the right
projector. Both views merge in
the brain to produce an image
with depth.

POLAROID ALIGNED POLAROID ALIGNED

HORIZONTALLY ..& RM ~ VERTICALLY
a

=
SLIDE PROJECTOR

Depth is also seen in computer-generated stereograms, as in

Figure 27.22. Here the slightly different patterns are hidden from a
casual view. You can view the message of the figure (what this book
is about!) with the procedure for viewing Figure 27.20. Once you've
mastered the viewing technique, head for the local mall and check
the variety of stereograms in posters and books.

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~ TS6 , Par
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ts gee OSS “a eeeiespts Ge Sse aa:

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fk

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Ca Seaae
oataS as RE ae A 8
SoSPA RAS
F
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sos Ree ee Baty et ets a Rte
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ths: be ov
SFfe
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Ors Been 5: a ee se: ERO yoy aes

Z. ¥ See Ewa, erst 2 ware MOS2
=]

= Figure 27.22 A
BH Question A computer-generated
Which pair of glasses is best suited for automobile drivers? (The oom
polarization axes are shown by the straight lines.)

@ Answer

Pair A is best suited because the vertical axis blocks horizontally polarized light that com-
poses much of the glare from horizontal surfaces. (Pair C is suited for viewing 3-D movies.)

417
 Are the vertical lines Both rectangles are equally bright. Cover the boundary between them with
parallel? a pencil and see.

Is the hat taller than

the brim is wide?

Could you make this

in the shop?

Do these lines move? What does this

sign read?

Figure 27.23 A
Optical illusions.

418 Chapter 27 _—_Light

 Chapter Assessment

(Go @nline For: Study and Review

Visit: PHSchool.com
Review Questions Check Concepts
School.com Web Code: csd-4270 1 a. What is a photon?
b. Which theory of light is the photon more
consistent with—the wave theory or the par-
ticle theory? (27.1)
Concept Summary
. How long does it take for light to travel across
Light has a speed of 300 000 km/s in a vacuum, the diameter of Earth’s orbit around the sun?
and lower average speeds in matter. (27.2)

Light is energy that travels in electromagnetic . How did Michelson know the time that light
waves within a certain range of frequencies. took to make the round-trip to the distant
m= Light is produced by vibrating electric charges mountain? (27.2)
in atoms. . How long does light take to travel from the
m Light passes through materials whose atoms sun to Earth? From the star Alpha Centauri to
absorb the energy and immediately reemit it Earth? (27.2)
as light. - How long does light take to travel a distance
m= Light doesn't pass through a material when of one light-year? (27.2)
the energy is changed to random kinetic . What is the source of electromagnetic waves?
energy of the atoms. (27.3)
Light waves are transverse, so they can be polar-
. Is the color spectrum simply a small segment
ized (with vibrations all in the same direction).
of the electromagnetic spectrum? Defend
ms Polarizing filters transmit components of inci- your answer. (27.3)
dent nonpolarized light that are parallel to the
. How do the frequencies of infrared, visible,
polarization axis, and block components and ultraviolet light compare? (27.3)
vibrating at right angles to the polarization axis.
The result is the emergence of polarized light. . How does the role of inertia relate to the rate
at which electric charges can be forced into
vibration? (27.4)
10. Different bells and tuning forks have their
Key Terms own natural vibrations, and emit their own
electromagnetic spectrum (27.3) tones when struck. How is this analogous to
electromagnetic wave (27.3) atoms, molecules, and light? (27.4)
infrared (27.3) 11. Light incident upon a pane of glass slows
light-year (27.2) down in passing through the glass. Does it
opaque (27.5) emerge at a slower speed or at its initial
penumbra (27.6) speed? Explain. (27.4)
photon (27.1) 12. Will glass be transparent to frequencies of
polarization (27.7) light that match its own natural frequencies?
ray (27.6) (27.4)
shadow (27.6)
13. Does the time delay between the absorption
transparent (27.4)
and reemission of light affect the average
ultraviolet (27.3) speed of light in a material? Explain. (27.4)
umbra (27.6)
419
14. Why would you expect the speed of light to 28. You can get a sunburn on a sunny day and on
be slightly less in the atmosphere than in a an overcast day. But you cannot get a sun-
vacuum? (27.4) burn if you are behind glass. Explain.
15. When light encounters a material, it can build 29. Pretend a person can walk only at a certain
up vibrations in the electrons of certain atoms pace—no faster, no slower. If you time her
that may be intense enough to last over a long uninterrupted walk across a room of known
period of time. Will the energy of these vibra- length, you can calculate her walking speed.
tions tend to be absorbed and turned into heat, If, however, she stops momentarily along the
or absorbed and reemitted as light? (27.4) way to greet others in the room, the extra
time spent in her brief interactions gives an
16. What determines whether or not a material is
average speed across the room that is less
transparent or opaque? (27.4—27.5)
than her walking speed. How is this like light
17. Why are metals shiny in appearance? (27.5) passing through glass? In what way is it not?
18. Distinguish between an umbra and a 30. If you fire a ball through a pile of sand, it will
penumbra. (27.6) slow down in the sand and emerge at less
than its initial speed. But when light shines
19. a. Distinguish between a solar eclipse and a
on a pane of glass, even though it slows down
lunar eclipse.
inside, its speed upon emerging is the same
b. Which type of eclipse is dangerous to your as its initial speed. Explain.
eyes if viewed directly? (27.6)
31. Short wavelengths of visible light interact
20. What is the difference between light that is more frequently with the atoms in glass than
polarized and light that is not? (27.7) do longer wavelengths. Which do you sup-
21. Why is light from a common lamp or froma pose takes the longer time to get through
glass—tred light or blue light?
candle flame nonpolarized? (27.7)
32. Suppose that sunlight is incident upon both
22. In what direction is the polarization of the glare
that reflects from a horizontal surface? (27.7)
a pair of reading glasses and a pair of sun-
glasses. Which pair would you expect to be
23. How do polarizing filters allow each eye to warmer, and why?
see separate images in the projection of
33. Why does a high-flying plane cast little or no
three-dimensional slides or movies? (27.8)
shadow on the ground, while a low-flying
plane casts a sharp shadow?
RNS RES PERT LEE DER ISS TEE OBE SOS ISIE EMEP ET a EOS EO

34. Why do Polaroid sunglasses reduce glare,

Think and Explain Think Critically whereas unpolarized sunglasses simply cut
24. What evidence can you cite to support the down on the total amount of light reaching
idea that light can travel through a vacuum? our eyes?

25. If the octagonal mirror in the Michelson 35. An ideal polarizing filter transmits 50% of the
apparatus were spun at twice the speed that incident nonpolarized light. Why is this so?
produced light in the eyepiece, would light 36. What percentage of light would be transmit-
still be seen? At 2.1 times the speed? Explain. ted by two ideal polarizing filters, one atop
26. If the mirror in Michelson’s apparatus had the other, with their axes aligned? With their
had six sides instead of eight, would it have axes crossed at right angles?
had to spin faster or more slowly to measure
the speed of light? Explain.
27. If a one-side-silvered plane mirror were used
in the Michelson apparatus, how much faster
would it have had to spin so reflected light
would be seen in the telescope?

420 Chapter 27 _— Light

 Color

oses are red and violets are blue; colors

4 intrigue artists and physics types too. To
the physicist, the colors of things are
not in the substances of the things themselves.
Color is in the eye of the beholder and is pro-
voked by the frequencies of light emitted or
reflected by things. We see red in a rose when light of certain frequen- Color is in the eye of the
cies reaches our eyes. Other frequencies will provoke the sensations of beholder.
other colors. Whether or not these frequencies of light are actually
perceived as colors depends on the eye-brain system. Many organ-
isms, including people with defective color vision, see no red in a rose.

28.1 The Color Spectrum

Isaac Newton was the first to make a systematic study of color. By
passing a narrow beam of sunlight through a triangular-shaped glass
prism, he showed that sunlight is composed of a mixture of all the
colors of the rainbow. The prism cast the sunlight into an elongated
patch of colors on a sheet of white paper (Figure 28.1). Newton
called this spread of colors a spectrum, and noted that the colors
were formed in the order red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet.
Sunlight is an example of what is called white light. Under white
light, white objects appear white and colored objects appear in their
individual colors. Newton showed that the colors in the spectrum Figure 28.1 A
were a property not of the prism but of white light itself. He demon- Newton passed sunlight through
strated this when he recombined the colors with a second prism to alassipriein toferm tne color
produce white light again. In other words, all the colors, one atop the ela
other, combine to produce white light. Strictly speaking, white is not
a color but a combination of all colors.
Black is similarly not a color itself, but is the absence of light.
Objects appear black when they absorb light of all visible frequencies.

421
 Figure 28.2 A
When sunlight passes through a prism, it separates into a spectrum of all the
colors of the rainbow.

Carbon soot is an excellent absorber of light and looks very black. The
dull finish of black velvet is an excellent absorber also. But even a pol-
Figure 28.3 A ished surface may look black under some conditions. For example,
When a stack of razor blades highly polished razor blades are not black, but when stacked together
bolted together is viewed end and viewed end on, they appear quite black (Figure 28.3). Most of the
on, the edges appear black. Light light that gets between the closely spaced edges of the blades gets
that enters the wedge-shaped
trapped and is absorbed after being reflected many times.
spaces between the blades is
Black objects that you can see do not absorb all light that falls on
reflected so many times that
most of it is absorbed. them, for there is always some reflection at the surface. If not, you
wouldn't be able to see them.

RN ES STA
28.2 Color by Reflection
The colors of most objects around you are due to the way the objects
reflect light. Light is reflected from objects in a manner similar to
the way sound is “reflected” from a tuning fork when another that is
nearby sets it into vibration. A tuning fork can be made to vibrate
even when the frequencies are not matched, although at significantly
reduced amplitudes. The same is true of atoms and molecules. We
can think of atoms and molecules as three-dimensional tuning forks
with electrons that behave as tiny oscillators that whirl in orbits
around the nuclei. Electrons can be forced temporarily into larger
orbits by the vibrations of electromagnetic waves (such as light). Like
acoustical tuning forks, once excited to more vigorous motion, elec-
trons send out their own energy waves in all directions.
Different materials have different natural frequencies for absorb-
ing and emitting radiation. In one material, electrons oscillate readily

422 Chapter 28 Color

 at certain frequencies; in another material, they oscillate readily at
different frequencies. At the resonant frequencies where the ampli-
tudes of oscillation are large, light is absorbed (recall from the previ-
ous chapter that glass absorbs ultraviolet light for this reason). But
at frequencies below and above the resonant frequencies, light is
reemitted. If the material is transparent, the reemitted light passes
through it. If the material is opaque, the light passes back into the
medium from which it came. This is reflection.

LINK TO ZOOLOGY
ra

Figure 28.4 A
The square on the left reflects all the colors illuminating it. In sunlight it is
white. When illuminated with blue light, it is blue. The square on the right
absorbs all the colors illuminating it. In sunlight it is warmer than the white
square.

Most materials absorb light of some frequencies and reflect the

rest. If a material absorbs light of most visible frequencies and reflects
red, for example, the material appears red. If it reflects light of all the
visible frequencies, like the white part of this page, it will be the
same color as the light that shines on it. If a material absorbs all the
light that shines on it, it reflects none and is black.
When white light falls on a flower, light of some frequencies is
absorbed by the cells in the flower and some light is reflected. Cells
that contain chlorophyll absorb light of most frequencies incident
upon them and reflect the green part, so they appear green. The
petals of a red rose, on the other hand, reflect primarily red light,
with a lesser amount of blue. Interestingly enough, the petals of most
yellow flowers, such as daffodils, reflect red and green as well as yel-
low. Yellow daffodils reflect light of a broad band of frequencies. The | of one color while shrink-
reflected colors of most objects are not pure single-frequency colors, ing those of the others to
but are composed of a spread of frequencies. So something yellow, create different skin hues. —
for example, may simply be a mixture of colors without blue and A chameleon’s color
violet—or it can be built of red and green together. depends on whether it
It is important to note that an object can reflect only light of fre- is lounging, flirting, or
quencies present in the illuminating light. The appearance of a col- fighting. When the
ored object therefore depends on the kind of light used. A candle chameleon is angry,
flame emits light that is deficient in the higher frequencies; it emits a melanin levels go up,
yellowish light. Things look yellowish in candlelight. An incandescent masking the other colors,
lamp emits light of all the visible frequencies, but is richer toward the and the skin looks dark.
lower frequencies, enhancing the reds. A fluorescent lamp is richer in

423
 the higher frequencies, so blues are enhanced when illuminated with
fluorescent lamps. In a fabric with a little bit of red, for example, the
red will be more apparent when illuminated with an incandescent
lamp than with a fluorescent lamp. Colors in daylight appear differ-
ent from the way.they appear when illuminated with either of these
lamps (Figure 28.5). The perceived color of an object is subjective and
depends on the light source, although color differences between two
objects are most easily detected in bright sunlight.

SV vulaubevidary .
cane
< ‘ v
.

_—_—2=
a ry”
re
7 \

Figure 28.5 A
Color depends on the light source.

28.3 Color by Transmission

The color of a transparent object depends on the color of the light
it transmits. A red piece of glass appears red because it absorbs all
the colors that compose white light, except red, which it transmits.
Similarly, a blue piece of glass appears blue because it transmits pri-
marily blue and absorbs the other colors that illuminate it.
The material in the glass that selectively absorbs colored light is
known as a pigment. From an atomic point of view, electrons in the
pigment atoms selectively absorb light of certain frequencies in the
illuminating light. Light of other frequencies is reemitted from atom
to atom in the glass. The energy of the absorbed light increases the
kinetic energy of the atoms, and the glass is warmed. Ordinary win-
dow glass is colorless because it transmits light of all visible frequen-
cies equally well.

Figure 28.6 > RED

Blue glass transmits only energy
of the frequency of blue light; ORANGE
energy of the other frequencies is BLUE GLASS
is absorbed and warms the
YELLOW
glass. GREEN
BLUE
VIOLET

424 Chapter 28 Color

 @ Questions
1. When red light shines on a red rose, why do the leaves become
warmer than the petals?
2. When green light shines on a red rose, why do the petals look
black?
3. What color does a ripe banana appear when illuminated with
red light? With yellow light? With green light? With blue light?
E
S

PHYSICS

Reflections
Hold a candle flame, match flame, or any small source of white
light in between you and a piece of colored glass. You'll see two
reflections from the glass; one from the front surface and one
from the back surface. What is the color of the flame reflected
from the front surface? From the back surface? Is there a differ-
ence? Explain.

EET dt RE RNR REE TTS |

28.4 Sunlight
White light from the sun is a composite of all the visible frequencies.
The brightness of solar frequencies is uneven, as indicated in the
graph of brightness versus frequency in Figure 28.7. The graph indi-
cates that the lowest frequencies of sunlight, in the red region, are
not as bright as those in the middle-range yellow and green region.
Yellow-green light is the brightest part of sunlight. Since humans
evolved in the presence of sunlight, it is not surprising that we are
most sensitive to yellow green. That is why it is more and more com-
mon for new fire engines to be painted yellow green, particularly at
airports where visibility is vital. This also explains why at night we

BH Answers

1. The petals appear red because they reflect red light. The leaves absorb rather than
reflect red light, so the leaves become warmer.
2. The petals absorb rather than reflect the green light. Since green is the only color illu-
minating the rose, and green contains no red to be reflected, the rose appears to have
no color at all—black.
3. A banana reflects red, yellow, and green light, so when illuminated with any of these
colors it reflects that color and appears that color. A banana does not reflect blue, so
when illuminated with blue light it appears black.

425
 are able to see better under the illumination of yellow sodium-vapor
lamps than we are under tungsten lamps of the same brightness.
The blue portion of sunlight is not as bright, and the violet portion
is even less bright.

Figure 28.7 »
The radiation curve of sunlight is
a graph of brightness versus fre-
quency. Sunlight is brightest in
the yellow-green region, in the
middle of the visible range.

BRIGHTNESS
—
ee VISIBLE LIGHT)
|

FREQUENCY —>

The graphical distribution of brightness versus frequency in

Figure 28.7 is called the radiation curve of sunlight. Most whites
produced from reflected sunlight have this frequency distribution.

MRSA
A 2 Se
28.5 Mixing Colored Light
Light of all the visible frequencies mixed together produces white.
Interestingly enough, white also results from the combination of
Figure 28.8 V
only red, green, and blue light. When a combination of only red,
When red light, green light, and
blue light of equal brightness are
green, and blue light of equal brightness is overlapped on a screen,
projected on a white screen, the as shown in Figure 28.8, it appears white. Where red and green light
overlapping areas appear differ- alone overlap, the screen appears yellow. Red and blue light alone
ent colors. Where all three over- produce the bluish red color called magenta. Green and blue light
lap, white is produced. alone produce the greenish blue color called cyan.

426 Chapter 28 Color

 This can be understood if the frequencies of white light are
divided into three regions: the lower-frequency red end, the
middle-frequency green part, and the higher-frequency blue end
(Figure 28.9). The low and middle frequencies combined appear
yellow to the human eye. The middle and high frequencies com-
bined appear greenish blue (cyan). The low and high frequencies
combined appear bluish red (magenta).

---,
< Figure 28.9
The low-frequency, middle-
frequency, and high-frequency
BLUE
parts of white light appear red,
green, and blue. To the human
eye, red + green = yellow; red +
WHITE YELLOW MAGENTA CYAN blue = magenta; green + blue =
cyan.

In fact, almost any color at all can be made by overlapping light

of three colors and adjusting the brightness of each color of light.
This amazing phenomenon is due to the way the human eye works.
The three colors do not have to be red, green, and blue, although
those three produce the highest number of different colors. For this
reason red, green, and blue are called the additive primary colors.
Color television is based on the ability of the human eye to see
combinations of three colors as a variety of different colors. A close
examination of the picture on most color television tubes will reveal
that the picture is made up of an assemblage of tiny spots, each less
than a millimeter across. When the screen is lit, some of the spots
are red, some green, and some blue. At a distance the mixtures of
these colors provide a complete range of colors, plus white.*

28.6 Complementary Colors

What happens when two of the three additive primary colors are
combined?
red + green = yellow

red + blue = magenta

blue + green = cyan

Now, a little thought and inspection of Figure 28.8 will show that
when we add in the third color, we get white.

1 Explore
* Ona black-and-white television set, the black we see in the darkest scenes is simply the
color of the tube face itself, which is more a light gray than black. Our eyes are sensi-
2 Concept-Development
Practice Book 28-7
tive to the contrast with the illuminated parts of the screen, and we see the light gray as
black. In our minds, we make it black.

427
 yellow + blue = white

magenta + green = white

cyan + red = white

When two colors are added together to produce white, they are
called complementary colors. For example, we see that yellow and
blue are complementary because yellow, after all, is the combination
of red and green. And red, green, and blue light together appear
white. By similar reasoning we see that magenta and green are com-
plementary colors, as are cyan and red. Every hue has some comple-
mentary color that when added will produce white.

Figure 28.10 A
(Top left) Under white light, the
Now, if you begin with white light and subtract some color from
colored blocks appear red,
orange, yellow, green, blue, and
it, the resulting color will appear as the complement of the one sub-
violet, and the shadows are gray. tracted. Not all the light incident upon an object is reflected. Some is
(Top right) When the blocks are absorbed. The part that is absorbed is in effect subtracted from the
lit by red light from the right and
green light from the left, the
blocks reflect no blue light; the
shadow on the left, where red
i ‘Questions
light is nearly absent, appears ot3 What are the complementary colors of (a) magenta, (b) blue,
green; similarly the shadow on and (c) cyan?
the right appears red; the back-
ground reflects both red and 2. What color does red light plus blue light appear?
green light and appears yellow. What color does white light minus yellow light appear?
(Bottom left) The blocks are lit by
blue light. (Bottom right) The
What color does white light minus green light appear?
blocks are lit by red light and
blue light. Can you explain the
colors of the shadows and back-
grounds in the bottom photos?
@ Answers

= (a) Green; (b) yellow; (c) red

Magenta

Blue

2 Magenta
Sag

428 Chapter 28 Color

 PHYSICS
Retinal Fatigue
When you stare at a colored object for a while the color receptors
in your eyeballs become fatigued. Try the following activity to see
what happens. Stare at the flag for a minute or so. Now look ata
white area. The afterimage you see is comprised of the comple-
mentary colors! This
occurs because the
fatigued receptors send
a weaker signal to the
brain. White minus a
color produces the
complementary to the
missing color. Try this
with other colors also.

incident light. For example, if white light falls on a pigment that

absorbs red light, the light reflected appears cyan. A pigment that
absorbs blue light will appear yellow; similarly, a pigment that
absorbs yellow light will appear blue. Whenever you subtract a color
from white light, you end up with the complementary color.

A 77 E GETS SELOETE SLETES E

28.7 Mixing Colored Pigments
Artists know that if we mix red, green, and blue paint, the result will
be not white but a muddy dark brown. Red and green paint certainly
do not combine to form yellow as red and green light do. The mixing
of paints and dyes is an entirely different process from the mixing of
colored light.
Paints and dyes contain finely divided solid particles of pigment
that produce their colors by absorbing light of certain frequencies
and reflecting light of other frequencies. Pigments absorb light of a
relatively wide range of frequencies and reflect a wide range as well.
In this sense, pigments reflect a mixture of colors.
Blue paint, for example, reflects mostly blue light, but also
violet and green; it absorbs red, orange, and yellow light. Yellow
paint reflects mostly yellow light, but also red, orange, and green;
it absorbs blue and violet light. When blue and yellow paints are
mixed, then between them they absorb all the colors except green.

429
 YELLOW

BLUE MIXED WITH YELLOW GREEN

Figure 28.11 A
(Left) Blue pigment reflects not only blue light, but also colors to either side
of blue—namely, green and violet. It absorbs red, orange, and yellow light.
(Center) Yellow pigment reflects not only yellow light, but also red, orange,
and green. It absorbs blue and violet light. (Right) When blue and yellow
pigments are mixed, the only common color reflected is green. The other
colors have been subtracted from the incident white light.

The only color they both reflect is green (Figure 28.11), which is
why the mixture looks green. This process is called color mixing by
subtraction, to distinguish it from the effect of mixing colored light,
which is called color mixing by addition.
So when you cast lights on the stage at a school play, you use the
rules of color addition to produce various colors. But when you mix
paint, you use the rules of color subtraction.
You may have learned as a child that you can make any color
with paints of three so-called primary colors: red, yellow, and blue.
_ error. They add colors Actually, the three paint or dye colors that are most useful in color
until they achieve the mixing by subtraction are magenta (bluish red), yellow, and cyan
desired color. As they do — (greenish blue). These are the subtractive primary colors, used in
so, they are using the printing illustrations in full color.*
process of color mixing by Color printing is done on a press that prints each page with four
subtraction. Some artists differently colored inks (magenta, yellow, cyan, and black) in succes-
work independently, sell- sion. Each color of ink comes from a different plate, which transfers
ing their works to inter-
ested buyers. Others are
employed to create
images for books, movies, * Note that magenta, yellow, and cyan are used to make other colors by subtraction, as
or advertisements. when colored paints or dyes are mixed. When colors are mixed by addition, as when
colored light is mixed, red, green, and blue are the most useful colors to mix.

430 Chapter 28 — Color

 <q Figure 28.12
In the printing of all these col-
ored illustrations, only four col-
ors of ink are used: magenta,
yellow, cyan, and black. The first
three images show how the
photo appears when printed
separately in magenta, yellow,
and cyan ink. The fourth image
shows the combination of those
three images. The fifth image
includes black ink as well.

J
AMER

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TRENpea ONE
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SEAR
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the ink to the paper. The ink deposits are regulated on different parts
of the plate by tiny dots. Examine the colored pictures in this book,
or in any magazine, with a magnifying glass and see how the over-
lapping dots of three colors plus black give the appearance of many
colors. Figure 28.12 shows the images made by the four plates, sepa-
rately and combined.

Table 28.1 Color Subtraction

431
 as
eee

28.8 Why the Sky Is Blue

If a sound beam of a particular frequency is directed to a tuning fork
of similar frequency, the tuning fork will be set into vibration and
effectively redirect the beam in multiple directions. The tuning fork
SCATTERED RADIATION scatters the sound. A similar process occurs with the scattering of
light from molecules and larger specks of matter that are far apart
INCIDENT IN f from one another—as in the atmosphere.
BEAM staat
‘Y
We know that atoms and molecules behave like tiny optical tun-
t \ ing forks and reemit light waves that shine on them. Very tiny parti-
i oti tay
cles do the same. The tinier the particle, the higher the frequency of
ATOM ! light it will scatter. This is similar to small bells ringing with higher
notes than larger bells. The nitrogen and oxygen molecules and the
Wo os oi

\ tiny particles that make up the atmosphere are like tiny bells that
“ring” with high frequencies when energized by sunlight. Like the
Figure 28.13 A sound from bells, the reemitted light is sent in all directions. It is
A beam of light falls on an atom
scattered.
and causes the electrons in the
atom to move temporarily in
larger orbits. The more vigor-
ously oscillating electrons reemit
light in various directions. Light
is scattered.

Figure 28.14 A
The sky is blue because its tiny particles scatter high-frequency light. The
blue “sky” between the viewer and the distant mountains produces bluish
mountains.

Most of the ultraviolet light from the sun is absorbed by a pro-

tective layer of ozone gas in the upper atmosphere. The remaining
ultraviolet sunlight passing through the atmosphere is scattered by
atmospheric particles and molecules. Of the visible frequencies,
violet light is scattered the most, followed by blue, green, yellow,
orange, and red, in that order. Red light is scattered only a tenth as
much as violet. Although violet light is scattered more than blue, our
eyes are not very sensitive to violet light. Our eyes are more sensitive
to blue, so we see a blue sky.
The blue of the sky varies in different places under different con-
ditions. Where there are a lot of particles of dust and other particles
larger than oxygen and nitrogen molecules, the lower frequencies of

432 Chapter 28 Color

light are scattered more. This makes the sky less blue, and it takes on
a whitish appearance. After a heavy rainstorm, when the particles
have been washed away, the sky becomes a deeper blue.
The higher that one goes into the atmosphere, the fewer mole-
cules there are in the air to scatter light. The sky appears darker.
When there are no molecules, as on the moon for example, the “sky”
is black.
Water droplets in a variety of sizes—some of them microscopic—
make up clouds. The different-size droplets result in a variety of fre-
quencies for scattered light: low frequencies from larger droplets and
high frequencies from tinier droplets of water molecules. The overall
result is a white cloud. The electrons in a tiny droplet vibrate together
and in step, which results in the scattering of a greater amount of
energy than when the same number of electrons vibrate separately.
Hence, clouds are bright!

Figure 28.15 A
The droplets that compose a cloud come in a wide variety of sizes. Hence a
wide variety of colors are scattered, which is why the cloud is white.

SERRE
SE INE eS
28.9 Why Sunsets Are Red
The lower frequencies of light are scattered the least by nitrogen and
oxygen molecules. Therefore red, orange, and yellow light are trans-
mitted through the atmosphere more readily than violet and blue.
Red light, which is scattered the least, passes through more atmos-
phere without interacting with matter than light of any other color.
Therefore, when light passes through a thick atmosphere, light of the
lower frequencies is transmitted while light of the higher frequencies
is scattered. At dawn and at sunset, sunlight reaches us through a
longer path through the atmosphere than at noon.

433
Figure 28.16 > GREATEST PATH OF SUNLIGHT THROUGH
A beam of sunlight must travel a ATMOSPHERE |S AT SUNSET (OR SUNRISE)
longer path through the atmos-
phere at sunset than at noon. As
a result, more blue is scattered
from the beam at sunset than at
noon. By the time a beam of SUNLIGHT
sunlight gets to the ground at
sunset, only the lower frequen-
cies survive, producing a red
sunset.

At noon sunlight travels through the least amount of atmos-

phere to reach Earth’s surface (Figure 28.16). Then a relatively small
amount of light is scattered from sunlight. As the day progresses
and the sun is lower in the sky, the path through the atmosphere is
longer, and more blue is scattered from the sunlight. Less and less
blue remains in the sunlight that reaches Earth. The sun appears
progressively redder, going from yellow to orange and finally to a
reddish orange at sunset. (The sequence is reversed between dawn
and noon.)
The colors of the sun and sky are consistent with our rules for
color mixing. When blue is subtracted from white light, the comple-
mentary color that is left is yellow. The subtraction of violet leaves
orange. When green is subtracted, magenta is left. The relative
amounts of scattering depend on atmospheric conditions, which
change from day to day and give us a variety of sunsets.
The next time you find yourself admiring a crisp blue sky, or
delighting in the shapes of bright clouds, or watching a beautiful
sunset, think about all those ultra-tiny optical tuning forks vibrating;
you'll appreciate these everyday wonders of nature even more!

Figure 28.17 »
The sunset sky is red because
of the absence of high-frequency
light.

434 Chapter 28 Color

 @ Questions
ieee molecules in the sky scattered low-frequency light more than
high-frequency light, how would the colors of the sky and sun-
sets appear?
2. Distant dark mountains are bluish in color. What is the source
of this blueness? (Hint: What is between you and the moun-
tains you see?)
3. Distant snow-covered mountains reflect a lot of light and are
bright. But they sometimes look yellowish, depending on how
far away they are. Why are they yellow? (Hint: What happens to
the reflected white light as it travels from the mountain to you?)
rE

Why do you see the scattered blue when the background is dark,
but not when the background is bright? Because the scattered blue
is faint. A faint color will show itself against a dark background, but
not against a bright background. For example, when you look from
Earth’s surface at the atmosphere against the darkness of space, the
atmosphere is sky blue. But astronauts above who look below
through the same atmosphere to the bright surface of Earth do not
see the same blueness.

I
28.10 Why Water Is Greenish Blue
We often see a beautiful deep blue when we look at the surface of a
lake or the ocean. But that is not the color of water. It is the reflected
color of the sky. The color of water itself, as you can see by looking at
a piece of white material under water, is a pale greenish blue.
Water is transparent to nearly all the visible frequencies of light.
Water molecules absorb infrared waves because they resonate to
the frequencies of infrared. The energy of the infrared waves is trans-
formed into kinetic energy of the water molecules. Infrared is a strong
component of the sunlight that warms water.

BH Answers

1. If low frequencies were scattered more, red light would be scattered out of the sunlight
on its long path through the atmosphere at sunset, and the sunlight to reach your eye
would be predominantly blue and violet. So sunsets would appear blue!

2. If you look at distant dark mountains, very little light from them reaches you, and the
blueness of the atmosphere between you and the mountains predominates. The blue-
ness is of the low-altitude “sky” between you and the mountains. That's why distant
mountains look blue!
3. The reason that distant snow-covered mountains often appear a pale yellow is
because the blue in the white light from the snowy mountains is scattered on its way
to you. What happens to white when blue is scattered from it? The complementary
color left is yellow.

435
 Figure 28.18 A
Ocean water is cyan because it absorbs red. The froth in the waves is white
because its droplets of many sizes scatter many colors.

Water molecules resonate somewhat to the visible-red frequen-

cies. This causes a gradual absorption of red light by water. A 15-m
layer of water reduces red light to a quarter of its initial brightness.
There is very little red light in the sunlight that penetrates below
30 m of water. When red is taken away from white light, what color
remains? This question can be asked in another way: What is the
complementary color of red? The complementary color of red is
cyan—a greenish blue color. In seawater, the color of everything at
these depths looks greenish blue.
It is interesting to note that many crabs and other sea animals
that appear black in deep water are found to be red when they are
raised to the surface. At great depths, black and red look the same.
So both black and red sea animals are hardly seen by predators and
prey in deep water. They have survived an evolutionary history while
more visible varieties have not.
In summary, the sky is blue because blue from sunlight is
reemitted in all directions by molecules in the atmosphere. Water
is greenish blue because red is absorbed by molecules in the water.
The colors of things depend on what colors are reflected by mol-
ecules, and also by what colors are absorbed by molecules.

28.11 The Atomic Color Code—

Atomic Spectra
Every element has its own characteristic color when made to emit
1 Explore
2
Develo] light. If the atoms are far enough apart that their vibrations are not
interrupted by neighboring atoms, their true colors are emitted. This
2 Laboratory Manual 73 occurs when atoms are made to glow in the gaseous state. (In the
solid state, as in a lamp filament, where atoms are crowded together,

436 Chapter 28 Color

 the characteristic colors of the atoms are smudged to produce a con-
tinuous spectrum.) Neon gas, for example, glows a brilliant red; mer-
cury vapor glows a bluish violet; and helium glows a pink. The glow of
each element is unlike the glow of any other element.
The light from glowing elements can be analyzed with an instru-
ment called a spectroscope. This chapter began with a brief account
of Newton's investigation of light passing through a prism. The spec-
trum formed in Newton's first experiment was impure, because it
was formed by overlapping circular images of the circular hole in his
window shutter. He later produced a better spectrum by first passing
light through a thin slit and then focusing it with lenses through the
prism and onto a white screen (Figure 28.19). If the slit is made nar-
row, overlapping is reduced and the colors in the resulting spectrum
are much clearer.

Figure 28.19 A
A fairly pure spectrum is produced by passing white light through a thin slit,
two lenses, and a prism.

This arrangement of thin slit, lenses, and a prism (or a diffraction

grating) is the basis for the spectroscope.* A simple spectroscope with
a diffraction grating is shown in Figure 28.20. A spectroscope displays
the spectra of the light from hot gases and other light sources. (Spectra
is the plural of spectrum.) The spectra of light sources are viewed
through a magnifying eyepiece.
When light from a glowing element is analyzed through a spec-
troscope, it is found that the colors are the composite of a variety of
different frequencies of light. The spectrum of an element appears
not as a continuous band of color but as a series of lines, as shown in
Figure 28.21. Each line corresponds to a distinct frequency of light.
Such a spectrum is known as a line spectrum. The spectral lines seen
in the spectroscope are images of the slit through which the light
passes. Note that each colored line appears in the same position as Figure 28.20 A
that color in the continuous spectrum. A spectroscope. Light to be ana-
lyzed illuminates the thin slit at
the left, where it is focused by
lenses onto either a diffraction
grating (shown) or a prism on
* Although a diffraction grating works differently from a prism, it too spreads light into a the rotating table in the middle,
spectrum. It is more commonly used than a prism in spectroscopes. A spectrometer is and then viewed through the
similar to a spectroscope except that it also measures the wavelengths of a spectrum eyepiece on the right.
and records the spectrum (on film for example).

437
Figure 28.21 A The light from each different element produces its own charac-
(From top to bottom) The contin- teristic pattern of lines. This is because each element has its own dis-
uous spectrum of an incandes- tinct configuration of electrons, and these emit distinct frequencies
cent lamp and the line spectra
of light when electrons change from one energy state to another in
of three elements: hydrogen,
the atom.* The frequencies of light emitted by atoms in the gaseous
sodium, and mercury.
state are the “fingerprints” of the elements. Much of the information
that physicists have about atomic structure is from the study of
atomic spectra. The atomic composition of common materials, the
sun, and distant galaxies is revealed in the spectra of these sources.
Even the element helium, the second most common element in the
universe, was discovered through its “fingerprint” in sunlight. The
spectrometer is a very useful and powerful tool.
After the French emperor Napoleon Bonaparte died in 1821, sci-
entists analyzed samples of his hair with a spectroscope. Murder was
suspected, for they found traces of arsenic—a poison. More recently,
however, it has been discovered that the coloring in Napoleon’s wall-
paper contained high levels of arsenic. It is now speculated that
dampness and mold may have turned the arsenic into a deadly gas.

LK —————————————————

* Electrons in atoms behave differently when materials glow and are sources of illumina-
tion than when materials simply reflect light that shines on them. This distinction won't
be treated in detail here, except to say that when materials are made to glow, the elec-
trons in their atoms jump to orbits of higher energy in a process called excitation.

438 Chapter 28 Color

 Chapter Assessment

For: Study and Review Key Terms

Go @nline Visit: PHSchool.com
hool.com Web Code: csd-4280 additive primary colors (28.5)
complementary colors (28.6)
line spectrum (28.11)
pigment (28.3)
Concept Summary scatter (28.8)
White light is a combination of light of all visible spectroscope (28.11)
frequencies. spectrum (28.1)
m Black is the absence of light; objects that subtractive primary colors (28.7)
appear black absorb all visible frequencies. white light (28.1)
The color of an object is due to the color of the light
it reflects (if opaque) or transmits (if transparent).
m Light is absorbed when its frequency matches Review Questions Check Concepts
a natural vibration frequency of electrons in 1. List the order of colors in the color spectrum.
the material illuminated by the light. (28.1)
Color mixing by addition is the mixing of light of 2. Are black and white real colors, in the sense
different frequencies. that red and green are? Explain. (28.1)
m The eye sees a combination of red, green, and 3. A vibrating tuning fork emits sound. What is
blue light of equal brightness as white. emitted by the vibrating electrons of atoms?
m Red, green, and blue are the additive primary (28.2)
colors. 4. What happens to light of a certain frequency
Color mixing by subtraction is the mixing of col- that encounters atoms of the same resonant
ored paints or dyes, which absorb most frequen- frequency? (28.2)
cies except for the ones that give them their 5. Why does the color of an object look different
characteristic color. under a fluorescent lamp from the way it
m= When paints or dyes are mixed, the mixture looks under an incandescent lamp? (28.2)
absorbs all the frequencies each paint or dye 6. a. What color(s) of light does a transparent
absorbs. red object transmit?
m Magenta, cyan, and yellow are the subtractive b. What color(s) does it absorb? (28.3)
primary colors.
7. What is the function of a pigment? (28.3)
Scattering of violet and blue frequencies of
8. Why are more and more fire engines being
sunlight in all directions is what gives the sky
painted yellow green instead of red? (28.4)
its blue color.
i<e). How can yellow be produced on a screen if
m= When sunlight travels a long path through the
only red light and green light are available?
atmosphere, as at dawn or sunset, only the
(28.5)
lower frequencies of light are transmitted; the
higher ones are scattered out. 10. What is the name of the color produced by a
mixture of green and blue light? (28.5)
Atoms of each element have characteristic line
spectra that can be used to identify the element.

439
11. What colors of spots are lit on a television Va EeOna TV screen, red, green and blue spots of
tube to give full color? (28.5) fluorescent materials are illuminated at a
variety of relative intensities to produce a full
12. What are complementary colors? (28.6) spectrum of colors. What dots are activated to
13. What color is the complement of blue? (28.6) produce yellow? Magenta? White?

14. The process of producing a color by mixing 30. Suppose two beams of white light are shone
pigments is called color mixing by subtrac- on a white screen, one beam through a pane
tion. Why do we say “subtraction” instead of of red glass and the other through a pane of
“addition” in this case? (28.7) green glass. What color appears on the screen
where the two beams overlap? What occurs if
15. What colors of ink are used to print full-color
instead the two panes of glass are placed in
pictures in books and magazines? (28.7)
the path of a single beam?
16. What is light scattering? (28.8)
31. When white light is shone on red ink dried on
17. a. Do tiny particles in the air scatter high or a glass plate, the color that is transmitted is
low frequencies of light? red. But the color that is reflected is not red.
What is it?
b. What frequencies do large particles scatter?
(28.8) 32. In a dress shop that has only fluorescent
lighting, a customer insists on taking a gar-
18. Why is the sky blue? (28.8)
ment into the daylight at the doorway. Is she
19. Why is the sky sometimes whitish? (28.8) being reasonable? Explain.
20. Why are clouds white? (28.8) 33. What color would a yellow cloth appear if
illuminated with sunlight? With yellow light?
21. Why are sunsets red? (28.9)
With blue light?
22. Why is water greenish blue? (28.10)
34. A spotlight is coated so that it won't transmit
23. What is a spectroscope, and what is its func- blue from its white-hot filament. What color
tion? (28.11) is the emerging beam of light?
24. Does the red light from glowing neon gas 35. How could you use the spotlights at a play to
have only one frequency or a mixture of fre- make the yellow clothes of the performers
quencies? (28.11) suddenly change to black?
25. Why might atomic spectra be considered the 36. A stage performer stands where beams of red
“fingerprints” of atoms? (28.11) and green light cross.
a. What is the color of her white shirt under
this illumination?
Think and Explain Think Critically b. What are the colors of the shadows she
26. What is the color of common tennis balls, casts on the stage floor?
and why? 37. What colors of ink do color ink-jet printers
27. Shine red light on a rose. Why will the tem- use to produce the colors you see? Do the
perature of the leaves increase more than the inks form colors by color addition or by color
temperature of the red petals? subtraction?

28. Why are the interiors of optical instruments . On a photographic print, your dearest friend
painted black? is seen wearing a red sweater. What color is
the sweater on the negative?

4&9 Chapter 28 Color

39. Why can't we see a laser beam going across
the room unless there is fog, chalk dust, or a Activities Performance Assessment
mist in the air?
46. Cover the ends of a cardboard tube with
40. Very big particles, such as droplets of water, metal foil. Punch a hole in each end with
absorb more radiation than they scatter. How a pencil, one about 3 or so millimeters and
does this fact help to explain why rain clouds the other twice as big. Put your eye to the
appear dark?
smaller hole and look through the tube at
41. If the sky on a certain planet in the solar sys- the colors of things against the black back-
tem were normally orange, what color would ground of the tube. Describe and explain
sunsets be? your observations.

42. What causes the beautiful colors sometimes . If you have a computer with a color monitor
seen in the burning of various materials in a and a color-controlled program available, try
fireplace? the following. Add full-strength red and full-
strength green. Note that you produce yellow.
43. What is the evidence for the claim that iron Add about two-thirds strength blue and you
exists in the atmosphere of the sun? get a lighter (not darker) yellow. Try full-
44. The only light to reach very far beneath the strength red, blue, and green, and you get
surface of the ocean is greenish blue. Objects white. Can you see that the more light you
at these depths either reflect greenish blue or shed on something, the brighter (that is,
reflect no color at all. If a ship that is painted closer to white) it gets?
red, green, and white sinks to the bottom of . Simulate your own sunset: Add a few drops
the ocean, how will these colors appear? of milk to a glass of water and look through
45. A lamp filament is made of tungsten. When it to a lit incandescent bulb. The bulb appears
made to glow, it emits a continuous spec- to be red or pale orange, while light scattered
trum—all the colors of the rainbow. When to the side appears blue. Explain why this
tungsten gas is made to glow, however, the happens.
light is a composite of very discrete colors.
Why is there a difference in spectra?
 Reflection and
Refraction

hen you shine a beam of light on a mir-

4 VW: the light doesn’t travel through the
mirror, but is returned by the mirror’s
surface back into the air. When sound waves
strike a canyon wall, they return to you as an
echo. When a transverse wave transmitted along
Changes in light speed produce a spring reaches a wall, it reverses direction. In all these situations,
refraction. waves remain in one medium rather than enter a new medium.
These waves are reflected.
In other situations, as when light passes from air into water,
waves travel from one medium into another. When waves strike the
surface of a medium at an angle, their direction changes as they
enter the second medium. These waves are refracted. This is evident
when a pencil in a glass of water appears to be bent.
Usually waves are partly reflected and partly refracted when they
fall on a transparent medium. When light shines on water, for exam-
ple, some of the light is reflected and some is refracted. To under-
stand this, let’s see how reflection occurs.

EEN
2302
29.1 Reflection
When a wave reaches a boundary between two media, some or all
of the wave bounces back into the first medium. This is reflection.
For example, suppose you fasten a spring to a wall and send a pulse
along the spring’s length (Figure 29.1). The wall is a very rigid
medium compared with the spring. As a result, all the wave energy
is reflected back along the spring rather than being transmitted into
the wall. Waves that travel along the spring are almost totally
reflected at the wall.
If the wall is replaced with a less rigid medium, such as the
heavy spring shown in Figure 29.2, some energy is transmitted into

442 Chapter 29 Reflection and Refraction

 cmt Mg — jincmomaaTRaY
Dogo : Kwwvv0a
anenvansvenaRNeeTAGGGep & “ca
CIN) q
Figure 29.1 A
A wave is totally reflected when it reaches a completely rigid boundary.

the new medium. Some of the wave energy is still reflected. These
waves are partially reflected.
A metal surface is rigid to light waves that shine upon it. Light
energy does not propagate into the metal, but instead is returned in
a reflected wave. The wave reflected from a metal surface has almost
the full intensity of the incoming wave, apart from small energy
losses due to the friction of the vibrating electrons in the surface.
This is why metals such as silver and aluminum are so shiny. They
reflect almost all the frequencies of visible light. Smooth surfaces of
these metals are therefore used as mirrors.

css,
proraoes CULOOCCOCUOOND
<q Figure 29.2
When the wave reaches the
heavy spring, it is partially
reflected. Part of the wave

oar tAAp A RUOpaes

MVOUOUUCOUOOOOD energy bounces back along the
first spring, while the other part

cENOU Ag
travels along the heavy spring.

Other materials such as glass and water are not as rigid to light
waves. Like the different springs of Figure 29.2, wave energy is both
reflected and transmitted at the boundary. When light shines per-
pendicularly on the surface of still water, about 2% of its energy is
reflected and the rest is transmitted. When light strikes glass perpen-
dicularly, about 4% of its energy is reflected. Except for slight losses,
the rest is transmitted.

Ee
es ee Ca Re

29.2 The Law of Reflection

In one dimension, reflected waves simply travel back in the direction
from which they came. Let a ball drop to the floor, and it bounces
straight up along its initial path. In two dimensions, the situation is
a little different. Toss a ball at an angle to the floor, and it normally
bounces at the same angle in a new direction. Likewise with light.
The direction of incident and reflected waves is best described
by straight-line rays. Incident rays and reflected rays make equal
 angles with a line perpendicular to the surface, called the normal,
as shown in Figure 29.3. The angle made by the incident ray and the
normal, called the angle of incidence, is equal to the angle made by
the reflected ray and the normal, called the angle of reflection. That is,
angle of incidence = angle of reflection
a0)
Figure 29.3 > ANGLE OF a ANGLE OF
In reflection, the angle between S|! REFLECTION
the incident ray and the normal
is equal to the angle between
the reflected ray and the normal.

MIRROR

This relationship is called the law of reflection. The incident ray, the
normal, and the reflected ray all lie in the same plane. The law of reflec-
tion applies to both partially reflected and totally reflected waves.

29.3 Mirrors
Consider a candle flame placed in front of a plane (flat) mirror. Rays
of light are reflected from the mirror surface in all directions. The
number of rays is infinite, and every one obeys the law of reflection.

PHYSICS

~ Look at your face in a mirror, Then look at something on the surface of

the mirror, such as a dust speck. Notice that you have to adjust your
eyes as you refocus from looking at your image to looking at the mir-
ror surface. Is it apparent that your image is farther away than the mir-
ror surface? How much farther? Use a manual focus camera to help
you determine these distances. To do this, focus on the dust speck on
the mirror surface and then read the distance off the scale on the cam-
era's lens. Repeat this process using your image in the mirror.
When the mirror is curved, the sizes and distances of object and
Figure 29.4 A
A virtual image is formed behind image are no longer equal. The law of reflection also holds for curved
the plane mirror and is located at mirrors. At every part of the surface, the angle of incidence is equal to
the position where the extended
the angle of reflection, as shown in Figure 29.6. Note that for a curved
reflected rays (broken lines)
converge. mirror, unlike a plane mirror, the normals (shown as dashed black
lines) at different points on the surface are not parallel to each other.

444, Chapter 29 _ Reflection and Refraction

Figure 29.4 shows only two rays that originate at the tip of the candle
flame and reflect from the mirror to your eye. Note that the rays
diverge (spread apart) from the tip of the flame, and continue
diverging from the mirror upon reflection. These divergent rays
appear to originate from a point located behind the mirror. So you
see an image of the candle in the mirror (actually behind the mir-
ror). The image is called a virtual image, because light does not
actually start there.
Figure 29.5 A
Your eye cannot ordinarily tell the difference between an object
For reflection in a plane mirror,
and its virtual image. This is because the light that enters your eye is object size equals image size and
entering in exactly the same manner, physically, as it would without object distance equals image
the mirror if there really were an object there. Notice that the image distance.
is as far behind the mirror as the object is in front of the mirror.
Notice also that the image and object are the same size. When you
view yourself in a mirror, your image is the same size your identical
twin would appear if located as far behind the mirror as you are in
front—as long as the mirror is flat.

Figure 29.6
(a) The virtual image formed by
a convex mirror (a mirror that
curves outward) is smaller and
closer to the mirror than the
object is. (b) When the object is
close to a concave mirror (a mir-
ror that curves inward like a
“cave”), the virtual image is
larger and farther away than the
object is. In any case, the law of
reflection holds for each ray.

@ Questions
1. If you look at your blue shirt in a mirror, what is the color of its
image? What does this tell you about the frequency of light inci-
dent upon a mirror compared with the frequency of the light
after it is reflected?
2. If you wish to take a picture of your image while standing 2m
in front of a plane mirror, for what distance should you set your
camera to provide sharpest focus?
1 Explore
1 Laboratory Manual 75
m@ Answers
evidence that 2 Concept-Development
1. The color of the image will be the same as the color of the object. This is Practice Book 29-7, 29-2
the frequency of light is not changed by reflection.
| 2 Laboratory Manual 76, 78
to your
2. You should set your camera for a distance of 4 m. The situation is equivalent
window and viewing your twin standing 2 m in back 3 Laboratory Manual 74, 77
standing 2 m in front of an open
of the window.

445
 PHYSICS

Multiplying Money ae
Stand a pair of mirrors on edge with their faces at 90°. Place a coin
close to where the mirrors meet. How many coins do you see?
Now make the angle between the mirrors smaller and smaller.
What happens to the number of coin images? Finally, adjust the
mirrors so that they are parallel and facing each other, only a few
centimeters apart with the coin in between. How many images are
there? Lots! How much money is there? Unfortunately there is still
only one coin.

PRN SSSTESAEE i BS AR GE EE
29.4 Diffuse Reflection
When light is incident on a rough surface, it is reflected in many
directions. This is diffuse reflection (Figure 29.7). Although the
reflection of each single ray obeys the law of reflection, the many
different angles that incident light rays encounter cause reflection
in many directions.
What constitutes a rough surface for some rays may be a pol-
ished surface for others. If the differences in elevations in a surface
are small (less than about one-eighth the wavelength of the light that
falls on it), the surface is considered polished. A surface therefore
Figure 29.7 A
may be polished for long wavelengths, but not polished for short
Diffuse reflection from a rough
surface.
wavelengths. The wire-mesh “dish” shown in Figure 29.8 is very
rough for light waves, not mirrorlike at all. Yet for long-wavelength
radio waves, it is polished. It acts as a mirror to radio waves and is an

Figure 29.8
The open-mesh parabolic dish
acts like a diffuse reflector for
light waves but like a polished
reflector for long-wavelength
radio waves.

446 Chapter 29 _ Reflection and Refraction

excellent reflector. Whether a surface is a diffuse reflector or a pol-
ished reflector depends on the length of the waves it reflects.
Light that reflects from this page is diffuse. The page may be
smooth to a long radio wave, but to the short wavelengths of visible
light it is rough. This roughness is evident in the microscopic view of
an ordinary paper surface (Figure 29.9). Rays of light incident on this
page encounter millions of tiny flat surfaces facing in all directions,
so they are reflected in all directions. This is very nice, for it allows us
to read the page from any direction or position. We see most of the
things around us by diffuse reflection.

A 4g | a Figure 29.9 A
A microscopic view of the sur-

v v face of ordinary paper.

iva
fa PAPER b MIRROR
Figure 29.10 A
(a) If you shine a beam of light on paper, you can see diffusely reflected light
at any position. (b) However, your eye must be at the right place to see a
reflected beam from a small mirror.

(SG
GSS PEGA
29.5 Reflection of Sound
An echo is reflected sound. The fraction of sound energy reflected
from a surface is more when the surface is rigid and smooth, and
less when the surface is soft and irregular. Sound energy not
reflected is absorbed or transmitted.
Sound reflects from all surfaces—the walls, ceiling, floor, furni-
ture, and people—of a room. Designers of interiors of buildings,
whether office buildings, factories, or auditoriums, need to under-
stand the reflective properties of surfaces. The study of these proper-
ties is acoustics.
When the walls of a room, auditorium, or concert hall are too
reflective, the sound becomes garbled. This is due to multiple reflec-
tions called reverberations. But when the reflective surfaces are
more absorbent, the sound level is lower, and the hall sounds dull
and lifeless. Reflection of sound in a room makes it sound lively and
full, as you have probably found out while singing in the shower. In
the design of an auditorium or concert hall, a balance between
reverberation and absorption is desired. Figure 29.11 A
(Top) With grooved walls, sound
The walls of concert halls are often designed with grooves so that
reflects from many small sec-
the sound waves are diffused. This is illustrated in Figure 29.11 (top). tions of the wall to a listener.
In this way a person in the audience receives a small amount of (Bottom) With flat walls, an
reflected sound from many parts of the wall, rather than a larger intense reflected sound comes
amount of sound from one part of the wall. from only one part of the wall.

447
Figure 29.12 >
The shiny plates above the
orchestra in Davies Symphony
Hall in San Francisco reflect both
light and sound. Adjusting them
is quite simple: What you see is
what you hear.

Highly reflective surfaces are often placed behind and above the
stage to direct sound out to an audience. The large shiny plastic
plates in Figure 29.12 also reflect light. A listener can look up at these
reflectors and see the reflected images of the members of the orches-
1 Explore
tra. (The plastic reflectors are somewhat curved, which increases the
3 Problem-Solving
Exercises in
“i field of view.) Both sound and light obey the same law of reflection, so
if a reflector is oriented so that you can see a particular musical instru-
Physics 13-2 ment, rest assured that you will hear it also. Sound from the instru-
ment will follow the line of sight to the reflector and then to you.

pe Re LN e SCIPS LEMIERMERE STTESTI race ee

29.6 Refraction
Suppose you take a rear axle with its wheels attached off an old toy
cart and let it roll along a pavement that slopes gently downward
and onto a downward-sloping mowed lawn. It rolls more slowly on
oN TOP VIEW the lawn because of the interaction of the wheels with the blades of
NT OF grass. If you roll it at an angle as shown in Figure 29.13, it will be
|SIDEWALK deflected from its straight-line course. The direction of the axle and
rolling wheels is shown in the illustration. Note that the wheel that
first meets the lawn slows down first—because it interacts with the
grass while the opposite wheel is still rolling on the pavement. The
axle pivots, and the path is bent toward the normal (the thin dashed
line perpendicular to the grass-pavement boundary). The axle then
continues across the lawn in a straight line at reduced speed.
Water waves similarly bend when one part of each wave is made
to travel slower (or faster) than another part. This is refraction. Waves
Figure 29.13 A travel faster in deep water than in shallow water. Figure 29.14 (left)
The direction of the rolling shows a view from above of straight wave crests (the bright lines) mov-
wheels changes when one wheel ing toward the right edge of the photo. They are moving from deep
slows down before the other one. water across a diagonal boundary into shallow water. At the boundary,

448 Chapter 29 Reflection and Refraction

 Figure 29.14 A
(Left) Photograph of the refraction of a water wave at a boundary where the
wave speed changes because the water depth changes. (Right) Diagram of
wave fronts and a sample ray. The ray is perpendicular to the wave front it
intersects.

the wave speed and direction of travel are abruptly altered. Since the
wave moves more slowly in shallow water, the crests are closer together.
If you look carefully, you'll see some reflection from the boundary.
In drawing a diagram of a wave, as in Figure 29.14 (right), it is
convenient to draw lines that represent the positions of different
crests. Such lines are called wave fronts.* At each point along a wave
front, the wave is moving perpendicular to the wave front. The direc-
tion of motion of the wave can thus be represented by rays that are
perpendicular to the wave fronts. The ray in Figure 29.14 (right)
shows how the water wave changes direction after it crosses the
boundary between deep and shallow water. Sometimes we analyze
waves in terms of wave fronts, and at other times in terms of rays.
Both are useful models for understanding wave behavior.

(GIES
ET 20
29.7 Refraction of Sound
Sound waves are refracted when parts of a wave front travel at differ-
ent speeds. This happens in uneven winds or when sound is travel-
ing through air of uneven temperature. On a warm day, for example,
the air near the ground may be appreciably warmer than the air
above. Since sound travels faster in warmer air, the speed of sound
near the ground is increased. The refraction is not abrupt but grad-
ual (Figure 29.15). Sound waves therefore tend to bend away from
warm ground, making it appear that the sound does not carry well.

* Wave fronts can also represent the positions of different troughs—or any continuous
portions of the wave that are all vibrating the same way at the same time.
 \\ ld \I
ae | 412222,
WARM AIR

Figure 29.15 A
The wave fronts of sound are bent in air of uneven temperature.

On a cold day or at night, when the layer of air near the ground
is colder than the air above, the speed of sound near the ground is
reduced. The higher speed of the wave fronts above cause a bending
of the sound toward Earth. When this happens, sound can be heard
over considerably longer distances.

Figure 29.16 A
At night, when the air is cooler over the surface of the lake, sound is
refracted toward the ground and carries unusually well.

tie
.
wnwind from
: if an i
jouder—t
| calo&\

@ Answer

You'll hear the whistle better if the wind speed near the ground is less than the wind speed
higher up. For this condition, the sound will be refracted toward the ground. If the wind
speed were greater near the ground, the refraction would be upward.

450 Chapter 29 Reflection and Refraction

ee 1 Explore

29.8 Refraction of Light 2 Concept-Development

Practice Book 29-3, 29-4
A pond or swimming pool both appear shallower than they actu-
ally are. A pencil in a glass of water appears bent, the air above a hot
stove seems to shimmer, and stars twinkle. These effects are caused
by changes in the speed of light as it passes from one medium to
another, or through varying temperatures and densities of the same
medium—which changes the directions of light rays. In short, these
effects are due to the refraction of light.*
Figure 29.17 shows rays and wave fronts of light refracted as they
pass from air into water. (The wave fronts would be curved if the
source of light were close, just as the wave fronts of water waves near
a stone thrown into the water are curved. If we assume that the
source of light is the sun, then it is so far away that the wave fronts
are practically straight lines.) Note that the left portions of the wave
fronts are the first to slow down when they enter the water (or right
portion if you look along the direction of travel). The refracted ray of
light, which is at right angles to the refracted wave fronts, is closer to
the normal than is the incident ray.
Compare the refraction in this case to the bending of the axle’s
path in Figure 29.13. When light rays enter a medium in which their
speed decreases, as when passing from air into water, the rays bend
toward the normal. But when light rays enter a medium in which
their speed increases, as when passing from water into air, the rays
bend away from the normal. Figure 29.17 A
Figure 29.18 shows a laser beam entering a container of water at As a light wave passes from air
the left and exiting at the right. The path would be the same if the into water, its speed decreases.
light entered from the right and exited at the left. The light paths are Note that the refracted ray is
reversible for both reflection and refraction. If you can see somebody closer to the normal than is the
by way of a reflective or refractive device, such as a mirror or a incident ray.
prism, then that person can see you (or your eyes) by looking
through the device also.

* The ratio n of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed in a given material is called
the index of refraction of that material.

speed of light
sue in vacuum:
index of refraction n=
speed of light in material
Figure 29.18 A
The quantitative law of refraction, called Snell's law, was first worked out in 1621 by The laser beam bends toward
Willebrod Snell, a Dutch astronomer and mathematician. According to Snell's law,
the normal when it enters the
water, and away from the normal
nsin @=n’ sin & when it leaves.

where nand n’are the indices of refraction of the media on either side of the boundary,
and @ and 6’ are the respective angles of incidence and refraction. If three of these val-
ues are known, the fourth can be calculated from this relationship.

451
Figure 29.19 A
Because of refraction, the appar-
As Figure 29.19 (left) shows, a thick pane of glass appears to be
ent depth of the glass block is only two-thirds its real thickness when viewed straight on. (For clar-
less than the real depth (left), the ity, the diameter of the eye pupil is made larger than true scale.)
fish appears to be nearer than it Similarly, water in a pond or pool appears to be only three-quarters
actually is (center), and the full its true depth. Look at a fish in water from a bank, and the fish
glass mug appears to hold more appears to be nearer the surface than it really is (Figure 29.19, cen-
root beer than it actually does ter). It also seems closer. Another illusion is shown in the right of the
(right). figure. Light from the root beer is refracted through the sides of the
thick glass, making the glass appear thinner than it is. The eye,
accustomed to perceiving light traveling along straight lines, per-
ceives the root beer to be at the outer edge of the glass, along the
broken lines. These effects are due to the refraction of light whenever
it crosses a boundary between air and another transparent medium.

[BENNO
TS gE OES ET
29.9 Atmospheric Refraction
Although the speed of light in air is only 0.03% less than its speed in a
vacuum, in some situations atmospheric refraction is quite notice-
able. One interesting example is the mirage. On hot days there may
be a layer of very hot air in contact with the ground. Since molecules
in hot air are farther apart, light travels faster through it than through
cooler air above. The speeding up of the part of the wave nearest the
ground produces a gradual bending of the light rays. This can pro-
duce an image, say, of the tree in Figure 29.20. The image appears
upside down to an observer at the right, just as if it were reflected
from a surface of water. But the light is not reflected; it is refracted.

Figure 29.20
The refraction of light in air
produces a mirage.

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452 Chapter 29 __ Reflection and Refraction

 < Figure 29.21
Wave fronts of light travel faster
in the hot air near the ground,
thereby bending the rays of light
upward.

Wave fronts of light are shown in Figure 29.21. The refraction of

light in air in this case is very much like the refraction of sound in
Figure 29.15. Undeflected wave fronts would travel at one speed and
in the direction shown by the broken lines. Their greater speed near
the ground, however, causes the light ray to bend upward as shown.
A motorist experiences a similar situation when driving along a
hot road that appears to be wet ahead. The sky appears to be
reflected from a wet surface but, in fact, light from the sky is being
refracted through a layer of hot air. A mirage is not, as some people
mistakenly believe, a “trick of the mind.” A mirage is formed by real
light and can be photographed (see Figure 29.22).

<< Figure 29.22

A mirage.

PuYSics

Refraction iin
1 Aire

atos across a tiot stove or hot pavement. Those shimmering

images, or “heat waves,” you see are the effects of atmospheric S
refraction. The speed of light changes as it travels through varying
temperatures and densities of air. Similarly, the twinkling of stars
in the nighttime sky is produced by refractions of light as it passes
through unstable layers in the atmosphere. Do you see one reason
why many observatories are located atop mountains?

453
Figure 29.23 >
When the sun is already below
the horizon, you can still see it.

When you watch the sun set, you see the sun for several minutes
after it has really sunk below the horizon. This is because light is
refracted by Earth’s atmosphere (Figure 29.23). Since the density of the
atmosphere changes gradually, the refracted rays bend gradually to
produce a curved path. The same thing occurs at sunrise, so our day-
times are about 5 minutes longer because of atmospheric refraction.
When the sun (or moon) is near the horizon, the rays from the
lower edge are bent more than the rays from the upper edge. This
produces a shortening of the vertical diameter and makes the sun
(or moon) look elliptical instead of round (Figure 29.24).

Figure 29.24 A i the speed oftlight were the same for the various temperatures
Atmospheric refraction produces _ and densities of air, would there still be mirages, slightly longer
a “pumpkin” sun. - . daytimes, and a “pumpkin” sun at sunset?

Chapter 27 discussed how the average speed of light is less than cin
a transparent medium. How much less depends on the medium and
the frequency of the light. Light of frequencies closer to the natural
frequency of the electron oscillators in a medium travels more slowly
in the medium. This is because there are more interactions with the

err
EEE

@ Answer

No! There would be no refraction if light traveled at the same speed in air of different tem-
peratures and densities.

454 Chapter 29 Reflection and Refraction

medium in the process of absorption and reemission. Since the nat-
ural or resonant frequency of most transparent materials is in the
ultraviolet part of the spectrum, visible light of higher frequencies
travels more slowly than light of lower frequencies. Violet light trav-
els about 1% slower in ordinary glass than red light. The colors
between red and violet travel at their own intermediate speeds. RED
Since different frequencies of light travel at different speeds in 8,SUg

transparent materials, they will refract differently and bend at differ-

ent angles. When light is bent twice at nonparallel boundaries, as in
a prism, the separation of the different colors of light is quite appar-
ent. This separation of light into colors arranged according to their Figure 29.25 A
frequency is called dispersion (Figure 29.25). Dispersion is what Dispersion through a prism.
enabled Isaac Newton to produce a spectrum.

2
Ooo
29.11 The Rainbow
A spectacular illustration of dispersion is the rainbow. The condi-
tions for seeing a rainbow are that the sun be shining in one part of
the sky and that water droplets in a cloud or in falling rain be in the
opposite part of the sky. When you turn your back to the sun, you see
the spectrum of colors in a bow. Seen high enough from an airplane,
the bow forms a complete circle. All rainbows would be completely
round if the ground were not in the way.

Figure 29.26 A
The rainbow is seen in a part of the sky opposite the sun and is centered on
the imaginary line extending from the sun to the observer.

To understand how light is dispersed by raindrops, consider an

individual spherical raindrop, as shown in Figure 29.27. Follow the Figure 29.27 A
ray of sunlight as it enters the drop near its top surface. Some of the Dispersion of sunlight by a single
light here is reflected (not shown), and the rest is refracted into the drop, which produces a rainbow.
water. At this first refraction, the light is dispersed into its spectral Light is concentrated at the
colors. Violet is bent the most and red the least. angles shown.

455
 The rays reach the opposite part of the drop to be partly
refracted out into the air (not shown) and partly reflected back into
the water. Part of the rays that arrive at the lower surface of the drop
are refracted into the air. This second refraction is similar to that of a
prism, where refraction at the second surface increases the disper-
sion already produced at the first surface. This twice-refracted, once-
reflected light is concentrated in a narrow range of angles.
Each drop disperses a full spectrum of colors. An observer, how-
ever, is in a position to see only a single color from any one drop (see
Figure 29.28). If violet light from a single drop enters your eye, red
light from the same drop falls below your eye. To see red light you
have to look at a drop higher in the sky. You'll see the color red when
the angle between a beam of sunlight and the dispersed light is 42°.
The color violet is seen when the angle between the sunbeam and
dispersed light is 40°.

Figure 29.28 A
Sunlight strikes two sample drops and emerges as dispersed light. The
observer sees red from the upper drop and violet from the lower drop.
Millions of drops produce the whole spectrum.

You don’t need to look only upward at 42° to see dispersed red
light. You can see red by looking sideways at the same angle or any-
where along a circular arc swept out at a 42° angle (see Figure 29.29).
The dispersed light of other colors is along similar arcs, each at their
own slightly different angle. Altogether, the arcs for each color form
the familiar rainbow shape.
If you rotate the triangle in Figure 29.29 you sweep out the por-
tion of a cone, with your eye at the apex. The raindrops that disperse
Figure 29.29 A light to you lie at the far edges of such a cone. The thicker the region
Only raindrops along the dashed of water drops, the thicker the conical edge you look through, and
arc disperse red light to the the more vivid the rainbow.
observer at a 42° angle.
Your cone of vision that intersects the raindrops creating your
rainbow is different from that of a person next to you. So when a
friend says, “Look at the beautiful rainbow,” you can reply, “Okay,
move aside so I can see it too.” Everybody sees his or her own per-
sonal rainbow.

456 Chapter 29 Reflection and Refraction

 SUNLIGHT < Figure 29.30
Double reflection in a drop pro-
duces a secondary bow.

So when you move, your rainbow moves with you. This means
you can never approach the side of a rainbow, or see it end-on as in
the exaggerated view of Figure 29.26. You can’t get to its end. Hence
the expression “looking for the pot of gold at the end of the rainbow”
means pursuing something you can never reach.
Often a larger, secondary bow with colors reversed can be seen arch-
ing at a greater angle around the primary bow. The secondary bow is
formed by similar circumstances and is a result of double reflection
within the raindrops (Figure 29.30). Because some light is refracted out
the back during the extra reflection, the secondary bow is much dimmer.

®@ Question
If light traveled at the same speed in raindrops as it does in air,
would we still have rainbows?

ES
SE
29.12 Total Internal Reflection
When your'e in a physics mood and you're going to take a bath, fill
the tub extra deep and bring a waterproof flashlight into the tub with
you. Turn the bathroom light off. Shine the submerged light straight
up and then slowly tip it and note how the intensity of the emerging
beam diminishes and how morte light is reflected from the water sur-
face to the bottom of the tub.
At a certain angle, called the critical angle, you'll notice that the
beam no longer emerges into the air above the surface. The intensity
of the emerging beam reduces to zero where it tends to graze the
surface. When the flashlight is tipped beyond the critical angle (48°
from the normal in water), you'll notice that the beam cannot enter
the air; it is only reflected. The beam is experiencing total internal
reflection. The only light emerging from the water surface is that
which is diffusely reflected from the bottom of the bathtub.

@ Answer

No. If there is no change in speed, there is no refraction. If there is no refraction, there is

no dispersion of light and hence, no rainbow!

457
 Figure 29.31 A
Light emitted in the water at angles below the critical angle is partly
refracted and partly reflected at the surface. At the critical angle (second
sketch from right), the emerging beam skims the surface. Past the critical
angle (far right), there is total internal reflection.

This procedure is shown in Figure 29.31. The proportions of light

refracted and reflected are indicated by the relative lengths of the solid
arrows. Note that the light reflected beneath the surface obeys the law
of reflection: The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
The critical angle for glass is about 43°, depending on the type
of glass. This means that within the glass, rays of light that are more
than 43° from the normal to a surface will be totally internally
reflected at that surface. Rays of light in the glass prisms shown in
Figure 29.32, for example, meet the back surface at 45° and are totally
internally reflected. They will stay inside the glass until they meet a
surface at an angle between 0° (straight on) and 43° to the normal.
Total internal reflection is as the name implies: total—100%.
Silvered or aluminized mirrors reflect only 90 to 95% of incident
light, and are marred by dust and dirt; prisms are more efficient.
This is the main reason they are used instead of mirrors in many
optical instruments.
The critical angle for a diamond is 24.6°, smaller than any other
known substance. This small critical angle means that light inside a
Figure 29.32 A
Total internal reflection in glass
WHITE +| VIOLET
LIGHT

Figure 29.33 A
Paths of light in a diamond.

Reflection and Refraction

Figure 29.34 A
In an optical fiber, light is piped from one end to the other by a succession of
total internal reflections.

diamond is more likely to be totally internally reflected than to

escape. All light rays more than 24.6° from the normal to a surface in
a diamond stay inside by total internal reflection. When a diamond
is cut as a gemstone, light that enters at one facet is usually totally
internally reflected several times, without any loss in intensity,
before exiting from another facet in another direction. That's why
you see unexpected flashes from a diamond. A small critical angle,
plus the pronounced refraction because of the unusually low speed
of light in diamond, produces wide dispersion and a wide array of
colors. The colors seen in a diamond are quite brilliant.
Total internal reflection underlies the usefulness of optical fibers,
sometimes called light pipes. As the name implies, these transparent
fibers pipe light from one place to another. They do this by a series
of total internal reflections, much like the ricocheting of a ball
bearing inside a steel pipe. Optical fibers are useful for getting light
to inaccessible places. Mechanics and machinists use them to look
at the interiors of engines, and physicians use them to look inside a
patient’s body. Light shines down some of the fibers to illuminate
the scene and is reflected back along others.
Optical fibers are important in communications. In many cities,
thin glass fibers have replaced thick, bulky, and expensive copper
cables to carry thousands of simultaneous telephone messages
1 Explore
between major switching centers. Undersea copper cables are also
being replaced by optical fibers. More information can be carried in 3 Problem-Solving
the high frequencies of visible light than in the lower frequencies of Exercises in
electric current. Optical fibers are more and more replacing electric Physics 73-3
circuits and microwave links in communications technology.

459
 Chapter Assessment

(Go @nline |
For: Study and Review Key Terms
Visit: PHSchool.com
Web Code: csd-4290 angle of incidence (29.2 optical fiber (29.12)
angle of reflection (29.2) reflection (29.1)
critical angle (29.12) refraction (29.6)
diffuse reflection (29.4) reverberation (29.5)
Concept Summary dispersion (29.10) total internal reflection
In reflection, a wave reaches the boundary law of reflection (29.2) (29.12)
between two media and bounces back into the mirage (29.9) virtual image (29.3)
first medium. normal (29.2) wave front (29.6)
At a boundary, usually part of a wave is
reflected and part passes into the second
medium.
Review Questions Check Concepts
According to the law of reflection, the angle of
1. What becomes of a wave’s energy when the
incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
wave is totally reflected at a boundary? When
A plane mirror forms a virtual image of an it is partially reflected at a boundary? (29.1)
object; the image appears to be as far in back
. Why do smooth metal surfaces make good
of the mirror as the object is in front of it, and
mirrors? (29.1)
is the same size as the object.
. When light strikes perpendicular to the sur-
Light that falls on a rough surface is reflected
face of a pane of glass, how much light is
diffusely.
reflected and how much is transmitted? (29.1)
In refraction, a wave reaches the boundary
. What is meant by the normal to a surface?
between two media and changes direction as it
(29.2)
passes into the second medium.
5. What is the law of reflection? (29.2)
Refraction is caused by a difference in the
speed of the wave in the two media. . When you view your image in a plane mirror,
how far behind the mirror is your image com-
The speed of light in materials depends on
pared with your distance in front of the mir-
frequency, causing the different colors that
ror? (29.3)
make up white light to refract differently and
spread out to form a visible spectrum. - Does the law of reflection hold for curved
mirrors? (29.3)
In total internal reflection, an incident wave ona
boundary is at an angle such that none of the . Does the law of reflection hold for diffuse
wave can be refracted, so only reflection occurs. reflection? Explain. (29.4)
- What is meant by the idea that a surface may
be polished for some waves and rough for
others? (29.4)
10. Distinguish between an echo and a
reverberation. (29.5)

460 Chapter 29 _ Reflection and Refraction

11. Does the law of reflection hold for both UIE 02 a it re aR RR

sound waves and light waves? (29.5)

Think and Explain Think Critically
12. Distinguish between reflection and
28. Suppose that a mirror and three lettered
refraction. (29.1, 29.6)
cards are set up as in the figure. If a person’s
13. When a wave crosses a surface at an angle eye is at point P, which of the lettered cards
from one medium into another, why does it will be seen reflected in the mirror? Explain.
“pivot” as it moves across the boundary into
the new medium? (29.6)
14. What is the orientation of a ray in relation to >fe
the wave front of a wave? (29.6) S
SS
15. Give an example where refraction is abrupt, NS
and another where refraction is gradual. S
Ss
(29.6-29.7)
16. Does refraction occur for both sound waves
and light waves? (29.7-29.8)
17. If light had the same speed in air and in
water, would light be refracted in passing
from air into water? (29.8) 29. Why is the lettering on the front of some
vehicles “backward,” as seen here?
18. If you can see the face of a friend who is
underwater, can she also see you? (29.8)
19. Does refraction tend to make objects sub-
merged in water seem shallower or deeper
qIVIUAIUEMA
than they really are? (29.8)
30. Trucks often have signs on their backs that
20. Is a mirage a result of refraction or reflection? say, “If you can’t see my mirrors, I can’t see
Explain. (29.9) you.” Explain the physics here.
21. Is daytime a bit longer or a bit shorter 31. Contrast the types of reflection from a rough
because of atmospheric refraction? (29.9) road and from the smooth surface of a wet
22. As light passes through glass or water, do the road to explain why it is difficult for a
high or low frequencies of light interact more motorist to see the roadway ahead when
in the process of absorption and reemission, driving on a rainy night.
and therefore lag behind? (29.10) 32. Cameras with automatic focus bounce a
23. Why does blue light refract at greater angles sonar (sound) beam from the object being
than red light in transparent materials? photographed, and compute distance from
(29.10) the time interval between sending and receiv-
ing the signal. Why will these cameras not
24. What conditions are necessary for viewing a focus properly for photographs of mirror
rainbow in the sky? (29.11) images?
25. How is a raindrop similar to a prism? (29.11) 33. Why is an echo weaker than the original
26. What is the critical angle in terms of refrac- sound?
tion and total internal reflection? (29.12) 34. Does the reflection of a scene in calm water
27. Why are optical fibers often called light pipes? look exactly the same as the scene itself only
(29,12) upside down? (Hint: Place a mirror on the
floor between you and a table. Do you see the
top of the table in the reflected image?)
35. If you were spearing a fish with a spear, 40. A bat flying in a cave emits a sound and
would you aim above, below, or directly at the receives its echo in one second. How far away
observed fish to make a direct hit? Would is the cave wall?
your answer be the same if you used laser
41. An oceanic depth-sounding vessel surveys
light to “spear” the fish? Defend your answer.
the ocean bottom with ultrasonic waves that
36. A rainbow viewed from an airplane may form travel 1530 m/s in sea water. Find the depth of
a complete circle. Will the shadow of the air- the water if the time delay of the echo to the
plane appear at the center of the circle? ocean floor and back is 6 s.
Explain with the help of Figure 29.26.
37. The photo below shows two identical cola
bottles, each with the same amount of cola. Activities Performance Assessment
The right bottle is in air, and the left bottle is
encased in solid plastic that has nearly the 42. Stand in front of a mirror and put two pieces
same “index of refraction” as glass (the speed of tape on the glass: one piece where you see
of light in the plastic and in glass are nearly the top of your head, and the other where you
the same). Which bottle shows an illusion of see the bottom of your feet. Compare the dis-
the amount of cola? How does the other bot- tance between the pieces of tape with your
tle give a truer view of its contents? height. If a full-length mirror is not handy,
use a smaller mirror and find the minimum
length of mirror to see your face. Mark where
you see the top of your head and the bottom
of your chin. Then compare the distance
between the marks with the length of your
face. What must be the minimum length of a
plane mirror in order for you to see a full view
of yourself?
43. What effect does your distance from the mir-
ror have on the answer to Activity 42? (Hint:
Move closer and farther from your initial
position. Be sure the top of your head lines
up with the top piece of tape. At greater dis-
tances, is your image smaller than, larger
than, or the same size as the space between
the pieces of tape?) Surprised?
44. If available, look at a diamond or similar
transparent gemstone under bright light.
Turn the stone and note the flashes of color
Think and Solve that refract, reflect, and refract toward you.
When the flash encounters only one eye
Develop Problem-Solving Skills
instead of two, your brain registers it differ-
38. When light strikes glass perpendicularly, ently than for both eyes. The one-eyed flash
about 4% is reflected at each boundary. How is a sparkle! What causes the brilliant sparkle
much light is transmitted through a pane of of a diamond?
window glass?
39. Suppose you walk toward a mirror at 1 m/s.
How fast do you and your image approach
each other? (The answer is not 1m/s.)

462 Chapter 29 __ Reflection and Refraction

 Marre
Ly, Ot
TS AT
aT thd
5 fehes, ie Pe.
on, Sizes
Pig hatin

light ray bends as it enters glass and

bends again as it leaves. The bending U7 i earemmmiazer?
(refraction) is due to the difference in gs
the average speed of light in glass and in air.
Glass of a certain shape can form an image that
appears larger, smaller, closer, or farther than
the object being viewed. For example, magnify-
Lenses manipulate light.
ing glasses have been used for centuries and were well known to the
early Greeks and medieval Arabs. Today, eyeglasses allow millions of
people to read in comfort, and cameras, projectors, telescopes, and
microscopes widen our view of the world.

30.1 Converging and Diverging Lenses

When a piece of glass has just the right shape, it bends parallel rays
of light so that they cross and form an image. Such a piece of glass is
a lens.
The shape of a lens can be understood by considering a lens to
be a large number of portions of triangular prisms, as shown in
Figure 30.1. When arranged in certain positions, the prisms bend
incoming parallel rays so they converge to (or diverge from) a single
point. The arrangement shown at the left is thicker in the middle; it

<< Figure 30.1

A lens may be thought of as a set
of prisms that converge light
(left) or diverge light (right).

463
 converges the light. The arrangement at the right is thinner in the
middle; it diverges the light.
In both arrangements, the most net bending of rays occurs at the
outermost prisms, for they have the greatest angle between the two
refracting surfaces. No net bending occurs in the middle “prism,” for
its glass faces are parallel and rays emerge in their original direction.
Real lenses are made not of prisms, of course, but of solid
pieces of glass with surfaces that are usually ground to a spherical
shape. Figure 30.2 shows how smooth lenses refract rays of light
and form wave fronts. The lens at the left is thicker in the middle
and rays of light that are initially parallel (straight wave fronts) are
made to converge. This is a converging lens. The lens at the right is
thinner in the middle and the rays of light are made to diverge. This
is a diverging lens.

r N
Figure 30.2 A
Wave fronts travel more slowly in glass than in air. In the converging lens
(left), the wave fronts are retarded more through the center of the lens, and
the light converges. In the diverging lens (right), the waves are retarded
more at the edges, and the light diverges.

Figure 30.3 illustrates some important terms for a lens. The

principal axis of a lens is the line joining the centers of curvature
of its surfaces. For a converging lens, the focal point is the point at
which a beam of parallel light, parallel to the principal axis, con-
verges. Incident parallel beams that are not parallel to the principal
axis focus at points above or below the focal point. All such possi-
ble points make up a focal plane. A lens affects light coming from
the right in the same way as light coming from the left (or has the
same effect on light incident from either side). Therefore, a lens has
two focal points and two focal planes. When the lens of a camera is
set for distant objects, the film is in the focal plane behind the lens
in the camera.

Figure 30.3 >

Key features of a converging lens. CENTER OF & CENTER OF

5 ES ee x
CURVATURE ‘ CURVATURE
y focal length focal length

\ FOCAL FOCAL /
POINT )
PRINCIPAL AXIS

464 Chapter 30 Lenses

 For a diverging lens, an incident beam of light parallel to the
principal axis is not converged to a point, but is diverged so that the 1 Explore
light appears to come from a point. The focal length of a lens, 1 Laboratory Manual 79, 80
whether converging or diverging, is the distance between the center
2 Concept-Development
of the lens and its focal point. When the lens is thin, the focal lengths Practice Book 30-1, 30-2
on either side are equal, even when the curvatures on the two sides
are not.

RR
e TSe
30.2 Image Formation by a Lens
With unaided vision, an object far away is seen through a relatively
small angle of view (Figure 30.4a). When you are closer, the same
object is seen through a larger angle of view (Figure 30.4b). This
wider angle enables the perception of more detail. Magnification
occurs when an image is observed through a wider angle with the
use of a lens than without the lens and allows more detail to be seen.
A magnifying glass is simply a converging lens that increases the
angle of view and allows more detail to be seen.

Figure 30.4 A
(a) A distant object is viewed through a narrow angle. (b) When the same
object is viewed through a wide angle, more detail is seen.

When you use a magnifying glass, you hold it close to the object
you wish to see magnified. This is because a converging lens will
magnify only when the object is between the focal point and the
lens. The magnified image will be farther from the lens than the
object, and it will be right-side up (erect). If a screen were placed at
the image distance, no image would appear on the screen because
no light is actually directed to the image position. The rays that reach
your eye, however, behave as ifthey came from the image position, Figure 30.5 A
so the image is a virtual image. A converging lens can be used
When the object is far enough away to be beyond the focal point as a magnifying glass to produce
of a converging lens, light from the object does converge and can be a virtual image of a nearby
focused on a screen (Figure 30.6). An image formed in this way by object. The image appears larger
converging light is called a real image.A real image formed by a sin- and farther from the lens than
the object.
gle converging lens is upside down (inverted). Converging lenses are
used for projecting slides and motion pictures on a screen, and for
projecting a real image on the film of a camera.

465
Figure 30.6 > REAL IMAGE ON WALL
A converging lens forms a real,
upside-down image of a more
distant object.

When a diverging lens is used alone, the image is always virtual,

right-side up, and smaller than the object. It makes no difference
how far or how near the object is. A diverging lens is often used for
the viewfinder on a camera. When you look at the object to be
photographed through the viewfinder, you see a right-side up virtual
image that approximates the same proportions as the photograph to
be taken.

Figure 30.7 >»

The moving pattern of bright
lines on the bottom of a swim-
ming pool results from the
uneven surface of water, which
behaves as a moving blanket of
lenses.

ey .
5“MQuestion —
eats,
“Why isthegreater fe ofthephotographinfacut 30.8 out of pi
focus? ends =). oid ‘ ‘ 2 d Wnrel,wtSt

@ Answer

Both Jamie and his cat and the virtual image of Jamie and his cat are “objects” for the
lensof the camera that took this photograph. Since the objects are at different distances
from the camera lens, their respective images are at different distances with respect to the
Figure 30.8 A filmin the camera. So only one can be brought into focus. The same is true of your eyes.
You cannot focus on near and far objects at the same time.
A virtual image produced by a
diverging lens.

466 Chapter 30 _—_Lenses

a SE SL Sa LS EL VE ae ee

30.3 Constructing Images Through Ray

Diagrams
Ray diagrams, like the one in Figure 30.9, show the principal rays
that can be used to determine the size and location of an image. To
construct a ray diagram the size and location of the object, its dis-
tance from the center of the lens, and the focal length of the lens
must be known.” An arrow is used to represent the object (which
may be anything from a microbe viewed in a microscope to a galaxy
viewed through a telescope). For simplicity, one end of the object is
placed right on the principal axis.

(1)

IMAGE
OBJECT

Figure 30.9 A
Ray diagram. Three useful rays from the object that converge on the image.

To locate the position of the image, you only have to know the
paths of two rays from a point on the object. Any point except for the
point on the principal axis will work, but it is customary to choose a
point at the tip of the arrow.
The path of one refracted ray is known from the definition of the
focal point. A ray parallel to the principal axis will be refracted by the
lens to the focal point, as shown in Figure 30.9.
Another path is known: through the center of the lens where the
faces are parallel to each other. A ray of light will pass through the
center with no appreciable change in direction. Therefore, a ray from
the tip of the arrowhead proceeds in a straight line through the cen-
ter of the lens.

* The mathematical relationship between object distance o, image distance /, and focal 1 Explore
length fis given by
1 Laboratory Manual
81, 82, 83, 84
This is called the thin-lens equation.

467
 A third path is known: A ray of light that passes through the focal
point in front of the lens emerges from the lens and proceeds parallel
to the principal axis.
All three paths are shown in Figure 30.9, which is a typical ray
diagram. The image is located where the three rays intersect. Any
two of these three rays is sufficient to locate the relative size and
location of the image.
The ray diagram for a converging lens used as a magnifying glass
is shown in Figure 30.10. In this case, where the distance from the
lens to the object is less than the focal length, the rays diverge as
they leave the lens. The rays of light appear to come from a point in
front of the lens (same side of the lens as the object). The location
of the image is found by extending the rays backward to the point
where they converge. The virtual image that is formed is magnified
and right-side up.

IMAGE OBJECT

Figure 30.10 A
Ray diagram for a magnifying glass. The object is less than one focal length
from the lens, so the image is virtual, right-side up, and magnified.

The three rays useful for the construction of a ray diagram are
summarized:
1. A ray parallel to the principal axis that passes through the focal
point after refraction by the lens.
2. A ray through the center of the lens that does not change
direction.
3. A ray through the focal point in front of the lens that emerges
parallel to the principal axis after refraction by the lens.

Any two rays are sufficient to locate an image; which particular

pair is chosen is merely a matter of convenience.
The ray diagrams in Figure 30.11 show image formation bya
converging lens as an object initially at the focal point is moved
away from the lens along the principal axis. Since the object is not
located between the focal point and the lens, all the images that are
formed are real and inverted.
468 Chapter 30 Lenses
 Object position: distance f from
lens (at the focal point)
Image position: at infinity

Object position: between f and

2f from lens
Image position: beyond 2f from
lens
Image size: magnified

Object position: distance 2f from

lens
Image position: distance 2f from
lens
Image size: same as object

Object position: beyond 2f from

lens
Image position: between f and 2f
from lens
Image size: smaller

Object position: at infinity

Image position: distance f from
lens (at the focal point)

Figure 30.11 A
Ray diagrams for different positions of an object in relation to a converging
lens of focal length f.
 The method of drawing ray diagrams applies also to diverging
lenses (Figure 30.12). A ray parallel to the principal axis from the tip
of the arrow will be bent by the lens in the same direction as if it had
come from the focal point. A ray through the center goes straight
through. A ray that is heading for the focal point on the far side of
the lens is bent so that it emerges parallel to the axis of the lens.

Figure 30.12 A
Ray diagram for a diverging lens.

On emerging from the lens, the three rays appear to come from
a point on the same side of the lens as the object. This point defines
the position of the virtual image. The image is nearer the lens than
the object. It is smaller than the object and right-side up. Regardless
of the object’s position, the image formed by a diverging lens is
always virtual, reduced, and right-side up.

I
SE 22SUA SESE
30.4 Image Formation Summarized
A converging lens is a simple magnifying glass when the object is
within one focal length of the lens. The image is then virtual, magni-
fied, and right-side up.
When the object is beyond one focal length, a converging lens
produces a real, inverted image. The location of the image depends
on how close the object is to the focal point. If it is close to the focal
point, the image is far away (as with a slide projector or movie pro-
jector). If the object is far from the focal point, the image is nearer
(as with a camera). In all cases where a real image is formed, the
object and the image are on opposite sides of the lens.
When the object is viewed with a diverging lens, the image is vir-
tual, reduced, and right-side up. This is true for all locations of the
object. In all cases where a virtual image is formed, the object and
the image are on the same side of the lens.

470 Chapter 30 Lenses

 @ Question
Where must an object be located so that the image formed by a
converging lens will be (a) at infinity? (b) as near the object as
possible? (c) right-side up? (d) the same size? (e) inverted and
enlarged?

30.5 Some Common Optical

Instruments
The advent of eyeglasses probably occurred in Italy in the late 1200s.
If anybody viewed objects through a pair of lenses held far apart, one
in front of the other, there is no record of it, for curiously enough, the
telescope wasn't invented until some 300 years later. Today, lenses
are used in many optical instruments. Among these are the camera,
telescope (and binoculars), compound microscope, and projector.

The Camera
A camera consists of a lens and sensitive film mounted in a lighttight
box. In many cameras, the lens is mounted so that it can be moved
back and forth to adjust the distance between the lens and film. The
lens forms a real, inverted image on the film.
Figure 30.13 shows a camera with a single simple lens. In prac-
tice, most cameras make use of compound lenses to minimize dis-
tortions called aberrations.
The amount of light that gets to the film is regulated by a shutter
and a diaphragm. The shutter controls the length of time that the film
is exposed to light. The diaphragm controls the opening that light
passes through to reach the film. Varying the size of the opening (aper-
ture) varies the amount of light that reaches the film at any instant. Figure 30.13 A
A simple camera.

The Telescope
A simple telescope uses a lens to form a real image of a distant object.
The real image is not caught on film but is projected in space to be
examined by another lens used as a magnifying glass. The second
lens, called the eyepiece, is positioned so that the image produced by
the first lens is within one focal length of the eyepiece. The eyepiece

HB Answer 1 Explore

The object should be (a) one focal length from the lens (at the focal point) (see Figure 30.11); 3 Problem-Solving
(b) and (c) within one focal length of the lens (see Figure 30.10); (d) at two focal lengths Exercises in
from the lens (see Figure 30.11); (e) between one and two focal lengths from the lens Physics 74-7
(see Figure 30.11).

471
 OBJECTIVE LENS EYEPIECE LENS

Ls et = a
-_=- ao = -=—
= =- a =_ -
- = _ _
-- --=- -_-— =-
ae PEK
—3toes

Figure 30.14 A
Lens arrangement for an astronomical telescope. (For simplification, the
image is shown close here; it is actually located at infinity.)

forms an enlarged virtual image of the real image. When you look
through a telescope, you are looking at an image of an image.
Figure 30.14 shows the lens arrangement for an astronomical
telescope. The image is inverted, which explains why maps of the
moon are printed with the moon upside down.
A third lens or a pair of reflecting prisms is used in the terrestrial
telescope, which produces an image that is right-side up. A pair of
these telescopes side by side, each with a pair of prisms to provide
four reflecting surfaces to turn images right-side up, makes up a pair
of binoculars (Figure 30.15).
Since no lens transmits 100% of the light incident upon it,
astronomers prefer the brighter, inverted images of a two-lens tele-
scope to the less bright, right-side-up images that a third lens or
Figure 30.15 A prisms would provide. For nonastronomical uses, such as viewing
The arrangement of prisms in distant landscapes or sporting events, right-side-up images are more
binoculars. important than brightness, so the additional lens or prisms are used.
Telescopes that use lenses are refracting telescopes. Larger astro-
nomical telescopes use mirrors instead of lenses.

The Compound Microscope

A compound microscope uses two converging lenses of short focal
length, arranged as shown in Figure 30.16. The first lens, called the
objective lens, produces a real image of a close object. Since the
image is farther from the lens than the object, it is enlarged. A sec-
ond lens, the eyepiece, forms a virtual image of the first image, fur-
ther enlarged. The instrument is called a compound microscope
because it enlarges an already enlarged image.

Figure 30.16 > f OBJECTIVE EYEPIECE. 4

Lens arrangement for a com- OBJECT
; g4ne REAL IMAGE
pound microscope.

|
| FINAL VIRTUAL IMAGE
|
< ae
od

472 Chapter 30 —_Lenses

 The Projector
The arrangement of converging lenses for a slide or movie projector is
shown in Figure 30.17. A concave mirror reflects light from an intense
source back onto a pair of condenser lenses. The condenser lenses
direct the light through the slide or movie frame to a projection lens.
The projection lens is mounted in a sliding tube so that it can be
moved back and forth to focus a sharp image on the screen.

CONCAVE MIRROR

K
SOURCE CONDENSER
ROJECTION LENS

Figure 30.17 A
Lens arrangement for a projector.

30.6 The Eye

In many respects the human eye is similar to the camera. The
amount of light that enters is regulated by the iris, the colored part of
the eye that surrounds the opening called the pupil.* Light enters
through the transparent covering called the cornea, passes through
the pupil and lens, and is focused on a layer of tissue at the back of CORNEA
the eye—the retina—extremely sensitive to light. Different parts of
the retina receive light from different directions.
The retina is not uniform. There is a small region in the center of
\ Ai
our field of view where we have the most distinct vision. This spot is
called the fovea. Much greater detail can be seen here than at the
side parts of the eye.
There is also a spot in the retina where the nerves carrying all the
information leave the eye in a narrow bundle. This is the blind spot.
OPTIC NERVE
You can demonstrate that you have a blind spot in each eye if you
hold this book at arm’s length, close your left eye, and look at the cir-
Figure 30.18 A
cle in Figure 30.19 with only your right eye. You can see both the cir- The human eye.
cle and the X at this distance. If you now move the book slowly

* The hole of the pupil usually looks black because light is going in but not coming out.
Sometimes in flash photos, the light from the flashbulb enters the eye at just the right
angle to reflect off the retina at the back of the eye. That's why flash photographs
sometimes show the pupils to be reddish.

473
 toward your face, with your right eye still fixed upon the circle, you'll
reach a position about 20 to 25 cm from your eye where the X disap-
pears. To establish the blind spot in your left eye, close your right eye
and similarly look at the X with your left eye so that the circle disap-
pears. With both eyes opened, you'll find no position where either
the X or the circle disappears because one eye “fills in” the part of
the object to which the other eye is blind. It’s nice to have two eyes.

O xs
Figure 30.19 A
For the blind spot experiment.

In both the camera and the eye, the image is upside down, and
this is compensated for in both cases. You simply turn the camera
film around to look at it. Your brain has learned to turn around
images it receives from your retina!
A principal difference between a camera and the human eye
has to do with focusing. In a camera, focusing is accomplished by
altering the distance between the lens and the film. In the human
eye, most of the focusing is done by the cornea, the transparent
membrane at the outside of the eye. Adjustments in focusing of the
image on the retina are made by changing the thickness and shape
of the lens to regulate its focal length. This is called accommodation
and is brought about by the action of the ciliary muscle, which sur-
rounds the lens.

NORMAL DISTANT VISION NORMAL CLOSE VISION

Figure 30.20 A
ceeTh16ES The shape of the lens changes to focus light on the retina.

knowledge of the hysics :

of light and optics iis:bet- %
ter able to use available
software to turn a digital
image into a work of art. 30.7 Some Defects in Vision
If you have what is called normal vision, your eye can accommodate
to clearly see objects from infinity (the far point) down to 25 cm (the
near point, which normally recedes for all people with advancing age).
The eyes of a farsighted person form images behind the retina
(Figure 30.21). The eyeball is too short. Farsighted people have to
hold things more than 25 cm away to be able to focus them. The
remedy is to increase the converging effect of the eye. This is done
by wearing eyeglasses or contact lenses with converging lenses.
Converging lenses will converge the rays that enter the eye suffi-
ciently to focus them on the retina instead of behind the retina.

474 Chapter 30 Lenses

 1 Explore

3 Problem-Solving
Exercises in A
Physics 74-2

Figure 30.21 A
The eyeball of the farsighted eye is too short. A converging lens moves the
image closer and onto the retina.

A nearsighted person can see nearby objects clearly, but does

not see distant objects clearly because they are focused too near the
lens, in front of the retina (Figure 30.22). The eyeball is too long. A
remedy is to wear corrective lenses that diverge the rays from distant
objects so that they focus on the retina instead of in front of it.

NEARSIGHTED :

Figure 30.22 A
The eyeball of the nearsighted eye is too long. A diverging lens moves the
image farther away and onto the retina.

Astigmatism of the eye is a defect that results when the cornea is

curved more in one direction than the other, somewhat like the side
of a barrel. Because of this defect, the eye does not form sharp
images. The remedy is cylindrical corrective lenses that have more
curvature in one direction than in another.

Bae SC AEE SSP IIGECRGeSO ESO EEE TOTES

30.8 Some Defects of Lenses
No lens gives a perfect image. The distortions in an image are called
aberrations. By combining lenses in certain ways, aberrations can be
minimized. For this reason, most optical instruments use compound
lenses, each consisting of several simple lenses, instead of single
lenses.
Spherical aberration results when light passes through the edges
of a lens and focuses at a slightly different place from light passing
through the center of the lens (Figure 30.23). This can be remedied Figure 30.23 A
Spherical aberration.
by covering the edges of a lens, as with a diaphragm in a camera.
Spherical aberration is corrected in good optical instruments by a
combination of lenses.

475
 PHYSICS

Poke a tiny hole in a piece of paper or card. Hold it in front of your

eye close to this page. Whether or not you normally wear glasses,
you'll see the print clearly. Because you're close, the print will
seem magnified. Why is bright light needed? What advice do you
have for someone who wears glasses and misplaces them, and
can’t see the small print in a telephone book?

Chromatic aberration is the result of the different speeds of light

of various colors and hence the different refractions they undergo. In
a simple lens red light and blue light bend by different amounts (as
in a prism), so they do not come to focus in the same place.
Achromatic lenses, which combine simple lenses of different kinds of
glass, correct this defect.
In the eye, vision is sharpest when the pupil is smallest because
Figure 30.24 A light then passes through only the center of the eye’s lens, where
Chromatic aberration. spherical and chromatic aberrations are minimal. Also, light bends
the least through the center of a lens, so minimal focusing is
required for a sharp image. You see better in bright light because
your pupils are smaller.

Why is there chromatic aberration in light that passes through a

lens, but no chromatic aberration in light that reflects from a mirror?

An option for those with poor sight in the last five hundred years
has been to wear spectacles, and in more recent times another
option has been to wear contact lenses. It is interesting to note that
at the present time there is an alternative to both spectacles and
contact lenses for people with poor eyesight. Techniques today allow
eye surgeons to reshape the cornea of the eye for normal vision. In
tomorrow's world, the wearing of eyeglasses and contact lenses may
be a thing of the past. We really do live in a rapidly changing world.
And that can be nice.

Figure 30.25 A
Bifocal eyeglasses have two sets
@ Answer
of lenses with different focal
lengths. As Charlie Spiegel Different frequencies travel at different speeds in a transparent medium, and therefore
shows here, the smaller lenses refract at different angles. This produces chromatic aberration. The angles at which light
have a shorter focal length and reflects, on the other hand, have nothing to do with the frequency of light. One color
are for close-up viewing. reflects the same as any other. Mirrors are therefore preferable to lenses in telescopes
because there is no chromatic aberration with reflection.

476 Chapter 30 _—_Lenses

 Chapter Assessment

For: Study and Review Review Questions Check Concepts

Go @nline Visit: PHSchool.com
HSchool.com Web Code: csd-4300 . Distinguish between a converging lens and a
diverging lens. (30.1)
. Distinguish between the focal point and focal
plane of a lens. (30.1)
Concept Summary . Distinguish between a virtual image and a
A lens refracts parallel rays of light so that they real image. (30.2)
cross—or appear to cross—at a focal point.
. There are three convenient rays commonly
A converging lens is thicker in the middle; a used in ray diagrams to estimate the position
diverging lens is thinner in the middle. of an image. Describe these three rays in
terms of their orientation with respect to the
A converging lens forms virtual, magnified
principal axis and focal points. (30.3)
images when the object is within one focal
length of the lens. . How many of the rays in Question 4 are nec-
essary for estimating the position of an
A converging lens forms real images when the
image? (30.3)
object is beyond one focal length from the
lens. . Do ray diagrams apply only to converging
lenses, or to diverging lenses also? (30.3)
A diverging lens always forms virtual, reduced
images. . Explain what is meant by saying that ina
telescope one looks at the image of an image.
Optical instruments that use lenses include
(30.5)
the camera, telescope, compound micro-
scope, and projector. . In what two ways does an astronomical tele-
scope differ from a terrestrial telescope?
The human eye refracts light and focuses it on
(30.5)
the retina (with the help of corrective lenses if
necessary). . How does a compound microscope differ
from a telescope? (30.5)
10. Which instrument—a telescope, a compound
microscope, or a camera—is most similar to
Key Terms the eye? (30.5-30.6)
aberration (30.8) iris (30.6)
il. Why do you not normally notice a blind spot
astigmatism (30.7) lens (30.1) when you look at your surroundings? (30.6)
converging lens (30.1) nearsighted (30.7)
12. Distinguish between farsighted and near-
cornea (30.6) objective lens (30.5)
sighted vision. (30.7)
diverging lens (30.1) principal axis (30.1)
eyepiece (30.5) pupil (30.6) 13. What is astigmatism, and how can it be cor-
rected? (30.7)
farsighted (30.7) ray diagram (30.3)
focal length (30.1) real image (30.2) 14, Distinguish between spherical aberration and
retina (30.6) chromatic aberration, and cite a remedy for
focal plane (30.1)
virtual image (30.2)
each. (30.8)
focal point (30.1)

477
 25. Would telescopes and microscopes magnify
if light had the same speed in glass as in air?
Think and Explain Think Critically
Explain.
15. a. What condition must exist for a converging
26. If you have ever watched a water strider or
lens to produce a virtual image?
other insect upon the surface of water, you
b. What condition must exist for a diverging may have noticed a large shadow cast by the
lens to produce a real image? contact point where the thin legs touch the
16. How could you demonstrate that an image water surface. Then around the shadow is a
was indeed a real image? bright ring. What accounts for this?

17. Why do you suppose that a magnifying glass 27. It is often stated that you look at the image of
has often been called a “burning glass”? an image when you look through a telescope.
What is meant by this?
18. In terms of focal length, how far is the camera
lens from the film when very distant objects 28. Consider a simple magnifying glass under
are being photographed? water. Will it magnify more or less than in air?
Explain why.
19. Can you photograph yourself in a mirror and
focus the camera on both your image and the
mirror frame? Explain.
20. If you take a photograph of your image ina
Think and Solve
Develop Problem-Solving Skills
plane mirror, how many meters away should
you set your focus if you are 2 meters in front 29. No glass is perfectly transparent. Mainly
of the mirror? because of reflections, about 92% of light
passes through an average sheet of clear win-
2 —_. Copy the three drawings in the figure. Then
dowpane. The 8% loss is not noticed with a
use ray diagrams to find the image of each
single sheet, but with several sheets it is
arrow.
apparent. How much light is transmitted by
two sheets?
Use the equation 1/0 + 1/i = 1/f to solve the
following problems. Object distance is 0, image
distance isi, and focal length is f.
30. When you focus on a newspaper page, the
lens in your eye forms a real image of the
paper on the retina in the back of your eye.
The light-sensitive retina then translates the
patterns of light and dark areas to your brain,
which in turn interprets them as words. If
your newspaper is 28.0 cm from your eye,
and the focal length of your eye is 2.7 cm,
what is the diameter of your eye from front
22. Why do you have to put slides into a slide to back? (The diameter of your eye is the
projector upside down? image distance.)
23. Maps of the moon are actually upside down. 31. A far-sighted eye whose comfortable reading
Why is this so? distance is 80 cm is to be supplied a correc-
24. What is responsible for the rainbow-colored tive lens to enable reading at a normal dis-
tance of 40 cm. So the object distance is 80
fringe commonly seen at the edges of a
cm and image distance is 40 cm. What is the
spot of white light from the beam of a slide
projector? focal length of the corrective lens?

478 Chapter 30 _—_Lenses

32. A near-sighted eye sees close objects clearly Exposure times differ, depending mostly on
at 15 cm. A corrective lens will provide a nor- the kind of film and the amount of light. Try
mal viewing distance of 40 cm. Hence the different exposure times, starting with about
object distance is 15 cm and image distance 3 seconds. Also try boxes of various lengths.
is 40 cm. What is the focal length of the You'll find everything in focus in your pho-
corrective lens? tographs, but the pictures will not have clear-
cut, sharp outlines. The principal difference
33. When a magnifying glass is 3.0 cm froma
between your pinhole camera and a
coin, the image it produces is 9.0 cm from the
commercial one is the glass lens, which is
magnifying glass. A diagram of this is shown
larger than the pinhole and therefore admits
in Figure 30.10. Thus, the object distance is
more light in less time. It is because a lens
3.0 cm and the image distance is —9.0 cm (on
camera is so fast that the pictures it takes are
the same side of the lens as the object). What
called “snapshots.”
is the focal length of the magnifying glass?
36. Note the shapes of light spots that reach the
34. An image of a candle appears in sharp focus
ground in the shade of a tree. Most of them
on a screen that is 60 cm from a lens whose
are circular, or elliptical if the sun is low in
focal length is 20 cm. How far is the candle
the sky. How do you think these spots are
from the lens (i.e., what is the object distance)?
formed?
37. Determine the magnification power of a lens
by focusing on the lines of a ruled piece of
Activities Performance Assessment paper. Count the spaces between the lines
35. Make a pinhole camera, as illustrated in the that fit into one magnified space, and you
figure. Cut out one end of a small cardboard have the magnification power of the lens.
box, and cover the end with tissue or onion- For example, if three spaces fit into one mag-
skin paper. Make a clean-cut pinhole at the nified space, then the magnification power of
other end. (If the cardboard is thick, place a the lens is 3. Describe how you can do the
piece of metal foil over an opening in the same with binoculars and a distant brick wall.
cardboard, and make the hole in the foil.)
Aim the camera at a bright object in a dark-
ened room, and you will see an upside-down
MAGNIFIED SPACE
image on the translucent tissue paper. If in a
dark, windowless room you replace the tissue
paper with unexposed photographic film,
cover the back so it is lighttight, and cover the
pinhole with a removable flap, you will be 3 SPACES FIT INTO
ready to take a picture. ONE MAGNIFIED SPACE

479
 es #!
ees
e
ayy 3
ta

interference

T oday Isaac Newton is most famous for his

accomplishments in mechanics—his laws of
motion and universal gravitation. Early in
his career, however, he was most famous for his
work on light. Newton pictured light as a beam of
ultra-tiny material particles. With this model he
could explain reflection as a bouncing of the parti-
cles from a surface, and he could explain refraction
as the result of deflecting forces from the surface
Interference colors. acting on the light particles. In the eighteenth and nineteenth cen-
turies, this particle model gave way to a wave model of light because
waves could explain not only reflection and refraction, but everything
else that was known about light at that time. In this chapter we will
investigate the wave aspects of light, which are needed to explain two
important phenomena—diffraction and interference.

RO SSR ERE ST COTTER

31.1 Huygens’ Principle
In the late 1600s a Dutch mathematician-scientist, Christian Huygens,
proposed a very interesting idea about waves. Huygens stated that
light waves spreading out from a point source may be regarded as
the overlapping of tiny secondary wavelets, and that every point on
any wave front may be regarded as a new point source of secondary
waves. We see this in Figure 31.1. In other words, wave fronts are
made up of tinier wave fronts. This idea is called Huygens’ principle.
Look at the spherical wave front in Figure 31.2. Each point along
the wave front AA’ is the source of a new wavelet that spreads out in
a sphere from that point. Only a few of the infinite number of
wavelets are shown in the figure. The new wave front BB’ can be
regarded as a smooth surface enclosing the infinite number of over-
lapping wavelets that started from AA’ a short time earlier.

480 Chapter 31 _ Diffraction and Interference

Figure 31.1 A
These drawings are from Huygens’ book Treatise on Light. Light from A (left)
expands in wave fronts, every point of which (right) behaves as if it were a
new source of waves. Secondary wavelets starting at b,b,b,b form a new
wave front (d,d,d,d); secondary wavelets starting at d,d,d,d form still another
new wave front (DCEF).

@
< Figure 31.2
\ source Huygens’ principle applied to a
spherical wave front.

As a wave front spreads, it appears less curved. Very far from the
original source, the wave fronts seem to form a plane. A good exam-
ple is the plane waves that arrive from the sun. A Huygens’ wavelet
construction for plane waves is shown in Figure 31.3. (In a two-
dimensional drawing, the planes are shown as straight lines.)

<4 Figure 31.3

WAVE FRONT Huygens’ principle applied to a
- plane wave front.

= NEW WAVE FRONT

481
 Figure 31.4 A
Huygens’ principle applied to (a) reflection and (b) refraction.

The laws of reflection and refraction are illustrated via Huygens’

principle in Figure 31.4.
You can observe Huygens’ principle in water waves that are
made to pass through a narrow opening. A wave with straight wave
fronts can be generated in water by repeatedly dipping a stick
lengthwise into the water (Figure 31.5). A ruler works well. When the
straight wave fronts pass through the opening in a barrier, interest-
ing wave patterns result.

Figure 31.5
Making plane waves in a tank of
water and watching the pattern
they produce when they pass
though an opening in a barrier.

When the opening is wide, you'll see straight wave fronts pass
through without change—except at the corners, where the wave
fronts are bent into the “shadow region” in accord with Huygens’
principle. If you narrow the width of the opening, less of the wave
gets through, and the spreading into the shadow region is more pro-
nounced. When the opening is small compared with the wavelength
of the waves, Huygens’ idea that every part of a wave front can be
regarded as a source of new wavelets becomes quite apparent. As the
waves move into the narrow opening, the water sloshing up and
down in the opening is easily seen to act as a point source of circular
waves that fan out on the other side of the barrier. The photos in
Figure 31.6 are top views of water waves generated by a vibrating
stick. Note how the waves fan out more as the hole through which
they pass becomes smaller.

482 Chapter 31 _ Diffraction and Interference

Figure 31.6 A
Straight waves passing through openings of various sizes. The smaller the
opening, the greater the bending of the waves at the edges.

Msc
os mi EES eS TE
31.2 Diffraction
Any bending of a wave by means other than reflection or refraction
is called diffraction. The photos of Figure 31.6 show the diffraction
of straight water waves through various openings. When the opening
is wide compared with the wavelength, the spreading effect is small.
As the opening becomes narrower, the spreading of waves becomes
more pronounced. The same occurs for all kinds of waves, including
light waves.
When light passes though an opening that is large compared with
the wavelength of light, it casts a rather sharp shadow (Figure 31.7).
When light passes through a small opening, such as a thin razor slit in
a piece of opaque material, it casts a fuzzy shadow, for the light fans
out like the water through the narrow opening in Figure 31.6. The light
is diffracted by the thin slit.

Vl Ch bes
DOES
LIGHT
ORLIGHT
SOURCE SOURCE

WIDE
WINDOW
SHADOW 7
Figure 31.7 A
Light casts a sharp shadow with some fuzziness at its edges when the open-
ing is large compared with the wavelength of the light. Because of diffrac-
tion, it casts a fuzzier shadow when the opening is extremely narrow.

483
 Diffraction is not confined to the spreading of light through narrow
slits or other openings. Diffraction occurs to some degree for all shad-
ows. On close examination, even the sharpest shadow is blurred at the
edge. When light is of a single color, diffraction can produce diffraction
fringes at the edge of the shadow, as shown in Figure 31.8. In white light,
the fringes merge together to create a fuzzy blur at the edge of a shadow.
The amount of diffraction depends on the size of the wavelength
compared with the size of the obstruction that casts the shadow
(Figure 31.9). The longer the wave compared with the obstruction,
the greater the diffraction is. Long waves are better at filling in shad-
ows. This is why foghorns emit low-frequency sound waves—to fill in
“blind spots.” Likewise for radio waves of the standard AM broadcast
band. These are very long compared with the size of most objects in
their path. Long waves don't “see” relatively small buildings in their
path. They diffract, or bend, readily around buildings and reach
Figure 31.8 A more places than shorter waves do.*
Diffraction fringes around the
scissors are evident in the shad-
ows of laser light, which is of a
Yiry Lily 2S:
a
single frequency. These fringes
would be filled in by multitudes a

of other fringes if the source

i
were white light.

a. b. CG
Figure 31.9 A
(a) Waves tend to spread into the shadow region. (b) When the wavelength is
about the size of the object, the shadow is soon filled in. (c) When the wave-
length is short compared with the width of the object, a sharper shadow is cast.

FM radio waves are shorter, don’t diffract as much around build-

ings, and aren't received as well as AM radio waves are in mountain
canyons or city “canyons.” This is why many localities have poor FM
reception while AM reception comes in loud and clear. TV waves,
which are also electromagnetic waves, behave much like FM
waves.** TV antennas are often put on rooftops to improve recep-
tion. Both FM and TV transmission are “line of sight,” meaning that
diffraction is not significant, whereas AM transmission diffracts
around hills and buildings to reach places that would otherwise be
shadowed. Diffraction can be helpful.

* On the other hand, a framework of connected steel girders in a building or bridge can
act as a “polished” surface for long-wavelength radio waves, reflecting them away
from the structure. That's why you lose reception when you drive onto a steel bridge
while listening to an AM station. So although long waves get around a steel structure,
they don’t get into it.

** Most TV channels have wavelengths shorter than FM wavelengths, and therefore even
less diffraction than FM, but some (channels 2-6) have wavelengths longer than FM
wavelengths.

&84 Chapter 31 _—_Diffraction and Interference

 Diffraction is not so helpful when we wish to see very small
objects with microscopes. If the size of the object is the same as the
wavelength of light, the image of the object will be blurred by dif-
fraction. If the object is smaller than the wavelength of light, no
structure can be seen. The entire image is lost due to diffraction. No
amount of magnification or improvement of microscope design can
defeat this fundamental diffraction limit.
To minimize this problem, microscopists illuminate tiny objects
with shorter wavelengths. It turns out that a beam of electrons has a
wavelength associated with it. This wavelength is very much shorter
than the wavelengths of visible light. Microscopes that use beams of
electrons to illuminate tiny things are called electron microscopes.
The diffraction limit of an electron microscope is much less than
that of an optical microscope.
The fact that smaller details can be better seen with smaller
wavelengths is cleverly employed by the dolphin in scanning its envi-
ronment with high-frequency sound—ultrasound.* The echoes of
long-wavelength sound give the dolphin an overall image of objects
in its surroundings. To examine more detail, the dolphin emits sounds
of shorter wavelengths. Skin, muscle, and fat are almost transparent
to dolphins, so they “see” a thin outline of the body. Bones, teeth, and
gas-filled cavities are clearly apparent. Physical evidence of cancers,
tumors, heart attacks, and even emotional states can all be “seen” by
the dolphins. The dolphin has always done naturally what humans in
the medical field have only recently been able to do with ultrasound
devices.
< Figure 31.10
A dolphin emits ultrashort-
wavelength sounds to locate
and identify objects in its envi-
ronment. Distance is sensed by
the time delay between sending
PES, ize sound and receiving its echo,
Vita aeeo :
— and direction is sensed by differ-
ences in time or phase for
echoes reaching its two ears.
A dolphin’s main diet is fish and,
since hearing in fish is limited to
fairly long wavelength sound,
they are not alerted to the fact
they are being hunted.

* The primary sense of the dolphin is acoustic, for vision is not a very useful sense in the
often murky and dark depths of the ocean. Whereas sound is a passive sense for us, it is
an active sense for the dolphin, who sends out sounds and then perceives its surround-
ings on the basis of the echoes that come back. What's more interesting, the dolphin can
reproduce the sonic signals that paint the image of its surroundings; therefore, the dol-
phin probably communicates its experience to other dolphins by communicating the full
acoustic image of what is “seen,” placing it directly in the minds of other dolphins. The
dolphin needs no word or symbol for “fish,” for example, but communicates an image
of the real thing—maybe with emphasis highlighted by selective filtering, as we similarly
communicate a musical concert to others through various means of sound reproduction.
Is it any wonder that the language of the dolphin is very different from ours?

485
 PHYSICS

Seeing Diffraction Fringes

Hold two fingers close together between your eye and an illumi-
nated source such as the sky. Look carefully at the narrow open-
ing. Do you see diffraction fringes? Vary the width of the opening,
and the distance of your fingers from your eye and note the
effects. Go a step further and cut a thin slit in a piece of cardboard.
Then look at a light source through it. You can vary the size of the
opening by bending the card slightly. Diffraction fringes should be
clearly evident!

@ Question
Why is blue light used to view tiny objects in an optical microscope?

31.3 Interference
The idea of wave interference was introduced in Chapter 25, and
applied to sound in Chapter 26. The idea is important enough to
summarize here before applying it to light waves.

SY
= a YJ. PARTIAL
CANCELLATION
+ $7 =X,
a __ REINFORCEMENT __ CANCELLATION

Figure 31.11 A
Interference.

If you drop a couple of stones into water at the same time, the
two sets of waves that result cross each other and produce what is
called an interference pattern. Within the pattern, wave effects may
be increased, decreased, or neutralized. When the crest of one wave

@ Answer

Less diffraction results from the short wavelengths of blue light relative to other longer
wavelengths.

486 Chapter 31 Diffraction and Interference

Figure 31.12 A
Interference patterns of overlapping water waves from two vibrating sources.

overlaps the crest of another, their individual effects add together;

this is constructive interference. When the crest of one wave overlaps
the trough of another, their individual effects are reduced; this is
destructive interference.
Water waves can be produced in shallow tanks of water known as
ripple tanks under more carefully controlled conditions. Interesting
patterns are produced when two sources of waves are placed side by
side. Small spheres are made to vibrate at a controlled frequency in
the water while the wave patterns are photographed from above, as
shown in Figure 31.12. The gray “spokes” are regions of destructive
interference. The dark and light striped regions are regions of con-
structive interference. The greater the frequency of the vibrating
spheres, the closer together the stripes (and the shorter the wave-
length). Note how the number of regions of destructive interference
depends on the wavelength and on the distance between the wave
sources.

31.4 Young's Interference Experiment

In 1801 the British physicist and physician Thomas Young performed
an experiment that was to make him famous.* Young discovered that
when monochromatic light—light of a single color—was directed
through two closely spaced pinholes, fringes of brightness and dark-
ness were produced on a screen behind. He realized that the bright 1 Explore | 2 Develop |
fringes of light resulted from light waves from both holes arriving
1 Laboratory Manual 85
2 Concept-Development
Practice Book 37-7
* Young read fluently at the age of two; by four, he had read the Bible twice; by fourteen,
he knew eight languages. During his adult life he contributed to an understanding of 3 Problem-Solving
fluids, work and energy, and the elastic properties of materials. He was also the first Exercises in mM
person to make progress in deciphering Egyptian hieroglyphics. No doubt about it: Physics 74-3
Thomas Young was smart—very smart.

487
 y | ! / )/
\

A
Vi
J } }

MAT VV Hy) My i
WV LH Wi ff 1}44

| All through the ages stars © Figure 31.13 A

Thomas Young's original drawing of a two-source interference pattern. The
| inthe night sky have been
dark circles represent wave crests; the white spaces between the crests rep-
drawn with pointed
resent troughs. Constructive interference occurs where crests overlap crests
spikes. Ever wonder why?
or troughs overlap troughs. Letters C, D, E, and F mark regions of destructive
| The reason doesn’t have
- to do with the stars, ut US
which are point sources
of light in the night sky, crest to crest (constructive interference—more light). Similarly, the
but rather with poor eye- dark areas resulted from light waves arriving trough to crest (destruc-
sight and diffraction. The tive interference—no light). Young had convincingly demonstrated
surface of our eyes the wave nature of light that Huygens had proposed earlier.
becomes scratched by a Young’s experiment is now done with two closely spaced slits
variety of causes and acts instead of pinholes, so the fringes are straight lines. A sodium vapor
like a sort of diffraction lamp provides a good source of monochromatic light, and a laser is
grating. Instead of seeing even better. The arrangement is shown in Figure 31.14. Note the sim-
point sources of light, we ilarity of this to the arrangement of sound speakers in Figure 26.14
sometimes see spikes that (Chapter 26). The effects are similar. The pattern of fringes that
may shimmer and twinkle results is shown in Figure 31.15.
due to temperature differ-
ences in the atmosphere.
In a windy desert region
where sandstorms are fre-
quent, our corneas are
MONOCHROMATIC
even more scratched and LIGHT
we see more vivid star
spikes. Stars don’t really
have pointed spikes. They
just appear spiked
because of scratches on
the surfaces of our eyes.

DOUBLE SKITS

INTERFERENCE 7
PATTERN
Figure 31.14 A
Monochromatic light passing through two closely spaced slits diffracts. The
screen is illuminated where light waves arrive in phase. The screen is dark
where light waves arrive out of phase.

488 Chapter 31 _—_Diffraction and Interference

 Figure 31.16 shows how the series of bright and dark lines results
from the different path lengths from the slits to the screen. A bright
fringe occurs when waves from both slits arrive in phase. Dark
regions occur when waves arrive out of phase.

LIGHT

DARK

LIGHT

DARK
Figure 31.15 A
LIGHT An interference pattern produced
by a double slit, as illustrated in
Figure 31.16 A Figure 31.14.
Light from O passes through slits A and B and produces an interference pat-
tern on the screen at the right.

i] Questions
1. Why is it important that monochromatic (single frequency) light
be used in Young's interference experiment?
2. If the double slits were illuminated with monochromatic blue
light, would the fringes be closer together or farther apart than
those produced when monochromatic red light is used?

Interference patterns are not limited to double-slits arrangements.

A multitude of closely spaced parallel slits makes up what is called a
diffraction grating. Many spectrometers use diffraction gratings
rather than prisms to disperse light into colors. Whereas a prism sep-
arates the colors of light by refraction, a diffraction grating separates Figure 31.17 A
colors by interference. A diffraction grating disperses
light into colors by interference
among light beams diffracted by
many slits or grooves. It may be
@ Answers used in place of a prism ina
spectrometer.
1. If light of a variety of wavelengths were diffracted by the slits, dark fringes for one
wavelength would be filled in with bright fringes for another, resulting in no distinct
fringe pattern. This is similar to the person listening to the pair of speakers back in
Chapter 26 (Figure 26.14). If the path difference equals one-half wavelength for one
frequency, it cannot also equal one-half wavelength for any other frequency. Different
frequencies will “fill in” the fringes.
2. The wavelength of blue light is shorter than (nearly half) that of red light. Investigate
the differences in the number of fringes for the water waves in Figure 31.12. The
fringes of shorter wavelengths are closer together than those of longer wavelengths.
So blue fringes would be closer together than red fringes.

489
 More common diffraction gratings are seen in reflective materials
used in items such as costume jewelry and automobile bumper stick-
ers. These materials are ruled with tiny grooves that diffract light into
a brilliant spectrum of colors. The pits on the reflective surface of an
audio compact disc not only provide high-fidelity music but also dif-
fract light spectacularly into its component colors. But long before
the advent of these high-tech items, the feathers of birds were
nature's diffraction gratings, and the striking colors of opals come
from layers of tiny silica spheres that act as diffraction gratings.
Figure 31.18 A
Arrays of tiny pits beneath the
surface of the compact disc (CD)
nicely diffract light.

31.5 Single-Color Interference from

Thin Films
Interference fringes can be produced by the reflection of light from
two surfaces that are very close together. If you shine monochro-
matic light onto two plates of glass, one atop the other as shown in
Figure 31.20, you'll see dark and bright bands.
The cause of these bands is the interference between the waves
reflected from the glass on the top and bottom surfaces of the air
space between the plates. This is shown in Figure 31.21. The reflected
light comes to the eye by two different paths. The light that hits the
lower glass surface has slightly farther to go to reach your eye. If this
extra distance results in light from the upper and lower reflections
getting to your eye one-half wavelength out of phase, then destruc-
Figure 31.19 A
Diffraction from ridges in a pea-
tive interference will occur and a dark region will be seen. Nearby,
cock’s feathers produces beauti- the path differences will not result in destructive interference, and
ful iridescent colors. a light region will be seen.
A practical use of interference fringes is the testing of precision
SODIUM VAPOR lenses. When a lens to be tested is placed on a perfectly flat piece of
LAMP. glass and illuminated from above with monochromatic light, light
and dark fringes are seen (Figure 31.22). Irregular fringes indicate an
irregular surface. When a lens is polished until smooth and concen-
tric, the interference fringes will be concentric and regularly spaced.

EYE SEES DARK FRINGE

INCIDENT LIGHT~ (DESTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE)

; Pp— WAVE REFLECTEDD FROM TOP

\~— SURFACE OF LOWER GLASS
Figure 31.20 A
Interference fringes are produced
when monochromatic light is Figure 31.21 A
reflected from two plates of glass Reflection from the upper and lower surfaces of a thin air space results in
with an air wedge between them. constructive and destructive interference.

490 Chapter 31 _— Diffraction and Interference

Figure 31.22 A
The flatness or curvature of a surface can be tested by placing the surface on
a very flat piece of glass and observing the interference pattern. (a) An irreg-
ular surface; (b) a flat surface; (c) a poorly polished lens; (d) a precision lens.

31.6 Iridescence from Thin Films

Everyone who has seen soap bubbles or gasoline spilled on a wet
street has noticed the beautiful spectrum of colors reflected from
them. Some types of bird feathers have colors that seem to change
hue as the bird moves. All these colors are produced by the interfer-
ence of light waves of mixed frequencies in thin films, a phenome-
non known as iridescence.
A thin film, such as a soap bubble, has two closely spaced sur-
faces. Light that reflects from one surface may cancel light that
reflects from the other surface. For example, the film may be just the
right thickness in one place to cause the destructive interference of,
say, blue light. If the film is illuminated with white light, then the light
that reflects to your eye will have no blue in it. What happens when
blue is taken away from white light? The answer is, the complemen-
tary color will appear. And for the cancellation of blue, we get yellow.
So the soap bubble will appear yellow wherever blue is canceled. :
eat Aeatelene Figure 31.23 A
In a thicker part of thefilm, where green is canceled, the bu ble will Tho pesdunilcclors of esoline
appear magenta. The different colors correspond to the cancellations of on a wet street correspond to dif-
their complementary colors by different thicknesses of the film. ferent thicknesses of the thin film.
Figure 31.24 illustrates interference for a thin layer of gasoline on The colors provide a vivid “con-
a layer of water. Light reflects from both the upper gasoline-air sur- tour map” of microscopic differ-
face and the lower gasoline-water surface. Suppose that the incident ences in surface “elevations.”
beam is monochromatic blue, as in the illustration. If the gasoline
layer is just the right thickness to cause cancellation of light of that
wavelength, then the gasoline surface appears dark to the eye. On
the other hand, if the incident beam is white sunlight, the gasoline
surface appears yellow to the eye. Blue is subtracted from the white,
leaving the complementary color, yellow.
The beautiful colors reflected from some types of seashells are
produced by interference of light in their thin transparent coatings.
So are the sparkling colors from fractures within opals. Interference
colors can even be seen in the thin film of detergent left when dishes
are not properly rinsed.

491
Figure 31.24 P
The thin film of gasoline is just
the right thickness that mono- REFLECTED BEAM __
chromatic blue light reflected INCIDENT \S CANCELED BY
from the top surface of the gaso- _ BEAM OF INTERFERENCE —
line is canceled by light of the BLUE LIGHT THE EYE SEES
same wavelength reflected from
NO BLUE
LIGHT
the water.

~ WAVE REFLECTED FROM

TOP GASOLINE SURFACE

GASOLINE AND REFU

WATER FROM WATER SURFACE

® Questions
1. What color will reflect from a soap bubble in sunlight when its
thickness is such that red light is canceled?
2. The left column lists some colored objects. Match them to the
various ways that light may produce that color from the choices
in the right column.
a. yellow banana 1. interference
b. blue sky 2. diffraction
c. rainbow 3. selective reflection
d. peacock feathers 4. refraction
e. soap bubble 5. scattering

Interference provides the principal method for measuring the

wavelengths of light. Wavelengths of other regions of the electro-
magnetic spectrum are also measured with interference techniques.
Extremely small distances (millionths of a centimeter) are measured
with instruments called interferometers, which make use of the prin-
ciple of interference. These instruments are sensitive enough to
detect the displacement at the end of a long, several-centimeters-
thick solid steel bar when you gently apply opposite twists to oppo-
site ends with your hands. They are among the most accurate
measuring instruments known.
The next two sections describe the laser and what is perhaps the
most exciting illustration of interference—the hologram.

™ Answers

1. You will see the color cyan, which is the complementary color of red.

2. a—3; b—5; c—4; d—2; e—1.

492 Chapter 31 _— Diffraction and Interference

 PHYSICS

Swirling Colors
Dip a dark-colored coffee mug (a dark background is best for
viewing interference colors) in dishwashing detergent and then
hold it sideways as if you were pouring from it. Look at the
reflected light from the soap film that covers its mouth. Swirling
colors appear as the soap runs
down to form a wedge that
grows thicker at the bottom with
time. The top becomes thinner—
so thin it appears black. This hap-
pens when the film is thinner
than { the wavelength of the
shortest waves of visible light.
The film soon becomes so thin
that it pops.

31.7 Laser Light

Light emitted by a common lamp is incoherent. That is, the light has
many phases of vibration (as well as many frequencies). The light is
as incoherent as the footsteps on an auditorium floor when a mob of
people are chaotically rushing about. Incoherent light is chaotic.
Interference within a beam of incoherent light is rampant, anda
beam spreads out after a short distance, becoming wider and wider
and less intense with increased distance.

<4 Figure 31.25

Incoherent white light contains
waves of many frequencies and
wavelengths that are out of
phase with one another.

Even if a beam is filtered so that it is monochromatic (has a sin-

gle frequency), it is still incoherent because the waves are out of
phase and interfere with one another. The slightest differences in
their directions result in a spreading with increased distance.

<4 Figure 31.26

Light of a single frequency and
wavelength can still be out of
phase.

493
 Se
eS ee
7 a ee
7 Cn

Figure 31.27 A
Coherent light. All the waves are identical and in phase.

A beam of light that has the same frequency, phase, and direc-
tion is said to be coherent. There is no interference of waves within
the beam. Only a beam of coherent light will not spread and diffuse.
Coherent light is produced by a laser (whose name comes from
light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation).* Within a
laser, a light wave emitted from one atom stimulates the emission of
light from a neighboring atom so that the crests of each wave coin-
cide. These waves stimulate the emission of others in cascade fash-
ion, and a beam of coherent light is produced. This is very different
from the random emission of light from atoms in common sources.

Figure 31.28 P
A helium-neon laser. A high
voltage applied to a mixture of
helium and neon gas energizes
helium atoms to a state of high
energy. Before the helium can
emit light, it gives up its energy
by collision with neon, which is
boosted to an otherwise hard-to-
come-by matched energy state.
Light emitted by neon stimulates
other energized neon atoms to
emit matched-frequency light.
The process cascades, and a
coherent beam of light is pro-
duced. The output remains
steady because the helium is
constantly reenergized.
The laser is not a source of energy. It is simply a converter of
energy, taking advantage of the process of stimulated emission to
concentrate a certain fraction of the energy input (commonly much
less than 1%) into a thin beam of coherent light. Like all devices, a
laser can put out no more energy than it takes in.
Lasers come in many types and have broad applications in
780201 Mill diverse fields. Surveyors and construction workers use them as
Figure 31.29 A “chalk lines,” surgeons use them as scalpels, and garment manufac-
A product's code is read by laser turers use them as cloth-cutting saws. They are used to read product
light that reflects from the bar codes in cash registers, to read the music signals in CDs, and the bar
pattern and is converted to an codes that access the videodisc ancillary of your Conceptual Physics
electrical signal that is fed into a program. A most impressive product of laser light is the hologram.
computer. The signal is high
when light is reflected from the
white spaces and low when
reflected from a dark bar. * Aword constructed from the initials of a phrase is called an acronym.

494 Chapter 31 Diffraction and Interference

STREP
eT ES TN
31.8 The Hologram
Holo- comes from the Greek word for “whole,” and gram comes from
the Greek for “message” or “information.” A hologram is a three-
dimensional version of a photograph that contains the whole mes-
sage or entire picture in every portion of its surface. To the naked eye,
it appears to be an imageless piece of transparent film, but on its sur-
face is a pattern of microscopic fringes. Light diffracted from these
fringes produces an image that is extremely realistic. Holograms are
also difficult to reproduce—hence their use on credit cards.
A hologram is produced by the interference between two laser
light beams on photographic film. The two beams are part of one
beam. One part illuminates the object and is reflected from the
object to the film. The second part, called the reference beam, is
reflected from a mirror to the film, as shown in Figure 31.30.
Interference between the reference beam and light reflected from
the different points on the object produces a pattern of microscopic
fringes on the film. Light from nearer parts of the object travels
shorter paths than light from farther parts of the object. The differ-
ent distances traveled will produce slightly different interference
patterns with the reference beam. In this way information about
the depth of an object is recorded.

LASER BEAM meron

PHOTOGRAPHIC IN \ LIGHT REFLECTED FROM

PLATE i Zon sei MIRROR (REFERENCE BEAM)
(HOLOGRAM) INTERFERES WITH LIGHT
REFLECTED FROM OBJECT

Figure 31.30 A
A simplified arrangement for making a hologram. The laser light that
exposes the photographic film is made up of two parts; one part is reflected
from the object, and one part is reflected from the mirror. The waves of
these two parts interfere to produce microscopic fringes on the film. When
developed, it is then a hologram.

When light falls on a hologram, it is diffracted by the fringed pat-

tern to produce wave fronts identical in form to the original wave
fronts reflected by the object. The diffracted wave fronts produce the
same effect as the original reflected wave fronts. Whether you look
through the hologram or see the reflections from a hologram you see
a realistic three-dimensional image as though you were viewing the
original object through a window (or from a mirror). Parallax is evi-
dent when you move your head to the side and see down the sides of
the object, or when you lower your head and look underneath the
object. Holographic pictures are extremely realistic.
495
 HOLOGRAM

\ VIRTUAL IMAGE REAL IMAGE

Figure 31.31 A
When a hologram is illuminated with coherent light, the diverging diffracted
light produces a three-dimensional virtual image that can be seen when look-
ing through the hologram, like looking through a window. You refocus your
eyes to see near and far parts of the image, just as you do when viewing a
real object. Converging diffracted light produces a real image in front of the
hologram, which can be projected on a screen. Since the image has depth,
you cannot see near and far parts of the image in sharp focus for any single
position on a flat screen.

Interestingly enough, if the hologram is made on film, you can

cut it in half and still see the entire image on each half. And you can
cut one of the pieces in half again and again and see the entire
image, just as you can put your eye to any part of a window to see
outdoors. Every part of the hologram has received and recorded light
from the entire object.
Even more interesting is holographic magnification. If holograms
are made using short-wavelength light and viewed with light of a
longer wavelength, the resulting image is magnified in the same pro-
portion as the wavelengths. Holograms made with X-rays would be
magnified thousands of times when viewed with visible light and
appropriate viewing arrangements. X-ray holograms have not been
made as this book is being written. Technological growth is fast these
days. Are X-ray holograms a reality as you are reading this?
Light is interesting—especially when it is diffracted through the
interference fringes of that supersophisticated diffraction grating,
the hologram!

496 Chapter 31 Diffraction and Interference

 Chapter Assessment

For: Study and Review

(Go @nline Visit: PHSchool.com
Review Questions Check Concepts
Web Code: csd-4310 . What is Huygens’ principle? (31.1)
—_

. a. Waves spread out when they pass through

an opening. Does spreading become more or
less pronounced for narrower openings?
Concept Summary
b. What is this spreading called? (31.1-31.2)
Diffraction of light is the bending of light by
. Does diffraction aid or hinder radio recep-
means other than reflection or refraction.
tion? (31.2)
m= Huygens’ principle, which states that every
. Does diffraction aid or hinder the viewing of
point on a wave front acts like a point source
images in a microscope? (31.2)
of secondary wavelets, can be used to under-
stand diffraction. . Is it possible for a wave to be canceled by
another wave? Defend your answer.
m Diffraction is greatest for waves that are long
compared with the size of the obstruction. . Does wave interference occur for waves in
general, or only for light waves? Give exam-
Interference of light is the combining of single-
ples to support your answer. (31.3-31.4)
frequency light from two parts of the same beam
in such a way that crest overlaps crest or crest 7. What was Thomas Young's discovery? (31.4)
overlaps trough.
8. What is the cause of the fringes of light in
m Thecolors seen in thin films (soap bubbles or Young's experiment? (31.4)
thin films of gasoline on water) are due to
. What is a diffraction grating? (31.4)
destructive interference of different frequen-
cies at different thicknesses. 10. What is required for part of the light reflected
from a surface to be canceled by another part
m Holograms are three-dimensional pictures
reflected from a second surface? (31.5)
created through the interference of two parts
of a laser beam. 11. What causes the bright and dark fringes visi-
ble in lenses that rest on flat plates of glass
(as shown in Figure 31.22)? (31.5)
12. What is iridescence, and to what phenome-
Key Terms
non is it related? (31.6)
coherent (31.7)
13. If a soap bubble is thick enough to cancel yel-
diffraction (31.2) low by interference, what color will it appear
diffraction grating (31.4) if illuminated by white light? (31.6)
hologram (31.8)
14. Why is gasoline that is spilled on a wet sur-
Huygens’ principle (31.1) face so colorful? (31.6)
incoherent (31.7)
15. What is an interferometer, and on what
iridescence (31.6)
physics principle is it based? (31.6)
laser (31.7)
monochromatic (31.4)

497
16. How does light from a laser differ from light 27. When monochromatic light illuminates a pair
from an ordinary lamp? (31.7) of thin slits, an interference pattern is pro-
duced on a wall behind. How will the distance
17. Can a laser put out more energy than is put in?
between the fringes of the pattern for red light
(Would you have to know more about lasers to
differ from that for blue light?
answer this question? Why?) (31.7)
28. When Thomas Young performed his interfer-
18. What is a hologram, and on what physics
ence experiment, monochromatic light
principle is it based? (31.8)
passed through a single narrow opening
19. How does the image of a hologram differ before it reached the double openings.
from that of acommon photograph? (31.8) Explain why this made the fringes clear.
(Hint: What would be the result if light reach-
20. What would be the advantage of making
ing the double openings came from several
holograms with X-rays? (31.8)
different directions?)
29. Seashells, butterfly wings, and the feathers of
some birds often change color as you look at
Think and Explain Think Critically them from different positions. Explain this
21. In our everyday environment, diffraction is phenomenon in terms of light interference.
much more evident for sound waves than for 30. If you notice the interference patterns of a
light waves. Why is this so? thin film of oil or gasoline on water, you'll
22. Suppose the speakers at an open-air rock note that the colors form complete rings.
concert are pointed forward. You move about How are these rings similar to the lines of
and notice that the sounds of female vocalists equal elevation on a contour map?
can be heard in front of the stage, but very lit- 31. Suppose the thickness of a soap film is just
tle off to the sides. By comparison you notice right for canceling yellow light. What color
that bass sounds can be heard quite well both does the eye see? Why will this color change
in front and off to the sides. What is your when the surface is viewed at a grazing angle?
explanation?
23. Why do radio waves diffract around buildings
while light waves do not?
Activity Performance Assessment
24. Why are TV broadcasts in the VHF range eas-
ier to receive in areas of marginal reception 32. Make some slides for a slide projector by
than broadcasts in the UHF range? (Hint: sticking crumpled cellophane onto pieces of
UHF has higher frequencies than VHE) slide-sized polarizing material. Also try strips
of cellophane tape, overlapping at different
25. Suppose a pair of loudspeakers a meter or so angles. (Experiment with different brands of
apart emit pure tones of the same frequency tape.) Project the slides onto a large screen or
and loudness. When a listener walks past in a white wall and rotate a second, slightly larger
path parallel to the line that joins the loud- piece of polarizing material in front of the
speakers, the sound is heard to alternate from projector lens. The colors are vivid! Do this in
loud to soft. What is going on? rhythm with your favorite music, and you'll
26. In the preceding question, suggest a path have your own light and sound show. Write a
along which the listener could walk so as not detailed description of how you put together
to hear alternate loud and soft sounds. your show.

498 Chapter 31 Diffraction and Interference

UNIT

This simple electric circuit illustrates some intriguing ;

physics. The battery provides voltage, an electric pressure that
pushes electrons through the wire and lamp. Electrons flow easily
through the relatively thick wire, but with difficulty through the lamp
filament. The filament has a resistance to electron flow. Current
squeezed through it shakes the atoms so vigorously that they glow.
That’s why the filament emits light while the connecting wire doesn't.
Even the light is electrical in nature—magnetic too, as Unit 5 will show.
Who’s more afraid of electricity—someone who has an |
understanding of it, or someone who doesn’t?

Go @nline

For: Articles on electricity

and magnetism
Visit: PHSchool.com
Web Code: cse-5000
 | Electrostatics

= lectricity in one form or another underlies

just about everything around you. It’s in the
lightning from the sky; it’s in the spark
beneath your feet when you scuff across a rug; and
Enormous transfer of electrical it’s what holds atoms together to form molecules. The control of elec-
energy. tricity is evident in technological devices of many kinds, from lamps
to computers. In this technological age it is important to have an
understanding of how the basics of electricity can be manipulated to
give people a prosperity that was unknown before recent times.
This chapter is about electrostatics, or electricity at rest. Electro-
statics involves electric charges, the forces between them, and their
behavior in materials. The next chapter is about the aura that sur-
rounds electric charges—the electric field. Chapters 34 and 35 cover
moving electric charges, or electric currents; the voltages that produce
them; and the ways that currents can be controlled. Finally, Chapters
36 and 37 cover the relationship of electric currents to magnetism,
and how electricity and magnetism can be controlled to operate
motors and other electrical devices.
An understanding of electricity requires a step-by-step approach,
for one concept is the building block for the next. So please study
this material with extra care. It is a good idea at this time to lean
more heavily on the laboratory part of your course, for doing physics
is better than only studying physics. If you're hasty, the physics of
electricity and magnetism can be difficult, confusing, and frustrat-
ing. But with careful effort, it can be comprehensible and rewarding.

eS ee See ee eee

32.1 Electrical Forces and Charges

1 Explore
You are familiar with the force of gravity. It attracts you to Earth, and
2 Laboratory Manual 86 you Call it your weight. Now consider a force acting on you that is bil-
lions upon billions of times stronger. Such a force could compress

Chapter 32 Electrostatics
you to a size about the thickness of a piece of paper. But suppose
that in addition to this enormous force there is a repelling force that ELECTRICAL
is also billions upon billions of times stronger than gravity. The two REPELLING
forces acting on you would balance each other and have no notice- S| FORCES
able effect at all. It so happens that there is a pair of such forces act-
GRAVITATIONAL
ing on you all the time—electrical forces. FORCE
Electrical forces arise from particles in atoms. In the simple
model of the atom proposed in the early 1900s by Ernest Rutherford
and Niels Bohr, a positively charged nucleus is surrounded by elec- ELECTRICAL
trons (Figure 32.2). The protons in the nucleus attract the electrons ATTRACTING
and hold them in orbit, just as the sun holds the planets in orbit. FORCE
Electrons are attracted to protons, but electrons repel other electrons.
This attracting and repelling behavior is attributed to a property Figure 32.1 A
called charge.* By convention (general agreement), electrons are The enormous attractive and
negatively charged and protons positively charged. Neutrons have no repulsive electrical forces
between the charges in Earth
charge, and are neither attracted nor repelled by charged particles.
and the charges in your body
Some important facts about atoms are
balance out, leaving the rela-
1. Every atom has a positively charged nucleus surrounded by tively weaker force of gravity,
negatively charged electrons. which attracts only. Hence your
weight is due only to gravity.
2. All electrons are identical; that is, each has the same mass and
the same quantity of negative charge as every other electron.
3. The nucleus is composed of protons and neutrons. (The com-
mon form of hydrogen, which has no neutrons, is the only
exception.) All protons are identical; similarly, all neutrons are
identical. A proton has nearly 2000 times the mass of an elec-
tron, but its positive charge is equal in magnitude to the nega-
tive charge of the electron. A neutron has slightly greater mass
than a proton and has no charge.
4. Atoms usually have as many electrons as protons, so the atom
has zero net charge.
Just why electrons repel electrons and are attracted to protons is
beyond the scope of this book. At our level of understanding we sim-
ply say that this is nature as we find it—that this electric behavior is
fundamental, or basic. The fundamental rule at the base of all elec- Figure 32.2 A
trical phenomena is Model of a helium atom. The
helium nucleus is composed of
Like charges repel; opposite charges attract.
two protons and two neutrons.
The old saying that opposites attract, usually referring to people, The positively charged protons
was first popularized by public lecturers who traveled about by horse attract two negative electrons.

Oo ———

* Why don't protons pull the oppositely charged electrons into the nucleus? Interestingly
enough, the reason is not the same as the reason that planets orbit the sun. Within the
we
atom, different laws of physics apply. This is the domain of quantum physics, which
come to in Chapter 38. According to quantum physics, an electron behaves like a wave
of an
and has to occupy a certain amount of space related to its wavelength. The size
atom is set by the minimum amount of “elbow room” that an electron requires.
What
Why is it that the protons in the nucleus do not mutually repel and fly apart?
holds the nucleus together? The answer is that in addition to electrical forces in the
nucleus, there are even stronger forces that are nonelectrical in nature. These are
nuclear forces and are discussed in Chapter 39.

501
 Figure 32.3 A
Likes repel and opposites attract.

and wagon to entertain people by demonstrating the scientific mar-

vels of electricity. An important part of these demonstrations was the
charging and discharging of pith balls. Pith is a light, spongy plant
tissue that resembles Styrofoam, and balls of it were coated with alu-
minum paint so their surfaces would conduct electricity. When sus-
pended from a silk thread, such a ball would be attracted to a rubber
rod just rubbed with cat’s fur, but when the two made contact, the
force of attraction would change to a force of repulsion. Thereafter,
the ball would be repelled by the rubber rod but attracted to a glass
rod that had just been rubbed with silk. A pair of pith balls charged
in different ways exhibited both attraction and repulsion forces
(Figure 32.3). The lecturer pointed out that nature provides two
kinds of charge, just as it provides two sexes.

@ Questions
1. Beneath the complexities of electrical phenomena, there lies
a fundamental rule from which nearly all other effects stem.
What is this fundamental rule?
2. How does the charge of an electron differ from the charge of
- aproton?

DMT TREO A TS SRG IESE

32.2 Conservation of Charge
Electrons and protons have electric charge. In a neutral atom, there are
as many electrons as protons, so there is no net charge. The total posi-
tive charge balances the total negative charge exactly. If an electron is
removed from an atom, the atom is no longer neutral. The atom has

@ Answers

1. Like charges repel; opposite charges attract.

2. The charges of the two particles are equal in magnitude, but opposite in sign.

Chapter 32 Electrostatics
 “The Threat ofStatic Charge aA
T wo Pamered years ago young boys their span < *4
-

called “powder monkeys” ran below the — and their socks. \ —

decks of warships to pick up sacks of black Some wear spe-
gunpowder for the cannons above. It was cial wrist bands
ship law that they do this task barefoot. that are clipped
Why? Because it was important that no static toa grounded
charge build up on their bodies as they ran surface, so that
back and forth. The bare feet ensured no any charge that
build up of static charge that might result in builds up, by
an igniting spark. movement on a
Today electronic technicians in high- chair for exam-
technology firms that build, test, and repair ple, is dis-
electronic circuit components similarly fol- charged. As
low procedures to guard against static electronic components become smaller and
charge. Not because of any danger of blow- circuit elements are placed closer together,
ing up their buildings, but to prevent dam- the threat of electric sparks producing short
age to delicate circuits. Some circuit circuits becomes greater and greater.
components are so sensitive that they can Maintaining a static-free environment is an
be “fried” by static electric sparks. So elec- important ongoing task for many companies.
tronic technicians work in environments free Critical Thinking What effects does
of high-resistance surfaces where static static charge have on your daily life? What
charge can accumulate. They wear clothing can you do to minimize these effects?
of special fabric with ground wires between

one more positive charge (proton) than negative charge (electron)

and is said to be positively charged.
A charged atom is called an ion. A positive ion has a net positive
charge; it has lost one or more electrons. A negative ion has a net
negative charge; it has gained one or more extra electrons.
Matter is made of atoms, and atoms are made of electrons and
protons (and neutrons as well). An object that has equal numbers of
electrons and protons has no net electric charge. But if there is an
imbalance in the numbers, the object is then electrically charged.
An imbalance comes about by adding or removing electrons.
Although the innermost electrons in an atom are bound very
tightly to the oppositely charged atomic nucleus, the outermost elec-
trons of many atoms are bound very loosely and can be easily dis-
lodged. How much energy is required to tear an electron away from
an atom varies for different substances. The electrons are held more
firmly in rubber than in fur, for example. Hence, when a rubber rod is
rubbed by a piece of fur, electrons transfer from the fur to the rubber
rod. The rubber then has an excess of electrons and is negatively
charged. The fur, in turn, has a deficiency of electrons and is posi-
tively charged. If you rub a glass or plastic rod with silk, you'll find
that the rod becomes positively charged. The silk has a greater affinity

503
 for electrons than the glass or plastic rod. Electrons are rubbed off
the rod and onto the silk. In summary:
An object that has unequal numbers of electrons and pro-
tons is electrically charged. If it has more electrons than
protons, the object is negatively charged. If it has fewer
electrons than protons, then it is positively charged.
Notice that electrons are neither created nor destroyed but are
simply transferred from one material to another. Charge is con-
served. In every event, whether large-scale or at the atomic and
nuclear level, the principle of conservation of charge applies. No
case of the creation or destruction of net electric charge has ever
been found. The conservation of charge is a cornerstone in physics,
ranking with the conservation of energy and momentum.
Any object that is electrically charged has an excess or deficiency
of some whole number of electrons—electrons cannot be divided
Figure 32.4 A into fractions of electrons. This means that the charge of the object
Electrons are transferred from the is a whole-number multiple of the charge of an electron. It cannot
fur to the rod. The rod is then
have a charge equal to the charge of 1.5 or 1000.5 electrons, for
negatively charged. Is the fur
charged? Positively or negatively?
example.* All charged objects to date have a charge that is a whole-
number multiple of the charge of a single electron.

M@ Question
— If you scuff electrons onto your feet while walking across a rug, are
_ you negatively or positively charged?

MUNIN 22 eT
32.3 Coulomb's Law
Recall from Newton's law of gravitation that the gravitational force
between two objects of mass m, and mass m, is proportional to the
product of the masses and inversely proportional to the square of
the distance d between them:
fa mm
F=G MELD)
7

where Gis the universal gravitational constant.

The electrical force between any two objects obeys a similar
inverse-square relationship with distance. This relationship was

@ Answer

1 Explore You have more electrons after you scuff your feet, so you are negatively charged (and the
rug is positively charged).
2 Concept-Development
Practice Book 32-7
* Within the atomic nucleus, however, elementary particles called quarks carry charges
3 Problem-Solving ‘ir 1/3 and 2/3 the magnitude of the electron’s charge. Each proton and each neutron is
Exercises in made up of three quarks. Since quarks always exist in such combinations and have
Physics 75-7 never been found separated, the whole-number-multiple rule of electron charge holds
for nuclear processes as well.

504 Chapter 32 Electrostatics

discovered by the French physicist Charles Coulomb (1736-1806) in
the eighteenth century. Coulomb's law states that for charged particles
or objects that are small compared with the distance between them,
the force between the charges varies directly as the product of the
charges and inversely as the square of the distance between them.
The role that charge plays in electrical phenomena is much like the
role that mass plays in gravitational phenomena. Coulomb's law can
be expressed as

where dis the distance between the charged particles; g, represents

the quantity of charge of one particle and q, the quantity of charge
of the other particle; and kis the proportionality constant.
The SI unit of charge is the coulomb, abbreviated C. Common
sense might say that it is the charge of a single electron, but it isn’t.
For historical reasons, it turns out that a charge of 1 C is the charge
of 6.24 billion billion (6.24 x 10!8) electrons. This might seem like
a great number of electrons, but it represents only the amount of
charge that passes through a common 100-W lightbulb in about
one second.
The proportionality constant k in Coulomb’s law is similar to G
in Newton's law of gravitation. Instead of being a very small number
like G, the electrical proportionality constant k is a very large num-
ber. Rounded off, it equals
k = 9 000 000 000 N-m?/C?
or, in scientific notation, k= 9.0 * 109 N-m2/C?. The units N-m?/C?
convert the right-hand side of the equation to the unit of force, the
newton (N), when the charges are in coulombs (C) and the distance is
in meters (m). Note that if a pair of charges of 1 C each were 1 m apart,
the force of repulsion between the two charges would be 9 billion
newtons.* That would be more than 10 times the weight of a battle-
ship! Obviously, such amounts of net charge do not exist in our
everyday environment.

ONW ATTRACTIVE ATTRACTIVE OR REPULSIVE <4 Figure 32.5

PRODUCT OF Comparison of Newton's law of
PRODUCT OF
. MASSES 5) CHARGES gravitation and Coulomb's law.
»
Eons ala F=k VKieWa
= g na d*

SMALL LARGE )
MAGNITUDE MAGNITUDE

BOTH ARE
INVERSE - SQUARE LAWS

* Contrast this with the gravitational force of attraction between two masses of 1 kg,
each a distance 1 m apart: 6.67 X 10-1'N. This is an extremely small force. For the force
to be 1 N, two masses 1 m apart would have to be about 122 000 kilograms each!
Gravitational forces between ordinary objects are much too small to be detected except
in delicate experiments. Electrical forces (noncanceled) between ordinary objects are
large enough to be commonly experienced.
 So Newton's law of gravitation for masses is similar to Coulomb's
law for electric charges.* Whereas the gravitational force of attraction
between a pair of one-kilogram masses is extremely small, the electri-
cal force between a pair of one-coulomb charges is extremely large.
The greatest difference between gravitation and electrical forces is that
while gravity only attracts, electrical forces may either attract or repel.

@ Questions
1. What is the chief significance of the fact that G in Newton's law
of gravitation is a small number and k in Coulomb's law is a
large number when both are expressed in SI units?
2. a. lf.an electron at a certain distance from a charged particle is
attracted with a certain force, how will the force compare at
twice this distance?
b. Is the charged particle in this case positive or negative?

Because most objects have almost exactly equal numbers of

electrons and protons, electrical forces usually balance out. Between
Earth and the moon, for example, there is no measurable electrical
force. In general, the weak gravitational force, which attracts only, is
the predominant force between astronomical bodies.
Although electrical forces balance out for astronomical and
everyday objects, at the atomic level this is not always true. The neg-
ative electrons of one atom may at times be closer to the positive
protons of a neighboring atom than to the average location of the
neighbor's electrons. Then the attractive force between these charges
is greater than the repulsive force. When the net attraction is suffi-
ciently strong, atoms combine to form molecules. The chemical
bonding forces that hold atoms together to form molecules are elec-
trical forces acting in small regions where the balance of attractive
and repelling forces is not perfect. It makes good sense for anyone
planning to study chemistry to know something about electricity.

B Answers

1. The small value of G indicates that gravity is a weak force; the large value of k indicates
that the electrical force is enormous in comparison.

2. a. In accord with the inverse-square law, at twice the distance the force will be one-
fourth as much.

b. Since there is a force of attraction, the charges must be opposite in sign, so the
charged particle is positive.

* The similarities between these two forces have made some physicists think they may
be different aspects of the same thing. Albert Einstein was one of these people; he
spent the later part of his life searching with little success for a “unified field theory.”
In recent years, the electrical force has been unified with the nuclear weak force, which
plays a role in radioactive decay. Physicists are still looking for a way to unify electrical
and gravitational forces.

Chapter 32 Electrostatics
 Computational Example

Vo The hydrogen atom has the simplest structure of all

ANS atoms. Its nucleus is a proton (mass 1.7 X 10-2’ kg),
outside of which there is a single electron (mass 9.1 < 10-3! kg)
at an average separation distance of 5.3 xX 10-!! m. Compare the
electrical and gravitational forces between the proton and the
electron in a hydrogen atom.

ELECTRON”
4 \ PROTON

To solve for the electrical force, simply substitute the appro-

priate values in Coulomb's law.
distance d=5.3 X 10°'' m
proton charge q, = +1.6 x 10°"9C
electron charge q, =-1.6 x 10°C

The electric force F, is

F,=k Tey
d2

(1.6) 10732 C2
= (9.0 x 109 N-m?/C?
: (5.3 X-10-1m)?

=the 02 N

The gravitational force F, between them is

mM,
F,=G dz
2) (9.1 X 10-3! kg) (1.7 x 10°*’ kg)
= (6.7 X 10°! N-m?/k
: . (53 x 107! m)-

=3.7x 10*7N

A comparison of the two forces is best shown by their ratio:

F,_ 8.2X10°N
_99 x 1939
We Alicia

The electrical force is more than 10°9 times greater than the gravi-
tational force. In other words, the electric forces that subatomic par-
ticles exert on one another are so much stronger than their mutual
gravitational forces that gravitation can be completely neglected.
Neen

507
 BREN
eee |= eT
32.4 Conductors and Insulators
Electrons are more easily moved in some materials than in others.
Outer electrons of the atoms in a metal are not anchored to the
nuclei of particular atoms, but are free to roam in the material. Such
materials are good conductors. Metals are good conductors for the
motion of electric charges for the same reason they are good con-
ductors of heat: Their electrons are “loose.”
Electrons in other materials—rubber and glass, for example—are
tightly bound and remain with particular atoms. They are not free to
wander about to other atoms in the material. These materials are
poor conductors of electricity, for the same reason they are generally
poor conductors of heat. Such materials are good insulators.

Figure 32.6 >

It is easier for electric charge
to flow through hundreds of
kilometers of metal wire than
through a few centimeters of
insulating material.

All substances can be arranged in order of their ability to conduct

electric charges. Those at the top of the list are the conductors, and
those at the bottom are the insulators. The ends of the list are very far
apart. The conductivity of a metal, for example, can be more than a
million trillion times greater than the conductivity of an insulator such
as glass. In a power line, charge flows much more easily through hun-
dreds of kilometers of metal wire than through the few centimeters of
insulating material that separates the wire from the supporting tower.
In a common appliance cord, charges will flow through several meters
of wire to the appliance, and then through its electrical network, and
then back through the return wire rather than flow directly across from
one wire to the other through the tiny thickness of rubber insulation.
Whether a substance is classified as a conductor or an insulator
depends on how tightly the atoms of the substance hold their electrons.
Some materials, such as germanium and silicon, are good insulators in
their pure crystalline form but increase tremendously in conductivity

508 Chapter 32 _ Electrostatics

when even one atom in ten million is replaced with an impurity that
adds or removes an electron from the crystal structure. These materials
can be made to behave sometimes as insulators and sometimes as con-
ductors. Such materials are semiconductors. Thin layers of semicon-
ducting materials sandwiched together make up transistors, which are
used in a variety of electrical applications. How transistors and other
semiconductor devices work will not be covered in this book.
At temperatures near absolute zero, certain metals acquire infi-—
nite conductivity (zero resistance to the flow of charge). These are
superconductors. Since 1987, superconductivity at “high” tempera-
tures (above 100 K) has been found in a variety of nonmetallic com-
pounds. Once electric current is established in a superconductor,
the electrons flow indefinitely.

UNNI
EET 2305 SSS
32.5 Charging by Friction and Contact
We are all familiar with the electrical effects produced by friction.
We can stroke a cat’s fur and hear the crackle of sparks that are pro-
duced, or comb our hair in front of a mirror in a dark room and see
as well as hear the sparks of electricity. We can scuff our shoes across a
rug and feel the tingle as we reach for the doorknob, or do the same
when sliding across plastic seat covers while parked in an automobile
(Figure 32.7). In all these cases electrons are being transferred by fric-
tion when one material rubs against another.

Figure 32.7 A
Charging by friction and then by contact.

Electrons can be transferred from one material to another by

simply touching. When a charged rod is placed in contact with a
neutral object, some charge will transfer to the neutral object. This
method of charging is simply called charging by contact. If the object
is a good conductor, the charge will spread to all parts of its surface
because the like charges repel each other. If it is a poor conductor, it
may be necessary to touch the rod at several places on the object in
order to get a more or less uniform distribution of charge.
 CRANE nask aco ea em a RE eer
32.6 Charging by Induction
If we bring a charged object near a conducting surface, even with-
out physical contact, electrons will move in the conducting surface.
Consider the two insulated metal spheres, A and B, in Figure 32.8.
In sketch (a), the uncharged spheres touch each other, so in effect
they form a single noncharged conductor. In sketch (b), a nega-
tively charged rod is held near sphere A. Electrons in the metal are
repelled by the rod, and excess negative charge has moved onto
sphere B, leaving sphere A with excess positive charge. The charge
on the two spheres has been redistributed. A charge is said to have
been induced on the spheres. In sketch (c), spheres A and B are
separated while the rod is still present. In sketch (d), the rod has
been removed. The spheres are charged equally and oppositely.
They have been charged by induction. Since the charged rod never
touched them, it retains its initial charge.

Figure 32.8 A
Charging by induction.

A single sphere can be charged similarly if we touch it when the

charges are separated by induction. Consider a metal sphere that
hangs from a nonconducting string, as shown in Figure 32.9. In sketch
(a), the net charge on the metal sphere is zero. In sketch (b), a charge
redistribution is induced by the presence of the charged rod. The net
charge on the sphere is still zero. In sketch (c), touching the sphere

~~
NET CHARGE |S ZERO NET CHARGE |S + NET CHARGE IS —

,
Figure 32.9 A
Charge induction by grounding.

510 Chapter 32 _ Electrostatics

removes electrons by contact. In sketch (d), the sphere is left positively
charged. In sketch (e), the sphere is attracted to the negative rod; it
swings over to it and touches it. Now electrons move onto the sphere
from the rod. The sphere has been negatively charged by contact. In
sketch (f), the negative sphere is repelled by the negative rod.
When we touch the metal surface with a finger (sketch (c)),
charges that repel each other have a conducting path to a practically
infinite reservoir for electric charge—the ground. When we allow
charges to move off (or onto) a conductor by touching it, it is com-
mon to say that we are grounding it. Chapter 34 returns to this idea
of grounding in the discussion of electric currents.

@ Questions
1. Would the charges induced on spheres A and B of Figure 32.8
necessarily be exactly equal and opposite?
2. Why does the negative rod in Figure 32.8 have the same charge
before and after the spheres are charged, but not when charg-
ing takes place as in Figure 32.9?

Charging by induction occurs during thunderstorms. The nega-

tively charged bottoms of clouds induce a positive charge on the
surface of Earth below. Benjamin Franklin was the first to demon-
strate this in his famous kite-flying experiment, in which he proved
that lightning is an electrical phenomenon.* Most lightning is an
electrical discharge between oppositely charged parts of clouds.

B@ Answers

1. The charges must be equal and opposite on both spheres, because each single positive
charge on sphere A is the result of a single electron being taken from A and moved to
B. This is like taking bricks from the surface of a brick road and putting them all on the
sidewalk. The number of bricks on the sidewalk will be exactly matched by the number
of holes in the road. Similarly, the number of extra electrons on sphere B will exactly
match the number of “holes” (positive charges) left in sphere A. Remember that the
absence of an electron makes a positive charge.
2. In the charging process of Figure 32.8, no contact was made between the negative rod
and either of the spheres. In the charging process of Figure 32.9, however, the rod
touched the sphere when it was positively charged. A transfer of charge by contact
reduced the negative charge on the rod.

* Benjamin Franklin was most fortunate that he was not electrocuted as were others who
attempted to duplicate his experiment. In addition to being a great statesman, Franklin
was a first-rate scientist. He introduced the terms positive and negative as they relate
to electricity but nevertheless supported the “one-fluid theory” of electric currents. He
also contributed to our understanding of grounding and insulation. As Franklin 1 Explore | 2 Develop
approached the height of his scientific career, a more compelling task was presented to
him—helping to form the system of government of the newly independent United 2 Concept-Development
States. A less important undertaking would not have kept him from spending more of Practice Book 32-2
his energies on his favorite activity—the scientific investigation of nature.
 The kind we are most familiar with is the electrical discharge
between the clouds and the oppositely charged ground below.
Franklin also found that charge flows readily to or from sharp
points, and fashioned the first lightning rod. If the rod is placed above
a building connected to the ground, the point of the rod collects elec-
trons from the air, preventing a large buildup of positive charge on
the building by induction. This continual “leaking” of charge prevents
a charge buildup that might otherwise lead to a sudden discharge
between the cloud and the building. The primary purpose of the
lightning rod, then, is to prevent a lightning discharge from occur-
ring. If for any reason sufficient charge does not leak from the air to
the rod, and lightning strikes anyway, it may be attracted to the rod
Figure 32.10 A and short-circuited to the ground, thereby sparing the building.
The bottom of the negatively
charged cloud induces a positive
charge at the surface of the
ground below.
CEN 2950 5 7]
32.7 Charge Polarization
Charging by induction is not restricted to conductors. When a charged
rod is brought near an insulator, there are no free electrons to migrate
throughout the insulating material. Instead, there is a rearrangement
of the positions of charges within the atoms and molecules them-
selves (Figure 32.11, left). One side of the atom or molecule is induced
to be slightly more positive (or negative) than the opposite side. The
atom or molecule is said to be electrically polarized. If the charged
rod is negative, say, then the positive side of the atom or molecule is
toward the rod, and the negative side of the atom or molecule is
away from it. The atoms or molecules near the surface all become
aligned this way (Figure 32.11, right).
This explains why electrically neutral bits of paper are attracted
to a charged object. Molecules are polarized in the paper, with the
oppositely charged sides of molecules closest to the charged object.
Closeness wins, and the bits of paper experience a net attraction.

Figure 32.11 A
(Left) When an external negative charge is brought closer from the left, the
charges within a neutral atom or molecule rearrange so that the left-hand
side is slightly more positive and the right-hand side is slightly more nega-
tive. (Right) All the atoms or molecules near the surface become electrically
polarized.

Chapter 32 Electrostatics
 PHYSICS

Charging :
Charge a comb by running it through your hair. This will work
especially well if the weather is dry. Now bring the comb near
some tiny bits of paper. Explain your observations. Next, place the
charged comb near a thin stream of running water from a faucet. Is
there an electrical interaction between the comb and the stream?
Does this mean the stream of water is charged? Why or why not?

Figure 32.12 A
A charged comb attracts an uncharged piece of paper because the force of
attraction for the closer charge is greater than the force of repulsion for the
farther charge. Closeness wins, and there is a net attraction.

Sometimes they will cling to the charged object and suddenly fly off.
This indicates that charging by contact has occurred; the paper bits
have acquired the same sign of charge as the charged object and are
then repelled.
Rub an inflated balloon on your hair and it becomes charged.
Place the balloon against the wall and it sticks, because the charge on Figure 32.13 A
the balloon induces an opposite surface charge on the wall. Closeness The negatively charged balloon
wins, for the charge on the balloon is slightly closer to the opposite polarizes molecules in the
induced charge than to the charge of the same sign (Figure 32.13). wooden wall and creates a posi-
Many molecules—H,0 for example—are electrically polarized in tively charged surface, so the
their normal states. The distribution of electric charge is not per- balloon sticks to the wall.
fectly even. There is a little more negative charge on one side of the
molecule than on the other (Figure 32.14). Such molecules are said
to be electric dipoles.

Figure 32.14
An H,O molecule is an electric
dipole.

513
 Microwave Cooking
~ Imagine an enclosure filled with Ping-Pong ¢ H,O molecules are polar, with opposite
balls among a few batons, all at rest. Now charges on opposite sides. When an electric
imagine the batons suddenly flipping back field is imposed on them, they align with the
and forth like semi-rotating propellers, strik- field like a compass aligns with a magnetic
ing neighboring Ping-Pong balls. Almost field. When the field is made to oscillate, the
immediately most Ping-Pong balls are ener- H,O molecules oscillate also—and quite ener-
gized, vibrating in all directions. A microwave getically. Food is cooked by a sort of “kinetic
oven works similarly. The batons are water friction” as flip-flopping H,O molecules impart
molecules made to flip back and forth in thermal motion to surrounding food mol-
rhythm with microwaves in the enclosure. ecules. A microwave oven wouldn't work with-
The Ping-Pong balls are non-water mol- out the presence of the polar molecules in the
ecules that make up the bulk of material food. That’s why microwaves pass through
being cooked. foam, paper, or ceramic plates with no effect.

In summary, we know that objects are electrically charged in

three ways.
1. By friction, when electrons are transferred by friction from one
object to another.
2. By contact, when electrons are transferred from one object to
another by direct contact without rubbing. A charged rod placed
in contact with an uncharged piece of metal, for example, will
transfer charge to the metal.
3. By induction, when electrons are caused to gather or disperse by
the presence of nearby charge (even without physical contact).
A charged rod held near a metal surface, for example, repels
charges of the same sign as those on the rod and attracts oppo-
site charges. The result is a redistribution of charge on the object
without any change in its net charge. If the metal surface is dis-
charged by contact, with a finger for example, then a net charge
will be left.
If the object is an insulator, on the other hand, then a
realignment of charge rather than a migration of charge occurs.
This is charge polarization, in which the surface near the charged
object becomes oppositely charged. This occurs when pieces of
neutral paper are attracted to a charged object, or when you stick
a charged balloon to a wall.

514 Chapter 32 —_Electrostatics

 Chapter Assessment

(Go @nline For: Study and Review

Visit: PHSchool.com
Review Questions Check Concepts
HSchool.com Wat Code: csd-5320 1 . Which force—gravitational or electrical—
repels as well as attracts? (32.1)
. Gravitational forces depend on the property
called mass. What comparable property
Concept Summary underlies electrical forces? (32.1)
All electrons have the same amount of negative . How do protons and electrons differ in their
charge; all protons have a positive charge equal in electric charge? (32.1)
magnitude to the negative charge on the electron.
. Is an electron in a hydrogen atom the same as
Electrical forces arise because of the way that an electron in a uranium atom? (32.1)
like charges repel and unlike charges attract.
. Which has more mass—a proton or an
Electric charge is conserved. electron? (32.1)

According to Coulomb's law, the electrical . Ina normal atom, how many electrons are
force between two charged objects is propor- there compared with protons? (32.1)
tional to the product of the charges and
. a. How do like charges behave?
inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them. b. How do unlike charges behave? (32.1)
Electrons move easily in good conductors and . How does a negative ion differ from a positive
poorly in good insulators. ion? (32.2)

Objects become charged when electrons . a. If electrons are rubbed from cat’s fur onto a
move onto them or off of them. rubber rod, does the rod become positively or
negatively charged?
Charging by friction occurs when electrons
are transferred by rubbing. b. How about the cat’s fur? (32.2)

Charging by contact occurs when electrons 10. What does it mean to say that charge is con-
are transferred by direct contact. served? (32.2)
Charging by induction occurs in the presence 11. a. How is Coulomb’s law similar to Newton’s
of a charge without physical contact. law of gravitation?
Charge polarization occurs in insulators that b. How are the two laws different? (32.3)
are in the presence of a charged object.
12. The SI unit of mass is the kilogram. What is
(Seee Ee ee
the SI unit of charge? (32.3)
13. The proportionality constant k in Coulomb's
Key Terms
law is huge in ordinary units, whereas the
charge (32.1) electrically polarized (32.7) proportionality constant G in Newton's law of
conductor (32.4) electrostatics (32.0) gravitation is tiny. What does this mean in
conservation of grounding (32.6) terms of the relative strengths of these two
charge (32.2) induced (32.6) forces? (32.3)
coulomb (32.3) induction (32.6) 14. Why does the weaker force of gravity domi-
Coulomb’s law (32.3) insulator (32.4) nate over electrical forces for astronomical
electrical force (32.1) semiconductor (32.4) objects? (32.3)
superconductor (32.4)
15. Why do electrical forces dominate between 29. An electroscope is a simple
atoms that are close together? (32.3) device. It consists of a metal
ball that is attached by a
16. What is the difference between a good con-
conductor to two fine gold
ductor and a good insulator? (32.4)
leaves that are protected
17. a. Why are metals good conductors? from air disturbances in a
jar, as shown in the sketch.
b. Why are materials such as rubber and glass
When the ball is touched by
good insulators? (32.4)
a charged object, the leaves
18. What is a semiconductor? (32.4) that normally hang straight
down spring apart. Why?
19. What is a superconductor? (32.4)
(Electroscopes are useful
20. a. What are the three main methods of charg- not only as charge detectors, but also
ing objects? for measuring the amount of charge: the
more charge transferred to the ball, the more
b. Which method involves no touching?
the leaves diverge.)
(32.5-32.6)
30. Would it be necessary for a charged object to
21. What is lightning? (32.6)
actually touch the leaves of an electroscope
22. What is the function of a lightning rod? (32.6) (see Question 29) for the leaves to diverge?
Defend your answer.
23. What does it mean to say an object is electri-
cally polarized? (32.7) 31. Ifa glass rod that is rubbed with a plastic dry
cleaner’s bag acquires a certain charge, why
24. When a charged object polarizes another,
does the plastic bag have exactly the same
why is there an attraction between the
amount of opposite charge?
objects? (32.7)
32. Why is a good conductor of electricity also a
25. What is an electric dipole? (32.7)
good conductor of heat?
33. Explain how an object that is electrically neutral
can be attracted to an object that is charged.
Think and Explain Think Critically
34. If electrons were positive and protons nega-
26. Electrical forces between charges are enor- tive, would Coulomb's law be written the
mous relative to gravitational forces. Yet, same or differently?
we normally don't sense electrical forces
between us and our environment, while we 35. The five thousand billion billion freely mov-
do sense our gravitational interaction with ing electrons in a penny repel one another.
the earth. Why is this so? Why don't they fly out of the penny?

27. By how much is the electrical force between a 36. Imagine a proton at rest a certain distance
pair of ions reduced when their separation from a negatively charged plate. It is released
distance is doubled? Tripled? and collides with the plate. Then imagine the
similar case of an electron at rest, the same
28. If you scuff electrons from your hair onto a distance away, from a plate of equal and
comb, are you positively or negatively opposite charge. In which case would the
charged? How about the comb? moving particle have the greater speed when
the collision occurs? Why?

516 Chapter 32 _— Electrostatics

Electric Fields
and Potential

T he space around a strong magnet is different

from how it would be if the magnet were not
there. Put a paper clip in the space and you'll
see the paper clip move. The space around a black
hole is different from how it would be if the black
hole were not there. Put yourself in the space, and
that will be the last thing you do. Similarly, the space around a con- Arc discharge between elec-
centration of electric charge is different from how it would be if the trodes and a fork.
charge were not there. If you walk by the charged dome of an elec-
trostatic machine—a Van de Graaff generator, for example—you can
sense the charge. Hair on your body stands out—just a tiny bit if
you're more than a meter away, and more if youre closer. The space
that surrounds each of these things—the magnet, the black hole,
and the electric charge—is altered. The space is said to contain a
force field.

ARN
AE EERE
33.1 Electric Fields
The force field that surrounds a mass is a gravitational field. If you Figure 33.1 A
throw a ball into the air, it follows a curved path. Earlier chapters You can sense the force field that
showed that it curves because there is an interaction between the ball surrounds a charged Van de
and Earth—between their centers of gravity, to be exact. Their cen- Graaff generator.
ters of gravity are quite far apart, so this is “action at a distance.”
The idea that things not in contact could exert forces on one
another bothered Isaac Newton and many others. The concept of a
force field eliminates the distance factor. The ball is in contact with
the field all the time. We can say the ball curves because it interacts
with Earth’s gravitational field. It is common to think of distant rock-
ets and space probes as interacting with gravitational fields rather
than with the masses of Earth and other astronomical bodies that
are responsible for the fields.

517
 Just as the space around Earth and every other mass is filled with
a gravitational field, the space around every electric charge is filled
with an electric field—a kind of aura that extends through space. In
Figure 33.2, a gravitational force holds a satellite in orbit about a
planet, and an electrical force holds an electron in orbit about a pro-
ton. In both cases there is no contact between the objects, and the
forces are “acting at a distance.” Putting this in terms of the field con-
cept, we can say that the orbiting satellite and electron interact with
the force fields of the planet and the proton and are everywhere in
contact with these fields. In other words, the force that one electric
charge exerts on another can be described as the interaction between
one charge and the electric field set up by the other.

SATELLITE = @ _
— =<
ELECTRON >@ _
“a 8
y % oe .
7. PLANET
\ /
PROTON
[ z \ [ e |
| oe | \ /
\ y, \ /
\ 7 8 -
i se — =
ie

Figure 33.2 A
The satellite and the electron both experience forces; they are both in force
fields.

An electric field has both magnitude and direction. Its magni-

tude (strength) can be measured by its effect on charges located in
the field. Imagine a small positive “test charge” that is placed in an
electric field. Where the force is greatest on the test charge, the field
is strongest. Where the force on the test charge is weak, the field is
small.*
The direction of the electric field at any point, by convention, is
the direction of the electrical force on a small positive test charge
placed at that point. Thus, if the charge that sets up the field is posi-
tive, the field points away from that charge. If the charge that sets up
the field is negative, the field points toward that charge. (Be sure to
distinguish between the hypothetical small test charge and the
charge that sets up the field.)

“ee

* The strength of an electric field is a measure of the force exerted on a small test
charge
placed in the field. (The test charge must be small enough that it doesn’t push
the orig-
inal charge around and thus alter the field we are trying to measure.) If a test charge
q
experiences a force F at some point in space, then the electric field E at that
point is
Es
q
Electric field strength can be measured in units of newtons per coulomb (N/C),
or
equivalently, volts per meter (V/m).

Chapter 33 Electric Fields and Potential

a ea ea ae ee aS

33.2 Electric Field Lines

Since an electric field has both magnitude and direction, it is a vector
quantity and can be represented by vectors. The negatively charged
particle in Figure 33.3a is surrounded by vectors that point toward
the particle. (If the particle were positively charged, the vectors
would point away from the particle. The vectors always point in the
direction of the force that would act on a positive test charge.) The
magnitude of the field is indicated by the length of the vectors. The
electric field is greater where the vectors are long than it is where the
vectors are short. To represent a complete electric field by vectors,
you would have to show a vector at every point in the space around
the charge. Such a diagram would be totally unreadable!

Figure 33.3 A
Electric field representations about a negative electric charge. (a) A vector
representation; (b) a lines-of-force representation.

A more useful way to describe an electric field is with electric

field lines, also called lines offorce (Figure 33.3, right). Where the
lines are farther apart, the field is weaker. For an isolated charge, the
lines extend to infinity, while for two or more opposite charges, the
lines emanate from a positive charge and terminate on a negative
charge. Some electric field configurations are shown in Figure 33.4.

1 Explore [2
Devoe]
2 Concept-Development
Figure 33.4 A Practice Book 33-7
positive
Some electric field configurations. (a) Field lines around a single
opposite charges. Note that 3 Problem-Solving
charge. (b) Field lines for a pair of equal but Exercises in A
charge and terminat e on the negative
the lines emanate from the positive
parallel Physics 75-2
charge. (c) Evenly spaced field lines between two oppositely charged
plates.

519
 WIM
Efe
y

Figure 33.5 A
Bits of fine thread suspended in an oil bath surrounding charged conductor
s line up end to end along the direction
of the field. (a) Equal and opposite charges. (b) Equal like charges.
(c) Oppositely charged plates. (d) Oppositely
charged cylinder and plate.

520 Chapter 33__ Electric Fields and Potential

 Photographs of field patterns are shown in Figure 33.5. The pho-
tographs show bits of thread that are suspended in an oil bath
sur-
rounding charged conductors. The ends of the bits of thread are
charged by induction and tend to line up end-to-end with the field
lines, like iron filings in a magnetic field. In the two top photos (a)
and (b), we see the field lines are characteristic of a single pair of
point charges. The oppositely charged parallel plates in (c) produce
nearly parallel field lines between the plates. Their combined fields
produce the resultant field lines between the plates. Except near the
ends, the field between the plates has a constant strength. Notice the
threads inside the cylinder (d) are unaligned. There is no electric
field in the space inside a conductor. The conductor shields the
space from the field outside.
If we were concerned only about the forces produced by isolated
point charges, the electric field concept would be of limited use. The
force between point charges is described by Coulomb’s law. But
charges most often are spread out over a wide variety of surfaces.
Charges also move. This motion is communicated to neighboring
charges by changes in the electric field.
We will see later in this and following chapters that the electric
field is a storehouse of energy.

@ Question
i] »

aie Ae ;
Suppose that a beam of electrons is produced at one end of aglass iN
tube and lights up a phosphor screen on the inner surface ofthe
other end. When the beam is straight, it produces a spot oflight in | q
the middle of the screen. If the beam passes through the electric oie
field of a pair of oppositely charged plates, it is deflected, say tora) aarh
the left. If the charge on the plates is reversed, in what direction =
will deflection occur? urclaieity

RE ee ee ee ee eee

33.3 Electric Shielding

The dramatic photo in Figure 33.6 shows a car being struck by light-
ning. Yet, the occupant inside the car is completely safe. This is
because the electrons that shower down upon the car are mutually
repelled and spread over the outer metal surface, finally discharging
when additional sparks jump from the car’s body to the ground. The
Figure 33.6 A
Electrons from the lightning
bolt mutually repel and spread
over the outer metal surface.
a Asem Although the electric field they
When the charge on the plates is reversed, the electric field will be in the opposite direc- set up may be great outside
tion, so the electron beam will be deflected to the right. If the field is made to oscillate, the the car, the overall electric field
beam will be swept back and forth. With a second set of plates and further refinements it inside the car practically cancels
could sweep a picture onto the screen! to zero.
 configuration of electrons on the car’s surface at any moment is such
that the electric fields inside the car practically cancel to zero. This is
true of any charged conductor. In fact, if the charge on a conductor
is not moving, the electric field inside the conductor is exactly zero.
The absence of electric field within a conductor holding static
charge does not arise from the inability of an electric field to pene-
trate metals. It comes about because free electrons within the con-
ductor can “settle down” and stop moving only when the electric
field is zero. So the charges arrange themselves to ensure a zero field
with the material.
As a simple example, consider the charged metal sphere shown
in Figure 33.7. Because of mutual repulsion, the electrons have
spread as far apart from one another as possible. They distribute
themselves uniformly over the surface of the sphere. A positive test
charge located exactly in the middle of the sphere would feel no
force. The electrons on the left side of the sphere, for example, would
tend to pull the test charge to the left, but the electrons on the right
side of the sphere would tend to pull the test charge to the right
equally hard. The net force on the test charge would be zero. Thus,
the electric field is also zero. Interestingly enough, complete cancel-
lation will occur anywhere inside the conducting sphere. To show
why this is true involves some geometry and is beyond the scope of
Figure 33.7 A this text.
The forces on a test charge If the conductor is not spherical, then the charge distribution
located inside a charged hollow will not be uniform. If it is a cube, for example, then most of the
sphere cancel to zero. charge is located near the corners. The remarkable thing is this: The
exact charge distribution over the surfaces and corners of a conduct-
ing cube is such that the electric field everywhere inside the cube is
zero. Look at it this way: If there were an electric field inside a con-
ductor, then free electrons inside the conductor would be set in
motion. How far would they move? Until equilibrium is established,
which is to say, when the positions of all the electrons produce a
zero field inside the conductor.
There is no way to shield gravity, because gravity only attracts.
There are no repelling parts of gravity to offset attracting parts.
Shielding electric fields, however, is quite simple. Surround yourself

Figure 33.8 A
Static charges are distributed on the surface of all conductors in such a way
that the electric field inside the conductors is zero.

Chapter 33 Electric Fields and Potential

or whatever you wish to shield with a conducting surface. Put this
surface in an electric field of whatever field strength. The free
charges in the conducting surface will arrange themselves on the
surface of the conductor in a way such that all field contributions
inside cancel one another. That's why certain electronic components
are encased in metal boxes, and why certain cables have a metal
covering—to shield them from all outside electrical activity.

@ Question
It is said that a gravitational field, unlike an electric field, cannot be
shielded. But the gravitational field at the center of Earth cancels to Figure 33.9 A
zero. Isn't this evidence that a gravitational field can be shielded? _ The metal-lined cover shields the
internal electrical components
from external electric fields.
Similarly, a metal cover shields
SSS «=the coaxial cable.
33.4 Electrical Potential Energy
Recall from Chapter 8 the relationship between work and potential
energy. Work is done when a force moves something in the direction
of the force. An object has potential energy by virtue of its location,
say in a force field. For example, if you lift an object, you apply a
force equal to its weight. When you raise it through some distance,
you are doing work on the object. You are also increasing its gravi-
tational potential energy. The greater the distance it is raised, the
greater is the increase in its gravitational potential energy. Doing
work increases its gravitational potential energy (Figure 33.10).

< Figure 33.10

(Left) Work is done to lift the ram
of the pile driver against the
gravitational field of Earth. In an
elevated position, the ram has
gravitational potential energy.
When released, this energy is
transferred to the pile below.
2@ 7, KE (Right) Similar energy transfer
occurs for electric charges.

H@ Answer

No. Gravity can be canceled inside a planet or between planets, but it cannot be shielded
by a planet or by any arrangement of masses. During a lunar eclipse, for example, when
Earth is directly between the sun and the moon, there is no shielding of the sun’s field to
affect the moon’s orbit. Even a very slight shielding would accumulate over a period of
years and show itself in the timing of subsequent eclipses. Shielding requires a combina-
tion of repelling and attracting forces, and gravity only attracts.

523
 In a similar way, a charged object can have potential energy by
virtue of its location in an electric field. Just as work is required to lift
an object against the gravitational field of Earth, work is required to
push a charged particle against the electric field of a charged body.
(It may be more.difficult to visualize, but the physics of both the
gravitational case and the electrical case is the same.) The electric
potential energy of a charged particle is increased when work is
done to push it against the electric field of something else that is
charged.
Figure 33.11 (top) shows a small positive charge located at some
distance from a positively charged sphere. If we push the small
charge closer to the sphere (Figure 33.11, bottom), we will expend
energy to overcome electrical repulsion. Just as work is done in com-
Figure 33.11 A
pressing a spring, work is done in pushing the charge against the
The small positive charge has electric field of the sphere. This work is equal to the energy gained
more potential energy when it is by the charge. The energy the charge now possesses by virtue of its
closer to the positively charged location is called electrical potential energy. If the charge is released,
sphere because work is required it will accelerate in a direction away from the sphere, and its electri-
to move it to the closer location. cal potential energy will transform into kinetic energy.

ea een ECE TE EO EE
33.5 Electric Potential
If in the preceding discussion we push two charges instead, we do
twice as much work. The two charges in the same location will have
twice the electrical potential energy as one; three charges will have
three times the potential energy; a group of ten charges will have ten
times the potential energy; and so on.
Rather than deal with the total potential energy of a group of
charges, it is convenient when working with electricity to consider
the electrical potential energy per charge. The electrical potential
energy per charge is the total electrical potential energy divided
by the amount of charge. At any location the potential energy per
charge—whatever the amount of charge—will be the same. For
example, an object with ten units of charge at a specific location has
ten times as much energy as an object with a single unit of charge.
But it also has ten times as much charge, so the potential energy per
charge is the same. The concept of electrical potential energy per
charge has a special name, electric potential.

electric potential = electrical potential energy

charge

The SI unit of measurement for electric potential is the volt,

Figure 33.12 A named after the Italian physicist Allesandro Volta (1745-1827). The
An object of greater charge has symbol for volt is V. Since potential energy is measured in joules and
more electrical potential energy
charge is measured in coulombs,
in the field of the charged dome
than an object of less charge, joule
but the electric potential of any 1 volt = 1
coulomb
amount of charge at the same
location is the same.

524 Chapter 33 Electric Fields and Potential

 BH Question 1 Explore

If there were twice as much charge on one of the charged objects 2 Concept-Development
near the charged sphere in Figure 33.12, would the electrical poten- Practice Book 33-2
tial energy of the object in the field of the charged sphere be the 3 Problem-Solving
same or would it be twice as great? Would the electrical potential Exercises in A
of the object be the same or would it be twice as great? Physics 75-3
ae ee ee

Thus, a potential of 1 volt equals 1 joule of energy per coulomb

of charge; 1000 volts equals 1000 joules of energy per coulomb of
charge. If a conductor has a potential of 1000 volts, it would take
1000 joules of energy per coulomb to bring a small charge from very
far away and add it to the charge on the conductor.* (Since the small
charge would be much less than one coulomb, the energy required
would be much less than 1000 joules. For example, to add the charge
of one proton to the conductor, 1.6 x 10-!9 C, it would take only
1.6 x 10-16 J of energy.)
Since electric potential is measured in volts, it is commonly
called voltage. In this book the names will be used interchangeably.
The significance of voltage is that once the location of zero voltage
has been specified, a definite value for it can be assigned to a loca-
tion whether or not a charge exists at that location. We can speak
about the voltages at different locations in an electric field whether
or not any charges occupy those locations.
Rub a balloon on your hair and the balloon becomes negatively
charged, perhaps to several thousand volts! If the charge on the bal-
loon were one coulomb, it would take several thousand joules of
energy to give the balloon that voltage. However, one coulomb is a
very large amount of charge; the charge on a balloon rubbed on hair
is typically much less than a millionth of a coulomb. Therefore, the
amount of energy associated with the charged balloon is very, very
small—about a thousandth of a joule. A high voltage requires great
energy only if a great amount of charge is involved. This example
highlights the difference between electrical potential energy and
electric potential.

H@ Answer

Twice as much charge would cause the object to have twice as much electrical potential
energy, because it would have taken twice as much work to put the object at that location.
But the electric potential would be the same, because the electric potential is total electrical
potential energy divided by total charge. In this case, twice the energy divided by twice the
charge gives the same value as the original energy divided by the original charge. Electric
potential is not the same thing as electrical potential energy. Be sure you understand this
before you study further.
Figure 33.13 A
Although the voltage of the
* It is common practice to assign a zero electric potential to places infinitely far away
charged balloon is high, the
from any charges. As the next chapter discusses, for electric currents the value zero is
electrical potential energy is low
assigned to the potential of the ground.
because of the small amount of
charge.
 ENE (oe Sa
33.6 Electrical Energy Storage
Electrical energy can be stored in a common device called a capacitor.
Capacitors are found in nearly all electronic circuits. Computer mem-
ories use very tiny capacitors to store the 1’s and 0’s of the binary
code. Some keyboards have them beneath each key. Capacitors in
photoflash units store larger amounts of energy slowly and release it
rapidly during the short duration of the flash. Similarly, but on a
grander scale, enormous amounts of energy are stored in banks of
capacitors that power giant lasers in national laboratories.
The simplest capacitor is a pair of conducting plates separated
by a small distance, but not touching each other. When the plates are
connected to a charging device such as the battery shown in Figure
33.14, charge is transferred from one plate to the other. This occurs
as the positive battery terminal pulls electrons from the plate con-
nected to it. These electrons in effect are pumped through the bat-
tery and through the negative terminal to the opposite plate. The
capacitor plates then have equal and opposite charges—the positive
plate is connected to the positive battery terminal, and the
Figure 33.14 A negative plate is connected to the negative battery terminal. The
Capacitor consisting of two charging process is complete when the potential difference between
closely spaced metal parallel the plates equals the potential difference between the battery termi-
plates. When connected to a bat- nals—the battery voltage. The greater the battery voltage and the
tery, the plates become equally larger and closer the plates, the greater the charge that is stored. In
and oppositely charged. The practice, the plates may be thin metallic foils separated by a thin
voltage between the plates then sheet of paper. This “paper sandwich’ is then rolled up to save space
matches the voltage difference and may be inserted into a cylinder. Such a practical capacitor is
between the battery terminals.
shown with others in Figure 33.15. (We will consider the role of
capacitors in circuits in the next chapter.)
A charged capacitor is discharged when a conducting path is
provided between the plates. Discharging a capacitor can be a

Figure 33.15 »
Practical capacitors.

1 Explore

1 Laboratory Manual 88
1 Probeware Lab Ey
Manual 75

526 Chapter 33 _ Electric Fields and Potential

shocking experience if you happen to be the conducting path. The
energy transfer that occurs can be fatal where high voltages are LINK TO TECHNOLOGY"
present, such as the power supply in a TV set—even after the set
has been turned off. That’s the main reason for the warning signs
on such devices.
The energy stored in a capacitor comes from the work required
to charge it. The energy is in the form of the electric field between its
plates. Between parallel plates the electric field is uniform, as indi-
cated in Figures 33.4c and 33.5c on previous pages. So the energy
stored in a capacitor is energy stored in the electric field.
Electric fields are storehouses of energy. We will see in the next
chapter that energy can be transported over long distances by elec-
tric fields, which can be directed through and guided by metal wires
or directed through empty space. Then in Chapter 37 we will see how
energy from the sun is radiated in the form of electric and magnetic
fields. The fact that energy is contained in electric fields is truly far
reaching. ‘lect ield
“of‘apare
rallelplate Soe4
"tor and form the‘image —Se
NN on thepage;‘thecharged |
ei
_ droplets are deflected and =
33.7 The Van de Graaff Generator x do not reach thepage. ee
— 2
| Thus,theimage produced —
A common laboratory device for building up high voltages is on the: paper is made I eke
the Van de Graaff generator. This is the lightning machine often used from ink droplets that are
by “evil scientists” in old science fiction movies. A simple model of / not charged. The blank©
the Van de Graaff generator is shown in Figure 33.16. A large hollow spaces correspond to
metal sphere is supported by a cylindrical insulating stand. deflected ink that never
made it to the paper.

METAL COLLECTOR
POINTS

ROLLER

ELECTRIC FIELD INSIDE METAL

SPHERE |S ALWAYS ZERO, SO
CHARGE CARRIED UP CHARGES THAT LEAK OFF
ON INSULATOR BELT THE BELT ARE NOT REPELLED
BY CHARGE STORED ON THE
INSULATING OUTSIDE OF THE SPHERE
SUPPORT —- [2

METAL POINTS~ [2
V
MOTOR-DRIVEN ROLLER
VOLTAGE SOURCE

Figure 33.16 A
A simple model of a Van de Graaff generator.

527
 A motor-driven rubber belt inside the support stand moves past a
comblike set of metal needles that are maintained at a high electric
potential. A continuous supply of electrons is deposited on the belt
through electric discharge by the points of the needles and is car-
ried up into the hollow metal sphere. The electrons leak onto metal
points (which act like tiny lightning rods) attached to the inner sur-
face of the sphere. Because of mutual repulsion, the electrons move
to the outer surface of the conducting sphere. (Remember, static
charge on any conductor is on the outside surface.) This leaves the
inside surface uncharged and able to receive more electrons as they
are brought up the belt. The process is continuous, and the charge
builds up to a very high electric potential—on the order of millions
of volts.
A sphere with a radius of 1 m can be raised to a potential of
3 million volts before electric discharge occurs through the air
(because breakdown occurs in air when the electric field strength is
about 3 x 10° V/m).* The voltage can be further increased by increas-
ing the radius of the sphere or by placing the entire system in a con-
tainer filled with high-pressure gas. Van de Graaff generators can
produce voltages as high as 20 million volts. These devices accelerate
charged particles used as projectiles for penetrating the nuclei of
atoms. Touching one can be a hair-raising experience (Figure 33.17).

Figure 33.17 >»

The physics enthusiast and the
dome of the Van de Graaff gener-
ator are charged to a high volt-
age. Why does her hair stand
out?

*
The electric field strength for arc discharge is directly proportional to the radius of the
conducting sphere. Hence we see that the large-radius sphere of a Van de Graaff gener-
ator holds considerable charge before arc discharge occurs, while the sharp points of
lightning rods readily leak charge. The sharp points behave as small-radius spheres.
The greater the radius, the greater the charge that can be stored before arc discharge
occurs.

528 Chapter 33 _—_Electric Fields and Potential

 Chapter Assessment

For: Study and Review Review Questions Check Concepts

| Go @nline Visit: PHSchool.com
HSchool.com Web Code: csd-5330 . What is meant by the expression action at a
distance? (33.1)

. How does the concept of a field eliminate the

idea of action at a distance? (33.1)
Concept Summary
. How are a gravitational field and an electric
An electric field fills the space around every elec- field similar? (33.1)
tric charge.
. Why is an electric field considered a vector
The field is strongest where it would exert the quantity? (33.2)
greatest electrical force on a test charge.
. a. What are electric field lines?
The direction of the field at any point is the
b. How do their directions compare with the
direction of the electrical force on a positive
direction of the force that acts on a positive
test charge.
test charge in the same region? (33.2)
An electric field can be represented by electric
. How is the strength of an electric field indi-
field lines.
cated with field lines? (33.2)
Static charge occupies only the outer surface
. How do the electric field lines appear when
of a conductor; inside the conductor the elec-
the field has the same strength at all points in
tric field is zero.
a region? (33.2)
An electric field is a storehouse of energy.
. Why are occupants safe inside a car struck by
A charged object has electrical potential energy lightning? (33.3)
by virtue of its location in an electric field.
. What is the size of the electric field inside any
The electric potential, or voltage, at any point charged conductor? (33.3)
in an electric field is the electrical potential
10. a. Can gravity be shielded?
energy per charge for a charged object at that
point. b. Can electric fields be shielded? (33.3)
A zero of potential must be specified; it is 11. What is the relationship between the amount
often at infinite distance from charges. of work you do on an object and its potential
energy? (33.4)
A capacitor is a device for storing charge and
energy. 12. How can the electrical potential energy of a
charged particle in an electric field be
increased? (33.4)
13. What will happen to the electrical potential
Key Terms
energy of a charged particle in an electric
capacitor (33.6) field when the particle is released and free to
electric field (33.1) move? (33.4)
electric potential (33.5) 14. Clearly distinguish between electrical poten-
electrical potential energy (33.4) tial energy and electric potential. (33.5)
volt (33.5)
voltage (33.5)
15. If you do more work to move more charge a 26. Suppose that a metal file cabinet is charged.
certain distance against an electric field, and How will the charge concentration at the cor-
increase the electrical potential energy as a ners of the cabinet compare with the charge
result, why do you not also increase the elec- concentration on the flat parts of the cabinet?
tric potential (33.5)? Defend your answer.
16. The SI unit for electrical potential energy is 27. Is it correct to say that an object with twice
the joule. What is the SI unit for electric the electric potential of another has twice the
potential? (33.5) electrical potential energy? Defend your
answer.
17. Charge must be present at a location in order
for there to be electrical potential energy. 28. You are not harmed by contact with a charged
Must charge also be present at a location for balloon, even though its voltage is very high.
there to be electric potential? (33.5) Is the reason for this similar to why you are
not harmed by the greater-than-1000°C sparks
18. How can electric potential be high when elec-
from a Fourth of July-type sparkler?
trical potential energy is relatively low? (33.5)
29. What is the net charge of a capacitor?
19. How does the amount of charge on the inside
Explain.
surface of the sphere of a charged Van de
Graaff generator compare with the amount 30. Why does your hair stand out when you are
on the outside? (33.7) charged by a device such as a Van de Graaff
generator?
20. How much voltage can be built up on a Van
de Graaff generator of 1 m radius before elec-
tric discharge occurs through the air? (33.7)
Think and Solve
Develop Problem-Solving Skills
Think and Explain Think Critically 31. a. If you do 12 J of work to push 0.001 C of
21. How is an electric field different from a gravi- charge from point A to point B in an electric
tational field? field, what is the voltage difference between
points A and B?
22. The vectors for the gravitational field.of Earth
point toward Earth; the vectors for the elec- b. When the charge is released, what will be its
tric field of a proton point away from the pro- kinetic energy as it flies back past its starting
ton. Explain. point A? What principle guides your answer?

23. Imagine a “free” electron and “free” proton 32. a. Suppose that you start with a charge of
held midway between the plates of a charged 0.002 C, twice the charge of the previous
parallel plate capacitor. When released, how example, and find that it takes 24 J of work to
do their accelerations and directions of travel move it from point A to point B. Now what is
compare? If we ignore their attraction to each the voltage difference between points A and B?
other, which reaches a capacitor plate first? b. If this charge is released, what will be its
24. Suppose that the strength of the electric field kinetic energy as it flies back past point A?
about an isolated point charge has a certain
value at a distance of 1 m. How will the electric
field strength compare at a distance of 2m
from the point charge? What law guides your
answer?
25. When a conductor is charged, the charge
moves to the outer surface of the conductor.
Why is this so?

530 Chapter 33 _Electric Fields and Potential

Electric Current

he previous chapter discussed the con-

cept of electric potential, or voltage.
This chapter will show that voltage is an
“electric pressure” that can produce a flow of
charge, or current, within a conductor. The
flow is restrained by the resistance it encoun- 7
ters. When the flow takes place along one Hieerone it is called Negligible potential difference
direct current (DC); when it flows to and fro, it is called alternating across the birds feet
current (AC). The rate at which energy is transferred by electric cur-
rent is power. You'll note here that there are many terms to be sorted
out. This is easier (and more meaningful) to do when you have some
understanding of the ideas these terms represent. In turn, the ideas
are better understood if you know how they relate to one another.
Let’s begin with the flow of electric charge.

Car asi ene a eae ea

34.1 Flow of Charge
Recall in your study of heat and temperature that heat flows through
a conductor when a difference in temperature exists between its
ends. Heat flows from the end of higher temperature to the end of
lower temperature. When both ends reach the same temperature,
the flow of heat ceases.
In a similar way, when the ends of an electric conductor are at
different electric potentials, charge flows from one end to the other.
Charge flows when there is a potential difference, or difference in
potential (voltage), between the ends of a conductor. The flow of
charge will continue until both ends reach a common potential.
When there is no potential difference, there is no longer a flow of
charge through the conductor.
As an example, if one end of a wire were connected to the ground
and the other end placed in contact with the sphere of a Van de
Graaff generator that is charged to a high potential, a surge of charge

531
 would flow through the wire. The flow would be brief, however, for
the sphere of the generator would quickly reach a common potential
with the ground.
To attain a sustained flow of charge in a conductor, some
arrangement must be provided to maintain a difference in potential
while charge flows from one end to the other. The situation is analo-
gous to the flow of water from a higher reservoir to a lower one
(Figure 34.1, left). Water will flow in a pipe that connects the reser-
voirs only as long as a difference in water level exists. (This is
implied in the saying “Water seeks its own level.”) The flow of water
in the pipe, like the flow of charge in the wire that connects the Van
de Graaff generator to the ground, will cease when the pressures at
the two ends are equal. In order that the flow be sustained, there
must be a suitable pump of some sort to maintain a difference in
water levels (Figure 34.1, right). Then there will be a continual differ-
ence in water pressures and a continual flow of water. The same is
true of electric current.

HIGHER PRESSURE = LOWER PRESSURE

Figure 34.1 A
(Left) Water flows from the higher-pressure end of the pipe to the lower-
pressure end. The flow will cease when the difference in pressure ceases.
(Right) Water continues to flow because a difference in reservoir level is
maintained with the pump.

WEEN
e ooee
34.2 Electric Current
Electric current is simply the flow of electric charge. In solid con-
ductors the electrons carry the charge through the circuit because
they are free to move throughout the atomic network. These elec-
trons are called conduction electrons. Protons, on the other hand,
are bound inside atomic nuclei that are more or less locked in fixed
positions. In fluids, such as the electrolyte in a car battery, positive
and negative ions as well as electrons may compose the flow of
electric charge.

532 Chapter 34 Electric Current

 Electric current is measured in amperes, for which the SI unit is
FLOW OF CHARGE
symbol A.* An ampere is the flow of 1 coulomb of charge per second.
(Recall that 1 coulomb, the standard unit of charge, is the electric CROSS SECTION
charge of 6.24 billion billion electrons.) In a wire that carries a current
of 5 amperes, for example, 5 coulombs of charge pass any cross sec-
tion in the wire each second. So that’s a lot of electrons! In a wire that
carries 10 amperes, twice as many electrons pass any cross section le
each second. WIRE
Note that a current-carrying wire does not have a net electric
charge. While the current is flowing, negative electrons swarm Figure 34.2 A
through the atomic network that is composed of positively charged When the rate of flow of charge
past any cross section is 1 cou-
atomic nuclei. Under ordinary conditions, the number of electrons
lomb (6.24 billion billion elec-
in the wire is equal to the number of positive protons in the atomic
trons) per second, the current
nuclei. When electrons flow in a wire, the number entering one end is 1 ampere.
is the same as the number leaving the other. The net charge of the
wire is normally zero at every moment.

RN
EE 2 STALE TTS
34.3 Voltage Sources
Charges do not flow unless there is a potential difference. A sus-
tained current requires a suitable “electric pump” to provide a sus-
tained potential difference. Something that provides a potential
difference is known as a voltage source. If you charge a metal
sphere positively, and another negatively, you can develop a large
voltage between them. This voltage source is not a good electric
pump because when the spheres are connected by a conductor, the
potentials equalize in a single brief surge of moving charges. It is not
practical. Dry cells, wet cells, and generators, however, are capable
of maintaining a steady flow. (A battery is just two or more cells con-
nected together.)
Dry cells, wet cells, and generators supply energy that allows
charges to move. In dry cells and wet cells, energy released in a chemi-
cal reaction occurring inside the cell is converted to electrical energy.**
Generators—such as the alternators in automobiles—convert
mechanical energy to electrical energy, as discussed in Chapter 37.
The electrical potential energy produced by whatever means is
available at the terminals of the cell or generator. The potential
energy per coulomb of charge available to electrons moving between
terminals is the voltage (sometimes called the electromotive force, or
emf ). The voltage provides the “electric pressure” to move electrons
between the terminals in a circuit.

* The SI symbol for ampere is A. However, an older symbol still in common usage is
amp. People often speak of a current of, say, “5 amps.”

** A description of the chemical reactions inside dry cells and wet cells can be found in
almost any chemistry textbook.

533
 Power utilities use large electric generators to provide the 120
volts delivered to home outlets. The alternating potential difference
between the two holes in the outlet averages 120 volts. When the
prongs of a plug are inserted into the outlet, an average electric
“pressure” of 120-volts is placed across the circuit connected to the
prongs. This means that 120 joules of energy is supplied to each
coulomb of charge that is made to flow in the circuit.
There is often some confusion between charge flowing through a
circuit and voltage being impressed across a circuit. To distinguish
between these ideas, consider a long pipe filled with water. Water
will flow through the pipe if there is a difference in pressure across
the pipe or between its ends. Water flows from the high-pressure end
to the low-pressure end. Only the water flows, not the pressure.
Figure 34.3 A
Similarly, you say that charges flow through a circuit because of an
Each coulomb of charge that is
made to flow in a circuit that
applied voltage across the circuit.* You don’t say that voltage flows
connects the ends of this 1.5-volt through a circuit. Voltage doesn’t go anywhere, for it is the charges
flashlight cell is energized with that move. Voltage causes current.
1.5 joules.

WEEE
Te 2 3s
34.4 Electric Resistance
The amount of charge that flows in a circuit depends on the voltage
provided by the voltage source. The current also depends on the
resistance that the conductor offers to the flow of charge—the
electric resistance. This is similar to the rate of water flow in a pipe,
which depends not only on the pressure difference between the ends
of the pipe but on the resistance offered by the pipe itself. The resis-
tance of a wire depends on the conductivity of the material used in
the wire (that is, how well it conducts) and also on the thickness and
length of the wire.
Thick wires have less resistance than thin wires. Longer wires
have more resistance than short wires. In addition, electric resis-
tance depends on temperature. The greater the jostling about of
atoms within the conductor, the greater resistance the conductor
Figure 34.4 A offers to the flow of charge. For most conductors, increased temper-
For a given pressure, more water
ature means increased resistance.** The resistance of some materials
passes through a large pipe than
a small one. Similarly, for a given
becomes zero at very low temperatures. These are the superconduc-
voltage, more electric current
tors discussed briefly in Chapter 32.
passes through a large-diameter
wire than a small-diameter one.

It is conceptually simpler to say that current flows through a circuit, but don’t say this
around somebody who is “picky” about grammar, for the expression current flows is
1 Explore redundant. More properly, charge flows, which /s current.

3 Problem-Solving * *
Carbon is an interesting exception. At high temperatures, electrons are shaken from
Exercises in All the carbon atom, which increases electric current. Carbon’s resistance decreases with
Physics 76-7 increasing temperature. This behavior, along with its high melting temperature,
accounts for the use of carbon in arc lamps.

534 Chapter 34 Electric Current

 RESISTANCE

DEY CER

Figure 34.5 A
Analogy between a simple hydraulic circuit and an electric circuit.

Electric resistance is measured in units called ohms,* after Georg

Simon Ohm, a German physicist who tested different wires in cir-
cuits to see what effect the resistance of the wire had on the current.

MENETEEEEET
ENS
34.5 Ohm's Law
Ohm discovered that the current in a circuit is directly proportional
to the voltage impressed across the circuit, and is inversely propor-
tional to the resistance of the circuit. In short,
voltage
current =
resistance
This relationship among voltage, current, and resistance is called
Ohm’s law.**
The relationship among the units of measurement for these
three quantities is
volt
1 ampere = 1
ohm
So for a given circuit of constant resistance, current and voltage
are proportional. This means that you'll get twice the current for
twice the voltage. The greater the voltage, the greater the current. But
if the resistance is doubled for a circuit, the current will be half what
it would be otherwise. The greater the resistance, the less the cur-
rent. Ohm’s law makes good sense.

1 Explore
* The Greek letter capital Q (omega) is usually used as a symbol for ohm.
2 Laboratory Manual 89
** Many texts use V for voltage, / for current, and R for resistance, and express Ohm's law 2 Concept-Development
as V = JR. It then follows that /= VW/R, or R = V/I, so if any two variables are known, the Practice Book 34-7
third can be found.

535
 Figure 34.6 A
Resistors. The stripes are color coded to indicate the resistance in ohms.

Using specific values, a potential difference of 1 volt impressed

LINK TO ELECTROCHEMISTRY across a circuit that has a resistance of 1 ohm will produce a current
of 1 ampere. If a voltage of 12 volts is impressed across the same cir-
cuit, the current will be 12 amperes.
The resistance of a typical lamp cord is much less than 1 ohm,
while a typical lightbulb has a resistance of about 100 ohms. An iron
or electric toaster has a resistance of 15 to 20 ohms. The low resis-
tance permits a large current, which produces considerable heat.
Inside electric devices such as radio and television receivers, the cur-
rent is regulated by circuit elements called resistors, whose resistance
may range from a few ohms to millions of ohms.

@ Questions
1. What is the resistance of an electric frying pan that draws 12
~ amperes of current when connected to a 120-volt circuit?
2. How much current is drawn by a lamp that has a resistance of
100 ohms when a voltage of 50 volts is impressed across it?
tery is rec rge
Electrolysisisalso used
to produce metals from @ Answers
ores. Aluminum is a 1. The resistance is 10 ohms.
familiar metal produced
by electrolysis. Aluminum voltage __ 120 volts
resistance = = —_—__—_—_§. = 10 ohms
current 12 amperes
is common today, but
before the advent of its An electric device is said to draw current when voltage is impressed across it, just as
production by electrolysis water is said to be drawn from a well or a faucet. In this sense, to draw is not to attract,
in 1886, aluminum was but to obtain.
much more expensive 2. The current is 0.5 ampere.
than silver or gold!
Curent = ———
voltage —_ 50 volts
= 0.5 ampere
resistance 100 ohms

536 Chapter 34 _—_Electric Current

NID
SUAS)
34.6 Ohm’s Law and Electric Shock
VOLTAGE SUPPLIES THE PUSH
What causes electric shock in the human body—current or voltage? RESISTANCE OPPOSES THE PUSH
The damaging effects of shock are the result of current passing
through the body. From Ohms law, we can see that this current CURRENT RESULTS/
depends on the voltage applied, and also on the electric resistance
of the human body.
The resistance of your body depends on its condition and ranges
from about 100 ohms if you’re soaked with salt water to about
500 000 ohms if your skin is very dry. If you touched the two elec-
trodes of a battery with dry fingers, the resistance your body would
normally offer to the flow of charge would be about 100 000 ohms.
You usually would not feel 12 volts, and 24 volts would just barely
tingle. If your skin were moist, on the other hand, 24 volts could be

Table 34.1
Effect of Various Electric Currents on the Body

+ = 4 Fey ’ 7 Z hi — 1 -.. owe ww ive ~

J PFT ae Aj be a? om a as 8

ails»
ke
et iat
4 ee
ti e
ike eere AN at:
uestions
METALS
My ‘ ao a . i " *, ‘e 7 - ie 5

' 2Ss - 4” a 1 Vv
oe detad | aa* i " a
«
aot ifthe resistance of yourbody were 100 000 ieeepwhaavait ‘
oeMoet e
bokag when poe Lurie the terminals of

GRR icecaenti nyoth yamine ta. Nkvr rag 8 oe‘

w very moist so ateyour resistance was only :
2, Ifryour skinwere
Preomiges’ 0 ohms,,and youtouched the terminals Cue enh battery,
a24-
_ how much current would youdraw?
, Tae

@ Answers

1. The current in your body, quite harmless, would be

voltage 3 12V = 0.000 12A
current =
resistance 1000002

24V
2. You would draw aye or 0.024 A, a dangerous amount of current!

537
 quite uncomfortable. Table 34.1 describes the effects of different
amounts of current on the human body.
Many people are killed each year by current from common
120-volt electric circuits. If you touch a faulty 120-volt light fixture
with your hand while you are standing on the ground, there is a
120-volt “electric pressure” between your hand and the ground. The
soles of your shoes normally provide a very large resistance between
your feet and the ground, so the current would probably not be
enough to do serious harm. But if you are standing barefoot in a
Figure 34.7 A wet bathtub connected through its plumbing to the ground, the
Handling a wet hair dryer can be resistance between you and the ground is very small. Your overall
like sticking your fingers into a resistance is lowered so much that the 120-volt potential difference
live socket. may produce a harmful current through your body.
Drops of water that collect around the on/off switches of devices
such as a hair dryer can conduct current to the user. Although dis-
tilled water is a good insulator, the ions in ordinary water greatly
reduce the electric resistance. These ions are contributed by dis-
solved materials, especially salts. There is usually a layer of salt left
from perspiration on your skin, which when wet lowers your skin
resistance to a few hundred ohms or less. Handling electric devices
while taking a bath is extremely dangerous.
You have seen birds perched on high-voltage wires. Every part
of their bodies is at the same high potential as the wire, and they
feel no ill effects. For the bird to receive a shock, there must be a
difference in electric potential between one part of its body and
another part. Most of the current will then pass along the path of
least electric resistance connecting these two points.
Suppose you fall from a bridge and manage to grab onto a high-
Figure 34.8 A voltage power line, halting your fall. So long as you touch nothing
The bird can stand harmlessly else of different potential, you will receive no shock at all. Even if the
on one wire of high potential, wire is thousands of volts above ground potential and even if you
but it had better not reach over hang by it with two hands, no charge will flow from one hand to the
and grab a neighboring wire! other. This is because there is no appreciable difference in electric
Why not? potential between your hands. If, however, you reach over with one
hand and grab onto a wire of different potential, ZAP!!
Mild shocks occur when the surfaces of electric appliances are
at an electric potential different from that of the surfaces of other
nearby devices. If you touch surfaces of different potentials, you
become a pathway for current. Sometimes the effect is more than
mild. To prevent this problem, the outsides of electric appliances are
connected to a ground wire, which is connected to the round third
prong of a three-wire electric plug (Figure 34.9). All ground wires in
all plugs are connected together through the wiring system of the
Figure 34.9 A house. The two flat prongs are for the current-carrying double wire.
The third prong connects the If the live wire accidentally comes in contact with the metal surface
body of the appliance directly to of an appliance, the current will be directed to ground rather than
ground. Any charge that builds shocking you if you handle it.
up on an appliance is therefore One effect of electric shock is to overheat tissues in the body or
conducted to the ground. to disrupt normal nerve functions. It can upset the nerve center that
controls breathing. In rescuing victims, the first thing to do is clear
them from the electric power supply with a wooden stick or some
other nonconductor so that you don't get electrocuted yourself. Then
apply artificial respiration.
538 Chapter 34 Electric Current
 @ Question
What causes electric shock—current or voltage?

34.7 Direct Current and

Alternating Current
Electric current may be DC or AC. By DC, we mean direct current,
which refers to a flow of charge that always flows in one direction.
A battery produces direct current in a circuit because the terminals
of the battery always have the same sign of charge. Electrons always
move through the circuit in the same direction, from the repelling
negative terminal and toward the attracting positive terminal. Even
if the current moves in unsteady pulses, so long as it moves in one
direction only, it is DC.
Alternating current (AC) acts as the name implies. Electrons in
the circuit move first in one direction and then in the opposite direc-
kK

Zz
w
tion, alternating back and forth about relatively fixed positions. This i DC
ae
is accomplished by alternating the polarity of voltage at the genera- =
O
tor or other voltage source. Nearly all commercial AC circuits in
TIME
North America involve voltages and currents that alternate back and
forth at a frequency of 60 cycles per second. This is 60-hertz current.
In some places, 25-hertz, 30-hertz, or 50-hertz current is used. |

FE
Voltage of AC in North America is normally 120 volts.* In the Ww
) AC
early days of electricity, higher voltages burned out the filaments of >
electric lightbulbs. Tradition has it that 110 volts was settled on O
because it made bulbs of the day glow as brightly as a gas lamp. So TIME
the hundreds of power plants built in the United States prior to 1900 Figure 34.10 A
adopted 110 volts (or 115 or 120 volts) as their standard. By the time Direct current (DC) does not
electricity became popular in Europe, engineers had figured out how change direction over time.
to make lightbulbs that would not burn out so fast at higher voltages. Alternating current (AC) cycles
Power transmission is more efficient at higher voltages, so Europe back and forth.
adopted 220 volts as their standard. The United States stayed with
110 volts (today officially 120 volts) because of the installed base of
110-volt equipment.
Although lamps in an American home operate on 110-120 volts,
many electric stoves and other energy-hungry appliances operate on
220-240 volts. How is this possible? Because most electric service in
the United States is three-wire: one wire at 120 volts positive, one

@ Answer

The initial cause is the voltage, but it is the current that does most of the damage.

* 120 volts refers to the “root-mean-square” average of the voltage. The actual voltage
in a 120-volt AC circuit varies between +170-volt and -170-volt peaks. It delivers the
same power to an iron or a toaster as a 120-volt DC circuit.

539
 wire at zero volts (neutral), and the other wire at a negative 120 volts.
This is AC, with the positive and negative alternating at 60 hertz. A
wire that is positive at one instant is negative 1/120 of a second later.
Most home appliances are connected between the neutral wire and
either of the other two wires, producing 120 volts. When the plus-120
is connected to the minus-120,* a 240-volt jolt is produced—just
right for electric stoves, air conditioners, and clothes dryers.
The popularity of AC arises from the fact that electrical energy in
the form of AC can be transmitted great distances with easy voltage
step-ups that result in lower heat losses in the wires. Why this is so
will be discussed in Chapter 37.
The primary use of electric current, whether DC or AC, is to
transfer energy quietly, flexibly, and conveniently from one place
to another.

EE
34.8 Converting AC to DC
The current in your home is AC. The current in a battery-operated
device, such as a pocket calculator, is DC. With an AC-DC converter
you can operate such a device on AC instead of batteries. In
addition to a transformer to lower the voltage (Chapter 37), the
converter uses a diode, a tiny electronic device that acts as a one-
way Valve to allow electron flow in only one direction. Since alter-
nating current vibrates in two directions, only half of each cycle
will pass through a diode. The output is a rough DC, off half the
time. To maintain continuous current while smoothing the bumps,
a capacitor is used (Figure 34.12).
Recall from the previous chapter that a capacitor acts as a storage
Figure 34.11 A reservoir for charge. Just as it takes time to raise or lower the water
Diodes. level in a reservoir, it takes time to add or remove electrons from the
plates of a capacitor. A capacitor therefore produces a retarding effect
on changes in current flow. It smooths the pulsed output.

Figure 34.12 A
(a) When input to a diode is AC, (b) output is pulsating DC. (c) Charging and
discharging of a capacitor provides continuous and smoother current. (d)
In practice, a pair of diodes are used so there are no gaps in current output.
The effect is to reverse the polarity of alternate half-cycles instead of
eliminating them.

* The “plus” and “minus” are arbitrary, because they alternate. The important thing is
that they are opposite.

540 Chapter 34 _—_—_Electric Current

MINE
eee 2220
34.9 The Speed of Electrons in a Circuit
When you flip on the light switch on your wall and the circuit is com-
pleted, the lightbulb appears to glow immediately. When you make a
telephone call, the electric signal carrying your voice travels through
the connecting wires at seemingly infinite speed. This signal is trans-
mitted through the conductors at nearly the speed of light. It is not
the electrons that move at this speed but the signal.
At room temperature, the electrons inside a metal wire have an
average speed of a few million kilometers per hour due to their ther-
mal motion. This does not produce a current because the motion is
random. There is no net flow in any one direction. But when a bat-
tery or generator is connected, an electric field is established inside
the wire. It is a pulsating electric field that can travel through a cir-
cuit at nearly the speed of light. The electrons continue their random
motions in all directions while simultaneously being nudged along
the wire by the electric field.
The conducting wire acts as a guide or “pipe” for electric field
lines (Figure 34.13). In the space outside the wire, the electric field
has a pattern determined by the location of electric charges, includ-
ing charges in the wire. Inside the wire, the electric field is directed
along the wire. If the voltage source is DC, like the battery shown in
Figure 34.13, the electric field lines are maintained in one direction
in the conductor.

Figure 34.13 A
The electric field lines between the terminals of a battery are directed
through a conductor, which joins the terminals.

Conduction electrons are accelerated by the field in a direction

parallel to the field lines. Before they gain appreciable speed, they
“bump into” the anchored metallic ions in their paths and transfer
some of their kinetic energy to them. This is why current-carrying
wires become hot. These collisions interrupt the motion of the elec-
trons so that their actual drift speed, or net speed through the wire
541
 due to the field, is extremely low. In a typical DC circuit, in the elec-
tric system of an automobile for example, electrons have a net aver-
age drift speed of about 0.01 cm/s. At this rate, it would take about
three hours for an electron to travel through 1 meter of wire.

Figure 34.14 A
The solid lines depict a possible random path of an electron bouncing off
atoms in a conductor. Instantaneous speeds are about 1/200 the speed of
light. The dashed lines show an exaggerated view of how this path may be
altered when an electric field is applied. The electron drifts toward the right
with an average speed much less than a snail's pace.

In an AC circuit, the conduction electrons don't make any net

progress in any direction. In a single cycle they drift a tiny fraction of
a centimeter in one direction, and then the same tiny distance in the
opposite direction. Hence they oscillate rhythmically to and fro
about relatively fixed positions. When you talk to your friend on the
telephone, it is the pattern of oscillating motion that is carried across
town at nearly the speed of light. The electrons already in the wires
vibrate to the rhythm of the traveling pattern.

34.10 The Source of Electrons

<—\ FILAMENT in a Circuit
In a hardware store you can buy a water hose that is empty of water.
But you can't buy a piece of wire, an “electron pipe,” that is empty of
electrons. The source of electrons in a circuit is the conducting cir-
cuit material itself. Some people think that the electric outlets in the
walls of their homes are a source of electrons. They think that elec-
trons flow from the power utility through the power lines and into
Figure 34.15 A
the wall outlets of their homes. This is not true. The outlets in homes
The conduction electrons that
are AC. Electrons do not travel appreciable distances through a wire
surge to and fro in the filament
of the lamp do not come from
in an AC circuit. Instead, they vibrate to and fro about relatively fixed
the voltage source. They are in
positions.
the filament to begin with. The When you plug a lamp into an AC outlet, energy flows from the
voltage source simply provides outlet into the lamp, not electrons. Energy is carried by the electric
them with surges of energy. field and causes a vibratory motion of the electrons that already exist

542 Chapter 34 _ Electric Current

in the lamp filament. If 120 volts AC are impressed on a lamp, then
an average of 120 joules of energy are dissipated by each coulomb of
charge that is made to vibrate. Most of this electrical energy appears
as heat, while some of it takes the form of light. Power utilities do not
sell electrons. They sell energy. You supply the electrons.
Thus, when you are jolted by an AC electric shock, the electrons
making up the current in your body originate in your body. Electrons
do not come out of the wire and through your body and into the
ground; energy does. The energy simply causes free electrons in your
body to vibrate in unison. Small vibrations tingle; large vibrations
can be fatal.

SN
O 220 SF
RI
34.11 Electric Power
Unless it is in a superconductor, a charge moving in a circuit
expends energy. This may result in heating the circuit or in turning
a motor. The rate at which electrical energy is converted into another
form such as mechanical energy, heat, or light is called electric
power. Electric power is equal to the product of current and voltage.*
electric power = current x voltage
If the voltage is expressed in volts and the current in amperes, then
the power is expressed in watts. So in units form,
1 watt = (1 ampere) x (1 volt)
If a lamp rated at 120 watts operates on a 120-volt line, you
can see that it will draw a current of 1 ampere, since 120 watts =
(1 ampere) x (120 volts). A 60-watt lamp draws 0.5 ampere on a
120-volt line. This relationship becomes a practical matter when
you wish to know the cost of electrical energy, which varies from
1 cent to 10 cents per kilowatt-hour depending on locality.
A kilowatt is 1000 watts, and a kilowatt-hour represents the
amount of energy consumed in 1 hour at the rate of 1 kilowatt.**

* Note that this follows from the definitions of current and voltage:
charge energy _ eneruy = power
current x voltage =
time charge time

[2
Develop
** Since power = energy/time, simple rearrangement gives energy = power x time; hence,
energy can be expressed in units of kilowatt-hours. 1 Explore
Physicists measure energy in joules, but utility companies customarily sell energy in
2 Concept-Development
units of kilowatt-hours (kWeh), where 1kWeh = 3.6 x 108 J. This duplication of units
Practice Book 34-2
added to an already long list of units can make the study of physics more difficult. You
should at least become familiar with, and be able to distinguish among, the units 3 Problem-Solving e
coulombs, volts, ohms, amperes, watts, kilowatts, and kilowatt-hours here. An under- Exercises in All
standing of electricity takes considerable time and effort, so be patient with yourself Physics 76-2, 76-3
if you find this material difficult.

543
 Figure 34.16 A
The power and voltage on the lightbulb read “60 W 120 V.” How much cur-
rent in amperes will flow through the bulb?

Therefore, in a locality where electrical energy costs 5 cents per

kilowatt-hour, a 100-watt electric lightbulb can be run for 10 hours
at a cost of 5 cents, or a half-cent for each hour. A toaster or iron,
which draws more current and therefore more power, costs several
times as much to operate for the same time.

@ Questions
1. How much power is used by a calculator that operates on
8 volts and 0.1 ampere? If it is used for one hour, how much
energy does it use?
2. Will a 1200-watt hair dryer operate on a 120-volt line if the cur-
rent is limited to 15 amperes by a safety fuse? Can two hair
dryers operate on this line?

B Answers

1, Power = current x voltage = (0.1 A) x (8 V) = 0.8 W. If it is used for one hour, then
energy = power x time = (0.8 W) x (1 h) = 0.8 watt-hour, or 0.0008 kilowatt-hour.
2. One 1200-watt hair dryer can be operated because the circuit can provide (15 A) x
(120 V) = 1800 watts. But there is inadequate power to operate two hair dryers of
combined power 2400 watts. This can be seen also from the amount of current
involved. Since 1 watt = (1 ampere) x (1 volt), it follows that (1200 watts)/(120 volts) =
10 amperes; so the hair dryer will operate when connected to the circuit. But two hair
dryers on the same plug will require 20 amperes and will blow the 15-amp fuse.

Chapter 34 Electric Current

 Chapter Assessment

Electric fields travel through circuits at nearly the

For: Study and Review speed of light, but the electrons themselves do
(Go @nli ne Visit: PHSchool.com not.
HSchool.com
Web Code: csd-5340
=® InaDCcircuit, electrons have a low drift
speed within wires.
m In AC circuits, energy, not electrons, flows
Concept Summary from the outlet; the electrons superimpose a
rhythmic vibration on rapid random motion.
Electric current is the flow of electric charge that
occurs when there is a potential difference across Electric power, the rate at which electrical energy
the ends of an electric conductor. is converted into other forms of energy, is equal
to the product of current and voltage.
= The flow continues until both ends reach a
common potential.
m Dry cells, wet cells, and electric generators are
Key Terms
voltage sources that maintain a potential dif-
ference in a circuit. alternating current (34.7)
The amount of current that flows in a circuit ampere (34.2)
depends on the voltage and the electric resis- diode (34.8)
tance that the conductor offers to the flow of direct current (34.7)
charge. electric current (34.2)
m An increased temperature or a longer wire electric power (34.11)
increases resistance. electric resistance (34.4)
m A thicker wire decreases resistance. ohm (34.4)
Ohm’s law (34.5)
Ohm's law states that the amount of current is
potential difference (34.1)
directly proportional to the voltage and inversely
voltage source (34.3)
proportional to the resistance.
= Resistors are used in many electric devices to
control current.
Review Questions Check Concepts
m Electric shock is the result of an electric cur-
rent passing through the body when there is 1. What condition is necessary for the flow of
a voltage difference between two parts of heat? What analogous condition is necessary
the body. for the flow of charge? (34.1)

Direct current (DC) is electric current in which 2. What is meant by the term potential? What is
the charge flows in one direction only; electrons meant by potential difference? (34.1)
in an alternating current (AC) alternate their 3. What condition is necessary for the sustained
direction of flow. flow of water in a pipe? What analogous con-
= Batteries produce direct current. Power utili- dition is necessary for the sustained flow of
ties produce alternating current. charge in a wire? (34.1)

= Alternating current allows low-cost, high- 4. What is electric current? (34.2)

voltage energy transmission across great 5. What is an ampere? (34.2)
distances, with safe low-voltage use by the
consumer. 6. What is voltage? (34.3)
545
7. How many joules per coulomb are given to SNR i GOI EI IETS TELE EE EY

charges that flow in a 120-volt circuit? (34.3) Plug and Chug Use Equations
8. Does charge flow through a circuit or into a 26. Calculate the current where 10 coulombs of
circuit? (34.3) charge pass a point in 5 seconds.
9. Does voltage flow through a circuit, or is volt- 27. Calculate the current of a lightning bolt that
age established across a circuit? (34.3) delivers a charge of 35 coulombs to the
10. What is electric resistance? (34.4) ground in a time of 1/1000 second.

11. Is electric resistance greater in a short fat wire 28. Calculate the current in a toaster that has a
or a long thin wire? (34.4) heating element of 14 ohms when connected
to a 120-V outlet.
12. What is Ohm’s law? (34.5)
29. Calculate the current in the coiled heating
13. If the voltage impressed across a circuit is element of a 240-V stove. The resistance of
constant but the resistance doubles, what the element is 60 ohms at its operating tem-
change occurs in the current? (34.5) perature.
14. If the resistance of a circuit remains constant 30. Electric socks, popular in cold weather, have
while the voltage across the circuit decreases a 90-ohm heating element that is powered by
to half its former value, what change occurs a 9-volt battery. How much current warms
in the current? (34.5) your feet?
15. How does wetness affect the resistance of 31. How much current moves through your fin-
your body? (34.6) gers (resistance: 1200 ohms) if you touch
16. Why is it that a bird can perch without harm them to the terminals of a 6-volt battery?
on a high-voltage wire? (34.6) 32. Calculate the resistance of the filament in a
17. What is the function of the third prong in a lightbulb that carries 0.4 A when 3.0 V is
household electric plug? (34.6) impressed across it.
18. Distinguish between DC and AC. Which is 33. Calculate the current in a 140-W electric
produced by a battery and which is usually blanket connected to a 120-V outlet.
produced by a generator? (34.7)
19. A diode converts AC to pulsed DC. What elec-
tric device smooths the pulsed DC to a Think and Explain Think Critically
smoother DC? (34.8)
34. Is this label on a household product cause for
20. What are the roles of a diode and a capacitor concern? “Caution: This product contains
in an AC-DC converter? (34.8) tiny electrically charged particles moving at
21. What is a typical “drift” speed of electrons speeds in excess of 10 000 000 kilometers per
that make up a current in a typical DC hour.”
circuit? In a typical AC circuit? (34.9) 35. Do an ampere and a volt measure the same
22. From where do the electrons originate that thing, or different things? What are those
flow in a typical electric circuit? (34.10) things, and which is a flow and which is the
cause of the flow?
23. What is power? (34.11)
36. Why are thick wires rather than thin wires
24. Which of these is a unit of power and which is used to carry large currents?
a unit of electrical energy: a watt, a kilowatt,
and a kilowatt-hour? (34.11) 37. Why is it important that the resistance of an
extension cord be small when it is used to
25. How many amperes flow through a 60-watt
power an electric heater?
bulb when 120 volts are impressed across it?
(34.11)

546 Chapter 34 _ Electric Current

38. Why will an electric drill operating on a very 50. The resistance of a certain wire is 10 ohms.
long extension cord not rotate as fast as one What would the resistance of the same wire
operated on a short cord? be if it were twice as long? If it were twice
39. Will the current in a lightbulb connected to as thick?
220 V be more or less than when the same 51. Calculate the power dissipated in a toaster
bulb is connected to 110 V? How much?2 that has a resistance of 14 ohms plugged into a
40. What is the effect on current if both the volt- 120-V outlet.
age and the resistance are doubled? If both 52. Calculate the yearly cost of running a 5-W
are halved? electric clock continuously in a location
41 - Would you expect to find DC or AC in the
where electricity costs 10 cents per kW-h.
dome lamp in an automobile? In a lamp in
your home?
42. In 60-Hz alternating current, how many times Activity Performance Assessment
per second does an electron change its direc- 53. Batteries are made up of electric cells, which
tion? (Don't say 60!) are composed of two unlike pieces of metal
43. Two lightbulbs designed for 120-V use are separated by a conducting solution. A simple
rated at 40 W and 60 W. Which lightbulb has 1.5-volt cell, equivalent to a flashlight cell, can
the greater filament resistance? Why? be made by placing a strip of copper anda
strip of zinc in a moist vegetable or piece
of fruit as shown in the figure. A lemon or
banana works fine. Hold the ends of the strips
Think and Solve close together but not touching, and place the
Develop Problem-Solving Skills ends on your tongue. The slight tingle you feel
and the metallic taste you experience result
44. How much current, in amperes, is in a light-
from a slight current of electricity pushed by
ning stroke that lasts 0.05 second and transfers
the cell through the metal strips when your
100 coulombs?
moist tongue closes the circuit. Try this and
45. How much charge flows in a pocket calcula- compare the results for different metals and
tor each minute when the current is different fruits and vegetables.
0.0001 ampere?
PAPER CLIP
46. How much voltage is required to make
2 amperes flow through a resistance of yy
8 ohms? FRUIT

47. A battery does 18 joules of work on 3 cou-

lombs of charge. What voltage does it supply?
Yay
48. Use the relationship power = current x volt- COPPER WIRE
age to find out how much current is drawn by
a 1200-wati hair dryer when it operates on
120 volts. Then use Ohm’s law to find the
resistance of the hair dryer.
49. The wattage marked on a lightbulb is not an
inherent property of the bulb but depends on
the amount of voltage to which it is connected,
usually 110 V or 120 V. Calculate the current
through a 40-W bulb connected to 120 V.

547
 Electric Circuits

echanical things seem to be easier to figure

out for most people than electrical things.
Maybe this is because most people have
had experience playing with blocks and mechanical
toys when they were children. If you are among the
many who have had far less direct experience with
Connection to a microcircuit. the inner workings of electric devices than with mechanical gadgets,
you are encouraged to put extra effort into the laboratory part of this
course. You'll find hands-on laboratory experience aids your under-
standing of electric circuits. The experience can be a lot of fun, too!

35.1 A Battery and a Bulb

Take apart an ordinary flashlight like the one shown in Figure 35.1. If
you don't have any spare pieces of wire around, cut some strips from
some aluminum foil that you probably have in one of your kitchen
drawers. Try to light up the bulb using a single battery* and a couple
of pieces of wire or foil.

Figure 35.1 B®
A flashlight taken apart.

cay
2 @2a
ata
Be
Foy
|

*
Strictly speaking, a battery consists of two or more cells. What most people call a flash-
light battery is more properly called a flashlight dry cell. To conform with popular
usage, this chapter uses the term battery to mean either a single cell or series of cells.

548 Chapter 35 _ Electric Circuits

 Some of the ways you can light the bulb and some of the ways
you cant light it are shown in Figure 35.2. The important thing to
note is that there must be a complete path, or circuit, from the posi-
tive terminal at the top of the battery to the negative terminal, which
is the bottom of the battery. Electrons flow from the negative part of
the battery through the wire or foil to the side (or bottom) of the
bulb, through the filament inside the bulb, and out the bottom (or
side) and through the other piece of wire or foil to the positive part
of the battery. The current then passes through the interior of the
batiery to complete the circuit.

PHiaa
Figure 35.2 A FILAMENT
(a) Unsuccessful ways to light a bulb. (b) Successful ways to light a bulb.

The flow of charge in a circuit is very much like the flow of water
in a closed system of pipes. For the setup shown in Figure 35.2b, the
battery is analogous to a pump, the wires are analogous to the pipes,
and the bulb is analogous to any device that operates when the
water is flowing. When a valve in the line is opened and the pump is INSULATOR
operating, water already in the pipes starts to flow. Similarly, when a Va”

switch is turned on to complete an electric circuit, the mobile con-

duction electrons already in the wires and the filament begin to drift Figure 35.3 A
through the circuit. The water flows through the pump and electrons Electrons do not pile up inside a
flow through the battery. Neither the water nor the electrons “squash bulb, but instead flow through its
up” and concentrate in certain places; they flow continuously filament.
around a loop, or circuit.

35.2 Electric Circuits

Any path along which electrons can flow is a circuit. For a continu-
ous flow of electrons, there must be a complete circuit with no gaps.
A gap is usually provided by an electric switch that can be opened or
closed to either cut off or allow electron flow.
The water analogy is quite useful for gaining a conceptual
understanding of electric circuits, but it does have some limitations.
An important one is that a break in a water pipe results in water
spilling from the circuit, whereas a break in an electric circuit results
in a complete stop in the flow of electricity. Another difference has
to do with turning current off and on. When you close an electrical
switch that connects the circuit, you allow current to flow in much
the same way as you allow water to flow by opening a faucet.
Opening a switch stops the flow of electricity. An electric circuit must

549
 be closed for electricity to flow. Opening a water faucet, on the other
hand, starts the flow of water. Despite these and some other differ-
ences, thinking of electric current in terms of water current is a help-
ful way to study electric circuits.
Most circuits have more than one device that receives electrical
energy. These devices are commonly connected in a circuit in one of
two ways, series or parallel. When connected in series, they form a
single pathway for electron flow between the terminals of the bat-
tery, generator, or wall socket (which is simply an extension of these
terminals). When connected in parallel, they form branches, each of
which is a separate path for the flow of electrons. Both series and
parallel connections have their own distinctive characteristics. This
chapter briefly treats circuits with these two types of connections.

35.3 Series Circuits

Figure 35.4 shows three lamps connected in series with a battery.
This is an example of a simple series circuit. When the switch is
closed, a current exists almost immediately in all three lamps. The
current does not “pile up” in any lamp but flows through each lamp.
Electrons in all parts of the circuit begin to move at once. Some elec-
trons move away from the negative terminal of the battery, some
move toward the positive terminal, and some move through the fila-
ment of each lamp. Eventually the electrons move all the way around
the circuit. A break anywhere in the path results in an open circuit,
and the flow of electrons ceases. Burning out of one of the lamp fila-
ments or simply opening the switch could cause such a break.

SWITCH
)
9-V BATTERY“
Figure 35.4 A
A simple series circuit. The 9-volt battery provides 3 volts across each lamp.

The circuit shown in Figure 35.4 illustrates the following impor-

tant characteristics of series connections:
1. Electric current has but a single pathway through the circuit. This
means that the current passing through each electric device is
the same.

Chapter 35 Electric Circuits

 . This current is resisted by the resistance of the first device, the
resistance of the second, and the third also, so that the total resis-
tance to current in the circuit is the sum of the individual resis-
tances along the circuit path.

. The current in the circuit is numerically equal to the voltage sup-

plied by the source divided by the total resistance of the circuit.
This is Ohm’s law.

Ohms law also applies separately to each device. The voltage drop,
or potential difference, across each device depends directly on its
resistance. This follows from the fact that more energy is used to
move a unit of charge through a large resistance than through a C
small resistance. a wiring eon that
_ shows how the series _
The total voltage impressed across a series circuit divides among and parallel circuits will
the individual electric devices in the circuit so that the sum of the _ be arranged and where
voltage drops across the individual devices is equal to the total the switches will be
voltage supplied by the source. This follows from the fact that the located. The next step is
amount of energy used to move each unit of charge through the to install the circuits and _
entire circuit equals the sum of the energies used to move that make sure current flows
unit of charge through each of the electric devices in the circuit. _ through the circuits prop-
erly and safely. The elec-
trician must also make
ee sure that the wiring —
H Questions a in *) ets Cat meets local codes.
st? Builders and contractors
1. What happens to current in other lamps if
one
lamp inaseries +4 rely on electricians for
circuit burns out? . Ate) J, any structure that uses
2. What happens to the light intensity of ert amo"ina series cir- electricity—from tall sky-
cuit when more lamps are added to the circuit? tat a scrapers to backyard
lighting systems.

It is easy to see the main disadvantage of a series circuit: If one

device fails, current in the whole circuit ceases and none of the
devices will work. Some cheap party lights are connected in series.
When one lamp burns out, it’s fun and games” (or frustration) trying
r,

to find which bulb to replace.

Most circuits are wired so that it is possible to operate electric
devices independently of each other. In your home, for example, a
lamp can be turned on or off without affecting the operation of
other lamps or electric devices. This is because these devices are
connected not in series but in parallel to one another.

Bi Answers

ile If one of the lamp filaments burns out, the path connecting the terminals of the voltage
source will break and current will cease. All lamps will go out.
The addition of more lamps in a series circuit results in a greater circuit resistance. This
decreases the current in the circuit and therefore in each lamp, which causes dimming
of the lamps. Energy is divided among more lamps so the voltage drop across each
lamp will be less.
 sae
a oT on
35.4 Parallel Circuits
Figure 35.5 shows three lamps connected to the same two points A
and B, This is an example of a simple parallel circuit. Electric devices
connected in parallel are connected to the same two points of an
electric circuit. Notice that each lamp has its own path from one ter-
minal of the battery to the other. There are three separate pathways
for current, one through each lamp. In contrast to a series circuit, the
current in one lamp does not pass through the other lamps. Also,
unlike lamps connected in series, the parallel circuit is completed
whether all, two, or only one lamp is lit. A break in any one path does
not interrupt the flow of charge in the other paths. Each device oper-
ates independently of the other devices.

9-V BATTERY-7

Figure 35.5 A
A simple parallel circuit. A 9-volt battery provides 9 volts across each lamp.

The circuit shown in Figure 35.5 illustrates the following major

characteristics of parallel connections:
1. Each device connects the same two points A and B of the circuit.
The voltage is therefore the same across each device.
2. The total current in the circuit divides among the parallel
branches. Current passes more readily into devices of low resis-
tance, so the amount of current in each branch is inversely pro-
1 Explore portional to the resistance of the branch. Ohm’s law applies
separately to each branch.
| 1 Laboratory Manual
87, 90, 91 3. The total current in the circuit equals the sum of the currents in
its parallel branches.
2 Concept-Development
Practice Book 35-7 4. As the number of parallel branches is increased, the overall resis-
3 Problem-Solving tance of the circuit is decreased. Overall resistance is lowered with
Exercises in iN, each added path between any two points of the circuit. This
Physics 76-4 means the overall resistance of the circuit is less than the resis-
tance of any one of the branches.

552 Chapter 35 Electric Circuits

 \'‘M GOING A LAMP WILL GLOW JUST AS BRIGHT
TO EXTEND THE WHEN CONNECTED
TERMINALS OF THIS
12-VOLT BATTERY
WITH THIS PAIR
OF METAL RODS.

NOW | FASTEN ANOTHER SAME BRIGHTNESS BECAUSE |

IDENTICAL LAMP --WHAT 12 VOLTS IS ACROSS EACH !
HAPPENSTO THE BRIGHTNESS
OF COURSE... OF THE FIRST?
i biepeo V1
ACROSS 12 VOLTS

AND A THIRD LAMP ALSO--- SAME BRIGHTNESS! HOW DOES THE BATTERY “KNOW” TO SUPPLY 3 |
TIMES AS MUCH CURRENT TO 3 LAMPS22
WHY NOT? THERE'S
STILL 12 VOLTS ACROSS
EACH LAMP. | , om’ Patties

| KNOW! WITH 3 SEPARATE VERY GOOD! BUT DOESN'T

PATHS, THE BATTERY HAS “3 THE THIS MEAN THE BATTERY 15
RESISTANCE BETWEEN ITS TERMINALS-- PUTTING OUT 3 TIMES AS TO WEAR DOWN
THAT‘S WHY IT WILL DELIVER 3 TIMES MUCH ENERGY AS WHEN 3 TIMES AS
AS MUCH CURRENT FOR ITS 12 VOLTS} =| LIGHTING ONLY ONE LAMP? FAST?

553
 @ Questions
1. What happens to the current in other lamps if one of the lamps
in a parallel circuit burns out?
2. What happens to the light intensity of each lamp ina parallel
circuit when more lamps are added in parallel to the circuit?

= |. BATTERY
CONNECTING
35.5 Schematic Diagrams
WIRE
Electric circuits are frequently described by simple diagrams, called
tee. OPEN SWITCH schematic diagrams, that are similar to those of the last two figures.
Some of the symbols used to represent certain circuit elements are
—+— CLOSED SWITCH shown in Figure 35.6. Resistance is shown by a zigzag line, and ideal
resistance-free wires are shown with solid straight lines. A battery is
—AWWW\— RESISTANCE represented with a set of short and long parallel lines. The conven-
tion is to represent the positive terminal of the battery with a long
Figure 35.6 A line and the negative terminal with a short line. Sometimes a two-
Symbols of some common cir- cell battery is represented with a pair of such lines, a three-cell with
cuit devices. three, and so on. Figure 35.7 shows schematic diagrams for the
circuits of Figures 35.4 and 35.5.

Figure 35.7 »
Schematic diagrams. (Left) The
circuit of Figure 35.4, with three
lamps in series. (Right) The cir-
cuit of Figure 35.5, with three
lamps in parallel.

1—
& Answers

1. If one lamp burns out, the other lamps will be unaffected. The current in each branch,
according to Ohm's law, is equal to (voltage)/(resistance), and since neither voltage
nor resistance is affected in the branches, the current in those branches is unaffected.
The total current in the overall circuit (the current through the battery), however, is
decreased by an amount equal to the current drawn by the lamp in question before it
burned out. But the current in any other single branch is unchanged.
NO The light intensity for each lamp is unchanged as other lamps are introduced (or
removed). Only the total resistance and total current in the total circuit changes, which
is to say, the current in the battery changes. (There is resistance in a battery also, which
we assume is negligible here.) As lamps are introduced, more paths are available
between the battery terminals, which effectively decreases total circuit resistance. This
decreased resistance is accompanied by an increased current, the same increase that
feeds energy to the lamps as they are introduced. Although changes of resistance and
current occur for the circuit as a whole, no changes occur in any individual branch in
the circuit.

554 Chapter 35 Electric Circuits

35.6 Combining Resistors in a
Compound Circuit
Sometimes it is useful to know the equivalent resistance of a circuit
that has several resistors in its network. The equivalent resistance is
the value of the single resistor that would comprise the same load to
the battery or power source. The equivalent resistance can be found
by the rules for adding resistors in series and parallel. For example,
the equivalent resistance for a pair of 1-ohm resistors in series is
simply 2 ohms.
The equivalent resistance for a pair of 1-ohm resistors in parallel
is 0.5 ohm. (The equivalent resistance is Jess because the current has
“twice the path width” when it takes the parallel path. In a similar
way, the more doors that are open in an auditorium full of people s sistance. to‘measure the
trying to exit, the Jess will be the resistance to their departure.) The - level iin1 the gasoline tank.
- A float iin ‘the tank adjusts -.
equivalent resistance for a pair of equal resistors in parallel is half
"the resistance ofavari-
the value of either resistor.
able electric resistor. |Max- &
y imum | resistance occurs Sake yt
ee Si

“when. the float ‘bottoms. eg

o—_WWWW B82
A
be d
=)
161
Otte: in the tank. Maximum
resistance produces the
aa
—

minimum current, which

b Pisses =) Wy barely deflects the pointer |

on the fuel gauge. When —
— the tank is full, the vari-
able resistor has its low-
Figure 35.8 A
est resistance and the
(a) The equivalent resistance of two 8-ohm resistors in series is 16 ohms.
maximum current flows
(b) The equivalent resistance of two 8-ohm resistors in parallel is 4 ohms.
through the fuel gauge.
For this current, the
Figure 35.9 shows a combination of three 8-ohm resistors. The gauge is calibrated to
two resistors in parallel are equivalent to a single 4-ohm resistor, read a full tank. Between
empty and full, corre-
which is in series with an 8-ohm resistor and adds to produce an
sponding values of cur-
equivalent resistance of 12 ohms. If a 12-volt battery were connected
rent produce appropriate
to these resistors, can you see from Ohm's law that the current
deflections of the fuel
through the battery would be 1 ampere? (In practice it would be less,
gauge pointer.
for there is resistance inside the battery as well, called the battery's
internal resistance.)

BN

BA ; BEM: 40 (2
=) WWA\-WW- =) SA

1 Explore [2
Develop
2 Concept-Development
Figure 35.9 A
in Practice Book 35-2
The equivalent resistance of the circuit is found by combining resistors
successive steps.
 Figure 35.10 A
The equivalent resistance of the top branch is 3 ohms, which is in parallel
with the 3-ohm resistance of the lower branch. The overall equivalent resis-
tance is 1.5 ohms.

Two more complex combinations are broken down in successive

equivalent combinations in Figures 35.10 and 35.11. It’s like a game:
Combine resistors in series by adding; combine a pair of equal resis-
tors in parallel by halving.* The value of the single resistor left is the
equivalent resistance of the combination.

60 VY 60 V 60 V

10 2 =) IOS? VO =) 20 2 =) 10

201

Figure 35.11 A
Schematic diagrams for an arrangement of various electric devices. The
equivalent resistance of the circuit is 10 ohms. (The 60-V battery is for
numerical convenience—most batteries are less than 60 V.)

—_—__ere—e————— CC eee

* For a pair of nonequal resistors in parallel, the equivalent resistance is found by taking
the product of the pair and dividing by the sum of the pair. That is

R R,R,
equivalent — R, + R,

This rule of “product divided by sum” holds only for two resistors in parallel. For three
or more parallel resistors, you can do a pair at a time (as is done in Figures 35.10 and
35.11), or use the more general formula

UU Recuivatent = /R, + 1/R, + /R, and so on.

Chapter 35 Electric Circuits

 @ Questions
The following questions are based on the schematic diagrams in
Figure 35.11.
1. What is the current in amperes through the battery? (Neglect
the internal resistance of the battery.)
2. What is the current in amperes through the pair of 10-ohm
resistors?
3. What is the current in amperes through each of the 8-ohm
resistors?
4. How much power is provided by the battery?

RN SSA ES
35.7 Parallel Circuits and Overloading
Electricity is usually fed into a home by way of two lead wires called
lines. These lines are very low in resistance and are connected to wall
outlets in each room. About 110 to 120 volts are impressed on these
lines by generators at the power utility. This voltage is applied to
appliances and other devices that are connected in parallel by plugs
to these lines.
As more devices are connected to the lines, more pathways are
provided for current. What effect do the additional pathways pro-
duce? The answer is, a lowering of the combined resistance of the
circuit. Therefore, a greater amount of current occurs in the lines.
Lines that carry more than a safe amount of current are said to be
overloaded. The resulting heat may be sufficient to melt the insula-
tion and start a fire.
You can see how overloading occurs by considering the circuit in
Figure 35.12. The supply line is connected to an electric toaster that
draws 8 amperes, to an electric heater that draws 10 amperes, and to

BH Answers

1. The current in the battery (or total current in the circuit) is 6 A. You can get this from
Ohm’s law: current = (voltage)/(resistance) = (60 V)/(10 Q) = 6 A. You know from the last
step in the figure that the equivalent resistance of the circuit is 10 Q.

i). Half the total circuit current, 3 A, will flow through the pair of 10 2 resistors. You know
this because you can see that both branches have the same resistance. This means that
the total circuit current will divide equally between the upper and lower branches.
(Can you think of another way to get the same answer?)

wo. The current through the pair of 8 Q resistors is 3 A, and the current through each is
therefore 1.5 A. This is because the 3-A current divides equally through these equal
resistances.

_ The battery supplies 360 watts. This is from the relationship

power = current X voltage = (6 A) x (60 V) = 360 watts

This power will be dissipated among all the resistors in the circuit.

557
 FUSE (OR CIRCUIT BREAKER)

— — —LINE

TOASTER LAMP
8 AMPS 2 AMPS
<=

TO POWER COMPANY
— — — LINE

Figure 35.12 A
Circuit diagram for appliances connected to a household supply line.

an electric lamp that draws 2 amperes. When only the toaster is

operating and drawing 8 amperes, the total line current is 8 amperes.
When the heater is also operating, the total line current increases to
18 amperes (8 amperes to the toaster and 10 amperes to the heater).
If you turn on the lamp, the line current increases to 20 amperes.
Connecting any more devices increases the current still more.
To prevent overloading in circuits, fuses are connected in series
along the supply line. In this way the entire line current must pass
through the fuse. The safety fuse shown below is constructed with a
wire ribbon that will heat up and melt at a given current. If the fuse
is rated at 20 amperes, it will pass 20 amperes, but no more. A cur-
rent above 20 amperes will melt the fuse, which “blows out” and
breaks the circuit. Before a blown fuse is replaced, the cause of over-
loading should be determined and remedied. Often, insulation that
separates the wires in a circuit wears away and allows the wires to
touch. This effectively shortens the path of the circuit, and is called
a short circuit. A short circuit draws a dangerously large current
because it bypasses the normal circuit resistance.

CURRENT
—__—_—_—_>
FUSE
RIBBON
TO CIRCUIT

Circuits may also be protected by circuit breakers, which use

magnets or bimetallic strips to open the switch. Utility companies
use circuit breakers to protect their lines all the way back to the gen-
1 Explore |2 Develop erators. Circuit breakers are used instead of fuses in modern build-
ings because they do not have to be replaced each time the circuit is
3 Laboratory Manual 92 opened. Instead, the switch can simply be moved back to the “on”
position after the problem has been corrected.

558 Chapter 35 __ Electric Circuits

 Chapter Assessment

Electric circuits are often described by schematic

(Go @nline For: Study and Review
Visit: PHSchool.com
diagrams, in which each element of the circuit is
represented by a symbol.
~—PHSchool.com Web Code: csd-5350
In a circuit with several resistors, the equivalent
resistance is the value of the single resistor that
would comprise the same load to the battery or
power source.
Concept Summary
m= For resistors in series, the equivalent resis-
Any path along which electric charge (usually tance is the sum of their values.
electrons) can flow is a circuit.
m= For resistors in parallel, the equivalent resistance
= Acomplete circuit is needed to maintain a is less than the value of any individual resistor.
continuous flow of charge.
Lines carrying an unsafe amount of current are
In a series circuit, electric devices form a single overloaded.
pathway for electron flow.
m= ‘To prevent overloading, fuses or circuit break-
gm A break anywhere in the path stops the elec- ers are inserted in lines that provide power.
tron flow in the entire circuit. Excessive current will “blow out” the fuse or
mu The total resistance is equal to the sum of “trip” the circuit breaker, stopping the current.
individual resistances along the current path. = Ashort circuit is often caused by faulty wire
m The current is equal to the voltage divided by insulation.
the total resistance.
m The voltage drop across each device is pro-
portional to its resistance. Key Terms
m The sum of voltage drops across the resis- circuit (35.1)
tance of the individual devices is equal to the in parallel (35.2)
total voltage. in series (35.2)
In a parallel circuit, electric devices form parallel circuit (35.4)
branches, each of which provides a separate path schematic diagram (35.5)
for the flow of electrons. series circuit (35.3)
m Each device connects the same two points of
the circuit; the voltage is the same across
each device.
Review Questions Check Concepts
mw The amount of current in each branch is
1. Are all the electrons flowing in a circuit pro-
inversely proportional to the resistance
vided by the battery? (35.1)
of the branch.
2. Why must there be no gaps in an electric cir-
m= The total current is equal to the sum of the
cuit for it to carry current? (35.1)
currents in the branches.
3. Distinguish between a series circuit and a
parallel circuit. (35.2)
 . If three lamps are connected in series to a 6- epmescnesescnpmismmminannins 2 Sy TEE SB

volt battery, how many volts are impressed Think and Explain Think Critically
across each lamp? (35.3)
18. Sometimes you hear someone say that a par-
. If one of three lamps blows out when con- ticular appliance “uses up” electricity. What is
nected in series, what happens to the current it that the appliance actually “uses up,” and
in the other two? (35.3) what becomes of it?
. If three lamps are connected in parallel to a 19. Why are the wingspans of birds a considera-
6-volt battery, how many volts are impressed tion in determining the spacing between par-
across each lamp? (35.4) allel wires in a power line?
. If one of three lamps blows out when con- 20. Why are household appliances almost never
nected in parallel, what happens to the cur- connected in series?,
rent in the other two? (35.4)
21. As more and more lamps are connected in
. a. In which case will there be more current in series to a flashlight battery, what happens to
each of three lamps—if they are connected to the brightness of each lamp?
the same battery in series or in parallel?
22. As more and more lamps are connected in
b. In which case will there be more voltage parallel to a battery, and if the current does
across each lamp? (35.4) not produce heating inside the battery, what
. What happens to the total circuit resistance happens to the brightness of each lamp?
when more devices are added to a series cir- 23. In the circuit shown, how do the brightnesses
cuit? To a parallel circuit? (35.6) of the identical bulbs compare? Which light-
10. What is the equivalent resistance of a pair of bulb draws the most current? What happens if
8-ohm resistors in series? In parallel? (35.6) bulb A is unscrewed? If bulb C is unscrewed?
tL: Why does the total circuit resistance decrease
when more devices are added to a parallel
circuit? (35.6)
12. What does it mean when you say that lines in
a home are overloaded? (35.7)
13. What is the function of a fuse or circuit
breaker in a circuit? (35.7)

14. Why will too many electric devices operating

at one time often blow a fuse or trip a circuit
breaker? (35.7)
15. What is meant by a short circuit? (35.7)

Plug and Chug Use Equations

16. Calculate the current in a 48-V battery that
powers a pair of 30 Q resistors connected 24. A number of lightbulbs are to be connected
in series. to a battery. Which will provide more overall
brightness, connecting them in series or in
17. Calculate the current in a 48-V battery that parallel? Which will run the battery down
powers a pair of 30 Q resistors connected faster, the bulbs connected in series or the
in parallel. bulbs connected in parallel?

560 Chapter 35 _ Electric Circuits

25. A three-way bulb uses two filaments to pro- 30. How many 4 Q resistors must be connected
duce three levels of illumination (50 W, 100 W, in parallel to create an equivalent resistance
and 150 W) using a 120-V socket. When one of 0.5 022
of the filaments burns out, only one level, the
31. What is the current in the battery of the cir-
50-W or the 100-W, is available. Are the fila-
cuit shown below? (What must you find
ments connected in series or in parallel?
before you can calculate the current?)
26. How does the line current compare with
the total currents of all devices connected 10V
in parallel?
27. A 60-W bulb and a 100-W bulb are connected
in series in a circuit. Which bulb has the 308
greater current flowing in it? Which has the oH)
greater current when they are connected
in parallel?

32. The rear window defrosters on automobiles are

Think and Solve made up of several strips of heater wire con-
nected in parallel. Consider the case of four
Develop Problem-Solving Skills
wires, each of 6 Q resistance, connected to 12 V.
28. A 16 Q loudspeaker and an 8 Q loudspeaker
are connected in parallel across the terminals a. What is the equivalent resistance of the
of an amplifier. Assuming the speakers behave four wires? (Consider the wires to be two
as resistors, calculate the equivalent resistance groups of two.)
of the two speakers. b. What is the total current drawn?
29. Consider the combination series and parallel 33. A 4-watt night light is plugged into a 120-volt
circuit shown here. circuit and operates continuously for a 30-day
month.
10V
a. How much current does it draw?
410Nn b. What is the resistance of its filament?
ZOD) taht: c. How much energy does it use in the month?
d. What is the cost of its operation for the
month at the utility rate of 10 cents per
kilowatt-hour?

a. Identify the parallel part of the circuit.

What is the equivalent resistance of this part?
In other words, what single resistance could
replace this part of the circuit and not change
the total current from the battery?
b. What is the equivalent resistance of all the
resistors? In other words, what single resis-
tance could replace the whole circuit without
changing the current from the battery?
 Magnetism

agnets are fascinating. Bring a pair close

together and they snap together and
stick. Turn one of the magnets around
and they repel each other. A magnet will stick to a
refrigerator door, but it won't stick to an aluminum
pan. Magnets come in all shapes and sizes. They are popular as toys,
A compass points northward
because Earth is a giant magnet. are utilized as compasses, and are essential elements in electric
motors and generators. Magnetism is very common to everything
you see, for it is an essential ingredient of light itself.
The term magnetism stems from certain rocks called lodestones
found more than 2000 years ago in the region of Magnesia in Greece.
In the twelfth century, the Chinese used them for navigating ships.
In the eighteenth century, the French physicist Charles Coulomb
studied the forces between lodestones. We now know that lode-
stones contain iron ore, which has been named magnetite.
Electricity and magnetism were regarded as unrelated phenom-
ena into the early nineteenth century. This changed in 1820 when a
Danish science professor, Hans Christian Oersted, discovered a rela-
tionship between the two while demonstrating electric currents in
front of a class of students. When electric current was passed in a
wire near a magnetic compass, both Oersted and his students
noticed the deflection of the compass needle. This was the connect-
ing link that had eluded investigators for decades.* Other discoveries
soon followed. Magnets were found to exert forces on current-
carrying wires, which led to electric meters and motors. The stage
was set for a whole new technology, which would bring electric
power, radio, and television.

* We can only speculate about how often such relationships become evident when they
“aren't supposed to” and are dismissed as “something wrong with the apparatus.”
Oersted, however, had the insight characteristic of a good scientist to see that nature
was revealing another of its secrets.
 Figure 36.1 A
Which interaction has the greater strength—the gravitational attraction
between the scrap iron and Earth, or the magnetic attraction between the
magnet and the scrap iron?

SEE WEE 9
36.1 Magnetic Poles
Magnets exert forces on one another. They are similar to electric
charges, for they can both attract and repel without touching, depend-
ing on which end is held near the other. Also, like electric charges, the
strength of their interaction depends on the distance of separation of
the two magnets. Whereas electric charges produce electrical forces,
regions called magnetic poles produce magnetic forces.
If you suspend a bar magnet from its center by a piece of string,
it will act as a compass. The end that points northward is called the
north-seeking pole, and the end that points southward is called the
south-seeking pole. More simply, these are called the north and south
poles. All magnets have both a north and a south pole. For a simple
bar magnet the poles are located at the two ends. The common
horseshoe magnet is a bar magnet that has been bent, so its poles
are also at its two ends.
If the north pole of one magnet is brought near the north pole
of another magnet, they repel. The same is true of a south pole near
a south pole. If opposite poles are brought together, however, attrac-
tion occurs.*
Like poles repel; opposite poles attract. Figure 36.2 A
Common magnets.

* The force of interaction between magnetic poles is given by F ~ pp’/d2, where p and p’
represent magnetic pole strengths, and d represents the separation distance between
them. Note the similarity of this relationship to Coulomb’s law and Newton’s law of
gravity.

563
 Magnetic poles behave similarly to electric charges in some
ways, but there is a very important difference. Electric charges can
be isolated, but magnetic poles cannot. Negatively charged electrons
and positively charged protons are entities by themselves. A cluster
of electrons need not be accompanied by a cluster of protons, and
vice versa. But a north magnetic pole never exists without the pres-
ence of a south pole, and vice versa. The north and south poles of a
magnet are like the head and tail of the same coin.
If you break a bar magnet in half, each half still behaves as a com-
plete magnet. Break the pieces in half again, and you have four com-
Figure 36.3 A
plete magnets. You can continue breaking the pieces in half and never
Break a magnet in half and you
isolate a single pole. Even when your piece is one atom thick, there
have two magnets. Break these in
half and you have four magnets, are two poles. This suggests that atoms themselves are magnets.
each with a north and a south
pole. Keep breaking the pieces
further and further and you find BH Question
the same results. Magnetic poles
always exist in pairs.
Does every magnet necessarily have a north and a south pole?

NR S/o
36.2 Magnetic Fields
Place a sheet of paper over a bar magnet and sprinkle iron filings on the
paper. The filings will tend to trace out an orderly pattern of lines that
surround the magnet. The space around a magnet, in which a magnetic
force is exerted, is filled with a magnetic field. The shape of the field is
revealed by magnetic field lines. Magnetic field lines spread out from
one pole, curve around the magnet, and return to the other pole.

Figure 36.4 A
lron filings trace out a pattern of magnetic field lines in the space surround-
ing the magnet.

EES

1 Explore
@ Answer
1 Laboratory Manual 93 Yes, just as every coin has two sides, a “head” and a “tail.” (Some “trick” magnets have
more than two poles.)

564 Chapter 36 Magnetism

 The direction of the field outside the magnet is from the north to
the south pole. Where the lines are closer together, the field strength
Is greater. We see that the magnetic field strength is greater at the
poles. If we place another magnet or a small compass anywhere in
the field, its poles will tend to line up with the magnetic field.

Figure 36.5 A
Like the iron filings, the com-
passes line up with the magnetic
field lines.

Figure 36.6 A
The magnetic field patterns for a pair of magnets when (left) like poles are
near each other, and (right) opposite poles are near each other.

ae ee ee

36.3 The Nature of a Magnetic Field

Magnetism is very much related to electricity. Just as an electric charge
is surrounded by an electric field, the same charge is also surrounded
by a magnetic field if it is moving. This is due to the “distortions” in the
electric field caused by motion, and was explained by Albert Einstein
in 1905 in his theory of special relativity. This text will not go into the
details, except to acknowledge that a magnetic field is a relativistic
by-product of the electric field. Charges in motion have associated
with them both an electric and a magnetic field. A magnetic field is
produced by the motion of electric charge.*
Where is the motion of electric charges in a common bar mag-
net? Although the magnet as a whole may be stationary, it is com-
posed of atoms whose electrons are in constant motion about atomic
nuclei. This moving charge constitutes a tiny current and produces a
magnetic field. More important, electrons spin about their own axes
like tops. A spinning electron constitutes a charge in motion and thus Figure 36.7 A
creates another magnetic field. In most materials, the field due to Both the orbital motion and the
spinning motion of every elec-
spinning predominates over the field due to orbital motion.
tron in an atom produce mag-
Every spinning electron is a tiny magnet. A pair of electrons
netic fields. These fields combine
spinning in the same direction makes up a stronger magnet. A pair of constructively or destructively to
electrons spinning in opposite directions, however, work against one produce the magnetic field of the
another. Their magnetic fields cancel. This is why most substances are atom. The resulting field is great-
not magnets. In most atoms, the various fields cancel one another est for iron atoms.

* Interestingly enough, since motion is relative, the magnetic field is relative. For example,
when a charge moves by you, there is a definite magnetic field associated with the mov-
ing charge. But if you move along with the charge so that there is no motion relative to
you, there is no magnetic field associated with the charge. Magnetism is relativistic.
 1 Explore
[2
Devt because the electrons spin in opposite directions. In materials such
as iron, nickel, and cobalt, however, the fields do not cancel one
3 Problem-Solving another entirely. Each iron atom has four electrons whose spin mag-
Exercises in netism is uncanceled. Each iron atom, then, is a tiny magnet. The
Physics 77-7 same is true to a lesser degree for the atoms of nickel and cobalt.*

MEE 6
36.4 Magnetic Domains
The magnetic fields of individual iron atoms are so strong that inter-
actions among adjacent iron atoms cause large clusters of them to
line up with one another. These clusters of aligned atoms are called
magnetic domains. Each domain is perfectly magnetized, and is
made up of billions of aligned atoms. The domains are microscopic
(Figure 36.8), and there are many of them in a crystal of iron.

UNMAGNETIZED IRON
Figure 36.8 A
A microscopic view of magnetic
domains in a crystal of iron.
Each domain consists of billions 3 N
of aligned iron atoms.
SLIGHTLY MAGNETIZED IRON

aera hn
= az,
STRONGLY MAGNETIZED IRON

Figure 36.9 >

A piece of iron in successive
stages of magnetism. The arrows
represent domains, where the
head is a north pole and the tail a
WHEN A MAGNET IS BROKEN
south pole. Poles of neighboring
domains neutralize one another’s
INTO TWO PIECES, EACH PIECE
effects, except at the ends. RETAINS EQUALLY STRONG POLES

The difference between a piece of ordinary iron and an iron

magnet is the alignment of domains. In a common iron nail, the
domains are randomly oriented. When a strong magnet is brought
nearby, two effects take place. One is a growth in size of domains
that are oriented in the direction of the magnetic field. This growth
is at the expense of domains that are not aligned. The other effect
is a rotation of domains as they are brought into alignment.
a eeeeSsS—S—SsSsSs

* Most common magnets are made from alloys containing iron, nickel, cobalt,
and alu-
minum in various proportions. In these metals the electron spin contribute
s virtually all
the magnetic properties. In the rare earth metals, such as gadolinium,
the orbital
motion is more significant.

566 Chapter 36 Magnetism

 PHYSICS

| ators, file cabinets, faitsoven See if

the north pole of the compass points
to the tops of the objects, and the
south pole points to the bottoms. If so,
the objects have become magnetized
by Earth’s magnetic field. Now place
the compass alongside a can of stored
food in your pantry. See if the can is
magnetized. Turn the can over and see how many days it takes for
it to lose its magnetism and then reverse its polarity.

The domains become aligned much as electric dipoles are aligned in

the presence of a charged rod. When you remove the nail from the
magnet, ordinary thermal motion causes most or all of the domains
in the nail to return to a random arrangement.
Permanent magnets are made by simply placing pieces of iron or
certain iron alloys in strong magnetic fields. Alloys of iron differ; soft
iron is easier to magnetize than steel. It helps to tap the iron to
nudge any stubborn domains into alignment. Another way of mak-
ing a permanent magnet is to stroke a piece of iron with a magnet.
The stroking motion aligns the domains in the iron. If a permanent
magnet is dropped or heated, some of the domains are jostled out of
alignment and the magnet becomes weaker.

0% 5 So0rrFoek 4 bio
@ a ' - 7+? } «, $ a]

ti ns
1a uestio : s “
ae: OF enti wee r

a How can a magnet rer a piece ofi

ironn that
isnotmagrnetized?
NeeThe iron filings sprinkled on the paper that covers‘the magnet
ont| Figure 36.4 were not initially magnetized. Why, then, do they.
~»a
teline up aidethe ‘magnetic field a the magnet? —oe 8
Figure 36.10 A
The iron nails become induced
H Answers magnets.

1. Domains in the unmagnetized piece of iron are induced into alignment by the magnetic
field of the nearby permanent magnet. See the similarity of this with Figure 32.12 back
in Chapter 32. Like the pieces of paper jumping to the comb, pieces of iron will jump to
a strong magnet when it is brought nearby. But unlike the paper, they are not repelled.
Can you think of the reason why?

2. Domains align in the individual filings, causing them to act like tiny compasses. The
poles of each “compass” are pulled in opposite directions, producing a torque that
twists each filing into alignment with the external magnetic field.

567
 36.5 Electric Currents and Magnetic
Fields
A moving charge produces a magnetic field. Many charges in motion
—an electric current—also produce a magnetic field. The magnetic
field that surrounds a current-carrying conductor can be demon-
strated by arranging an assortment of magnetic compasses around a
wire (Figure 36.11) and passing a current through it. The compasses
line up with the magnetic field produced by the current and show it
to be a pattern of concentric circles about the wire. When the current
reverses direction, the compasses turn completely around, showing
that the direction of the magnetic field changes also. This is the effect
that Oersted first demonstrated in the classroom.

Figure 36.11 >

(Left) When there is no current in
the wire, the compasses align
with Earth’s magnetic field.
(Right) When there is a current in
the wire, the compasses align
with the stronger magnetic field
near the wire. The magnetic field
forms concentric circles about
the wire.
If the wire is bent into a loop, the magnetic field lines become
bunched up inside the loop (Figure 36.12). If the wire is bent into
another loop, overlapping the first, the concentration of magnetic
field lines inside the double loop is twice as much as in the single
loop. It follows that the magnetic field intensity in this region is
increased as the number of loops is increased. A current-carrying
coil of wire with many loops is an electromagnet.

WAN AWAVAVAUEUAVC
Figure 36.12 >
Magnetic field lines about a cur-
rent-carrying wire crowd up
when the wire is bent into a loop.

ade Sa
a CARRYING WIRE

568 Chapter 36 Magnetism

 mM exciting application of guideway, the coils generate
Proeerensicene electro- currents in the aluminum that
~magnets is magnetically levi- act as mirror-image magnets
tated, or “maglev” and repel the train. It floats
transportation. Shown here is about 10 millimeters above
a maglev train that shuttles the guideway, and its speed is
passengers to and from limited only by air friction and
Shanghai International passenger comfort. Watch for
Airport at speeds up to 460 the proliferation of this rela-
km/h. It covers some 30 kilo- tively new technology.
meters in less than eight minutes. The train Critical Thinking What advantages do
carries superconducting coils on its underside. magnetically levitated trains have over con-
Moving along the aluminum track, called a ventional trains?

Sometimes a piece of iron is placed inside the coil of an electro-

magnet. The magnetic domains in the iron are induced into align-
ment, increasing the magnetic field intensity. Beyond a certain limit,
the magnetic field in iron “saturates,” so iron is not used in the cores
of the strongest electromagnets, which are made of superconducting
material (see Section 32.4).
A superconducting electromagnet can generate a powerful mag-
netic field indefinitely without using any power. At Fermilab near
Chicago, superconducting electromagnets guide high-energy particles
around the four-mile-circumference accelerator. Since the substitu-
tion of superconducting electromagnets for conventional ones in
1983, monthly electric bills are far less and the particles are acceler-
ated to greater energies. Superconducting magnets can also be found
in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) devices in hospitals. They also
hold much promise for high-speed transportation.

Figure 36.13 A
Iron filings sprinkled on paper reveal the magnetic field configurations about
(left) a current-carrying wire, (center) a current-carrying loop, and (right) a
coil of loops.
 2Se Sas Lo

36.6 Magnetic Forces on Moving

Charged Particles
A charged particle at rest will not interact with a static magnetic field.
But if the charged particle moves in a magnetic field, the magnetic
character of its motion becomes evident. The charged particle expe-
riences a deflecting force.* The force is greatest when the particle
moves in a direction perpendicular to the magnetic field lines. At other
angles, the force is less; it becomes zero when the particle moves par-
allel to the field lines. In any case, the direction of the force is always
perpendicular to both the magnetic field lines and the velocity of the
charged particle (Figure 36.14). So a moving charge is deflected when
it crosses magnetic field lines but not when it travels parallel to the
field lines.

———

ELECTRON =
BEAM FORCE

MAGNETIC EA
FIELD saely

Figure 36.14 A
A beam of electrons is deflected by a magnetic field.

This sideways deflecting force is very different from the forces

that occur in other interactions, such as the force of gravitation
between masses, the electrostatic force between charges, and the
force between magnetic poles. The force that acts on a moving
y charged particle does not act in a direction between the sources of
"Se en thy interaction, but instead acts perpendicular to both the magnetic
TI St G5 field and the electron velocity.
HNN Ses, eae It’s nice that charged particles are deflected by magnetic fields, for
this fact is employed to spread electrons onto the inner surface of a TV
Figure 36.15 A tube and provide a picture. This effect of magnetic fields also works on
The magnetic field of Earth a larger scale. Charged particles from outer space are deflected by
deflects many charged particles Earth’s magnetic field. The intensity of cosmic rays striking Earth’s
that make up cosmic radiation. surface would be more intense otherwise (Figure 36.15).

* When particles of electric charge q and speed v move perpendicular to a magnetic field
of strength B, the force F on each particle is simply the product of the three variables:
F = qvB. For nonperpendicular angles, vin this relationship must be the component of
velocity perpendicular to the field.

570 Chapter 36 Magnetism

RE ASS ee I eS
_ LINK TO TECHNOLOGY’
36.7 Magnetic Forces on Current-
Carrying Wires
Simple logic tells you that if a charged particle moving through a
magnetic field experiences a deflecting force, then a current of
charged particles moving through a magnetic field also experiences a
deflecting force. If the particles are trapped inside a wire when they
respond to the deflecting force, the wire will also move (Figure 36.16).

UP
FORCE |S
e loudspeakers of your —4
FORCE IS io and
| radio of other sound- _
DOWN — \
|producing systems
change electric signals |
| into sound waves. The _
electric signals pass
| through acoilwound
around the neckofa =>
paper cone. This coil acts -
_ as an electromagnet,
which is located neara
Figure 36.16 A permanent magnet. When.
A current-carrying wire experiences a force in a magnetic field. (Can you see current flows one way,
that this is a simple extension of Figure 36.14?) magnetic force pushes
the electromagnet toward
the permanent magnet,
If the direction of current in the wire is reversed, the deflecting pulling the cone inward.
force acts in the opposite direction. The force is maximum when the When current flows the
current is perpendicular to the magnetic field lines. The direction of other way, the cone is
force is along neither the magnetic field lines nor the direction of cur- pushed outward.
rent. The force is perpendicular to both field lines and current, and it Vibrations in the electric
is a sideways force. signal then cause the
So just as a current-carrying wire will deflect a magnetic com- cone to vibrate. Vibrations
pass, a magnet will deflect a current-carrying wire. Both cases show of the cone produce
different effects of the same phenomenon. The discovery that a mag- sound waves in the air.
net exerts a force on a current-carrying wire created much excite-
ment, for almost immediately people began harnessing this force for
useful purposes—with great sensitivity in electric meters, and with
great force in electric motors.

H Question
What law of physics tells you that if a current-carrying wire pro-
duces a force on a magnet, a magnet must produce a force on a
current-carrying wire? 1 Explore

1 Laboratory Manual 94
2 Concept-Development
BH Answer
Practice Book 36-7
Newton’s third law, which applies to all forces in nature.

571
 36.8 Meters to Motors
The simplest meter to detect electric current is shown in Figure 36.17.
It consists of a magnetic needle on a pivot at the center of a number
of loops of insulated wire. When an electric current passes through
the coil, each loop produces its own effect on the needle so that a
very small current can be detected. A sensitive current-indicating
instrument is called a galuanometer.*

Figure 36.17 A
A very simple galvanometer.

A more common design is shown in Figure 36.18. It employs more

loops of wire and is therefore more sensitive. The coil is mounted for
movement and the magnet is held stationary. The coil turns against a
spring, so the greater the current in its loops, the greater its deflection.
A galvanometer may be calibrated to measure current (amperes),
in which case it is called an ammeter. Or it may be calibrated to mea-
sure electric potential (volts), in which case it is called a voltmeter.
If the design of the galvanometer is slightly modified, you have
Figure 36.18 A an electric motor. The principal difference is that the current is made
A common galvanometer design. to change direction every time the coil makes a half revolution. After
it has been forced to rotate one half revolution, it overshoots just in
time for the current to reverse, whereupon it is forced to continue
another half revolution, and so on in cyclic fashion to produce con-
tinuous rotation.
A simple DC motor is shown in bare outline in Figure 36.20. A
permanent magnet is used to produce a magnetic field in a region
where a rectangular loop of wire is mounted so that it can turn about
an axis as shown. When a current passes through the loop, it flows in
opposite directions in the upper and lower sides of the loop. (It has to
do this because if charge flows into one end of the loop, it must flow
out the other end.) If the upper portion of the loop is forced to the
left, then the lower portion is forced to the right, as if it were a gal-
vanometer. But unlike a galvanometer, the current is reversed during
each half revolution by means of stationary contacts on the shaft. The
parts of the wire that brush against these contacts are called brushes.
In this way, the current in the loop alternates so that the forces in the
upper and lower regions do not change directions as the loop rotates.
The rotation is continuous as long as current is supplied.

* The galvanometer is named after Luigi Galvani (1737-1798), who discovered while dis-
secting a frog's leg that electric charge caused the leg to twitch. This chance discovery
led to the invention of the chemical cell and the battery.

572 Chapter 36 Magnetism

 < Figure 36.19
A multimeter can function as
both an ammeter and a volt-
meter. (The electrical resistance
of the instrument is made to be
very low for the ammeter, and
very high for the voltmeter.)

Larger motors, DC or AC, are usually made by replacing the per-

manent magnet with an electromagnet that is energized by the
power source. Of course, more than a single loop is used. Many
loops of wire are wound about an iron cylinder, called an armature,
which then rotates when energized with electric current.
The advent of the motor made it possible to replace enormous
human and animal toil by electric power in most parts of the world.
Electric motors have greatly changed the way people live.

ROTATING LOOP

STATIONARY CONTACTS

rs CURRENT

Figure 36.20 A
A simplified DC motor.

H Question
~ How is a galvanometer similar to a simple electric motor? How do
they fundamentally differ?
LL

BH Answer

A galvanometer and a motor are similar in that they both employ coils positioned in mag-
netic fields. When current passes through the coils, forces on the wires rotate the coils.
The fundamental difference is that the maximum rotation of the coil in a galvanometer is
one half turn, whereas in a motor the coil (armature) rotates through many complete
turns. In the armature of a motor, the current is made to change direction with each half
turn of the armature.

573
 SSE a RU
36.9 Earth’s Magnetic Field
FORAY YL BS A compass points northward because Earth itself is a huge magnet. The
-GEOGRAPHK
GEOGRAPH! Hy AGNETIC compass aligns with the magnetic field of Earth. The magnetic poles of
NORTH PC
so Co a | mn} F -, os 4
Earth, however, do not coincide with the geographic poles—in fact, they
aren't even close to the geographic poles. The magnetic pole in the
Northern Hemisphere, for example, is located nearly 1800 kilometers
from the geographic North Pole, somewhere in the Hudson Bay region
of northern Canada. The other magnetic pole is located south of
Australia (Figure 36.21). This means that compasses do not generally
point to true north. The discrepancy between the orientation of a com-
pass and true north is known as the magnetic declination.
It is not known exactly why Earth itself is a magnet. The configu-
ration of Earth’s magnetic field is like that of a strong bar magnet
Figure 36.21 A placed near the center of Earth. But Earth is not a magnetized chunk
Earth is a giant magnet. of iron like a bar magnet. It is simply too hot for individual atoms to
remain aligned.
Currents in the molten part of Earth beneath the crust provide a
better explanation for Earth’s magnetic field. Most geologists think
that moving charges looping around within Earth create its magnetic
field. Because of Earth's great size, the speed of moving charges
would have to be less than one millimeter per second to account for
the field.
Convection currents from the rising heat of Earth’s core are
another possible cause for Earth’s magnetic field (Figure 36.22).
Earth’s heat comes from the release of nuclear energy—radioactive
decay. Perhaps such convection currents combined with the rota-
tional effects of Earth produce Earth’s magnetic field. A firmer expla-
nation awaits more study.
Whatever the cause, the magnetic field of Earth is not stable; it has
wandered throughout geologic time. Evidence of this comes from
analysis of the magnetic properties of rock strata. Iron atoms in a
molten state tend to align themselves with Earth’s magnetic field. When
the iron solidifies, the direction of Earth's field is recorded by the orien-
tation of the domains in the rock. The slight magnetism that results can
be measured with sensitive instruments. As samples of rock from differ-
ent strata formed throughout geologic time are tested, the magnetic
field of Earth for different periods can be charted. The evidence from
Figure 36.22 A the rock shows that there have been times when the magnetic field of
Convection currents in the molten Earth has diminished to zero and then reversed itself.
parts of Earth’s interior may More than twenty reversals have taken place in the past 5 million
produce Earth's magnetic field. years. The most recent occurred 700 000 years ago. Prior reversals
happened 870 000 and 950 000 years ago. Studies of deep-sea sedi-
ments indicate that the field was virtually switched off for 10 000 to
20 000 years just over | million years ago. This was the time that
modern humans emerged.
We cannot predict when the next reversal will occur because the
reversal sequence is not regular. But there is a clue in recent mea-
surements that show a decrease of over 5% of Earth’s magnetic field
strength in the last 100 years. If this change is maintained, we may
well have another magnetic field reversal within 2000 years.

574 Chapter36 Magnetism

 Chapter Assessment

For: Study and Review Key Terms

Go @nline Visit: PHSchool.com
ool.com Web Code: csd-5360 electromagnet (36.5)
magnetic domain (36.4)
magnetic field (36.2)
magnetic pole (36.1)
Concept Summary
North and south magnetic poles produce mag-
netic forces. Review Questions Check Concepts
m Like poles repel; opposite poles attract. 1. What do electric charges have in common
m North and south poles always occur in pairs. with magnetic poles? (36.1)

A magnetic field is produced by the motion of 2. What is a major difference between electric
electric charge. charges and magnetic poles? (36.1)

m= In magnetic substances such as iron, the 3. What is a magnetic field, and what is its
magnetic fields created by spinning electrons source? (36.2)
do not cancel one another out; large clusters 4. Every spinning electron is a tiny magnet.
of magnetic atoms align to form magnetic Since all atoms have spinning electrons, why
domains. are not all atoms tiny magnets? (36.3)
m= Innonmagnetic substances, electron pairs 5. What is so special about iron that makes each
within the atoms spin in opposite directions; iron atom a tiny magnet? (36.3)
there is no net magnetic field.
6. What is a magnetic domain? (36.4)
An electric current produces a magnetic field.
7. Why do some pieces of iron behave as mag-
m Bending a current-carrying wire into coils nets, while other pieces of iron do not? (36.4)
intensifies the magnetic field.
8. How can a piece of iron be induced into
m Placing a piece of iron into a current-carrying becoming a magnet? For example, if you
coil creates an electromagnet. place a paper clip near a magnet, it will itself
become a magnet. Why? (36.4)
A moving charged particle may be deflected by a
magnetic field. 9. Why will dropping or heating a magnet
weaken it? (36.4)
m Deflection is greatest for particles moving
perpendicular to the magnetic field, and zero 10. What is the shape of the magnetic field that
for particles moving parallel to the field. surrounds a current-carrying wire? (36.5)

An electric current is also deflected by a magnetic 11. If a current-carrying wire is bent into a loop,
field. why is the magnetic field stronger inside the
loop than outside? (36.5)
w The force is maximum when the current is
perpendicular to the field. 12. What must a charged particle be doing in
order to experience a magnetic force? (36.6)
= Galvanometers, ammeters, voltmeters, and
electric motors are based on this effect. 13. With respect to an electric and a magnetic
field, how does the direction of a magnetic
Earth itself is a magnet; its magnetic poles are force on a charged particle differ from the
almost 2000 km from its geographic poles. direction of the electric force? (36.6)

575
14. What role does Earth’s magnetic field play in 26. A cyclotron is a device for accelerating
cosmic ray bombardment? (36.6) charged particles to high speeds in circular
orbits of ever-increasing radius. The charged
15. How does the direction in which a current-
particles are subjected to both an electric
carrying wire is forced when in a magnetic
field and a magnetic field. One of these fields
field compare with the direction that moving
increases the speed of the particles, and the
charges are forced? (36.7)
other field holds them in a circular path.
16. How do the concepts of force, field, and cur- Which field performs which function?
rent relate to a galvanometer? (36.8)
ate A magnetic field can deflect a beam of elec-
17. Why is it important that the current in the trons, but it cannot do work on them to
armature of a motor that uses a permanent speed them up. Why? (Hint: Consider the
magnet periodically change direction? (36.8) direction of the force relative to the direction
in which the electrons move.)
18. What is meant by magnetic declination? (36.9)
28. In what direction relative to a magnetic field
19. According to most geophysicists, what is the
does a charged particle travel in order to
probable cause of Earth’s magnetic field?
experience maximum magnetic force?
(36.9)
Minimum magnetic force?
20. What are magnetic pole reversals, and what
29. Pigeons have multiple-domain magnetite
evidence is there that Earth’s magnetic field
magnets within their skulls that are con-
has undergone pole reversals throughout its
nected through a large number of nerves to
history? (36.9)
the pigeon’s brain. How does this aid the
pigeon in navigation? (Magnetic material also
exists in the abdomens of bees.)
Think and Explain Think Critically 30 . What changes in cosmic ray intensity at
21. What kind of field surrounds a stationary Earth’s surface would you expect during peri-
electric charge? A moving electric charge? ods in which Earth’s magnetic field passed
through a zero phase while undergoing pole
22. Why can iron be made to behave as a magnet reversals? (A widely held theory, supported by
while wood cannot? fossil evidence, is that the periods of no pro-
23. Since iron filings are not themselves magnets, tective magnetic field may have been as effec-
by what mechanism do they align themselves tive in changing life forms as X-rays have been
with a magnetic field as shown in Figure 36.6? in the famous heredity studies of fruit flies.)

24, A strong magnet and a weak magnet attract 31. Earth’s core is probably composed of iron and
each other. Which magnet exerts the stronger nickel, excellent metals for making perma-
force—the strong one or the weak one? nent magnets. Why is it unlikely that Earth’s
(Could you have answered this way back in core is a permanent magnet?
Chapter 62) 32. Can an electron be set into motion with a
25. Why will the magnetic field strength be fur- magnetic field? With an electric field? Explain.
ther increased inside a current-carrying coil if
a piece of iron is placed in the coil?

576 Chapter36 Magnetism

Electromagnetic
Induction

he discovery that an electric current in a

wire produced magnetism was a turning
point in physics and the technology that 4a fl
followed. The question arose as to whether
magnetism could produce electric current in a wire. In 1831, two Nuclear power plant turbine
physicists, Michael Faraday in England and Joseph Henry in the room.
United States, independently discovered that the answer is yes. Until
their discovery, the only current-producing devices were voltaic cells,
which produced small currents by dissolving expensive metals in
acids. These were the forerunners of our present-day batteries. The
discovery of Faraday and Henry provided a major alternative to these
crude devices. Their discovery was to change the world by making
electricity so commonplace that it would power industries by day
and light up cities by night.

SRNR mr SS PURSES OR
37.1 Electromagnetic Induction
Faraday and Henry both discovered that electric current could be
produced in a wire by simply moving a magnet in or out of a wire
coil (Figure 37.1). No battery or other voltage source was needed—
only the motion of a magnet in a coil or in a single wire loop. They
discovered that voltage was induced by the relative motion of a wire
with respect to a magnetic field.
The production of voltage depends only on the relative motion of
the conductor with respect to the magnetic field. Voltage is induced
whether the magnetic field of a magnet moves past a stationary con-
ductor, or the conductor moves through a stationary magnetic field Figure 37.1 A
(Figure 37.2). The results are the same for the same relative motion. When the magnet is plunged into
The amount of voltage induced depends on how quickly the mag- the coil, voltage is induced in the
netic field lines are traversed by the wire. Very slow motion produces Se entel Olnkehigcenna inboeien hone
hardly any voltage at all. Quick motion induces a greater voltage. cape aes

577
 Figure 37.2 A
Voltage is induced in the wire loop whether the magnetic field moves past
the wire or the wire moves through the magnetic field.

The greater the number of loops of wire that move in a magnetic

field, the greater the induced voltage and the greater the current in
the wire (Figure 37.3). Pushing a magnet into twice as many loops
will induce twice as much voltage; pushing it into ten times as many
loops will induce ten times as much voltage; and so on.

Figure 37.3 A
When a magnet is plunged into a coil of twice as many loops as another,
twice as much voltage is induced. If the magnet is plunged into a coil with
three times as many loops, then three times as much voltage is induced.

Does it seem that we get something (energy) for nothing by sim-

ply increasing the number of loops in a coil of wire? We don't. The
law of energy conservation is not just a law of mechanics—it is a
law of nature. It applies everywhere. In the experiments shown in
Figures 37.3 and 37.4, the force that you exert on the magnet mullti-
plied by the distance that you move the magnet is your input work.
This work is equal to the energy expended (or possibly stored) in
the circuit to which the coil is connected. If the coil is connected to a
resistor, for example, more induced voltage in the coil means more
current through the resistor, and that means more energy expenditure.

578 Chapter 37 Electromagnetic Induction

 Another way to understand why it takes more force to move a
magnet into a coil with more loops is to consider the magnetic effect
of the coil acting back on you. When there are more loops, you cause
more current to flow in the coil, and this makes the coil act as a more
powerful electromagnet. It resists the motion of your magnet. So you
must exert a force to move a magnet into the coil because the coil
acts as an electromagnet that repels your magnet. A coil with more
loops is a stronger magnet and pushes back harder.*
The amount of voltage induced depends on how quickly the
magnetic field changes. Very slow movement of the magnet into the
coil produces hardly any voltage at all. Quick motion induces a
greater voltage.
It doesn’t matter which moves—the magnet or the coil. It is the Figure 37.4 A
relative motion of the coil with respect to the magnetic field that It is more difficult to push the
induces voltage. It so happens that any change in the magnetic field magnet into the coil with more
around a conductor induces a voltage. This phenomenon of induc- loops because more current
ing voltage by changing the magnetic field around a conductor is flows and the coil generates a
electromagnetic induction. stronger magnetic field that
resists the motion of the magnet.

nag SST
37.2 Faraday’s Law
Electromagnetic induction can be summarized in a statement that is
called Faraday’s law:
The induced voltage in a coil is proportional to the
product of the number of loops and the rate at which
the magnetic field changes within those loops.
Voltage is one thing, and current is another. The amount of current
produced by electromagnetic induction depends not only on the
induced voltage but also on the resistance of the coil and the circuit to
which it is connected.** For example, you can plunge a magnet in and
out of a closed rubber loop and in and out of a closed loop of copper.
The voltage induced in each is the same, providing each intercepts the
same number of magnetic field lines. But the current in each is quite
different—a lot in the copper but almost none in the rubber. The elec-
trons in the rubber sense the same electric field as those in the copper,
but their bonding to the fixed atoms prevents the movement of charge
that occurs so freely in the copper.

* If the coil is not connected to anything, it takes no work to plunge the magnet into the
coil, regardless of its number of turns. In this sense you do get something for nothing—
an induced voltage, but it doesn’t “do” anything. There is no current flow and no trans-
1 Explore
fer of energy.
3 Problem-Solving
** Current also depends on the “reactance” of the coil. Reactance is similar to resistance Exercises in
and is important in AC circuits; it depends on the number of loops in the coil and on Physics 77-2
the frequency of the AC source, among other things.

579
 BH Question
If you push a magnet into a coil connected to a resistor, as shown
in Figure 37.4, you'll feel a resistance to your push. Why is this
resistance greatér in a coil with more loops?

37.3 Generators and

Alternating Current
If one end of a magnet is plunged in and out of a coil of wire, the
induced voltage alternates in direction. As the magnetic field strength
inside the coil is increased (magnet entering), the induced voltage in
the coil is directed one way. When the magnetic field strength dimin-
ishes (magnet leaving), the voltage is induced in the opposite direc-
tion. The greater the frequency of field change, the greater the
induced voltage. The frequency of the induced alternating voltage
equals the frequency of the changing magnetic field within the loop.
Rather than moving the magnet, it is more practical to move the
coil. This is best accomplished by rotating the coil in a stationary
magnetic field (Figure 37.5). This arrangement is called a generator.
It is essentially the opposite of a motor. Whereas a motor converts
electrical energy into mechanical energy, a generator converts
mechanical energy into electrical energy.

MECHANICAL INPUT ELECTRICAL OUTPUT

~ if
fa

ROTATING LOOP —~

Figure 37.5 A
A simple generator. Voltage is induced in the loop when it is rotated in the
magnetic field.

eee

&@ Answer

Simply put, more work is required to induce the greater voltage induced by more loops.
You can also look at it this way: When the magnetic fields of two magnets (electro or per-
manent) overlap, the two magnets are either forced together or forced apart. When one of
the fields is induced by motion of the other, the polarity of the fields is always such as to
force the magnets apart. This produces the resistive force you feel. Inducing more current
in more coils simply increases the induced magnetic field and thus the resistive force.

Chapter 37 Electromagnetic Induction

 <q Figure 37.6
As the loop rotates, there is a
change in the number of mag-
netic field lines it encloses. It
varies from a maximum (a) to a
minimum (c) and back to a maxi-
mum again (e).

EFFECTIVE AREA
WITHIN LOOP
—_— AT DIFFERENT
ROTATIONAL
ANGLES

When the loop of wire is rotated in the magnetic field, there is

a change in the number of magnetic field lines within the loop as
shown in Figure 37.6. In sketch (a) the loop has the largest number
of lines inside it. As the loop rotates (b), it encircles fewer of the field
lines until it lies along the field lines (c) and encloses none at all. As
rotation continues, it encloses more field lines (d) and reaches a
maximum when it has made a half revolution (e). As rotation contin-
ues, the magnetic field inside the loop changes in cyclic fashion.
The voltage induced by the generator alternates, and the current
produced is alternating current (AC). The current changes magni-
tude and direction periodically (Figure 37.7). The standard alternat-
ing current in North America changes its magnitude and direction
during 60 complete cycles per second—60 hertz.

< Figure 37.7

VOLTAGE = As the loop rotates, the magni-
tude and direction of the induced
voltage (and current) change.
One complete rotation of the
loop produces one complete
cycle in voltage (and current).
 The generators used in power plants are much more complex
"LINK TO TECHNOLOGY
than the model discussed here. Huge coils made up of many loops of
wire are wrapped on an iron core, to make an armature much like the
armature of a motor. They rotate in the very strong magnetic fields of
powerful electromagnets. The armature is connected externally to an
assembly of paddle wheels called a turbine. Energy from wind or
falling water can be used to produce rotation of the turbine, but most
commercial generators are driven by moving steam. Usually a fossil
fuel or nuclear fuel is used as the energy source for the steam.

ase recast 3 oe te
Walk through a metal
detector in an airport, and
you’re walking through a
coil of wire that carries a
small electric current. In
the opening in the coil
there is a magnetic field.
Any change in this field is
sensed by the coils. If you
carry iron into the coil,
you change this magnetic
field. A changing magnetic
field induces a change in Figure 37.8 A
the current in the coils. Steam drives the turbine, which is connected to the armature of the generator.
The detection of this
change sets off an alarm. It is important to emphasize that an energy source of some kind
is required to operate a generator. Some fraction of energy from the
source, usually some type of fuel, is converted to mechanical energy
to drive the turbine, and the generator converts most of this to elec-
trical energy. The electricity that is produced simply carries this
energy to distant places. Some people think that electricity is a source
of energy. It is not. It is a form of energy that must have a source.*

IIIS
TS AL AINA GORI I nS Ga
37.4 Motor and Generator Comparison
In Chapter 36 you saw how an electric current is deflected in a mag-
netic field, which underlies the operation of the motor. This discov-
ery occurred about 10 years before Faraday and Henry discovered
electromagnetic induction, which underlies the operation of a gener-
ator. Both of these discoveries, however, stem from the same single
fact: Moving charges experience a force that is perpendicular to both

* The conversion of mechanical energy to electrical energy can be close to 100%

efficient, but because of the laws of thermodynamics, the conversion of heat to either
mechanical energy or electrical energy is much less efficient. In a typical thermal power
plant, only 35% to 40% of the fuel energy leaves the plant as electrical energy.

582 Chapter 37 Electromagnetic Induction

 FORCE <4 Figure 37.9
MOVING CHARGES Ze (Left) The motor effect. When a

MAGNETIC (CURRENT) a GNeTic

RRENT current moves to the right, there
is a perpendicular upward force
FIELD hele)
on the electrons. Since there is
no conducting path upward, the
STATIONARY WIRE MOVING wire is tugged upward along with
WIRE AND DOWNWARD
the electrons. (Right) The genera-
MAGNET tor effect. When a wire with no
MOTOR EFFECT GENERATOR EFFECT initial current is moved down-
ward, the electrons in the wire
experience a deflecting force per-
their motion and the magnetic field they traverse. See Figure 37.9. pendicular to their motion. There
We will call the deflected wire the motor effect and the law of induc- is a conducting path in this direc-
tion the generator effect. Each of these effects is summarized in the tion, and the electrons follow it,
figure. Study them. Can you see that the two effects are related? thereby constituting a current.
(The current arrow is shown
pointing conventionally, as posi-

MS
20002 tive charge would move.)

37.5 Transformers
Consider a pair of coils, side by side, as shown in Figure 37.10. One is
connected to a battery and the other is connected to a galvanometer.
It is customary to refer to the coil connected to the power source as
the primary (input), and the other as the secondary (output). As soon
as the switch is closed in the primary and current passes through its
coil, a current occurs in the secondary also—even though there is
no material connection between the two coils. Only a brief surge of
current occurs in the secondary, however. Then when the primary
switch is opened, a surge of current again registers in the secondary
but in the opposite direction.
The explanation is that the magnetic field that builds up around
the primary extends into the secondary coil. Changes in the mag-
netic field of the primary are sensed by the nearby secondary. These
changes of magnetic field intensity at the secondary induce voltage
in the secondary, in accord with Faraday’s law.
If we place an iron core inside the primary and secondary coils
of the arrangement shown in Figure 37.10, the magnetic field within
the primary is intensified by the alignment of magnetic domains in
PRIMARY SECONDARY

_ Question , 4 ae" “= ae ai ya As 4 (0000 (00000

~ When the switch of theprimary in Figurea1.10 is‘opened orclosed, i
the galvanometer iin the secondary registers a current. But when ‘the =
_ switch remains closed, no current isregistered on i galvanometer_ a;
_ ofthesecondary. Why? ——— it a
Figure 37.10 A
Whenever the primary switch is
opened or closed, voltage is
B@ Answer induced in the secondary circuit.
When the switch remains in the closed position, there is a steady current in the primary,
and a steady magnetic field about the coil. This field extends into the secondary, but
unless there is a change in the field, electromagnetic induction does not occur.

583
 Co
== =
_-_— the iron. The magnetic field is also concentrated in the core, which
at ee ee
extends into the secondary, so the secondary intercepts more of the
SECONDARY field change. The galvanometer will show greater surges of current
when the switch of the primary is opened or closed.
Instead of opening and closing a switch to produce the change of
(
\
pa magnetic field, suppose that alternating current is used to power the
,
mc ™.
(wwG -
, primary. Then the rate at which the magnetic field changes in the
‘ AC INPUT - primary (and hence in the secondary) is equal to the frequency of
the alternating current. Now we have a transformer (Figure 37.11).
Figure 37.11 A A more efficient arrangement is shown in Figure 37.12, where the
A simple transformer arrange- iron core forms a complete loop to guide all the magnetic field lines
ment.
through the secondary. All the magnetic field lines within the pri-
mary are intercepted by the secondary.

PRIMARY —s

Figure 37.12 A
The iron core guides the changing magnetic field lines, which makes a more
efficient transformer.

Voltages may be stepped up or stepped down with a transformer.

To see how, consider the simple case shown in sketch (a) of Figure
37.13. Suppose the primary consists of one loop connected to a 1-V
alternating source. Consider the symmetrical arrangement of a sec-
ondary of one loop that intercepts all the changing magnetic field
lines of the primary. Then a voltage of 1 V is induced in the secondary.

Figure 37.13
(a) The voltage of 1 V induced in
the secondary equals the voltage
of the primary. (b) A voltage of
1 V is induced in the added sec-
ondary also because it intercepts
the same magnetic field change
from the primary. (c) The voltages
of 1 V each induced in the two
one-turn secondaries are equiva-
lent to a voltage of 2 V induced in
a single two-turn secondary.
1 YOU “AC

584 Chapter 37 Electromagnetic Induction

 If another loop is wrapped around the core so the transformer
has two secondaries (b), it intercepts the same magnetic field change. “LINK TO TECHNOLOG
A voltage of 1 V is induced in it too. There is no need to keep both
secondaries separate, for we could join them (c) and still have a total
induced voltage of 1 V + 1 V, or 2 V. This is equivalent to saying that a
voltage of 2 V will be induced in a single secondary that has twice the
number of loops as the primary. So twice as much voltage will be
induced in a secondary that has twice as many loops as the primary.
If the secondary is wound with three times as many loops, or
turns as they are called, then three times as much voltage will be
induced. If the secondary has a hundred times as many turns as
the primary, then a hundred times as much voltage will be induced,
and so on. This arrangement of a greater number of turns on the
secondary than on the primary makes up a step-up transformer.
Stepped-up voltage may light a neon sign or operate the picture
tube in a television receiver.
If the secondary has fewer turns than the primary, the alternat-
s and_
pI
ing voltage produced in the secondary will be Jower than that in the
primary. The voltage is said to be stepped down. If the secondary has
itspin
"thesesdisbykwhearen cor ding
pas
half as many turns as the primary, then only half as much voltage is _ head. Coded electrical _
induced in the secondary. Stepped-down voltage may safely operate | pulses that carry informa-
a toy electric train. tion are changed into
So electrical energy can be fed into the primary at a given alter- _ magnetic pulses and ©
nating voltage and taken from the secondary at a greater or lower stored on the disk. When
alternating voltage, depending on the relative number of turns in the a magnetically stored bit
primary and secondary coil windings. of information on the disk
spins under a reading
head that contains a small
PRIMARY coil, the pulses are con-
verted back to electrical
signals again.

SECONDARY

Figure 37.14 A
A practical transformer.

The relationship between primary and secondary voltages with

respect to the relative number of turns is

primary voltage secondary voltage

number of primary turns number of secondary turns

It might seem that you get something for nothing with a trans-
former that steps up the voltage. Not so, for energy conservation always
controls what can happen. The transformer actually transfers energy
from one coil to the other. The rate at which energy is transferred is the
 power. The power used in the secondary is supplied by the primary.
The primary gives no more power than the secondary uses, in accord
with the conservation of energy. If the slight power losses due to
heating of the core are neglected, then
power into primary = power out of secondary
Electric power is equal to the product of voltage and current, so we
can say
(voltage X current),,imary = (voltage x current) secondary

You can see that if the secondary has more voltage, it will have
less current than the primary. Or vice versa; if the secondary has less
voltage, it will have more current than the primary. The ease with
which voltages can be stepped up or down with a transformer is the
principal reason that most electric power is AC rather than DC.

The following questions refer to a transformer with 100 turns in the

primary and 200 turns in the secondary.
1. If a voltage of 100 V is put across the primary, what will be the
voltage output in the secondary?
2. The secondary is connected to a floodlight with a resistance of
50 ohms. Assuming the answer to the last question is 200 V,
what will be the current in the secondary circuit?
What is the power in the secondary coil?
What is the power in the primary coil?
What is the current drawn by the primary coil?
Oe
OO
Clee
The voltage has been stepped up, and the current has been
stepped down. Ohm’s law says that increased voltage will pro-
duce increased current. Is there a contradiction here, or does
Ohm’s law not apply to transformers?
ee ee

@ Answers

1. From (100 V)/(100 primary turns) = (? V)/(200 secondary turns), you can see that the sec-
ondary puts out 200 V.

From Ohm's law, (200 V)/(50 Q)=4A

Power = (200 V) x (4 A) = 800 W

By the law of conservation of energy, the power in the primary is the same, 800 watts.

BS
si)
AS) Power = 800 W = (100 V) x (? A), so the primary must draw 8 A. (Note that the voltage
is stepped up from primary to secondary and that the current is correspondingly
stepped down.)
1 Explore
6. Ohm's law still holds and there is no contradiction. The voltage induced across the sec-
2 Concept-Development ondary circuit, divided by the load (resistance) of the secondary circuit, equals the cur-
Practice Book 37-1 rent in the secondary circuit. The current is stepped down in comparison with the
larger current that is drawn in the primary circuit.

586 Chapter 37 —_Electromagnetic Induction

NS EE EOE ES ee rey

37.6 Power Transmission

Almost all electric energy sold today is in the form of alternating cur-
rent because of the ease with which it can be transformed from one 1 Explore
voltage to another. Power is transmitted great distances at high volt- 2 Concept-Development
ages and correspondingly low currents, a process that otherwise Practice Book 37-2
would result in large energy losses owing to the heating of the wires.
Power may be carried from power plants to cities at about 120 000
volts or more, stepped down to about 2200 volts in the city, and
finally stepped down again to provide the 120 volts used in house-
hold circuits.

6000 V 120 000 V 120 V

Figure 37.15 A
Power transmission.

Energy, then, is transformed from one system of conducting

wires to another by electromagnetic induction. The same principles
account for eliminating wires and sending energy from a radio-
transmitter antenna to a radio receiver many kilometers away, and
for the transformation of energy of vibrating electrons in the sun to
life energy on Earth. The effects of electromagnetic induction are
very far-reaching.

37.7 Induction of Electric and

Magnetic Fields
Electromagnetic induction has thus far been discussed in terms of the
production of voltages and currents. Actually, the more fundamental
way to look at it is in terms of the induction of electric fields. The elec-
tric fields, in turn, give rise to voltages and currents. Induction takes
place whether or not a conducting wire or any material medium is
present. In this more general sense, Faraday’s law states,
An electric field is created in any region of space in
which a magnetic field is changing with time. The
magnitude of the created electric field is proportional
to the rate at which the magnetic field changes. The
direction of the created electric field is at right angles
to the changing magnetic field.

587
 | CAN POWER THE LAMP EVEN WHEN IT IS FAR AWAY BY
THIS LAMP DRAWS 1AMP WHEN |
EXTENDING THE BATTERY TERMINALS WITH THESE LONG
CONNECT IT TO THIS 12-VOLT BATTERY
“POWER LINES.”

SO POWER TO THE
LAMP IS 12 WATTS
(12vx1A=12W)
LINES ARE SIMPLY LONG
RA, BATTERY TERMINALS?
a
THE CURRENT IN THE LINES AND TO SEND POWER EFFICIENTLY] | WE CAN SEND ALOT OF POWER AT SMALL
THE LAMP IS THE SAME. BUT = SIGH: OVER LONG DISTANCES CURRENTS AND HIGH VOLTAGES VIA AC
LARGE LINE CURRENTS HEAT THE’ REQUIRES SMALL LINE INSTEAD OF DC. THIS TIME I’LL
WIRES, WHICH REDUCES POWER CURRENTS. ( CONNECT OUR LINES TO THIS 120-VOLT
TO THE LAMP. at AC WALL OUTLET. pee SS
YES CURRENT BuT WON'T SMALL ; ae
EATS THE CURRENTS DELIVER me AS
WIRES -- NOT ONLY SMALL (0, ("

DELIVER MORE THAN 12 W

AT THE HIGHER VOLTAGE ?

120 VOLTS WILL BURN OUT OUR LAMP, SO I'LL PUTA NOW WE HAVE 12 VOLTS ACROSS
TRANSFORMER BETWEEN THE LINES AND THE LAMP OUR LAMP AND AN AC OF 1 Amp!
AND STEP THE VOLTAGE DOWN BY 10.

JOO TURNS a 12 WATTS!

10 TURNS

CAREFUL THOUGHT WILL SHOW Now DO YOU SEE WHY POWER IS DELIVERED OVER LONG DISTANCES
THAT ONLY %o AMP FLOWS IN AT VERY HIGH VOLTAGES ?
120, 000.V
Ss eee x

THAT'S RIGHT---
POWER,,,= POWER
{20 v « Yon=I2vela

588 Chapter 37 —_Electromagnetic Induction

 If electric charge happens to be present where the electric field is
1 Explore
created, this charge will experience a force. For a charge in a wire, the
force could cause it to flow as current, or to push the wire to one side. 3 Laboratory Manual 95
For a charge in an evacuated region, like in the chamber of a particle
accelerator, the force can accelerate the charge to high speeds.
There is a second effect, which is the counterpart to Faraday’s
law. It is just like Faraday’s law, except that the roles of electric and
magnetic fields are interchanged. The symmetry between electric
and magnetic fields revealed by this pair of laws is one of the many
beautiful symmetries in nature. The companion to Faraday’s law was
advanced by the British physicist James Clerk Maxwell in the 1860s.
According to Maxwell,
A magnetic field is created in any region of space in
which an electric field is changing with time. The
magnitude of the created magnetic field is propor-
tional to the rate at which the electric field changes.
The direction of the created magnetic field is at right
angles to the changing electric field.
These statements are two of the most important statements in
physics. They underlie an understanding of electromagnetic waves.

a nee
37.8 Electromagnetic Waves
Shake the end of a stick back and forth in still water and you will
produce waves on the water surface. Similarly shake a charged rod
back and forth in empty space and you will produce electromagnetic
waves in space. This is because the shaking charge can be consid-
ered an electric current. What surrounds an electric current? The
answer is a magnetic field. What surrounds a changing electric cur-
rent? The answer is, a changing magnetic field. What do we know
about a changing magnetic field? The answer is, it will create a
changing electric field, in accord with Faraday’s law. What do we Figure 37.16 A
know about a changing electric field? The answer is, in accord with Shake a charged object back and
Maxwell’s counterpart to Faraday’s law, the changing electric field forth and you produce electro-
will create a changing magnetic field. magnetic waves.
An electromagnetic wave is composed of vibrating electric and
magnetic fields that regenerate each other. No medium is required.
The vibrating fields emanate (move outward) from the vibrating
charge. At any point on the wave, the electric field is perpendicular
to the magnetic field, and both are perpendicular to the direction of
motion of the wave (Figure 37.17).
How fast does the electromagnetic wave move? This is a very
interesting question, and, in the history of physics, a very important
one. If you ask how fast a baseball moves, or a car, or a spacecraft, or
a planet, there is no single answer. It depends on how the motion got
started and what forces are acting. But for electromagnetic radiation,
there is only one speed—the speed of light—no matter what the fre-
quency or wavelength or intensity of the radiation.
 MAGNETIC FIELD

DIRECTION
OF WAVE
RAVEL
i
y cellular
Figure 37.17 A
id cians. Signals The electric and magnetic fields of an electromagnetic wave are perpendicu-
carried by electromag- lar to each other.
netic waves are trans-
ferred from one tower This remarkable constancy of the speed of propagating electric
to the next. The Federal and magnetic fields was discovered by Maxwell. The key to under-
Communications standing it lies in the perfect balance between the two kinds of fields
Commission (FCC) deter- that must exist if they are to propagate as waves. The wave is contin-
mines the frequency of
ually self-reinforcing. The changing electric field induces a magnetic
the waves allowed at
field. The changing magnetic field acts back to induce an electric
each tower. Cellular field
field. Maxwell’s equations showed that only one speed could pre-
technicians use physics
serve this harmonious balance of fields. If, hypothetically, the wave
to analyze or alter the
electromagnetic waves
traveled at less than the speed of light, the fields would rapidly die
coming into a receiver out. The electric field would induce a weaker magnetic field, which
or being sent out by a would induce a still weaker electric field, and so on. If, still hypothet-
transmitter. Cellular field ically, the wave traveled at more than the speed of light, the fields
technicians are would build up in a crescendo of ever greater magnitudes—clearly a
employed by companies no-no with respect to energy conservation. At some critical speed,
that maintain cellular however, mutual induction continues indefinitely, with neither a loss
communications towers. nor a gain in energy.
From his equations of electromagnetic induction, Maxwell cal-
culated the value of this critical speed and found it to be 300 000
kilometers per second. To do this calculation, he used only the con-
stants in his equations determined by simple laboratory experiments
with electric and magnetic fields. He didn't use the speed of light. He
found the speed of light!
Maxwell quickly realized that he had discovered the solution to
one of the greatest mysteries of the universe—the nature of light. If
electric charges are set into vibration with frequencies in the range of
4.3 x 10 to 7 X 10" vibrations per second, the resulting electro-
magnetic wave will activate the “electrical antennae” in the retina of
the eye. Light is simply electromagnetic waves in this range of fre-
quencies! The lower end of this frequency range appears red, and the
higher end appears violet. Maxwell realized that radiation of any fre-
quency would propagate at the same speed as light.
On the evening of Maxwell’s discovery, he had a date with a
young woman he was later to marry. While walking in a garden, his
date remarked about the beauty and wonder of the stars. Maxwell
asked how she would feel to know that she was walking with the only
person in the world who knew what the starlight really was. For it
was true. At that time, James Clerk Maxwell was the only person in
the world to know that light of any kind is energy carried in waves of
electric and magnetic fields that continually regenerate each other.

590 Chapter 37 —_Electromagnetic Induction

 a os
o= Laa
++

Figure 37.18 A
Electromagnetic wave emanation by a sending antenna, and reception by a receiving antenna. The rotating
device alternately charges the upper and lower parts of the antenna positively and negatively. Successive views,
(a) through (i), show how acceleration of the charges up and down the antenna transmits electromagnetic waves.
Only sample electric field lines of the wave are shown—the magnetic field lines are perpendicular to the electric
field lines and extend into and out of the page. When the waves are incident upon a receiving antenna, (h) and
(i), electric charges in it vibrate in rhythm with the field variations.

a — eee
A. tee
Is LF Radiation D:nge i,

eee is often.a source foteees ya .se constant orfallenoverthelast 50 yearswih

ra Many people fear radiation. Soapetis haz- thee exception of risingcancer rates due to nif.
ardous, and some is not. No one doubts the ~ x smoking). Yet during ‘this time,exposure to~ 4
~ hazards of radiation from some nuclear reac- ELF radiation has increased ‘tremendously. —
tions, and no one seriously fears the low- More detailed analysis ofthe studies that
frequency radiations of AM radio. But in prompted the controversy shows n no link
recent years a series of books and magazine between ELF and cancer. ee
articles have fanned the flames of public fear
by claiming that the extremely low frequency Critical Thinking Suppose you're a
(ELF) radiation of common 60-Hz electric scientist and you find uncertain evidence that
power causes certain forms of cancer. some common food—tomatoes, for exam-
Is this claim true? Some activists say yes, ple—may be a serious health risk. What
although the scientific consensus is that this is responsibility would you have to make your
just one of many health scares that has no findings known to the general public?
basis. Careful studies have not substantiated If you stress the uncertainty of your findings,
the claimed risk. Bioscientists point out that perhaps no one will listen. Should you then
the electric fields due to power lines at the make sensational claims, even unsupported,
location of a cell in the body are thousands of to get people’s attention?
 Chapter Assessment

For: Study and Review Review Questions Check Concepts

(Go @nline Visit: PHSchool.com
Wah Code: csd-5370 1. What did Michael Faraday and Joseph Henry
HSchool.com
discover? (37.1)
. How can voltage be induced in a wire with
the help of a magnet? (37.1)
Concept Summary . Amagnet moved into a coil of wire will induce
Electromagnetic induction is the inducing of voltage in the coil. What is the effect of moving
voltage by changing the magnetic field near a a magnet into a coil with more loops? (37.1)
conductor.
. Why is it more difficult to move a magnet into
m According to Faraday’s law, the induced volt- a coil of more loops that is connected to a
age in a coil is proportional to the product of resistor? (37.1)
the number of loops and the rate at which the
. Current, as well as voltage, is induced in a
magnetic field within the loops changes.
wire by electromagnetic induction. Why is
m A generator uses electromagnetic induction Faraday’s law expressed in terms of induced
to convert mechanical energy to electrical voltage, and not induced current? (37.2)
energy.
. How does the frequency of a changing mag-
m= A transformer uses electromagnetic induction netic field compare with the frequency of the
to induce a voltage in the secondary that is alternating voltage that is induced? (37.3)
different from that in the primary coil.
. What is a generator, and how does it differ
Electromagnetic induction may be described in from a motor? (37.3)
terms of fields.
. Why is alternating voltage induced in the
m Achanging magnetic field induces an electric rotating armature of a generator? (37.3)
field.
. The armature of a generator must rotate in
m Achanging electric field induces a magnetic order to induce voltage and current. What
field. causes the rotation? (37.3)
m Electromagnetic waves are composed of 10. A motor is characterized by three main ingre-
vibrating electric and magnetic fields that dients: magnetic field, moving charges, and
regenerate each other. magnetic force. What are the three main ingre-
m All electromagnetic waves travel at the same dients that characterize a generator? (37.4)
speed, the speed of light. 11. How can a change in voltage in a coil of wire
(the primary) be transferred to a neighboring
coil of wire (the secondary) without physical
contact? (37.5)
Key Terms
12. Why does an iron core that extends inside
electromagnetic induction (37.1) and connects the primary and secondary
Faraday’s law (37.2) coils intensify electromagnetic induction?
generator (37.3) (37.5)
transformer (37.5) 13. What does a transformer actually transform—
voltage, current, or energy? (37.5)

592 Chapter 37 —_Electromagnetic Induction

14. What does a step-up transformer step up— 24. What is the basic difference between an elec-
voltage, current, or energy? (37.5) tric generator and an electric motor?
15. How does the relative number of turns on the 25. With no magnets around, why will current
primary and the secondary coil in a trans- flow in a coil of wire waved around in the air?
former affect the step-up or step-down volt-
26. Why is it important that the core of a trans-
age factor? (37.5)
former pass through both coils?
16. If the number of secondary turns is 10 times
27. Why can a hum often be heard when a trans-
the number of primary turns, and the input
former is operating?
voltage to the primary is 6 volts, how many
volts will be induced in the secondary coil? 28. If a bar magnet is thrown into a coil of wire, it
(37.5) will slow down. Why?
LZ, a. In a transformer, how does the power input 29; What is the source of all electromagnetic
to the primary coil compare with the power waves?
output of the secondary coil?
30. Why is a generator armature more difficult to
b. How does the product of voltage and cur- rotate when it is connected to and supplying
rent in the primary compare with the product electric current to a circuit?
of voltage and current in the secondary? (37.5)
31. Some bicycles have electric generators that
18. Why is it advantageous to transmit electric are made to turn when the bike wheel turns.
power long distances at high voltages? (37.6) These generators provide energy for the bike’s
lamp. Will a cyclist coast farther if the lamp
19. What fundamental quantity underlies the
connected to the generator is turned off?
concepts of voltages and currents? (37.7)
Explain.
20. Distinguish between Faraday’s law expressed
in terms of fields and Maxwell’s counterpart
to Faraday’s law. How are the two laws sym-
metrical? (37.7)
Z1° How do the wave speeds compare for high-
frequency and low-frequency electromag-
netic waves? (37.8)
o2e An electric hair drier running at normal
Zee What is light? (37.8) speed draws a relatively small current. But if
somehow the motor shaft is prevented from
(See eS
turning, the current dramatically increases
and the motor overheats. Why?
Think and Explain Think Critically
23: A common pickup for an electric guitar con-
sists of a coil of wire around a permanent
magnet. The permanent magnet induces
magnetism in the nearby guitar string. When
the string is plucked, it oscillates above the
coil, thereby changing the magnetic field that
passes through the coil. The rhythmic oscilla-
tions of the string produce the same rhythmic
changes in the magnetic field in the coil, 33. When a piece of plastic tape coated with iron
which in turn induce the same rhythmic volt- oxide that is magnetized more in some parts
ages in the coil, which when amplified and than others is moved past a small coil of wire,
sent to a speaker produce music! Why will what happens in the coil? What is a practical
this type pickup not work with nylon strings? application of this?

593
34. When a strip of magnetic material, variably
magnetized, is embedded in a plastic card
that is moved past a small coil of wire, what
Think and Solve
Develop Problem-Solving Skills
happens in the coil. What is a practical appli-
cation of this? 40. A transformer has an input of 9 volts and an
output of 36 volts. If the input is changed to
35. If a car made of iron and steel moves over a 12 volts, what will the output be?
wide closed loop of wire embedded in a road
surface, will the magnetic field of Earth in the 41. A portable CD player requires 12 volts to
loop be altered? Will this produce a current operate correctly. A transformer nicely allows
pulse? (Can you think of a practical applica- the device to be powered from a 120-volt out-
tion of this?) let. If the primary has 500 turns, how many
turns should the secondary have?
36. How could you move a conducting loop of
wire through a magnetic field without induc- 42. A model electric train requires a low voltage
ing a voltage in the loop? to operate. If the primary coil of its trans-
former has 400 turns, and the secondary has
37. Why does a transformer require alternating
40 turns, how many volts will power the train
voltage? when the primary is connected to a 120-volt
household circuit?

38. Can an efficient transformer step up energy?

Defend your answer.
39. What is wrong with this scheme? To generate
electricity without fuel, arrange a motor to
run a generator that will produce electricity
that is stepped up with a transformer so that
the generator can run the motor while fur-
nishing electricity for other uses.

594 Chapter 37 _—_Electromagnetic Induction

2ivea Atomic and Nuclear
Physics
fo RY area a Fe pe Pee Eeate eae
Oe ee Deer pee eee GES eS

The natural heat of Earth that warms this natural

hot spring, or that powers a geyser or powers a volcano,
comes from nuclear power—the radioactivity of minerals in Earth's
interior. Power from the atomic nucleus has been with us since
Earth was formed and is not restricted to today’s nuclear reactors,
or “nukes” as they are called. Opinions about nuclear power
are informed opinions if we first “know nukes”!

1 Ee

| -Go @nline
|a
| For: Articles on atomic and
|
nuclear physics
Visit: PHSchool.com
\ Web Code: cse-6000
~~ ee eae — 595
 The Atom and
the Quantum

Te final unit of this book is about the realm

of the unimaginably tiny atom. This chap-
ter investigates atomic structure, which is
revealed by analyzing light. Light has a dual nature,
which in turn radically alters our understanding of
the atomic world. The next chapter covers the
structure of the atomic nucleus and radioactivity, and the concluding
Uranium atoms as seen by a
scanning tunneling micro-
chapter is about the nuclear processes of fission and fusion.
scope.

38.1 Models
Nobody knows what an atom’s internal structure looks like, for there
is no way to see it with our eyes. To visualize the processes that
occur in the subatomic realm, we construct models. In the planetary
model—the one that most people think of when they picture an
atom—the electrons orbit the nucleus like planets going around the
sun. This was an early model of the atom suggested by the Danish
physicist Niels Bohr in 1913 (Figure 38.1). We still tend to think in
terms of this simple picture, even though it has been replaced by a
more complex model in which the electrons are represented by
clouds spreading over the interior of the atom (Figure 38.2). We will
see that the planetary model of the atom is still useful for under-
standing the emission of light.
Models are assessed not in terms of their “truthfulness,” but in
terms of their “usefulness.” Models help us to understand processes
that are difficult to visualize. A useful model of the atom must be
consistent with a model for light, for most of what we know about
Figure 38.1 A atoms we learn from the light and other radiations they emit. Most
The old planetary model of an light has its source in the motion of electrons within the atom.
atom with electrons orbiting like Down through the centuries there have been two primary mod-
little planets around a tiny sun. els of light: the particle model and the wave model. Isaac Newton

Chapter 38 The Atom and the Quantum

believed in a particle model of light. He thought that light was com-
posed of a hail of tiny particles. Christian Huygens believed that light
was a wave phenomenon. The wave model was reinforced more
than a century later when Thomas Young demonstrated interference.
Later, James Clerk Maxwell proposed that light is electromagnetic
radiation and a part of a broader electromagnetic spectrum. The
wave model gained support when Heinrich Hertz produced radio
waves that behaved as Maxwell had predicted. This seemed to verify
the wave nature of light once and for all. But Maxwell’s electromag-
netic wave model was not the last word on the nature of light. In
1905 Albert Einstein resurrected the particle theory of light.
Figure 38.2 A
The current model of the atom,
NRO
TTT SGI in which electrons are spread out
in waves or clouds.

38.2 Light Quanta

Einstein visualized particles of light as concentrated bundles of elec-
tromagnetic energy. Einstein built on the idea of a German physicist,
Max Planck, who a few years earlier had proposed that atoms do not
emit and absorb light continuously, but do so in little chunks he
called quanta (plural of quantum). Planck believed that light existed
as continuous waves, just as Maxwell had asserted, but that emission
and absorption occurred in quantum chunks. Einstein went further
and proposed that light itself is composed of quanta. These quanta
are now called photons.
A quantum is an elemental unit—a smallest amount of some-
thing. The idea that certain quantities are quantized—that they
come in discrete (separate) units—was known in Einstein’s time. RED PHOTON-
LONG WAVELENGTH
Matter is quantized. The mass of a gold ring, for example, is equal to LOW FREQUENCY
some whole-number multiple of the mass of a single gold atom.
Electricity is quantized, as all electric charge is some whole-number
multiple of the charge of a single electron.
Recent findings in physics tell us that there are other quantities
that are also quantized—quantities such as energy and angular
momentum. The energy in a light beam is quantized and comes in
packets, or quanta; only a whole number of quanta can exist. The
quanta of light, or of electromagnetic radiation in general, are the BLUE PHOTON—
photons. SHORT WAVELENGTH
HIGH FREQUENCY
Photons have no rest energy. They move at one speed only—as
fast as it is possible for anything to move—at the speed of light! The
total energy of a photon is the same as its kinetic energy. This energy Figure 38.3 A
is directly proportional to the photon’s frequency. When the energy E The energy of a photon of light
is proportional to its vibrational
of a photon is divided by its frequency f, the quantity that results is
frequency.
always the same, no matter what the frequency. This quantity is a
constant known as Planck’s constant, h. The energy of every photon
is therefore
1 Explore
pede
3 Problem-Solving
This equation gives the smallest amount of energy that can be Exercises in A
converted to light of frequency f: Light is not emitted continuously, Physics 78-7
but as a stream of photons, each with an energy hf.

597
 E
ORME Ee
03.0.0 oeoS
38.3 The Photoelectric Effect
Einstein found support for his quantum theory of light in the photo-
electric effect. The photoelectric effect is the ejection of electrons
from certain metals when light falls upon them. These metals are
said to be photosensitive (that is, sensitive to light). This effect is used
in electric eyes, in the photographer's light meter, and in picking up
sound from the sound tracks of motion pictures.
Investigators discovered that high-frequency light, even from a
dim source, was capable of ejecting electrons from a photosensitive
metal surface; yet low-frequency light, even from a very bright
source, could not dislodge electrons. Since bright light carries more
energy than dim light, it was puzzling that dim blue or violet light
LOW-FREQUENCY
could dislodge electrons from certain metals when bright red light
LIGHT DOES NOT could not.
EJECT ELECTRONS Einstein explained the photoelectric effect by thinking of light in
terms of photons. The absorption of a photon by an atom in the
metal surface is an all-or-nothing process. One and only one photon
is completely absorbed by each electron ejected from the metal. This
means that the number of photons that hit the metal has nothing to
do with whether a given electron will be ejected. If the energy per
HIGH -FREQUENCY photon is too small, then the brightness or intensity of light does not
LIGHT DOES EJECT matter. The critical factor is the frequency or color of the light. A few
ELECTRONS
photons of blue or violet light can eject a few electrons, but hordes
of red or orange photons cannot eject a single electron. Only high-
frequency photons have the concentrated energy needed to pull
loose an electron.
A wave has a broad front, and its energy is spread out along this
front. For the energy of a light wave to be concentrated enough to
Figure 38.4 A eject a single electron from a metal surface is as unlikely as for an
The photoelectric effect depends ocean wave to hit a beach and catapult a boulder far inland with an
on the frequency of light.

1. Will brighter light eject more electrons from a photosensitive

surface than dimmer light of the same frequency?
2. Will high-frequency light eject a greater number of electrons
than low-frequency light?

Answers

1. Yes (if the frequency is great enough for any electrons to be ejected). The number of
ejected electrons depends on the number of incident photons.
2. Not necessarily. The answer is yes if electrons are ejected by the high-frequency light
but not by the low-frequency light, because its photons do not have enough energy. If
the light of both frequencies can eject electrons, then the number of electrons ejected
depends on the brightness of the light, not on its frequency.

598 Chapter38 The Atom and the Quantum

energy equal to the energy of the whole wave. The photoelectric 4 Exniore
XPiOre
| 9 4 Nevelan
ACT eh
| 2 Appiy

effect suggests that light interacts with matter as a stream of particle- |

aa ar eer sae
like photons. The number of photons in a light beam controls the | 2 Laboratory Manual 96
brightness of the whole beam, whereas the frequency of the light 3 Problem-Solving
controls the energy of each individual photon. Light travels as a | Exercises in A
wave, and interacts with matter as a stream of particles. Physics 18-2
Experimental verification of Einstein’s explanation of the photo- a nd
electric effect was made 11 years later by the American physicist
Robert Millikan. Every aspect of Einstein's interpretation was con-
firmed, including the direct proportionality of photon energy to
frequency. It was for this (and not for his theory of relativity) that
Einstein received the Nobel Prize.

38.4 Waves as Particles

Figure 38.5 is a striking example of the particle nature of light. The
photograph was taken with exceedingly feeble light. Each frame shows
the image progressing photon by photon. Note also that the photons
seem to strike the film in an independent and random manner.

d. e. f.

Figure 38.5 A
Stages of exposure reveal the photon-by-photon production of a photo-
graph. The approximate numbers of photons at each stage were (a) 3 x 103,
(b) 1.2 X 104, (c) 9.3 x 104, (d) 7.6 x 10°, (e) 3.6 x 108, (f) 2.8 x 107.

599
 ete ee ere
38.5 Particles as Waves
If waves can have particle properties, cannot particles have wave
properties? This question was posed by the French physicist Louis
de Broglie in 1924, while he was still a student. His answer to the
question earned him a Ph.D. in physics, and later won him the Nobel
Prize in physics.
De Broglie suggested that all matter could be viewed as having
wave properties. All particles—electrons, protons, atoms, marbles,
and even humans—have a wavelength that is related to the momen-
tum of the particles by
wavelength = ——__—___h
momentum
where his, lo and behold, Planck’s constant again. The wavelength of
a particle is called the de Broglie wavelength. A particle of large mass
and ordinary speed has too small a wavelength to be detected by
conventional means. However, a tiny particle—such as an electron—
moving at typical speed has a detectable wavelength.* It is smaller
than the wavelength of visible light but large enough for noticeable
diffraction. A beam of electrons, interestingly enough, behaves like a
beam of light. It can be diffracted and undergoes wave interference
under the same conditions that light does (Figure 38.6).

ATA
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Figure 38.6 A
Fringes produced by the diffraction (left) of an electron beam and (right) of
light.

* A ball bearing of mass 0.02 kg traveling at 330 m/s, for example, has a de Broglie wave-
length of h/mv= (6.6 x 10-4 Jes)/[(0.02 kg) x (330 m/s)] = 10-34 m, an incredibly small
size that is a million million million millionth the diameter of a hydrogen atom. An elec-
tron traveling at 2% the speed of light, on the other hand, has a wavelength of 10-19 m,
which is equal to the diameter of the hydrogen atom. Diffraction effects for electrons
are measurable, but diffraction effects for ball bearings are not.

600 Chapter 38 The Atom and the Quantum

 < Figure 38.7
Detail of a fly's head as seen with
a scanning electron microsco pe.

An electron microscope makes practical use of the wave nature

of electrons. The wavelength of electron beams is typically thou-
sands of times shorter than the wavelength of visible light, so the
electron microscope is able to distinguish detail not possible with
optical microscopes (Figure 38.7).

SUIS Ace TT EE Sa FIRST

38.6 Electron Waves

More far-reaching than the diffraction of electrons is de Broglie’s
model of matter waves in the atom. The planetary model of the atom
developed by Niels Bohr was useful in explaining the atomic spectra
of the elements. It explained why elements emitted only certain fre-
quencies of light. An electron has different amounts of energy when
it is in different orbits around a nucleus. From an energy point of
view, an electron is said to be in different energy levels when it is in
different orbits. The electrons in an atom normally occupy the low-
est energy levels available.
An electron can be boosted by various means to a higher energy SECOND
level. This occurs in gas discharge tubes, like those that make up neon SHELL
signs. Electric current boosts the electrons of the gas to higher energy Figure 38.8 A
levels. As the electrons return to lower levels, photons are emitted. The The Bohr model of the atom.
energy of a photon is exactly equal to the difference in the energy lev-
els in the atom. The characteristic pattern of lines in the spectrum of
an element corresponds to electron transitions between the energy
levels characteristic of the atoms of that element. By examining spec-
tra, physicists were able to determine the various energy levels in the
atom. This was a tremendous triumph for atomic physics.
One of the difficulties of this model of the atom, however, was
reconciling why electrons occupied only certain energy levels in the
atom—why, in effect, they were at discrete distances from the atomic
nucleus. This was resolved by thinking of the electron not as a parti-
cle, a tiny BB whirling around the nucleus like a planet whirling
around the sun, but as a wave. Investigators now consider the elec-
tron to be more wave than particle.

601
Figure 38.9 b>
De Broglie’s way of explaining
discrete energy states in an
atom. (a) Orbital electrons form
standing waves only when the
circumference of the orbit is
equal to a whole-number multi-
ple of the wavelength. (b) When
the wave does not close in on
itself in phase, it undergoes
destructive interference.

According to de Broglie’s theory of matter waves, an orbit exists

where an electron wave closes in on itself in phase. In this way it
reinforces itself constructively in each cycle, just as the standing
wave on a music string is constructively reinforced by its successive
reflections. In this view, the electron is visualized not as a particle
located at some point in the atom, but as though its mass and charge
were spread out into a standing wave surrounding the nucleus. The
wavelength of the electron wave must fit evenly into the circumfer-
ences of the orbits (Figure 38.9).
The circumference of the innermost orbit, according to this
model, is equal to one wavelength of the electron wave. The second
orbit has a circumference of two electron wavelengths, the third three,
and so on (Figure 38.10). This is similar to a “chain necklace” made of
paper clips. No matter what size necklace is made, its circumference is

THE CIRCUMFERENCES OF
ELECTRON ORBITS FROM
THE FIRST OR “GROUND STATE"
j ENERGY LEVELTO THE FOURTH
| <~ SHOWN “STRAIGHTENED OUT."

Figure 38.10 A
A simplified version of the principle that the states of motion of electrons
result from self-reinforcement of standing waves. In this illustration, the
waves are shown only in circular paths around the nucleus. Orbit circumfer-
ences are whole-number multiples of the electron wavelengths, which differ
for the various elements (and also for different orbits within the elements).
This results in discrete energy levels, which characterize each element. In an
actual atom, the standing waves make up spherical and ellipsoidal shells
rather than flat, circular ones.

602 Chapter 38 The Atom and the Quantum

equal to some multiple of the length of a single paper clip.* Since the
circumferences of electron orbits are discrete, it follows that the radii
of these orbits, and hence the energy levels, are also discrete.
This view explains why electrons do not spiral closer and closer
to the nucleus when photons are emitted. If each electron orbit is
described by a standing wave, the circumference of the smallest
orbit can be no smaller than one wavelength—no fraction of a wave-
length is possible in a circular (or elliptical) standing wave.
In the still more modern wave model of the atom, electron waves
move not only around the nucleus, but also in and out, toward and
away from the nucleus. The electron wave is spread out in three
dimensions. This leads to the picture of an electron “cloud,” shown
previously in Figure 38.2.

NNN SERIES ECEG Bs

38.7 Relative Sizes of Atoms
The radii of the electron orbits in the Bohr model of the atom are
determined by the amount of electric charge in the nucleus. For
example, the single positively charged proton in the hydrogen atom
holds one negatively charged electron in an orbit at a particular
radius. If we double the positive charge in the nucleus, the orbiting
electron will be pulled into a tighter orbit with half its former radius
since the electrical attraction is doubled. This doesn’t quite happen,
however, because the double-positive charge in the nucleus attracts
and holds a second electron, and the negative charge of the second
electron diminishes the effect of the positive nucleus.
This added electron makes the atom electrically neutral. The
atom is no longer hydrogen, but is helium. The two electrons
assume an orbit characteristic of helium. An additional proton in the
nucleus pulls the electrons into an even closer orbit and, further-
more, holds a third electron in a second orbit. This is the lithium
atom, atomic number 3. We can continue with this process, increas-
ing the positive charge of the nucleus and adding successively more
electrons and more orbits all the way up to atomic numbers above
100, to the synthetic radioactive elements.**
As the nuclear charge increases and additional electrons are added
in outer orbits, the inner orbits shrink in size because of the stronger
electrical attraction to the nucleus. This means that the heavier elements

* Electron wavelengths are successively longer for orbits of increasing radii; so for a
more accurate analogy, the construction of longer necklaces requires using not only
more paper clips, but /arger paper clips as well.

** There is a maximum number of electrons that each orbit may hold. A rule of quantum
mechanics states that an orbit is filled when it contains a number of electrons given by
2n2, where nis 1 for the first orbit, 2 for the second orbit, 3 for the third orbit, and so
on. For n= 1, there are 2 electrons; for n = 2, there are 2(27), or 8 electrons; for n= 3,
there are a maximum of 2(32), or 18 electrons, and so on. The number nis called the
principal quantum number. Because of complexities that arise in heavy atoms, the 2n?
rule is strictly valid only for the lighter atoms.

603
 +1
om)

Hydrogen Helium Lithium Beryllium

e (®) :
Neon Sodium Magnesium Mercury

Figure 38.11 A
The orbital model illustrated for some light and heavy atoms drawn to
approximate scale. Note that the heavier atoms are not appreciably larger
than the lighter atoms.

are not much larger in diameter than the lighter elements. The diameter
of the uranium atom, for example, is only about three hydrogen diame-
ters even though it is 238 times more massive. The schematic diagrams
in Figure 38.11 are drawn approximately to the same scale.
Each element has an arrangement of electron orbits unique to
that element. For example, the radii of the orbits for the sodium
atom are the same for all sodium atoms, but different from the radii
of the orbits for other kinds of atoms. When we consider the 92 natu-
rally occurring elements, we find that there are 92 distinct patterns
or orbits. There is a different pattern for each element.
The Bohr model of the atom solved the mystery of the atomic
spectra of the elements. It accounted for X-rays that were emitted
when electrons made transitions from outer orbits to innermost
orbits. Bohr was able to predict X-ray frequencies that were later
experimentally confirmed. He calculated the ionization energy of the
hydrogen atom—the energy needed to knock the electron out of the
atom completely. This also was verified by experiment. The Bohr
model accounted for the general chemical properties of the elements
and predicted properties of a missing element (hafnium), which led
to its discovery.
The Bohr model was impressive. Nonetheless, Bohr was quick to
point out that his model was to be interpreted as a crude beginning,
and the picture of electrons whirling like planets about the sun was
not to be taken literally (to which popularizers of science paid no
heed). His discrete orbits were conceptual representations of an
1 Explore |2 Develop |3 Apply atom whose later description involved a wave description. Still, his
planetary model of the atom with electrons occupying discrete
3 Problem-Solving energy levels underlies the more complex models of the atom today,
Exercises in Al which are built upon a completely different structure from that built
Physics 78-3 by Newton and other physicists before the twentieth century. This is
the structure called quantum mechanics.

604 Chapter 38 The Atom and the Quantum

 << Figure 38.12
The model of the atom has
evolved from the Bohr planetary
model (left) to a wave model
with the electrons distributed in
a “cloud” throughout the volume
of the atom (right). De Broglie’s
idea of a wave following along
an orbit (center) was an impor-
tant stepping stone toward the
final model.

@ Question
What fundamental force dictates the size of an atom?

RENN
22ST
38.8 Quantum Physics
The more that physicists studied the atom, the more convinced
they became that the Newtonian laws that work so well for large
objects such as baseballs and planets (in the “macroworld”) simply
do not apply to events in the microworld of the atom. Whereas in
the macroworld the study of motion is called mechanics, or some-
times classical mechanics, in the microworld of quanta it is called
quantum mechanics. The more general study of quanta in the
microworld is simply called quantum physics.
While one can be quite certain about careful measurements in
the macroscopic world, there are fundamental uncertainties in the
measurements of the atomic domain. For the measurement of
macroscopic quantities, such as the temperature of materials, the
vibrational frequencies of certain crystals, and the speeds of light
and sound, there is no limit in practice to the accuracy with which
the experimenter can measure. But subatomic measurements, such
as the momentum and position of an electron or the mass of an
extremely short-lived particle, are entirely different. In this domain,
the uncertainties in many measurements are comparable to the
magnitudes of the quantities themselves. The structure of quantum
mechanics is based on probabilities, a notion that is difficult for
many people to accept. Even Einstein did not accept this, which
prompted his often-quoted statement, “I cannot believe that God
plays dice with the universe.”
If you continue to expose yourself to physics, you will likely
study quantum mechanics in the future. Then you'll find that sub-
atomic interactions are governed by laws of probability, not laws of
certainty. It’s fascinating material. Scientists and philosophers are
still pondering the real meaning of quantum mechanics.
1 Explore | 2 Develop

2 Concept-Development
BH Answer Practice Book 38-7
The electrical force.
 MENINEES (22 enka
38.9 Predictability and Chaos
When we know the initial conditions of an orderly system we can
make predictions about it. For example, in the Newtonian macro-
world, knowing with precision the initial conditions lets us state
where a planet will be after a certain time, where a launched rocket
will land, and when an eclipse will occur. Similarly, in the quantum
microworld we can predict where an electron is likely to be in an
atom, and the probability that a radioactive particle will decay in a
given time interval. Predictability in orderly systems, both Newtonian
and quantum, depends on knowledge of initial conditions.
Some systems however, whether Newtonian or quantum, are not
orderly—they are inherently unpredictable. These are called “chaotic
systems.” Turbulent water flow is an example. No matter how precisely
we know the initial conditions of a piece of floating wood as it flows
downstream, we cannot predict its location later downstream. A fea-
ture of chaotic systems is that slight differences in initial conditions
result in wildly different outcomes later. Two identical pieces of wood
just slightly apart at one time are vastly far apart soon thereafter.
Weather is chaotic. Small changes in one day’s weather can produce
big (and largely unpredictable) changes a week later. Meteorologists try
their best, but they are bucking the hard fact of chaos in nature. This
barrier to good prediction first led the scientist Edward Lorenz to ask,
“Does the flap of a butterfly’s wings in Brazil set off a tornado in Texas?”
Now we talk about the butterfly effect when we are dealing with situa-
tions where very small effects can amplify into very big effects.

_ If you and a friend, sitting on sn whboards at >

the top of a perfectly smooth skislope, push can't predict where _
_ off from positions close together with about —_—youll end up.
the same velocity, you'll follow similar paths Interestingly,
and end up near each other at the bottom of chaos is not all hope-
the slope. This is orderly behavior. Small dif- less unpredictability.
ferences in conditions at the beginning result If you and your
in small differences in conditions at the end. friend compare notes after your rides down
But if the ski slope is full of hundreds of the moguled slope, you might find that you
moguls (bumps) you'll likely find, after bounc- had some very similar experiences. Maybe
ing and jouncing down the slope, that you and you skirted around the sides of many moguls
your friend wind up many meters apart—no in just the same way. Maybe you never went
matter how close your initial conditions. This straight over the top of a mogul. So there is
is chaotic behavior. Small differences in condi- order in chaos. Scientists have learned how
tions at the beginning are likely to result in to treat chaos mathematically and how to find
large differences in conditions at the end—so the parts of it that are orderly.

606 Chapter38 The Atom and the Quantum

 Chapter Assessment

Bohr’s planetary model explained the atomic

For: Study and Review spectra of the elements.
Go @nline Visit: PHSchool.com
ool.com m Spectral lines are due to transitions of elec-
Web Code: csd-6380
trons between energy levels that correspond
to different electron orbits.
The radius of the atoms making up each element
Concept Summary is unique to that element.

Models of atoms have involved particles and waves. m As the nuclear charge increases, inner elec-
tron orbits shrink. As a result, heavier ele-
m= In Bohr’s planetary model of the atom, elec- ments are not much larger in diameter than
trons orbit the nucleus. lighter elements.
m= Inde Broglie’s early wave model, electron waves Quantum mechanics is the study of motion in
circle the nucleus only at radii where there are the microworld.
exact integral numbers of wavelengths.
m= Newtonian mechanics does not apply to
m Inthe modern wave model, electron waves events on the atomic scale.
fill the three-dimensional space around the
nucleus and can be visualized as clouds. = Quantum measurements, such as the
momentum and position of an electron,
Models of light have involved particles and waves. involve fundamental uncertainties.
m= Newton proposed a particle model of light.
m= Huygens’ wave model of light was reinforced
by Maxwell's electromagnetic wave model. Key Terms
m Einstein returned to a particle model, propos- photoelectric effect (38.3)
ing that light is composed of discrete bundles,
photon (38.2)
or quanta, of electromagnetic energy.
Planck's constant (38.2)
Einstein's light quantum is called a photon. quanta (singular: quantum) (38.2)
gm The energy of a photon is proportional to its quantum mechanics (38.8)
frequency. quantum physics (38.8)
ms The constant of proportionality is Planck's
constant, h.
The photoelectric effect, the ejection of electrons Review Questions Check Concepts
from certain metals that are struck by light, rein-
1. What is a model? Give two examples for the
forced the particle theory of light.
nature of light. (38.1)
m= When the frequency of light is so low that the
photons have insufficient energy to cause the 2. What is a quantum? Give two examples. (38.2)
effect, then increasing the intensity of the 3. What is a quantum of light called? (38.2)
light does not matter.
4, What is Planck’s constant, and how does it
Material particles and light have both wave prop- relate to the frequency and energy of a quan-
erties and particle properties. tum of light? (38.2)
= Electrons, like photons, have detectable 5. Which has more energy per photon—red light
wavelengths, can be diffracted, and undergo or blue light? (38.2)
interference.
607
6. What is the photoelectric effect? (38.3) (ammonia 22 rg a ES

7. Why does blue light eject electrons from a Think and Explain Think Critically
certain photosensitive surface, whereas red 21. What does it mean to say that a certain quan-
light has no effect on that surface? (38.3) tity is quantized?
8. Will bright blue light eject more electrons 22. What evidence can you cite for the wave
than dim light of the same frequency? (38.3) nature of light? For the particle nature of light?
9. Does the photoelectric effect support the par- 23. A very bright source of red light has much
ticle model or the wave model of light? (38.3) more energy than a dim source of blue light,
10. a. Do particles of matter have wave properties? but the red light has no effect in ejecting elec-
trons from a certain photosensitive surface.
b. Who was the first physicist to give a con- Why is this so?
vincing answer to this question? (38.5)
24. Which photon has the most energy—one
11. As the speed of a particle increases, does its from infrared, visible, or ultraviolet light?
associated wavelength increase or decrease?
(38.5) 25. If a beam of red light and a beam of green light
have exactly the same energy, which beam
12. Does the diffraction of an electron beam sup- contains the greater number of photons?
port the particle model or the wave model of
electrons? (38.5) 26. Suntanning produces cell damage in the skin.
Why is ultraviolet light capable of producing
13. How does the energy of a photon compare this damage while infrared radiation is not?
with the difference in energy levels of the
atom from which it is emitted? (38.6) 27. Electrons in one electron beam have a greater
speed than those in another. Which electrons
14. What does it mean to say that an electron have the longer de Broglie wavelength?
occupies discrete energy levels in an atom?
(38.6) 28. We do not notice the wavelength of moving
matter in our ordinary experience. Is this
15. Does the particle view of an electron or the because the wavelength is extraordinarily
wave view of an electron better explain the large or extraordinarily small?
discreteness of electron energy levels? Why?
(38.6) 29. The equation E = hf describes the energy of
each photon in a beam of light. If Planck’s
16. What does wave interference have to do with
constant, h, were larger, would photons of
the electron energy levels in an atom? (38.6) light of the same frequency be more energetic
17. Why is a helium atom smaller than a hydrogen or less energetic?
atom? (38.7)
30. Why will helium rather than hydrogen more
18. Why are the heaviest elements not apprecia- readily leak through an inflated rubber balloon?
bly larger than the lightest elements? (38.7)
19. What is quantum mechanics? (38.8)
20. Can the momenta and positions of electrons
in an atom be measured with certainty? (38.8)

608 Chapter38 The Atom and the Quantum

 The Atomic
Nucleus and
Radioactivity

Mg he configuration of electrons in an atom

| determines whether and how the atom
| bonds to form compounds. It also dictates
the melting and freezing temperatures and the
thermal and electrical conductivity, as well as the
taste, texture, appearance, and color of substances. Changes in elec- Radioactivity, a tool of
tron energies produce visible light. Larger changes produce X-rays. medicine.
This chapter goes even deeper into the atom—to the atomic nucleus.

39.1 The Atomic Nucleus

It would take 30 000 carbon nuclei to stretch across a single carbon
atom. The nucleus within the atom is as inconspicuous as a cookie
crumb in the middle of the Rose Bowl football stadium. Despite the
small size of the nucleus, much has been learned about its structure.
The nucleus is composed of particles called nucleons, which when
electrically charged are protons, and when electrically neutral are
neutrons.* Neutrons and protons have close to the same mass, with
the neutron’s being slightly greater. Nucleons have nearly 2000 times
the mass of electrons, so the mass of an atom is practically equal to
the mass of its nucleus alone.
The positively charged protons in the nucleus hold the nega-
tively charged electrons in their orbits. Each proton has exactly the
same magnitude of charge as the electron, but the opposite sign.
So in an electrically neutral atom, there are as many protons in the

* Protons and neutrons are themselves composed of subnuclear particles called quarks.
Are quarks themselves made of still smaller particles? They may be, but so far there is 1 Explore
no evidence or theoretical reason for believing so. Theoretical physicists say today that
quarks are the elementary particles of which all nucleons and other strongly interacting 2 Laboratory Manual 97
particles are made.
 nucleus as there are electrons outside. The number of protons in the
nucleus therefore determines the chemical properties of that atom,
because the positive nuclear charge determines the possible struc-
tures of electron orbits that can occur.
The number of neutrons in the nucleus has no direct effect on
the electron structure, and hence does not affect the chemistry of the
atom. The principal role of the neutrons is to act as a sort of nuclear
Figure 39.1 A cement to hold the nucleus together. Nucleons are bound together
The number of electrons that by an attractive nuclear force appropriately called the strong force.
surround the atomic nucleus is
The nuclear force of attraction is strong only over a very short
matched by the number of pro-
distance (Figure 39.2). Whereas the electrical force between charges
tons in the nucleus.
decreases as the inverse square of the distance, the nuclear force
decreases far more rapidly. When two nucleons are just a few
SEES nucleon diameters apart, the nuclear force they exert on each other

© ©
is nearly zero. This means that if nucleons are to be held together by
the strong force, they must be held in a very small volume. Nuclei are
tiny because the nuclear force is very short-range.
It is an interesting feature of quantum mechanics that particles
Figure 39.2 A held close together have large kinetic energy and tend to fly apart. So,
The nuclear strong force is a
although the nuclear force is strong, it is only barely strong enough to
very short-range force. For
hold a pair of nucleons together. For a pair of protons, which repel
nucleons very close or in con-
tact, it is very strong (large force
each other electrically, the nuclear force is not quite strong enough to
vectors). But a few nucleon keep them together. When neutrons are present, however, the attrac-
diameters away it is nearly zero tive strong force is increased relative to the repulsive electric force
(small force vectors). (since neutrons have no charge). Thus, the presence of neutrons adds
to the nuclear attraction and keeps protons from flying apart.
The more protons there are in a nucleus, the more neutrons are
needed to hold them together. For light elements, it is sufficient to
have about as many neutrons as protons. For heavy elements, extra
neutrons are required. The most common form of lead, for example,
has 82 protons and 126 neutrons, or about one and a half times as
many neutrons as protons. For elements with more than 83 protons,
even the addition of extra neutrons cannot stabilize the nucleus.

SS
Figure 39.3 A
A strong attractive nuclear force 39.2 Radioactive Decay
acts between nearby protons A
and B, but not significantly One of the factors that sets a limit on how many stable nuclei can exist
between A and C. The longer- is the instability of the neutron. A lone neutron will spontaneously
range electric force repels pro- decay into a proton plus an electron (and also an antineutrino, a tiny
tons A and C as well as A and B. particle we will not discuss here). Out of a bunch of lone neutrons,
The mutual repulsion of all the about half of them will decay in 11 minutes. Particles that decay in this
protons in a heavy nucleus tends or in similar ways are said to be radioactive. A lone neutron is
to make such nuclei unstable. radioactive.
The rules of radioactivity inside atomic nuclei are governed by
the mass-energy equivalence. Particles decay only when their com-
bined products have less mass after decay than before. The mass of a
neutron is slightly greater than the total mass of a proton plus elec-
tron (and the antineutrino). So when a neutron decays, there is less
mass after decay than before. Decay will not spontaneously occur for
reactions where more mass results. The reverse reaction, a proton
decaying into a neutron, can occur only with external energy input.
610 Chapter 39 The Atomic Nucleus and Radioactivity
 Figure 39.4 A
A neutron-proton combination is
stable, but a neutron by itself is
MAGNET —> unstable and turns into a proton
by emitting an electron (as well
as an antineutrino—not shown).

—~
RADIUM SAMPLE LEAD BLOCK
AT BOTTOM OF
HOLE

Figure 39.5 A
The separation of alpha, beta, and gamma rays in a magnetic field. The rays
come from a radioactive source placed at the bottom of a hole drilled in a
lead block.

All the elements heavier than bismuth (atomic number 83)

decay in one way or another. Thus, these elements are radioactive.
Their atoms emit three distinct types of rays. The rays are named
alpha, beta, and gamma, respectively, after the first three letters of Figure 39.6 A
An alpha particle contains two
the Greek alphabet, o, B, and y. Alpha rays have a positive electric
protons and two neutrons bound
charge, beta rays are negative, and gamma rays are electrically neu-
together and is identical to a
tral. The three rays can be separated by putting a magnetic field helium nucleus.
across their path (Figure 39.5).
An alpha ray is a stream of particles that are made of two pro-
tons and two neutrons and that are identical to the nuclei of helium
atoms. These are called alpha particles (Figure 39.6).
LIGHT RAY
A beta ray is simply a stream of electrons. An electron is ejected
from the nucleus when a neutron is transformed into a proton. It
may seem that the electrons are “buried” inside the neutron, but this

aA ace
is not true. An electron does not exist in a neutron any more than a
spark exists inside a rock about to be scraped across a rough surface.
The electron that pops out of the neutron, like the spark that pops
GAMMA RAY
out of the scraped rock, is produced during an interaction.
A gamma ray is massless energy. Like visible light, gamma rays
are simply photons of electromagnetic radiation, but of much higher
frequency and energy. Visible light is emitted when electrons jump Figure 39.7 A
from one orbit to another of lower energy. Gamma rays are emitted A gamma ray is simply electro-
when nucleons do a similar sort of thing inside the nucleus. Some- magnetic radiation, much higher
times there are great energy differences in nuclear energy levels, so in frequency and energy per
the photons (gamma rays) emitted carry a large amount of energy. photon than light and X-rays.

611
 MEE ©224ce
39.3 Radiation Penetrating Power
There is a great difference in the penetrating power of the three types
RADIOACTIVE of rays emitted by radioactive elements. Alpha rays are the easiest to
SOURCE stop. They can be stopped by a reasonably heavy piece of paper or a
few sheets of thin paper. Beta rays go right through paper but are
stopped by several sheets of aluminum foil. Gamma rays are the
most difficult to stop and require lead or other heavy shielding to
block them.
An alpha particle is easy to stop because it is relatively slow and
PAPER its double-positive charge interacts with the molecules it encounters
along its path. It slows down as it shakes many of these molecules
apart and leaves positive and negative ions in its wake. Even when
traveling through nothing but air, an alpha particle will come to a
stop after only a few centimeters. It soon grabs up a couple of stray
electrons and becomes nothing more than a harmless helium atom.
A beta particle normally moves at a faster speed than an alpha
particle, carries only a single negative charge, and is able to travel
much farther through the air. Most beta particles lose their energy
during the course of a large number of glancing collisions with
atomic electrons. Except for rare direct hits, energy is lost in many
small steps. Beta particles slow down until they reach the speeds of
thermal motion, becoming a part of the material they are in, like any
other electron.
Figure 39.8 A
Alpha particles penetrate least
Gamma rays are the most penetrating of the three because they
and can be stopped by a few have no charge. With no electrical attraction or deflection, a gamma
sheets of paper; beta particles by ray photon interacts with the absorbing material only via a direct
a sheet of aluminum; gamma hit with an atomic electron or a nucleus. Unlike charged particles, a
rays by a thick layer of lead. gamma ray photon can be removed from its beam in a single
encounter. Dense materials such as lead are good absorbers mainly
because of their high electron density.

@ Question
Pretend you are given three radioactive cookies—one alpha, one
_ beta, and the other gamma. Pretend that you must eat one, hold
One in your hand, and put the other in your pocket. Which would
you eat, hold, and pocket, if you are trying to minimize your expo-
sure to radiation?
—£—S annie

@ Answer

Ideally, of course, get as far from the cookies as possible. But if you must eat one, hold
one, and put one in your pocket, then hold the alpha; the skin on your hand will shield you.
Put the beta in your pocket; your clothing will likely shield you. Eat the gamma; it will pen-
etrate your body in any of these cases, anyway. (In real life always use appropriate safe-
guards when near radioactive materials.)

612 Chapter 39 The Atomic Nucleus and Radioactivity

39.4 Radioactive Isotopes
It has already been stated that the number of protons in an atomic
nucleus determines the number of electrons surrounding the nucleus
in a neutral atom. If there is a difference in the number of electrons
and protons, the atom is charged and is called an ion. An ionized atom
is one that has a different number of electrons than nuclear protons.

< Figure 39.9

Which of these diagrams shows
an ion?

B
The number of neutrons in the nucleus, however, has no bearing
on the number of electrons the atom may have. This means that the
number of neutrons has no direct bearing on the chemistry of an
atom. Let’s consider a hydrogen atom. The common form of hydro-
gen has a bare proton as its nucleus. Any nuclear configuration that
has only one proton in its nucleus is hydrogen—by definition. There
can be different kinds, or isotopes, of hydrogen, however. In one iso-
tope, the nucleus consists of only a single proton. In a second iso-
tope, the proton is accompanied by a neutron. In a third isotope,
there are two neutrons. All the isotopes of a particular element are
chemically identical. The orbital electrons are affected only by the
positive charge in the nucleus, not by its neutrons.
We distinguish between the different isotopes of hydrogen by {H,
*H, and jH, where the lower number is the atomic number (the num-
ber of protons) and the upper number is the atomic mass number
(the total number of nucleons).
<4 Figure 39.10
The atomic number is equal to
the number of protons in the
a ATOMIC MASS NUMBER el ae ie Sr Nee
- number is equal to the number
be He —~ CHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR HELIUM inked pas ae
2

~\X ATOMIC NUMBER

~ ~

The common isotope of hydrogen, {H, is a stable element. So is

the isotope 7H, called deuterium. “Heavy water” is the name usually
given to H,O in which the H’s are deuterium atoms. The triple-
weight hydrogen isotope #H, called tritium, however, is unstable and
undergoes beta decay. This is the radioactive isotope of hydrogen. All
elements have isotopes. Some are radioactive and some are not. All
the isotopes of elements above atomic number 83, however, are
radioactive.
613
Figure 39.11
Three isotopes of hydrogen.
Each nucleus has a single proton
that holds a single orbital elec-
tron, which, in turn, determines
the chemical properties of the
atom. The varying number of
neutrons changes the mass of
the atom, but not its chemical +H tH tH
properties.

The common isotope of uranium is *g5U, or U-238 for short. It is

radioactive, but with a smaller decay rate than *§3U, or U-235. Any
nucleus with 92 protons is uranium, by definition. Nuclei with 92
protons but different numbers of neutrons are simply different iso-
topes of uranium.

Figure 39.12 >

All isotopes of uranium are
unstable and undergo radio-
active decay.
238
ae

| Questions i
i When the tritium nucleus, 3H, undergoes beta decay, one of its
wy “neutrons iis converted to a proton. What is the resulting nucleus?
AueThe nucleus of beryllium--8, §Be, undergoes a special kind of
_* radioactive decay: it splits into two equal halves. What nuclei are
7. the products of this decay? Why is this a form of alpha decay?
3. The electric force of repulsion between the protons in a heavy
mc nucleus acts over a greater distance than the attractive forces
among the neutrons and protons in the nucleus. Given this fact,
~ explain why all of the very heavy elements are radioactive.

@ Answers

1. The resulting nucleus contains two protons and one neutron. This is an isotope of
helium, the second element in the periodic table. It is helium-3, or 3He.

2. When beryllium-8, which contains 4 protons and 4 neutrons, splits into equal halves, a
pair of nuclei with 2 protons and 2 neutrons are created. These are nuclei of helium-4,
3He, also called alpha particles. So this reaction is a form of alpha decay.

3. Each proton in an atomic nucleus is repelled by every other proton in the nucleus, but
it is attracted only by the nucleons closest to it. In a large nucleus, where protons such
as those on opposite sides are far apart, electrical repulsion can exceed nuclear attrac-
tion. This instability makes all the heaviest atoms radioactive.

614 Chapter 39 The Atomic Nucleus and Radioactivity

I A TTT RL IO
LINK TO TECHNOLOG
PORTRAITS

39.5 Radioactive Half-Life eS

ksSBE hs

Radioactive isotopes decay at different rates. The radioactive decay

rate is measured in terms of a characteristic time, the half-life. The
half-life of a radioactive material is the time needed for half of the
radioactive atoms to decay. Radium-226, for example, has a half-life
of 1620 years. This means that half of any given specimen of Ra-226
will have undergone radioactive decay by the end of 1620 years. In
the next 1620 years, half of the remaining radium will decay, leaving
only one-fourth the original number of radium atoms. The other ei
st
SS
he

three-fourths are converted, by a succession of disintegrations, to

lead. After 20 half-lives, an initial quantity of radioactive atoms will
be diminished to about one-millionth of the original quantity.

_ creating ions that provide —

Rate of Decay of Radium a slight electric current.If
1 kg _ smoke enters this cham-
_ ber, the ions are disturbed
and the current dimin-
ishes. Electronic sensors
in the circuit detect this
- reduced current and
sound the alarm. Radio-
activity used for this pur-
pose saves many lives.

1
4 kg
4 Kq

NOW 1620 3240 4860

YEARS ——>
Figure 39.13 A
Every 1620 years the amount of radium decreases by half.

The isotopes of some elements have a half-life of less than a mil-

lionth of a second, while U-238, for example, has a half-life of 4.5 bil-
lion years. The isotopes of each radioactive element have their own
characteristic half-lives.
Rates of radioactive decay appear to be absolutely constant,
unaffected by any external conditions, however drastic. High or low
pressures, high or low temperatures, strong magnetic or electric
fields, and even violent chemical reactions have no detectable effect 1 Explore 2 Develop |3 Apply
on the rate of decay of an element. Any of these stresses, however
severe by ordinary standards, is far too mild to affect the nucleus 2 Laboratory Manual 98
deep in the interior of the atom. 2 Concept-Development
How do physicists measure radioactive half-lives? They cannot Practice Book 39-7
always do it by observing a specimen and waiting until the quantity
 reduces to half. This is often much longer than a human life span! One
can measure, however, the rate at which a substance decays. There are
various radiation detectors for doing this (Figure 39.14). The half-life
of an isotope is related to its rate of disintegration. In general, the
shorter the half-life of a substance, the faster it disintegrates, and the
more active is the substance. The half-life can be computed from the
rate of disintegration, which can be measured in the laboratory.

Figure 39.14 >

Radiation detection. A Geiger
counter detects incoming radia-
tion by its ionizing effect on
enclosed gas in the tube. A scin-
tillation counter (not shown)
detects incoming radiation by
flashes of light that are produced
when charged particles or
gamma rays pass through it.

BH Questions
1. If a sample of a radioactive isotope has a half-life of 1 year, how
much of the original sample will be left at the end of the second
year?
2. If you have equal amounts of radioactive materials, one that
has a short half-life and another that has a long half-life, which
will give a higher reading on a radiation detector?
SS
S

@ Answers

1. One-quarter of the original sample will be left. The three-quarters that

underwent decay
become one or more different elements altogether.

2. The material with the shorter half-life is more active and will give a higher
reading ona
radiation detector.

616 Chapter 39 The Atomic Nucleus and Radioactivity

MRE
E EEEE
ar ) en
39.6 Natural Transmutation of Elements
When a nucleus emits an alpha or a beta particle, a different ele-
ment is formed. The changing of one element to another is called
transmutation. Consider common uranium, for example. Uranium
has 92 protons. When an alpha particle is ejected, the nucleus is
reduced by two protons and two neutrons. This is because they
make up the alpha particle that leaves. The 90 protons and 144 neu-
trons left behind are then the nucleus of a new element. This ele-
ment is thorium. This reaction is expressed as

eU > “ealh + sHe

An arrow is used here to show that the 738U changes into the other
elements. When this happens, energy is released in three forms:
gamma radiation, the kinetic energy of the alpha particle (SHe),
and the kinetic energy of the thorium atom. Be sure to notice in
the nuclear equation that the mass numbers at the top balance
(238 = 234 + 4) and that the atomic numbers at the bottom also
balance (92 = 90 + 2).
Thorium-234, the product of this reaction, is also radioactive.
When it decays, it emits a beta particle. Recall that a beta particle is
an electron ejected from the nucleus. Once ejected, a beta particle
is indistinguishable from an orbital electron or any other electron.
When a beta particle is ejected, a neutron changes into a proton. In
the case of thorium, which has 90 protons, beta emission leaves it
with one fewer neutron and one more proton. The new nucleus
then has 91 protons and is no longer thorium. It is the element
protactinium. The reaction is*

234Th > 234Pa +e

* Beta emission is accompanied by the ejection of an antineutrino, not shown here.

Antineutrinos are the antiparticles of neutrinos, and are extremely swift (moving at or

[2
Devo]
close to the speed of light) and extremely plentiful. Whether they have mass is still
questionable. If they do, it is thousands of times less than the mass of the electron. 1 Explore
Neutrinos have no charge and seldom interact with matter. As you are reading this
sentence, a thousand billion neutrinos emanating from the sun pierce through your
2 Concept-Development
Practice Book 39-2
body. This is true day or night, since at nighttime the solar neutrinos travel through
Earth and pierce you from below. A cause for concern? No, that's just nature in action!

617
 Note that although the atomic number has increased by 1 in this
process, the mass number (number of nucleons) remains the same.
Also note that the beta particle (electron) is written as _{e. The -1 is the
charge of the electron. The 0 indicates that its mass is insignificant
when compared with the mass of the protons and neutrons that alone
contribute to the mass number. Beta emission has hardly any effect on
the mass of the nucleus; only the charge (atomic number) changes.
As the example of uranium-238 decay shows, when an atom
ejects an alpha particle from its nucleus, the mass number of the
resulting atom decreases by 4, and its atomic number decreases by 2.
The resulting atom belongs to an element two spaces back in the
periodic table.* When an atom ejects a beta particle from its nucleus,
it loses no nucleons, so there is no change in mass number but its
atomic number increases by 1.** The resulting atom belongs to an
element one place forward in the periodic table. Thus, radioactive
elements decay backward or forward in the periodic table. A radioac-
tive nucleus may emit gamma radiation along with an alpha particle
or a beta particle. Gamma emission has no effect on the mass num-
ber or the atomic number.
The radioactive decay of *33U to an isotope of lead, 78$Pb, is
shown on the next page in Figure 39.15. The steps in the decay
process are shown in the diagram, where each nucleus that plays a
part in the series is shown by a burst. The vertical column that con-
tains the burst shows the atomic number of the nucleus, and the
horizontal row shows its mass number. Each arrow that slants down-
ward toward the left shows an alpha decay. Each arrow that points to
the right shows a beta decay. Notice that some of the nuclei in the
series can decay either way. This is one of several similar radioactive
series that occur in nature.

H Questions
1. Complete the following nuclear reactions.
a. 7ggRa > 3? + fe b. 734P0 — 783Pb + 5?
2. What finally becomes of all the uranium-238 that undergoes
. radioactive decay?
Ne
SS SSS

@ Answers

1. a. *88Ra > 728 Ac +_%e

b. 7020 > 25Pb + $He
2. All the uranium-238 will ultimately become lead. On the way to becoming lead, it will
exist as a series of other elements, as indicated in Figure 39.15.

For a periodic table, see Figure 17.11. Look in the periodic table for the elements men-
tioned in this section.

** Sometimes a nucleus emits a positron, which is the antiparticle of an electron. A posi-

tron has a charge of +1 and the same mass as the electron. In this case, a proton in the
nucleus becomes a neutron, and the atomic number is decreased by 1 with no change
in mass number.

Chapter 39 The Atomic Nucleus and Radioactivity

 C.
U-238 Radioactive Decay Series

238

234
ae
230
aa
226

222 ra
at:
218
NUMBER
MASS

214

Base
210

206
Dimoumosmo4 Oo) COwois88 (89°90 91 92

ATOMIC NUMBER

Figure 39.15 A
U-238 decays to Pb-206 through a series of alpha and beta decays.
 39.7 Artificial Transmutation of
Elements

The British physicist Ernest Rutherford, in 1919, was the first of

many investigators to succeed in artificially transmuting a chemical
element. In a sealed container he bombarded nitrogen nuclei with
alpha particles from a radioactive piece of ore and then found traces
of oxygen and hydrogen that were not there before. Rutherford
accounted for the presence of the oxygen and hydrogen with the
nuclear equation

TIN +3He — 10 44H

After Rutherford’s experiment there followed many such nuclear

reactions—first with natural bombarding particles from radioactive
elements, and then with more energetic particles (protons, deuterons,
and alpha particles) hurled by giant atom-smashing particle accel-
erators. Artificial transmutation is an everyday fact of life to the
researchers of today.
The elements beyond uranium in the periodic table—the
transuranic elements—have been produced through artificial trans-
mutation. All of these elements have half-lives that are much less
than the age of Earth. Whatever transuranic elements might have
existed naturally when Earth was formed have long since decayed.

NITROGEN GAS iN SEALED

CONTAINER Be

Figure 39.16 A
Artificial transmutation can be accomplished by simple means
or by elabo-
rate means.

620 Chapter 39 The Atomic Nucleus and Radioactivity

NUNES NOES TT eS
39.8 Carbon Dating
Earth’s atmosphere is continuously bombarded from above by cos-
mic rays—mainly high-energy protons—from beyond Earth. This and plants. a | iv
results in the transmutation of many atoms in the upper atmos- _ thousands of yea rsago
phere. Protons, neutrons, and other particles are scattered through- - thanks to the v vk Dice
out the atmosphere. Most of the protons quickly capture stray archeologists. An arche- .
electrons and become hydrogen atoms in the upper atmosphere, _ologist is a person who _
but the neutrons keep going for long distances because they have no studies ancient cultures. |
charge and do not interact electrically with matter. Sooner or later Archeologists act as
many of them collide with the nuclei of atoms in the lower atmos- detectives as they sift
through artifacts, or
phere. If they are captured by the nucleus of a nitrogen atom, the fol-
remnants, of homes,
lowing reaction can take place:
tools, and living things
in order to figure out
what life was like in
bygone times. To find
out how old an artifact
is, archeologists use car-
BNE > 4C + 4H bon-14 dating. An arche-
ologist must understand
In this reaction, when nitrogen-14 is hit by a neutron ($7), carbon-14 that this procedure
and hydrogen are produced. works only for artifacts
Most of the carbon that exists on Earth is the stable '§C, carbon- that were once living
12. In the air, it appears mainly in the compound carbon dioxide. and that are less than
Because of the cosmic bombardment, less than one-millionth of 1% 50,000 years old.
of the carbon in the atmosphere is carbon-14. Like carbon-12, it Archeologists generally
joins with oxygen to form carbon dioxide, which is taken in by work for government
plants. This means that all plants have a tiny bit of radioactive car- and university research
facilities as well as for
bon-14 in them. All animals eat plants (or eat plant-eating animals),
museums and privately
and therefore have a little carbon-14 in them. All living things con-
funded organizations.
tain some carbon-14.
Carbon-14 isa beta emitter and decays back into nitrogen by the
following reaction:*

In a living plant, which continues to take in carbon dioxide, a

radioactive equilibrium is reached where there is a fixed ratio of
carbon-14 to carbon-12. When a plant or animal dies, replenishment
of the radioactive isotope stops. Then the percentage of carbon-14
decreases—at a known rate. The longer an organism is dead, the less
carbon-14 remains.
The half-life of carbon-14 is 5730 years. This means that half of
the carbon-14 atoms that are now present in the remains of a body,
nn
jussirrnrrnrns

* The accompanying antineutrino is not shown.

 plant, or tree will decay in the next 5730 years. Half the remaining
carbon-14 atoms will then decay in the following 5730 years, and so
forth. The radioactivity of once-living things therefore gradually
decreases at a predictable rate (Figure 39.17).

207710) 6G, 5 16 8n Bic: JES0 B.C. 3720 BC 20027 A.D.

Figure 39.17 A
The radioactive carbon isotopes in the skeleton diminish by one-half every
5730 years.

Archeologists use the carbon-14 dating technique to establish

the dates of wooden artifacts and skeletons. Because of fluctuations
in the production of carbon-14 through the centuries (due partly to
changes in Earth’s magnetic field and the consequent changes in the
cosmic ray intensity), this technique gives an uncertainty of about
15%. This means, for example, that a mastodon bone that is dated to
be 10 000 years old may really be only 8500 years old on the low side,
or 11 500 years old on the high side. For many purposes this is an
acceptable level of uncertainty. If greater accuracy is desired, then
other techniques must be employed.

@ Questions
1. An archeologist extracts a gram of carbon _
from an ancient bone and measures
between 7 and 8 beta emissions per
minute from the sample. A gram of car-
bon extracted from a fresh piece of
bone gives off 15 betas per minute.
Estimate the age of the ancient bone.
2. Suppose the carbon sample from the
ancient bone were found to be only
one-fourth as radioactive as a gram
of carbon from new bone. Estimate
the age of the ancient bone.

B@ Answers

1. Since beta emission for the old sample is one-half that of the fresh sample, about one
half-life has passed, 5730 years.
2. The ancient bone is two half-lives of carbon-14 or about 11 460 years old.

Chapter 39 The Atomic Nucleus and Radioactivity

NN
T PRAP 1 E SG
39.9 Uranium Dating
The dating of older, but nonliving, things is accomplished with
radioactive minerals, such as uranium. The naturally occurring iso-
topes U-238 and U-235 decay very slowly and ultimately become
isotopes of lead—but not the common lead isotope Pb-208. For
example, U-238 decays through several stages to finally become
Pb-206, whereas U-235 finally becomes the isotope Pb-207. Most of
the lead isotopes 206 and 207 that exist were at one time uranium.
The older the uranium-bearing rock, the higher the percentage of
these lead isotopes.
From the half-lives of the uranium isotopes and the percentage
of lead isotopes in uranium-bearing rock, a calculation can be made
of the date when the rock was formed. Rocks dated in this way have
been found to be as much as 3.7 billion years old. Samples from the
moon, where there has been less obliteration of early rocks than on
Earth, have been dated at 4.2 billion years. This is “only” 400 million
years short of the well-established 4.6-billion-year age of Earth and
the solar system.

NS
39.10 Radioactive Tracers
Radioactive isotopes of all the elements have been produced by bom-
barding the elements with neutrons and other particles. These iso-
topes are inexpensive, quite available, and very useful in scientific
research and industry.
Agricultural researchers mix a small amount of radioactive iso-
topes with fertilizer before applying it to growing plants. Once the
plants are growing, the amount of fertilizer taken up by the plant can
be easily measured with radiation detectors. From such measure-
ments, researchers can tell farmers the proper amount of fertilizer to
use. When used in this way, radioactive isotopes are called tracers
(Figure 39.18).
Figure 39.18 A
Tracers are used in medicine to study the process of digestion
Radioactive isotopes are used to
and the way in which chemicals move about in the body. Food con- check the action of fertilizers in
taining a tiny amount of radioactive isotopes is fed to a patient. The plants and the progress of food
paths of the tracers in the food are then followed through the body in digestion.
with a radiation detector. The same method is used to study the cir-
culation of the blood.
Engineers study how parts of an automobile test engine wear
away by making the cylinder walls in the engine radioactive. While
the engine is running, the piston rings rub against the cylinder walls.
The tiny particles of radioactive metal that are worn away fall into
the lubricating oil, where they can be measured with a radiation
detector. This test is repeated with different oils. In this way the engi-
neer can determine which oil gives the least wear and longest life to
the engine.

623
1 Explore RADIOACTIVITY NO RADIOACTIVITY
_ RADIOISOTOPE f°? ay
3 Problem-Solving re
| Oo &
Exercises in iN,
Physics 18-4

Figure 39.19 A
Tracking pipe leaks with radioactive isotopes.

There are hundreds more examples of the use of radioactive iso-

topes. The important thing is that this technique provides a way to
detect and count atoms in quantities too small to be seen with a
microscope and too small to be hazardous.*

SEEN 255 oO
39.11 Radiation and You
Radioactivity has been around longer than humans have. It is as much
a part of our environment as the sun and the rain. It is what warms the
interior of Earth and makes it molten. In fact, radioactive decay inside
Earth is what heats the water that spurts from a geyser or that wells up
from a natural hot spring. Even the helium in a child’s balloon is the
result of radioactivity. Its nuclei are nothing more than alpha particles
that were once shot out of radioactive nuclei.
As Figure 39.20 shows, most radiation you encounter originates
in nature. It is in the ground you stand on, and in the bricks and
stones of surrounding buildings. Even the cleanest air we breathe is
slightly radioactive. This natural background radiation was present
before humans emerged in the world. If our bodies couldn't tolerate
it, we wouldn't be here.
Much of the radiation we are exposed to is cosmic radiation
streaming down through the atmosphere. Most of the protons and
other atomic nuclei that fly toward Earth from outer space are
deflected away. The atmosphere, acting as a protective shield, stops
most of the rest. But some cosmic rays penetrate the atmosphere,
mostly in the form of secondary particles such as muons. At higher
altitudes, radiation is more intense. In Denver, the “mile-high city,”
you receive more than twice the cosmic radiation you receive at sea
level. A couple of round-trip flights between New York and San
Francisco exposes you to as much radiation as in a normal chest
X-ray. The air time of airline personnel is limited because of this
extra radiation.

* The use of intense radiation in treating cancer is different. The quantity of radioactive
material is then far greater than in research using radioactive tracers, but the benefit is
reckoned to outweigh the risk.

624 Chapter 39 The Atomic Nucleus and Radioactivity

 NATURAL BACKGROUND 75% Te
(COSMIC RAYS, EARTH MIN Po wey:
RADON IN AIR)

CONSUMER PRODUCTS 2%
(TV. MONITORS. SMOKE DETECTORS)

COAL AND NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS, 5 x FOOD AND WATER 8%

WEAPONS TESTS FALLOUT <0.003% (EG, POTASSIUM)
Figure 39.20 A
Origins of radiation exposure for an average individual in the United States.

We are bombarded most by what harms us least—neutrinos.

Neutrinos are the most weakly interacting particles. They have near-
zero mass, no charge, and are produced frequently in radioactive
decays. They are the most common high-speed particles known,
zapping the universe, and passing unhindered through our bodies
by the billions every second. They pass completely through Earth
with only occasional encounters. It would take a “piece” of lead
6 light-years in thickness to absorb half the neutrinos incident upon
it. About once per year on the average, a neutrino triggers a nuclear
reaction in your body. We don't hear much about neutrinos because
they ignore us.
Of the types of radiation we have focused upon in this chapter,
gamma radiation is by far the most dangerous. It emanates from
radioactive materials and makes up a substantial part of the normal
background radiation. Exposure to gamma radiation should be min-
imized. The cells of living tissue are composed of intricately struc-
tured molecules in a watery, ion-rich brine. When gamma radiation
encounters this highly ordered soup, it produces damage on the
atomic scale. Less damage is done by a beta particle because it does
not penetrate as deeply into living matter. Regardless of whether
damage is by gamma, beta, or some other kind of radiation, these
altered molecules are often more harmful than useful to life
processes. Altered DNA molecules, for example, can produce harm-
ful genetic mutations.
Cells can repair most kinds of molecular damage if the radiation
they are exposed to is not too intense. This is how we are able to tol-
erate small radiation doses. On the other hand, people who work
around high concentrations of radioactive materials must be specially
trained and protected to avoid an increased risk of cancer. This
applies to medical people, workers in nuclear power plants, and per-
sonnel on nuclear-powered ships. People who receive high doses of
radiation (on the order of 1000 times natural background or more) run
a greater risk of cancer and have a shorter life expectancy than people
who are not so exposed. Figure 39.21 A
Whenever possible, exposure to radiation should be avoided. This is the internationally used
Unavoidable, however, is the natural radiation that all living beings symbol to indicate an area where
have always absorbed. radioactive material is being han-
dled or produced.
 Chapter Assessment

Transmutation is the changing of one element

For: Study and Review into another that occurs when a radioactive
Visit: PHSchool.com nucleus emits an alpha or beta particle.
(Go @nline
HSchool.com Web Code: csd-6390 mw The transuranic elements have been created
by artificial transmutation.
Radioactive isotopes have several important uses.
Concept Summary m Carbon-14 is used to date wooden artifacts
The atomic nucleus is composed of nucleons that and the remains of plants and animals.
consist of positively charged protons and electri- m Radioactive minerals, such as uranium-238 or
cally neutral neutrons. uranium-235, are used to date older, nonliving
m= The number of protons determines the num- materials.
ber of electrons and the chemical properties m Radioactive tracers are used in agriculture
of an atom. and medicine.
m Nucleons are bound together by the strong Natural environmental radiation constantly
force. bombards us.
m As the number of protons increases, more m Additional exposure to radiation should be
neutrons are needed to stabilize the nucleus. avoided whenever possible, because it is
Radioactive elements have unstable nuclei and damaging to living molecules and cells.
emit various nuclear particles.
m Alpha particles consist of two protons and
two neutrons and can be stopped by skin or Key Terms
heavy paper.
atomic mass number (39.4)
m Beta particles are electrons ejected from the atomic number (39.4)
nucleus. They can be stopped by clothing or half-life (39.5)
aluminum foil.
isotope (39.4)
m Gamma rays are high-energy photons. nucleon (39.1)
Heavy shielding, such as lead, is required radioactive (39.2)
for protection.
strong force (39.1)
Isotopes of an element are chemically identical transmutation (39.6)
but differ in their numbers of neutrons.
m They have the same atomic number but
different atomic mass numbers.
Some isotopes are radioactive.
Half-life is a measure of the decay rate of
radioactive isotopes.

626 Chapter 39 The Atomic Nucleus and Radioactivity

a
17. a. What is a transuranic element?
ee ee

Review Questions Check Concepts b. Why are there no ore deposits of

Es Which of the following are nucleons—protons, transuranic elements on Earth? (39.7)
neutrons, or electrons? (39.1) 18. Which is radioactive, C-12 or C-14? (39.8)
- Do electrical forces tend to hold a nucleus 19. Why is more C-14 found in new bones than in
together or push it apart? (39.1) ancient bones of the same mass? (39.8)
- Between what kinds of particles does the 20. Why would the carbon dating method be use-
nuclear strong force act? (39.1) less in dating old coins but not old pieces of
- Which force has a longer range, the electric adobe bricks? (39.8)
force or the strong force? (39.1) 21. Why are there deposits of lead in all deposits
. When is a neutron unstable? of uranium ore? (39.9)

. Distinguish among alpha, beta, and gamma 22. What isotopes accumulate in old, uranium-
rays. (39.2) bearing rock? (39.9)

- How do the penetrating powers of the three 23. What is a radioactive tracer? (39.10)
types of radiation compare? (39.3) 24. From where does most of the radiation you
. Distinguish between an ion and an isotope. encounter originate? (39.11)
(39.4) 25. Why is radiation more intense at high altitudes
. How does the number of electrons in a normal and near Earth's poles? (39.11)
atom compare with the number of protons in
its nucleus? (39.4)
. Which isotope has the greater number of Think and Explain Think Critically
neutrons, U-235 or U-2382 (39.4)
26. What experimental evidence indicates that
. What is meant by radioactive half-life? (39.5) radioactivity is a process that occurs in the
atomic nucleus?
. If the radioactive half-life of a certain isotope
is 1620 years, how much of that substance 27. Does your body contain more neutrons than
will be left at the end of 1620 years? After protons? More protons than electrons?
3240 years? (39.5) Discuss.
. When an atom undergoes radioactive decay, 28. Why are the atomic masses of many elements
does it become a completely different element? in the periodic table not whole numbers?
(39.6) 29. How do the atomic number and atomic mass
14. a. What happens to the atomic number of an of an atom change when a proton is added to
atom when it ejects an alpha particle? its nucleus? When a neutron is added? Which
determines the chemical nature of the element?
b. What happens to its atomic mass number?
(39.6) 30. What do different isotopes of a given element
have in common? How are they different?
15. a. What happens to the atomic number of an
atom when it ejects a beta particle? 31. Why are alpha and beta rays deflected in
opposite directions in a magnetic field?
b. What happens to its atomic mass number?
Would they be deflected in opposite direc-
(39.6) tions in an electric field? Why are gamma rays
. a. What element does thorium become if it undeflected in either field?
emits an alpha particle? 32. When an alpha particle leaves the nucleus,
b. What if it emits a beta particle? (39.6) would you expect it to speed up? Defend your
answer.

627
33. Why does an alpha particle deflect less than a 42. a. State the numbers of neutrons and protons
beta particle in a magnetic field? in each of the following nuclei: 8Li, '}C, 3Fe,
20)He, and 732Pu.
34. Exactly what is a positively charged
hydrogen atom? b. How many electrons will typically surround
each of these nuclei?
35. Why is a sample of radioactive material
always a little warmer than its surroundings? . A radioisotope is placed near a radiation
Why is the center of Earth so hot? detector, which registers 80 counts per sec-
ond. Eight hours later, the detector registers
36. Why do different isotopes of the same ele-
five counts per second. What is the isotope’s
ment have the same chemical properties?
half-life?
37. If a sample of radioactive material has a half-
life of one week, how much of the original . Radiation from a point source follows an
sample will be left at the end of the second inverse-square law. If a Geiger counter that is
week? The third week? The fourth week? 1 m away from a small source reads 100 counts
per minute, what will be its reading 2 m from
38. A product of nuclear power plants is the the source? 3 m from it?
isotope cesium-137, which has a half-life of
30 years. How long will it take for this isotope . What element results when radium-226
to decay to one-sixteenth its original amount? decays by alpha emission? What is the atomic
mass of this element?
39. Coal contains minute quantities of radioac-
tive materials, and in fact there is more total 46. How is it possible for an element to decay
radiation outside a coal-fired power plant “forward in the periodic table’—that is, to an
than outside a fission power plant. What does element of higher atomic number?
this tell you about the shielding that typically 47. People working around radioactivity wear film
surrounds these power plants? badges to monitor their radiation exposure.
40. When we speak of dangerous radiation expo- These badges are small pieces of photographic
sure, are we generally speaking of alpha radi- film enclosed in a lightproof wrapper. What
ation, beta radiation, or gamma radiation? kind of radiation do these devices monitor?
Discuss.
48. The age of the Dead Sea Scrolls was found by
41. When the isotope bismuth-213 emits an carbon dating. Could this technique work if
alpha particle, it becomes a new element. they were instead stone tablets? Explain.
a. What are the atomic number and atomic
mass number of the new element?

b. What element results if bismuth-213 emits

a beta particle instead?

Chapter 39 The Atomic Nucleus and Radioactivity

Nuclear Fission
and Fusion

he discovery of radioactivity in 1896

i sparked much interest among many
kinds of people. Some people thought
it was no more than a scientific curiosity, some
thought it would be a cure for medical ailments, and a few thought Chain reaction.
it might turn out to be a source of plentiful energy to heat homes,
power factories, and light up cities at night.
Radioactivity does release energy, but has not become a sub-
stantial source of energy for humans. On a small scale it powers
small energy sources in spacecraft, and makes a sample of radium
warm. On a large scale it melts rocks and is the source of geothermal
energy within Earth. In 1939, just at the beginning of World War II, a
nuclear reaction was discovered that released much more energy per
atom than radioactivity, and had the potential to be used for both
explosions and power production. This was the splitting of the atom,
or nuclear fission.
A very different nuclear reaction, nuclear fusion, can also release
huge amounts of energy. Both nuclear fission and nuclear fusion
produce vastly more energy per kilogram of matter than any chemi-
cal reaction, and even more than most other nuclear reactions. The
awesome release of this energy in atomic and hydrogen bombs ush-
ered in the present “nuclear age.” Out of the ashes of despair brought
about by these bombs, hope grew that atoms could be used for
peaceful purposes—that the awesome energy of nuclear reactions
could be used for domestic power instead of for arsenals of war.
What exactly are nuclear fission and nuclear fusion? How do they
differ? What is the physics that underlies why so much energy is
released by these reactions? The answers to these questions are what
this chapter is about.

629
 MRE oS ce

40.1 Nuclear Fission

Biology students know that living tissue grows by the division of
cells. The splitting in half of living cells is called fission. Ina similar
THE NUCLEAR FORCE IS
DOMINANT way, the splitting of atomic nuclei is called nuclear fission.
Nuclear fission involves the delicate balance between the attrac-
tion of nuclear strong forces and the repulsion of electrical forces
within the nucleus. In all known nuclei the nuclear strong forces
dominate. In uranium, however, this domination is tenuous. If the
uranium nucleus is stretched into an elongated shape (Figure 40.1),
the electrical forces may push it into an even more elongated shape.
If the elongation passes a critical point, electrical forces overwhelm
nuclear strong forces, and the nucleus splits. This is nuclear fission.
THE ELECTRICAL FORCE IS The absorption of a neutron by a uranium nucleus supplies
DOMINANT enough energy to cause such an elongation. The resulting fission
process may produce many different combinations of smaller nuclei.
Figure 40.1 A A typical example is
Nuclear deformation leads to
fission when repelling electrical
forces dominate over attracting
nuclear forces.

ly) ++ 235“33U — 913¢kr + 142“GgBa + 3(97)

gn 1

The energy that is released by the fission of one U-235 atom is

enormous—about seven million times the energy released by the
explosion of one TNT molecule. This energy is mainly in the form
of kinetic energy of the fission fragments, with some energy given
to ejected neutrons, and the rest to gamma radiation.
Note that one neutron starts the fission of the uranium atom,
and, in this example, three more neutrons are produced when the
uranium fissions. Between two and three neutrons are produced in
most nuclear fission reactions. These new neutrons can, in turn,
cause the fissioning of two or three other nuclei, releasing from four
to nine more neutrons. If each of these succeeds in splitting just one
atom, the next step in the reaction will produce between 8 and
27 neutrons, and so on. This makes a chain reaction (Figure 40.2).
Why do chain reactions not occur in naturally occurring ura-
nium ore deposits? They would if all uranium atoms fissioned so eas-
ily. Fission occurs mainly for the rare isotope U-235, which makes up
only 0.7% of the uranium in pure uranium metal. When the preva-
lent isotope U-238 absorbs neutrons from fission, it does not
undergo fission. So a chain reaction can be snuffed out by the
neutron-absorbing U-238. It is rare for uranium deposits in nature
1 Explore to spontaneously undergo a chain reaction.
Ifa chain reaction occurred in a chunk of pure U-235 the size of
2 Laboratory Manual 99 a baseball, an enormous explosion would likely result. If the chain
reaction were started in a smaller chunk of pure U-235, however, no

630 Chapter 40 Nuclear Fission and Fusion

 < Figure 40.2
A chain reaction. (Here, only two
emitted neutrons per reaction
are shown.)

© NEUTRON
*
=
_
Nal
geey) U-235 NUCLEUS

explosion would occur. Why? Because a neutron ejected by a fission

event travels a certain average distance through the material before <n < eat eee es
it encounters another uranium nucleus and triggers another fission eeeee LO ‘elec ‘eé
event. If the piece of uranium is too small, a neutron is likely to ~~~ ECC CCC CCC
escape through the surface before it “finds” another nucleus. On eee. Nee e.ee Yeeees
the average, fewer than one neutron per fission will be available to OCC CC CC CCC CCS
trigger more fission, and the chain reaction will die out. In a bigger Ceeee eee ‘e% ‘eee
piece, a neutron can move farther through the material before QOQQQOOQOOOOG OL
reaching a surface. Then more than one neutron from each fission U235 @ U238
event, on the average, will be available to trigger more fission
(Figure 40.4).The chain reaction will build up to enormous energy.* Figure 40.3 A
Only 1 part in 140 of naturally
NEUTRONS TRIGGER occurring uranium is U-235.
NEUTRONS ESCAPE MORE REACTIONS
ri SURFACE

Figure 40.4 A
The exaggerated view shows that a chain reaction in a small piece of pure
U-235 dies out, because neutrons leak from the surface too easily. In a larger
piece, a chain reaction builds up because neutrons are more likely to trigger
additional fission events than to escape through the surface.

The critical mass is the amount of mass for which each fission
event produces, on the average, one additional fission event. It is
just enough to “hold even.” A subcritical mass is one in which the
chain reaction dies out. A supercritical mass is one in which the
chain reaction builds up explosively.

* Another way to understand this is geometrically. Recall the concept of scaling in Chapter 18.
Small pieces of material have more surface area relative to volume than large pieces (there
is more skin on a kilogram of small potatoes than on a single 1-kilogram large potato). The
larger the piece of fission fuel, the less surface area it has relative to its volume.

631
 SHORT PATH THROUGH In Figure 40.5 there are two pieces of pure U-235, each of them sub-
EACH PIECE critical. Neutrons readily reach a surface and escape before a sizable
chain reaction builds up. But if the pieces are joined together, there will
be more distance available for neutron travel and a greater likelihood of
their triggering fission before escaping through the surface. If the com-
a e QD bined mass is supercritical, we have a nuclear fission bomb.
LONGER The construction of a uranium fission bomb is not a formidable
PATH task. The difficulty is separating enough U-235 from the more abun-
< dant U-238. It took Manhattan Project scientists and engineers more
than two years to extract enough U-235 from uranium ore to make
Figure 40.5 A the bomb that was detonated over Hiroshima in 1945. Uranium iso-
Each piece is subcritical. The
tope separation is still a difficult, expensive process today.
average path of a neutron in each
piece is short enough that a neu-
tron is likely to escape. When the TNT TO DRIVE URANIUM PIECES
pieces are combined, the average QUICKLY TOGETHER
path of a neutron is greater, and
there is less chance that a neu-
tron will escape. The combina-
tion may be supercritical.

RADIOACTIVE SOURCE
SUBCRITICAL PIECES THAT SUPPLIES FREE
OF URANIUM NEUTRONS

Figure 40.6 A
Simplified diagram of an idealized uranium fission bomb. (In an actual “gun-
type” weapon, only one of the two pieces of uranium is fired toward the
other one, which is the “target.”)

BH Questions
1. What is nuclear fission?
2. What is a chain reaction?
3. Five kilograms of U-235 broken up into small separated chunks
is subcritical, but if the chunks are put together in a ball shape,
it is supercritical. Why?
TE
E

@ Answers

1. Nuclear fission is the splitting of the atomic nucleus. When a heavy nucleus such
as the
U-235 nucleus splits into two main parts, there is a large release of energy.

2. Achain reaction is a self-sustaining reaction that, once started, continues because

one
reaction event triggers one or more additional reaction events.

3. Five kilograms of U-235 in small chunks will not support a sustained reaction because
the path for a neutron in each chunk is so short that the neutron is likely to escape
through the surface without causing fission. When the chunks are brought together,
the average neutron path within the material is much longer and a neutron
is likely
to cause fission rather than escape.

632 Chapter 40 Nuclear Fission and Fusion

(NERAck
40.2 The Nuclear Fission Reactor
A better use for uranium than for bombs is for power reactors. About
21% of electrical energy in the United States is generated by nuclear fis-
sion reactors. These reactors are simply nuclear furnaces, which (like
fossil fuel furnaces) do nothing more elegant than boil water to produce
steam for a turbine (Figure 40.7). The greatest practical difference is the
amount of fuel involved. One kilogram of uranium fuel, less than the
size of a baseball, yields more energy than 30 freight-car loads of coal.

SUPERHEATED <4 Figure 40.7

REACTOR WATER
Diagram of a nuclear fission
power plant.

A reactor contains three main components: the nuclear fuel

combined with a moderator to slow down neutrons, the control
rods, and water used to transfer heat from the reactor to the genera-
tor. The nuclear fuel is uranium, with its fissionable isotope U-235
enriched to about 3%. The moderator may be graphite, a pure form
of carbon, or it may be water. Because the U-235 is so highly diluted
with U-238, an explosion like that of a nuclear bomb is not possible.
Control rods that can be moved in and out of the reactor control the
“multiplication” of neutrons, that is, how many neutrons from each
fission event are available to trigger additional fission events. The
control rods are made of a material, usually the metal cadmium or
boron, that readily absorbs neutrons. Heated water around the
nuclear fuel is kept under high pressure and thus brought to a high
temperature without boiling. It transfers heat to a second, lower-
pressure water system, which operates the electric generator in a

Hf Question
; What is the function of the control rods in a nuclear reactor? —
i

HB Answer

Control rods absorb more neutrons when they are pushed into the reactor and fewer neu-
trons when they are pulled out of the reactor. They thereby control the number of neutrons
that participate in a chain reaction.

633
 conventional fashion. In this design two separate water systems are
used so that no radioactivity can reach the turbine.
A major drawback to fission power is the waste products of fission.
Recall that light atomic nuclei are most stable when composed of equal
numbers of protons and neutrons, and that heavy nuclei need more
neutrons than protons for stability. So there are more neutrons than
protons in uranium—143 neutrons compared with 92 protons in
U-235, for example. When uranium fissions into two medium-weight
elements, the ratio of neutrons to protons in the product nuclei is
greater than for medium-weight stable nuclei. These fission products
are said to be “neutron rich.” They are radioactive, most with very short
half-lives, but some with half-lives of thousands of years. Safely dispos-
ing of these waste products requires special storage casks and proce-
dures, and is subject to a developing technology that is less than ideal.

SURED
SS NUN SSS
40.3 Plutonium
When a neutron is absorbed by a U-238 nucleus, no fission results.
The nucleus that is created, U-239, emits a beta particle instead and
becomes an isotope of the first synthetic element beyond uranium—
the transuranic element called neptunium (named after the first
planet discovered from the application of Newton's law of gravitation).*
This isotope, Np-239, in turn, very soon emits a beta particle and
becomes an isotope of plutonium (named after Pluto, the second
planet to be discovered via Newton's law). This isotope, Pu-2339, like
U-235, will undergo fission when it captures a neutron.

Se
URANIUM
~ 238 == URANIUM-239 — + NEPTUNIUM-239 —= PLUTONIUM - 239

Figure 40.8 A
After U-238 absorbs a neutron, it emits a beta particle (and an antineutrino,
not shown), which means that a neutron in the nucleus becomes a proton.
The atom is no longer uranium, but neptunium. After the neptunium atom
emits a beta particle it becomes plutonium.

The half-life of neptunium 239 is only 2.3 days, while the half-life
of plutonium 239 is about 24 000 years. Since plutonium is an ele-
ment distinct from uranium, it can be separated from uranium by
ordinary chemical methods. Unlike the difficult process of separat-
ing U-235 from U-238, it is relatively easy to separate plutonium
from uranium.
Ssh
ee ——
*
At this writing, transuranic elements extend to atomic number 118. See the
periodic
table of the elements, Figure 17.11.

634 Chapter 40 Nuclear Fission and Fusion

 The element plutonium is chemically a poison in the same sense
as are lead and arsenic. It attacks the nervous system and can cause
paralysis. Death can follow if the dose is sufficiently large. Fortu-
nately, plutonium does not remain in its elemental form for long
because it rapidly combines with oxygen to form three compounds,
PuO, PuO,, and Pu,O,, all of which are chemically relatively benign.
They will not dissolve in water or in biological systems. These pluto-
nium compounds do not attack the nervous system and have been
found to be biologically harmless.
Plutonium in any form, however, is radioactively toxic. It is more
toxic than uranium, although less toxic than radium. Pu-239 emits | has many advantages,
high-energy alpha particles, which kill cells rather than simply dis- such as the reduction of
rupting them and leading to mutations. Interestingly enough, dam- pollution, it also has seri-
aged cells rather than dead cells contribute to cancer, which is why ous risks. The possibility —
plutonium ranks low as a cancer-producing substance. The greatest of an accident in which
danger that plutonium presents to humans is its potential for use in radioactive materials are
nuclear fission bombs. Its usefulness is in breeder reactors. released into the environ-
ment makes the job of a
nuclear power plant tech-
nician especially impor-
ERIS SE TSE RE ee tant. Nuclear power plant
technicians are employed
40.4 The Breeder Reactor at every nuclear power
plant facility. They must
When small amounts of Pu-239 are mixed with U-238 in a reactor, have a solid understand-
the fissioning of plutonium liberates neutrons that convert the ing of the process of
abundant, nonfissionable U-238 into more of the fissionable Pu-239. nuclear fission and chain
This process not only produces useful energy, it also “breeds” more reactions as well as the
fission fuel. A reactor with this fuel is a breeder reactor. Using a properties of radioactive
breeder reactor is like filling a gas tank in a car with water, adding materials. Nuclear power
some gasoline, then driving the car, and having more gasoline after plant technicians monitor
the trip than at the beginning, at the expense of common water! the processes at the
After the initial high costs of building such a device, this is a very power plant and are
economical method of producing vast amounts of energy. After a few trained to recognize
problems and to immedi-
years of operation, breeder-reactor power utilities breed twice as
ately follow containment
much fuel as they start with.
procedures in the event
Fission power has several benefits. First, it supplies plentiful elec-
of an emergency.
tricity. Second, it conserves the many billions of tons of coal, oil, and
natural gas that every year are literally turned to heat and smoke, and
which in the long run may be far more precious as sources of organic
molecules than as sources of heat. Third, it eliminates the megatons

Figure 40.9 A
Pu-239, like U-235, undergoes fission when it captures a neutron.

635
 of sulfur oxides and other poisons that are put into the air each year
by the burning of these fuels.
The drawbacks include the problems of storing radioactive
wastes, the production of plutonium and the danger of nuclear
weapons proliferation, low-level release of radioactive materials into
the air and groundwater, and the risk of an accidental release of large
amounts of radioactivity.
Reasoned judgment is not made by considering only the benefits
or the drawbacks of fission power. You must also compare its bene-
fits and its drawbacks with those of alternate power sources. All
power sources have drawbacks of some kind. The benefits versus the
drawbacks of fission power is a subject of much debate.

In a breeder reactor, what material is “bred”? What is this material

bred from?

CNN $60 EE
40.5 Mass-Energy Equivalence
The key to understanding why a great deal of energy is released in
nuclear reactions has to do with the equivalence of mass and energy.
Recall from our study of special relativity in Chapter 16 that mass and
energy are essentially the same—they are two sides of the same coin.
Mass is like a super storage battery. It stores energy—vast quantities
of energy—which can be released if and when the mass decreases.
If you stacked up 238 bricks, the mass of the stack would be
Figure 40.10 A equal to the sum of the masses of the bricks. Is the mass of a U-238
Work is required to pull a nucleus equal to the sum of the masses of the 238 nucleons that
nucleon from an atomic nucleus. make it up? Like so much ruled by relativity, the answer isn’t obvious.
This work goes into mass energy. To find the answer, we consider the work that would be required to
separate all the nucleons from a nucleus.
Recall that work, which transfers energy, is equal to the product of
force and distance. Imagine that you can reach into a U-238 nucleus
and, pulling with a force even greater than the attractive nuclear force,
remove one nucleon. That would require considerable work. Then keep
repeating the process until you end up with 238 nucleons, stationary
and well separated. What happened to all the work done? You started
with one stationary nucleus containing 238 particles and ended with
238 separate stationary particles. The work done shows up as mass
energy. The separated nucleons have a total mass greater than the mass
of the original nucleus. The extra mass, multiplied by the square of the
speed of light, is exactly equal to your energy input: AE = Amc?.
One way to interpret this mass change is to say that a nucleon
inside a nucleus has less mass than its rest mass outside the nucleus.
How much less depends on which nucleus. The mass difference is

@ Answer

Fissionable Pu-239 is bred from nonfissionable U-238.

636 Chapter 40 Nuclear Fission and Fusion

 _s— IONS ARE DIRECTED INTO THE ENTRANCE ‘LINK TO iad detach
SLIT AT A VELOCITY REGULATED BY
ENTRANCE ELECTRICAL AND MAGNETIC FIELDS IN AN
SLIT ION GUN ASSEMBLY (NOT SHOWN)

SINGLE PROTONS STRIKE HERE

Ss CARBON-12 IONS STRIKE HERE
~ U-235 JONS STRIKE HERE
U-238 IONS STRIKE HERE
ge gage with a small dlisk of
Paper. The paper is‘then oF
PHOTOGRAPHIC
FILM
| heats itenough toexpel
- vapors. Molecules iinthe |
~vapor are ionized by ss
exposure to beta radia-
_tion. Most of the mole-
| cules exposed become
_ positive ions, whereas)”
- nitrogen-rich molecules _
Figure 40.11 A _ characteristic of explo-_
| sives become negative ©
The mass spectrometer. lons of a fixed speed are directed into the semicircu-
ions. The negative ions.
lar “drum,” where they are swept into semicircular paths by a strong mag-
netic field. Because of inertia, heavier ions are swept into curves of larger
drift against a flow of air
toward a positively |
radii and lighter ions are swept into curves of smaller radii. The radius of the
curve is directly proportional to the mass of the ion. _charged detector. The
heavier the negative ion,
_ the longer it will take to
related to the “binding energy” of the nucleus. For uranium, the mass reach the detector. —
difference is about 0.7%, or 7 parts in a thousand. The 0.7% reduced In a body scan, a per-
nucleon mass in uranium indicates the binding energy of the son stands momentarily
nucleus, or how much work it would take to disassemble the atom. in an enclosed region
The standard nucleus by which others are compared is carbon- where puffs of air
12, which has a mass of exactly 12.000 00 units.* In these units, a impinge on the body. The
proton outside the nucleus has a mass of 1.007 28, a neutron has a _air is then analyzed by the
mass of 1.008 66, and an electron has a mass of 0.000 55. The masses same technique.
of the pieces that make up the carbon atom—6 protons, 6 neutrons,
and 6 electrons—add up to 12.0989, about 0.8% more than the mass
of a C-12 atom. That difference indicates the binding energy of the
C-12 nucleus. We will see shortly that binding energy is greatest in
the nucleus of iron.
The masses of ions of isotopes of various elements can be accu-
rately measured with a mass spectrometer (Figure 40.11). This impor-
tant device uses a magnetic field to deflect ions into circular arcs.
The ions entering the device all have the same speed. The greater
the inertia (mass) of the ion, the more it resists deflection, and the
greater the radius of its curved path. In this way the nuclear masses
can be compared as the magnetic force sweeps heavier ions into
larger arcs and lighter ions into smaller arcs.

* These units are called atomic mass units and are the units for atomic mass used in
chemistry.

637
 A graph of the nuclear masses for the elements from hydrogen
through uranium is shown in Figure 40.12. The graph slopes upward
with increasing atomic number as expected—elements are more mas-
sive as atomic number increases. The slope curves slightly because
there are proportionally more neutrons in the more massive atoms.
A more important graph results from the plot of nuclear mass
per nucleon from hydrogen through uranium (Figure 40.13). To
MASS
NUCLEAR obtain the nuclear mass per nucleon, simply divide the nuclear mass
by the number of nucleons in the particular nucleus. (If you divided
ATOMIC NUMBER the mass of your whole class by the number of people in your class,
you would get the average mass per person.) The graph indicates the
different average effective masses of nucleons in atomic nuclei. A
Figure 40.12 A proton has the greatest mass when it is the nucleus of a hydrogen
A graph that shows how nuclear atom. None of the proton’s mass is binding energy—it isn’t bound to
mass increases with increasing
anything. Progressing beyond hydrogen, the masses of nucleons in
atomic number. The curvature is
heavier nuclei are effectively smaller. The low point of the graph
somewhat exaggerated.
occurs at the element iron. This means that pulling apart an iron
nucleus would take more work per nucleon than pulling apart any
other nucleus. Iron holds its nucleons more tightly than any other
nucleus does. Beyond iron, the average effective mass of nucleons
increases. For elements lighter than iron and heavier than iron, the
binding energy per nucleon is less than it is in iron.

Ve.
MASS
NUCLEON

Fe U
ATOMIC NUMBER

Figure 40.13 A
The graph shows that the mass per nucleon is not a constant for all nuclei. It
is greatest for the lightest nuclei, the least for iron, and has an intermediate
value for the heaviest nuclei. (The vertical scale covers only about 1% of the
mass of a nucleon.)

From the graph you can see why energy is released when a ura-
nium nucleus is split into nuclei of lower atomic number. If a uranium
nucleus splits in two, the masses of the fission fragments lie about
halfway between uranium and hydrogen on the horizontal scale of the
graph. Most important, note that the mass per nucleon in the fission
fragments is less than the mass per nucleon when the same set of
nucleons are combined in the uranium nucleus. When this decrease in

Chapter 40 Nuclear Fission and Fusion

 <4 Figure 40.14
The mass of a uranium nucleus
is greater than the combined
5 MORE MASS PER masses of the fission fragments
Ww NUCLEON: LOOSER (plus any ejected neutrons). The
Q BINDING difference in the masses is th e
energy released in the fission
= LESS MASS PER \ process.
— NUCLEON: TIGHTER
Va) BINDING
Y)
<x Ye
=

Fe
ATOMIC NUMBER

mass is multiplied by the speed of light squared, it is equal to the

energy yielded by each uranium nucleus that undergoes fission.
You can think of the mass-per-nucleon graph as an energy valley
that starts at hydrogen (the highest point) and drops steeply to the
lowest point (iron), and then rises gradually to uranium. Iron is at the
bottom of the energy valley, which is the place with the greatest bind-
ing energy per nucleon. Any nuclear transformation that moves nuclei
toward iron releases energy. Heavier nuclei move toward iron by divid-
ing—nuclear fission. A drawback is the fission fragments, which are
radioactive because of their greater-than-normal number of neutrons.
A more promising source of energy is to be found when lighter-
than-iron nuclei move toward iron by combining—as indicated on
the left side of the energy valley.
ENERGY
< Figure 40.15
RELEASED ==ASS DIFFERENCE The mass of a nucleus is not
\ ( 2 equal to the sum of the masses

smc.
of its parts. Fission fragments
of a heavy nucleus (including
ejected neutrons) have less total
mass than the nucleus. Why is
SPEED OF LIGHT
there a difference in mass?

40.6 Nuclear Fusion

Inspection of the graph of Figure 40.13 will show that the steepest
part of the energy hill is from hydrogen to iron. Energy is gained as
light nuclei fuse, or combine, rather than split apart. This process is
nuclear fusion, the opposite of nuclear fission. Whereas energy is
released when heavy nuclei split apart in the fission process, energy
is released when light nuclei fuse together. After fusion, the total
mass of the light nuclei formed in the fusion process is less than the
total mass of the nuclei that fused (Figure 40.16).
Atomic nuclei are positively charged. For fusion to occur, they
normally must collide at very high speed in order to overcome electri-
cal repulsion. The required speeds correspond to the extremely high
639
 PROTON HAS MORE MASS BY ITSELF...
<

THAN INSIDE A HELIUM NUCLEUS

—— |

/
MASS
NUCLEON

H Fe
ATOMIC NUMBER

Figure 40.16 A temperatures found in the center of the sun and other stars. Fusion
(Left) The mass of a single pro- brought about by high temperatures is called thermonuclear fusion—
ton is more than the mass per that is, the welding together of atomic nuclei by high temperature. In
nucleon in a helium-4 nucleus. the hot central part of the sun, approximately 657 million tons of
When protons fuse to form hydrogen are converted into 653 million tons of helium each second.
helium, mass is reduced and
The missing 4 million tons of mass is discharged as radiant energy.
energy is released. (Right) Two
Such reactions are, quite literally, nuclear burning.
protons and two neutrons have
more total mass when they are
Thermonuclear fusion is analogous to ordinary chemical com-
free than when they are com- bustion. In both chemical and nuclear burning, a high temperature
bined in a helium nucleus. starts the reaction; the release of energy by the reaction maintains a
high enough temperature to spread the fire. The net result of the
chemical reaction is a combination of atoms into more tightly bound
molecules. In nuclear reactions, the net result is more tightly bound
nuclei. The difference between chemical and nuclear burning is
essentially one of scale.

Ht Questions
ae First itwas stated that nuclear energy is released when atoms
Split apart. Now it is stated that nuclear energy is released
_ when atoms combine. Is this a contradiction? How can energy
be released by opposite processes?
2. To get energy from the element iron, should iron be fissioned
or fused?
SS 0

B@ Answers

1, Energy is released only in a nuclear reaction in which the mass per nucleon decreases.
Light nuclei, such as hydrogen, lose mass and release energy when they combine
(fuse) to form heavier nuclei. Heavy nuclei, such as uranium, lose mass and release
energy when they split to become lighter nuclei. For energy release, “Lose Mass” is
the name of the game—any game.
1 Explore
2. Iron will release no energy at all, because it is at the very bottom of the energy valley.
2 Concept-Development If fused with something else, it climbs the right side of the hill and gains mass. If fis-
Practice Book 40-1 sioned, it climbs the left side of the hill and gains mass. In gaining mass, it absorbs
energy instead of releasing energy.

640 Chapter 40 Nuclear Fission and Fusion

INS
HALSALL TSS
40.7 Controlling Nuclear Fusion
Producing thermonuclear fusion reactions under controlled condi-
tions requires temperatures of hundreds of millions of degrees.
Producing and sustaining such high temperatures along with rea-
sonable densities is the goal of much current research. There are a
variety of techniques for attaining high temperatures. No matter how
the temperature is produced, a problem is that all materials melt
and vaporize at the temperatures required for fusion. The solution to
this problem is to confine the reaction in a nonmaterial container.
A magnetic field is nonmaterial, can exist at any temperature,
and can exert powerful forces on charged particles in motion.
“Magnetic walls” of sufficient strength provide a kind of magnetic
straitjacket for hot ionized gases called plasmas. Magnetic compres-
sion further heats the plasma to fusion temperatures.

Figure 40.17 A
A magnetic bottle used for containing plasmas for fusion research.

At a temperature of about a million degrees, some nuclei are

moving fast enough to overcome electrical repulsion and slam
together, but the energy output is much smaller than the energy used
to heat the plasma. Even at 100 million degrees, more energy must be
put into the plasma than will be given off by fusion. At about 350 mil-
lion degrees, the fusion reactions will produce enough energy to be
self-sustaining. At this ignition temperature, nuclear burning yields a
sustained power output without further input of energy. A steady
feeding of nuclei is all that is needed to produce continuous power.
Fusion has already been achieved in several devices, but insta-
bilities in the plasma have thus far prevented a sustained reaction. A
big problem is devising a field system that will hold the plasma ina
stable and sustained position while an ample number of nuclei fuse.
A variety of magnetic confinement devices are the subject of much
present-day research.
641
 Another promising approach bypasses magnetic confinement alto-
gether with high-energy lasers. One technique is to aim an array of laser
beams at a common point and drop solid pellets composed of frozen
hydrogen isotopes through the synchronous cross fire (Figure 40.18).
Other fusion schemes involve the bombardment of fuel pellets not
by laser light but by beams of electrons, light ions, and heavy ions.
As this book goes to press we are still looking forward to the great
“Break-Even Day” when one of the variety of fusion schemes will
sustain a yield of at least as much energy as is required to initiate it.
Fusion power is nearly ideal. Fusion reactors cannot become
“supercritical” and get out of control because fusion requires no critical
mass. Furthermore, there is no air pollution because the only product
Figure 40.18 A
Fusion with multiple laser beams. of the thermonuclear combustion is helium (good for children’s bal-
Pellets of frozen deuterium are loons). Except for some radioactivity in the inner chamber of the fusion
rhythmically dropped into syn- device because of high-energy neutrons, the by-products of fusion are
chronized laser cross fire. not radioactive. Disposal of radioactive waste is not a major problem.
According to plan, the resulting
heat will be carried off by molten
lithium to produce steam.

Figure 40.19
Pellet chamber at Lawrence
Livermore Laboratory. The laser
source is Nova, the most power-
ful laser in the world, which
directs 10 beams into the target
region.

The fuel for nuclear fusion is hydrogen—in particular, its heavier

isotopes, deuterium (H-2) and tritium (H-3). Hydrogen is the most
plentiful element in the universe. The thermonuclear reaction that
occurs most readily at an achievable temperature is the so-called

© +O — +0
2 2 3 1
D-T reaction, in which a deuterium nucleus and a tritium nucleus
fuse. Both of these isotopes are found in ordinary water. For exam-
ene je? ,n ple, 30 liters of seawater contains 1 gram of deuterium, which when

© -O— Bo
2 3
aa + (HH —>
4
Het
1
on
fused releases as much energy as 10 000 liters of gasoline or 80 tons
of TNT. Natural tritium is much scarcer, but given enough to get
started (it can be made in a fission reactor), a controlled thermonu-
clear reactor will breed it from deuterium in ample quantities.
Because of the abundance of fusion fuel, the amount of energy that
Figure 40.20 A can be released in a controlled manner is virtually unlimited.
Fusion reactions of hydrogen iso-
The development of fusion power has been slow and difficult,
topes that will be used for con-
trolled thermonuclear power (the
already extending over nearly fifty years. It is one of the biggest sci-
reactions in the sun are differ- entific and engineering challenges that we face. Yet there is every
ent). Most of the energy released reason to believe that it will be achieved and will be a primary
is carried by the lighter-weight energy source for future generations.
particles, protons and neutrons, Humans may one day travel to the stars in ships fueled by the
which fly off at high speeds. same energy that makes the stars shine.

642 Chapter 40 Nuclear Fission and Fusion

 Chapter Assessment

In nuclear fusion, hydrogen nuclei fuse to form

For: Study and Review helium nuclei, releasing large amounts of energy.
(Go @nli ne Visit: PHSchool.com m= After fusion, the total mass of the products is
HSchool.com
Web Code: csd-6400
less than the mass of the nuclei that fused.

m Thermonuclear fusion occurs at the high

temperatures found in the center of the sun
Concept Summary and other stars.

Nuclear fission, the splitting of atomic nuclei, = Sustained fusion under controlled conditions
occurs when the repelling electrical forces in is the goal of continuing research.
the nucleus overpower the attracting nuclear
strong forces.
m Fission is initiated by the absorption of a neu- Key Terms
tron by a nucleus. It can spread in a chain
breeder reactor (40.4) nuclear fusion (40.6)
reaction in which neutrons ejected in one fis-
sion event trigger fission in other nuclei. chain reaction (40.1) thermonuclear
critical mass (40.1) fusion (40.6)
= Acritical mass ofa fissionable element is
nuclear fission (40.1)
required for sustained fission to occur.
m Inasubcritical mass, the chain reaction dies
out. In a supercritical mass, the chain reac-
tion builds up explosively. Review Questions Check Concepts
m Ina breeder reactor, extra neutrons from a 1. What is the role of electrical forces in nuclear
small amount of fissionable plutonium-239 fission? (40.1)
are absorbed by nonfissionable uranium-238, 2. What is the role of a neutron in nuclear fission?
converting it into plutonium-239. (40.1)
m Fission reactors are efficient energy producers 3. Of what use are the neutrons that are produced
but generate radioactive wastes. when a nucleus undergoes fission? (40.1)
Nuclei of the lightest elements have the most 4. Why does a chain reaction not occur in ura-
mass per nucleon, the nucleus of iron has the nium ore? (40.1)
least mass per nucleon, and the heaviest ele-
ments have intermediate mass per nucleon. 5. a. Which isotope of uranium is most common?

m= When fission occurs, the total mass of the fis- b. Which isotope of uranium will fission? (40.1)
sion fragments (including ejected neutrons) is 6. Jason sticks a dozen two-inch nails randomly
less than the mass of the fissioning nucleus. into an apple. Jane sticks half a dozen of the
The missing mass is equivalent to the great same size nails randomly into each piece of
energy released. an apple cut in half. Who will see more points
of nails sticking out? (40.1)

643
G Which has greater average path length inside GRNERNR 82) 5032 ese oe EE

the material—two separate pieces of uranium Think and Explain Think Critically
or the same pieces stuck together? (40.1)
26. Why does a neutron often make a better
. Which will leak more neutrons—two separate nuclear bullet than a proton?
pieces of uranium or the same pieces stuck
together? (40.1) 27. Why does a chain reaction die out in small
pieces of fissionable fuel, but not in large
. Will a supercritical chain reaction be more pieces?
likely in two separate pieces of U-235 or in
the same pieces stuck together? (40.1) 28. If a piece of uranium is flattened into a pan-
cake shape, will this make a supercritical chain
10. What controls the chain reaction in a nuclear reaction more or less likely? Why?
reactor? (40.2)
29. Why are there no appreciable deposits of
11. Are the fission fragments from a nuclear reac- plutonium in Earth’s crust?
tor light, medium, or heavy elements? (40.2)
30. Your tutor says atomic nuclei are converted
. Why are the fission-fragment elements to energy in a nuclear reaction. Why should
radioactive? (40.2) you seek a new tutor?
. What happens when U-238 absorbs a neutron? 31. Is the mass of an atomic nucleus greater or
(40.3) less than the total mass of the nucleons that
. How can plutonium be created? (40.3) compose it?

. Is plutonium an isotope of uranium or is it a 32. The energy release of nuclear fission is tied
completely different element? (40.3) to the fact that the mass per nucleon of
medium-weight nuclei is about 0.1% less
. What is the effect of putting a little Pu-239 than the mass per nucleon of the heaviest
with a lot of U-238 in a reactor? (40.4) nuclei. What would be the effect on energy
. Is the mass per nucleon of a nucleus greater release if the 0.1% figure were 1%?
than, less than, or the same as the mass of a
33. To predict the approximate energy release of
nucleon outside a nucleus? (40.5)
either a fission or a fusion reaction, explain
. What device can be used to measure the rela- how a physicist makes use of the curve of
tive masses of ions of isotopes? (40.5) Figure 40.13, or a table of nuclear masses,
and the equation AE = Amc.
. What is the primary difference in the graphs
shown in Figures 40.12 and 40.13? (40.5) 34. Which process would release energy from
gold—fission or fusion? From carbon? From
20. What becomes of the loss in mass of nuclei
iron?
when heavy atoms split? (40.5)
35. Ifa uranium nucleus were to split into three
21. Why does helium not yield energy if fissioned?
pieces of approximately the same size instead
(40.5)
of two, would more energy or less energy be
Zee Why does uranium not yield energy if fused released? Defend your answer in terms of
with something else? (40.6) Figure 40.13.
23. Why does iron not yield energy if fused with
something else or fissioned? (40.6)
24. What becomes of the loss in mass when light
atoms fuse to become heavier ones? (40.6)
25. Why are fusion reactors not a present-day
reality like fission reactors? (40.7)

644 Chapter 40 Nuclear Fission and Fusion

 Units of Measurement

The units of measurement primarily used in this book Second

are those used by scientists throughout the world—the
International System of Units, or SI (after the French The second (s) is the SI unit of time. Until 1956 the sec-
ond was defined in terms of the mean solar day, which
name, Systeme International). SI units are the out-
was divided into 24 hours. Each hour was divided into
growth of the metric system of units. While familiar to
60 minutes and each minute into 60 seconds. Thus
scientists, many SI units are not generally familiar to
there were 86 400 seconds per day, and the second was
students in high school. The SI units used in this book
defined as 1/86 400 of the mean solar day. This was
are the following.
found to be unsatisfactory because the rate of rotation
of Earth is gradually slowing. In 1956 the mean solar
day of the year 1900 was chosen as the standard on
Meter
which to base the second. Since 1964, the second has
The meter (m) is the SI unit of length. The standard of been officially defined as the time taken by a cesium-
length for the metric system originally was defined in 133 atom to make 9 192 631 770 vibrations.
terms of the distance from the North Pole to the equa-
tor. This distance is close to 10 million meters. So one
meter equals approximately one ten-millionth of the Newton
distance from the North Pole to the equator. A more
The newton (N), the SI unit of force, is named after Sir
exact definition is that one meter equals the length of
Isaac Newton. One newton is the force required to give
the path traveled by light in a vacuum during a time
an object with a mass of one kilogram an acceleration
interval of 1/299 792 458 of a second.
of one meter per second squared.
Common SI length units based on the meter are
One newton is a little less than a quarter of a
the centimeter, millimeter, and kilometer.
pound—more accurately, 0.225 pound.
1 centimeter (cm) = 1/100 meter

1 millimeter (mm) = 1/1000 meter

Joule
1 kilometer (km) = 1000 meters The joule (J), the SI unit of energy, is named after James
One meter is a little more than a yard. It is equal to Joule. One joule is equal to the amount of work done
3.28 feet, or 39.37 inches. It takes 1.609 kilometers to by a force of one newton acting over a distance of one
make one mile. meter.
The unit for power is derived from the unit for
energy. Power is the rate at which energy is expended.
Work done at the rate of one joule per second is equal
to a power of one watt (W). The kilowatt (kW) equals
The kilogram (kg), the SI unit of mass, is defined as the 1000 watts. From the definition of power, it follows that
mass of a platinum-iridium cylinder preserved at the energy can be expressed as the product of power and
International Bureau of Weights and Measures in time. Electrical energy is often expressed in units of
France. The kilogram originally was defined as the kilowatt-hours (kWh), where
mass of one liter (1000 cubic centimeters) of water at
the temperature at which it is most dense (now known 1 kilowatt-hour (kWh) = 3.60 x 10° joules
to be 4° Celsius). Other common mass units are the The horsepower, a commonly used power unit for
gram and milligram. engines, is equal to 746 watts. A commonly used alter-
1 gram (g) = 1/1000 kilogram nate energy unit for heat is the calorie. One calorie is
equal to 4.184 joules.
1 milligram (mg) = 1/1000 gram
1/1 000 000 kilogram
The mass ofa 1-pound object is 0.4536 kilogram.
One kilogram weighs about 2.2 pounds at Earth’s surface.

645
Ampere Measurements of Area and Volume
The ampere (A), the SI unit of electric current, is Area Area refers to the amount of surface. The unit of
named after André-Marie Ampére. In this text the area is the surface of a square that has a standard unit
ampere is defined as the rate of flow of one coulomb of of length as a side. In the SI system it is a square with
charge per second, where one coulomb is the charge of ~ sides one meter in length, which makes a unit of area
6.24 x 10!8 electrons. The official definition of the of one square meter (1 m*). A smaller unit area is rep-
ampere is the intensity of constant electric current resented by a square with sides one centimeter in
maintained in two parallel conductors of infinite length, which makes a unit of area of one square cen-
length and negligible cross section that, when placed timeter (1 cm?).
one meter apart in a vacuum, would produce between The area of a rectangle equals the rectangle’s
them a force of 2 x 10-’ N per meter of length. length times its width. The area of a circle is equal to
mr, where mt = 3.14, and ris the radius of the circle. For-
mulas for the surfaces of other shapes can be found in
Kelvin geometry textbooks.
One square meter is equal to 10.76 square feet.
The kelvin (K), the SI unit of temperature, is named
after the scientist Lord Kelvin. The kelvin is defined as Volume The volume of an object refers to the space it
1/273.16 of the temperature change between absolute occupies. The unit volume is the space taken up bya
zero (the coldest possible temperature) and the triple cube that has a standard unit of length for its edge. In
point of water (the fixed temperature at which, fora the SI system, it is the space occupied by a cube whose
certain pressure, ice, liquid water, and water vapor sides are one meter. This volume is one cubic meter
coexist in equilibrium). Temperatures are expressed in (1 m) and is a relatively large volume by everyday
kelvins, and not in “degrees kelvin.” On the Kelvin standards. A smaller unit volume is the space occupied
scale, absolute zero is 0 K. The temperature of melting by a cube whose sides are one centimeter. Its volume is
ice at atmospheric pressure is 273.15 K, the triple point one cubic centimeter (1 cm), the space taken up by
of water is 273.16 K, and the temperature of pure boil- one gram of water at 4°C.
ing water at atmospheric pressure is 373.15 K. There A liter (L) is equal to 1000 cm, and is a common
are 100 kelvins between the melting and boiling points measure of volume for liquids.
of water, just as there are 100 Celsius degrees between One liter, a little larger than a quart, is 1.057
these points. So a temperature change of 1 Celsius quarts. It takes 3.785 liters to make one U.S. gallon.
degree is the same as a temperature change of 1 kelvin.
A Fahrenheit degree measures a smaller tempera-
ture change. It takes a temperature change of 1.8
Fahrenheit degrees to equal a change of 1 kelvin or 1
Celsius degree. So the number of Fahrenheit degrees
between the melting and boiling points of water is 180
(the difference between 212 and 32).

646 Appendix A: Units of Measurement

 Working with Units in Physics

A quantity in science is expressed by a number and a Examples:

unit of measurement. A unit (singular) may be a com-
(3 meters) X (2 meters) = 6 meter-meters
bination of other units. The unit of acceleration, for
= 6 square meters
instance, is m/s*. Quantities may be actual measure-
ments, or they may be obtained by performing calcu- (3m) X (2m) =6m-m=6 m2
lations on measurements. Quantities may be added,
(3 meters) X (2 meters) X (4 meters)
subtracted, multiplied, or divided. There are rules for
= 24 meter-meter-meters
handling both the numbers and the units of measure-
= 24 cubic meters
ment during these mathematical operations.
(3m) X (2m) X (4m) =24m-m-m=24m°

Addition
When you add quantities, all must have the same unit. Division
Add up the numbers. The sum has the same unit as well.
Quantities that are divided by each other need not
Example: have the same unit. Divide the numbers. Divide the
units as though they are algebraic variables.
(4m) +(8m)+(3m)=15m
When the units are full names, use the word per
after the unit that is being divided.
Subtraction Example:
When you subtract one quantity from another, both (100 kilometers) + (2 hours)
must have the same unit. Subtract the numbers. The _ 100 kilometers
difference has the same unit. 2 hours
Example: = 50 kilometers per hour
(5.2 s)-—(3.8s)=1.4s When the units are symbols, use a slash after the
unit symbol that is being divided.
Example:
Multiplication
Quantities that are multiplied together need not have
(100 km) + (2 h) = 100 km
aly
the same unit. Multiply the numbers. Multiply the
= 50 km/h
units just as if they are algebraic variables.
When full names of units are used, use a hyphen When both units are the same, they “cancel” out and
between the units that are multiplied together. do not appear in the quotient.
Example:
Example:
(3 newtons) X (2 meters) = 6 newton-meters
(6 m) + (3m)
= 21
When symbols are used, you can use a centered dot 3m
between the unit symbols that are multiplied together. a2
Example:
(3 N) X (2m)=6N-‘m
Complicated Multiplication and Division
When the units being multiplied are the same, the
In multiplication, when the quantities have units that
product is called the square (or cubic) unit. In symbols,
are quotients of units, treat them as algebraic vari-
a raised 2 after the unit symbol is used for the square. A
ables. Identical units in the numerator and denomina-
raised 3 after the unit symbol is used for the cubic unit.
tor may be “canceled” out.
These raised numerals are known as exponents.

647
Example: Numbers expressed in this shorthand manner are
said to be in scientific notation.
(25 meters per second) X (6 seconds)
= (25 meters 1000000 =10X 10x 10X10X10x10 =108
aceee x (6 seconds)
ia second 100 000 = 10 X 10 X 10 X 10 X 10 = 10°
-25X6 meters-seeends
10000 =10 x 10x 10X10 = 104
second
1000 = 10 x 10 x 10 = 103
100 = 10 x 10 = 102
= 150 meters 10 = 10 = 10!
(25 m/s) X (68) = (25 eh x (6s) l=1 = 10°
0.1 =1/10 = 107!
im m3 0.01 = 1/100 = 10°
= 6
0.001 = 1/1000 = 10°
0.0001 = 1/10 000 =1074
== NO) ina
0.000 01 = 1/100 000 =10°
In division, when the quantities have units that 0.000 001 = 1/1 000 000 = 10-6
are quotients of units, it is easiest to express the divi-
We can use scientific notation to express some of
sion in numerator and denominator form. That is, the
the physical data often used in physics.
number to be divided is the numerator (top value) and
the divisor is the denominator (bottom value). Divide
the numbers. Treat units as algebraic variables.
Examples:
(8.2 meters per second) + (2.0 seconds)
_ 8.2 meters per second
2.0 seconds
: sun eee
= 8.2 meters d asaonomical unit (A.U.)) = 1.50 <x 108m
2.0 second-second
Arete Earth-moon distance=3.84 x 108m
= 4.1 meters per second squared
Average radius of the sun = 6.96 X 108m
8.2 m/s
(8.2 m/s) + (2.0 s) = ae Average radius of Jupiter = 6.99 x 107m
Average radius of Earth = 6.37 x 10°m
Average radius of the moon = 1.74 x 10®°m
Average radius of the
Note that when second is multiplied by itself in the
hydrogen atom ~5 x 107! m
denominator, it is changed to per second squared (and Mass of the sun = 1.99 x 10°°kg
not to per square second). Similarly, the symbols Mass of Jupiter = 1.90 x 10?’ kg
“m/s*” are read as “meters per second squared.”
Mass of Earth = 5.98 x 1074 kg
Mass of the moon = 7.35 x 1022kg
Proton mass = 1.6726 X 10°’ kg
Scientific Notation
Neutron mass = 1.6749 x 10-2” kg
It is convenient to use a mathematical abbreviation for
large and small numbers. The number 40 000 000 can Electron mass = 9.11 X 1073! kg
be obtained by multiplying 4 by 10, and again by 10, Electron charge = 1.602 x 107!9C
and again by 10, and so on until 10 has been used as a
multiplier seven times. The short way of showing this
is to write the number 40 000 000 as 4 x 10’.
The number 0.0004 can be obtained from 4 by
using 10 as a divisor four times. The short way of show-
ing this is to write the number 0.0004 as 4 x 10-4. Thus,
2x 10°=2 x 10x 10x10 x 10 X 10 = 200 000
5 X 10-3 =5/(10 x 10 X 10)
=0.005

648 Appendix B: Working with Units in Physics

Graphs—A Way to Express Graphs are helpful in another way. If a graph con-
Quantitative Relationships tains enough plotted points, it can be used to estimate
values between the points (interpolation), or following
Graphs, like equations and tables, show how two or the points (extrapolation).
more quantities relate to each other. Since investigat-
ing relationships between quantities makes up much
of the work of physics, equations, tables, and graphs
Cartesian Graphs
are important physics tools.
Equations are the most concise way to describe The most common and useful graph in science is
quantitative relationships. For example, consider the the Cartesian graph. On a Cartesian graph, possible
equation v= vp + gt. It compactly describes how a freely values of one variable are represented on the vertical
falling object’s velocity depends on its initial velocity, axis (called the y-axis) and possible values of the other
acceleration due to gravity, and time. Equations are variable are plotted on the horizontal axis (x-axis).
nice shorthand expressions for relationships among Figure C-1 shows a graph of two variables, x and y,
quantities. that are directly proportional to each other. A direct
Tables give values of variables in list form. The proportionality is a type of linear relationship. Linear
dependence of von fin v= uv) + gtcan be shown bya relationships have straight-line graphs—the easiest
table that lists various values v for corresponding times kinds of graphs to interpret. On the graph shown in
t. Table 2.2 on page 17 is an example. Tables are espe- Figure C-1, the continuous straight-line rise from left
cially useful when the mathematical relationship to right tells you that as x increases, y increases. More
between quantities is not known, or when numerical specifically, it shows that y increases at a constant rate
values must be given to a high degree of accuracy. Also, with respect to x. As x doubles, y doubles; as x triples, y
tables are handy for recording experimental data. triples, etc. The graph of a direct proportionality passes
Graphs visually represent relationships between through the “origin’—the point at the lower left where
quantities. By looking at the shape of a graph, you can x=Oand y=0.
quickly tell a lot about how the variables are related. Figure C-2 shows a graph of the equation v= Uy + gt.
For this reason, graphs can help clarify the meaning of Speed vis plotted along the y-axis, and time talong the
an equation or table of numbers. And, when the equa- x-axis. As you can see, there is a linear relationship
tion is not already known, a graph can help reveal the between vand ¢.
relationship between variables. Experimental data are Many physically significant relationships are more
often graphed for this reason. complicated than linear relationships, however. If you

V=V,
+ gt
Direct Proportionality Relationship

hon “Somat tapes

t (s)
Figure C-1 Figure C-2

649
 Radiation Curve for Glowing Object (2000 K)

(W/cm?-um)
I

Figure C-3 Figure C-4

double the size of a room, the area of the floor increases the graph in Figure C-2 represents the rate at which v
four times; tripling the size of the room increases the increases relative to ¢. It can be calculated by dividing a
floor area nine times, and so on. This is one example of segment Av along the y-axis by a corresponding seg-
a nonlinear relationship. Figure C-3 shows a graph of ment Atalong the x-axis. For example, dividing Av of
another nonlinear relationship: distance vs. time in the 30 m/s by Atof3 s gives Av/At= 10 m/s-s = 10 m/s’, the
equation of free fall from rest, d= 1/2 gr. acceleration due to gravity. By contrast, consider the
Figure C-4 shows a radiation curve. The curve (or graph in Figure C-5, which is a horizontal straight line.
graph) shows the rather complex nonlinear relation- Its slope of zero shows zero acceleration—that is, con-
ship between intensity J and radiation wavelength \ stant speed. The graph shows that the speed is 30 m/s,
for a glowing object at 2000 K. The graph shows that acting throughout the entire 5-second interval. The
radiation is most intense when \ equals about 1.4 ym. rate of change, or slope, of the speed with respect to
Which is brighter, radiation at 0.5 pm or radiation at time is zero—there is no change in speed at all.
2.0 um? The graph can quickly tell you that radiation at The area under the curve is an important feature
2.0 um is appreciably more intense. of a graph because it often has a physical interpreta-
tion. For example, consider the area under the graph of
v versus t shown in Figure C-6. The shaded region is a
Slope and Area Under the Curve rectangle with sides 30 m/s and 5 s. Its area is 30 m/s X
5s = 150m. In this example, the area is the distance
Quantitative information can be obtained from a covered by an object moving at constant speed of
graph’s slope and the area under the curve. The slope of 30 m/s for 5 s (d= vd).

Slope Area Under A Curve

50

40

@ 30
Hey
> 20

10

0 2 3 5
t (s)
Figure C-5 Figure C-6

650 # Appendix C: Graphing

 The area need not be rectangular. The area Graphing with Conceptual Physics
beneath any curve of v versus f represents the dis-
tance traveled in a given time interval. Similarly, the You will develop basic graphing skills in the laboratory
area beneath a curve of acceleration versus time gives part of this course. The lab Conceptual Graphing intro-
the change of velocity in a time interval. The area duces you to graphing concepts. It also gives you a
beneath a force-versus-time curve gives the change chance to work with a computer and sonic-ranging
of momentum. (What does the area beneath a force- device. The lab Trial and Error will show you the useful
versus-distance curve give?) The nonrectangular technique of converting a nonlinear graph to a linear
one to discover a direct proportionality. The area under
areas under various curves, including rather compli-
the curve is the basis of the lab activities Impact Speed
cated ones, can be found by way of an important
and Wrap Your Energy in a Bow. You will learn about
branch of mathematics—integral calculus.
graphing by doing it in other labs as well.
You will also learn in the lab part of your Concep-
tual Physics course that computers can graph data for
you. You are not being lazy when you graph your data
with a software program. Instead of investing time and
energy scaling the axes and plotting points, you spend
your time and energy investigating the meaning of the
graph, a high level of thinking!

Speed vs. Time for a Falling Ball

t (s)
Figure C-7

_@ Questions
Figure C-7 is a graphical representation of a ball
_ dropped into a mine shaft.
1. How long did the ball take to hit the bottom?
| 2. What was the ball’s speed when it struck bottom?
3. What does the decreasing slope of the graph tell
you about the acceleration of the ball with
_ increasing speed? —
_ 4, Did the ball reach terminal speed before hitting
the bottom of the shaft? If so, about how many
/ seconds didittake to reach its terminal speed?
_ 5. What is theapproximate depth of the mine shaft? _

651
 Vector Applications

Appendix D expands the concept of vectors introduced that the faster the boat goes, the smaller will be the
in Chapters 3 and 5. Vectors are illustrated here by two magnitude of F. So we see that a sailboat sailing
fascinating cases: a sailboat sailing into the wind, and directly with the wind can sail no faster than the wind.
the passage of light through polarization filters, as dis-
cussed in Chapter 27. Vector explanations for both the
sailboat and the transmission of light through polariz-
ing filters involve a blend of geometry and physics.

The Sailboat
Sailors have always known that a sailboat can sail
downwind (in the same direction as the wind). The
ships of Columbus were designed to sail principally
downwind. Not until modern times did sailors learn
that a sailboat can sail upwind (against the wind). It
turns out that many types of sailboats can sail faster F
“cutting” upwind than when sailing directly with the
wind. The old-timers didn’t know this, probably Figure D-2
because they didn’t understand vectors and vector
components. Luckily, we do, and today’s sailboats are
far more maneuverable than the sailboats of the past. If the sail is oriented as shown in Figure D-2 (left),
the boat will move forward but with less speed for two
reasons. First, the force Fon the sail is less because the
sail does not intercept as much wind at this angle. Sec-
ond, the force on the sail is not in the direction of the
boat’s motion. It is instead perpendicular to the sail’s
surface. Generally speaking, whenever any fluid (liquid
or gas) interacts with a smooth surface, the force of
interaction is perpendicular to the smooth surface. In
this case, the boat will not move in the direction of F
because of its deep finlike keel, which knifes through
the water and resists motion in sideways directions.
We can understand the motion of the boat by
resolving Finto perpendicular components, as shown
in Figure D-2 (right). The important component is the
one parallel to the keel and is labeled A. Component A
Figure D-1 propels the boat forward. The other component (B) is
useless and tends to tip the boat over and move it side-
To understand all this, first consider the relatively ways. The tendency to tip is offset by the heavy deep
simple case of sailing downwind. Figure D-1 shows a keel. Again, maximum speed can only approach wind
force vector F due to the impact of the wind against the speed.
sail. This force tends to increase the speed of the boat. When a sailboat’s keel points in a direction other
If it were not for resistive forces, mainly water drag, the than exactly downwind and its sails are properly ori-
speed of the boat would build up to nearly the speed of ented, it can exceed wind speed. In the case of cutting
the wind. (It could be pushed no faster than wind across at an angular direction to the wind (Figure D-3,
speed because the wind would no longer have any left), the wind continues to move relative to the sail
speed relative to the sails. The sails would sag and the even after the boat achieves wind speed. A surfer, ina
force F would shrink to zero.) It is important to note similar way, exceeds the speed of the propelling wave

652 Appendix D: Vector Applications

Figure D-3

by angling the surfboard across the wave. Greater The Vector Nature of Light
angles to the propelling medium (wind for the boat,
water wave for the surfboard) result in greater speeds. Recall from Chapter 27 that light is electromagnetic
Can you see why a sailcraft can sail faster cutting energy that travels as a transverse wave. The wave is
across the wind than it can sailing downwind? made up of an oscillating electric field vector and an
As strange as it may seem to people who do not oscillating magnetic field vector that is at right angles
understand vectors, maximum speed is attained by to the electric field vector (Figure D-4). It is the orien-
cutting into (against) the wind—that is, by angling the tation of the electric field vector that defines the direc-
sailcraft in a direction upwind (Figure D-3, right)! tion of polarization of light waves.
Although a sailboat cannot sail directly upwind, it can
reach a destination upwind by angling back and forth
in zigzag fashion. This is called tacking. As the speed ELECT KIGWECTOR
increases, the relative speed of the wind, rather than
decreasing, actually increases. Wind impact increases.
(If you run outdoors in a slanting rain, the drops will
hit you harder if you run into the rain rather than away
from the rain!) The faster the boat moves as it tacks
upwind, the greater the magnitude of F. Thus, compo-
nent A will continue pushing the boat along in the for-
ward direction. The boat reaches its terminal speed MAGNETIC
when opposing forces, mainly water drag, balance the VECTOR
A
force of wind impact. DIRECTION OF
Icecraft, which are equipped with runners for slid- LIGHT TRAVEL
ing on ice, encounter no water drag. They can travel at
Figure D-4
several times wind speed when they tack upwind. Ter-
minal speed is reached not so much because of resis-
tive forces, but because the wind direction shifts
relative to the moving craft. When this happens, the The electric field vectors in waves of light from the
wind finally moves parallel to the sail rather than sun or from a lamp are generated in all conceivable
against it. This appendix will not go into detail about directions. Such light is nonpolarized. When the elec-
this complication; nor will it discuss the curvature of tric vectors of the waves are aligned parallel to each
the sail, which also plays an important role. other, the light is considered to be polarized. Light can
The central concept underlying sailcraft is the vec- be polarized when it passes through polarizing filters.
tor. It ushered in the era of clipper ships and revolu- The most familiar are Polaroid sunglasses. Ordinary
tionized the sailing industry. Sailing, like most things, is nonpolarized light incident upon a polarizing filter
more enjoyable if you understand what is happening. emerges as polarized light.

653
 center sketch shows the light, with its horizontally and
vertically vibrating electric vectors, falling on a polariz-
ing filter with its polarization axis vertically oriented.
Only vertical components of light pass through the fil-
ter, and the light that emerges is vertically polarized, as
shown on the right.
Figure D-6 shows that no light can pass through a
pair of Polaroid filters when their axes are at a right
angle to each other, but some light does pass through
Figure D-5 when their axes are at any other angle. This fact can be
understood with vectors and vector components.
Recall from Chapter 3 that any vector can be
Think of a beam of nonpolarized light coming resolved into two components at right angles to each
straight toward you. Consider the electric vectors in other. The two components are often chosen to be in
that beam. Some of the possible directions of the the horizontal and vertical directions, but they can be
vibrations are as shown in Figure D-5 (left). For this in any two perpendicular directions. In fact, the num-
unpolarized light, there are as many vectors in any ber of sets of perpendicular components possible for
direction as in any other. These many directions of any vector is infinite. A few of them are shown for the
vibration can be replaced by just two directions, hori- vector Vin Figure D-7. In every case, components A
zontal and vertical, since any electric vector can be and B make up the sides of a rectangle that has Vas its
resolved into horizontal and vertical components. The diagonal.

Figure D-7

You can see this somewhat differently by thinking

of component Aas always being vertical and Bas being
horizontal, and picturing vector Vas rotating instead
(Figure D-8). This time the different orientations of V
are superimposed on a polarizing filter with its polar-
ization axis vertical. In the first sketch on the left, when
the electric field vector is vertical, all of Vgets through.
As Vrotates, only the vertical component A passes
through. This component A gets shorter and shorter
until it is zero when Vis completely horizontal.
Can you now understand how light gets through
the first pair of Polaroid sunglasses in Figure D-6?

ALL SOME GETS NONE

easy ROUGH THROUGH
oa;
SEES =e
ERNESTISESSS
SS I RT I LE

Figure D-6 Figure D-8

654 Appendix D: Vector Applications

 Look at Figure D-9, where for clarity the two crossed
lenses of Figure D-6, which are one atop the other, are
instead shown side by side. The vector V that emerges
from the first lens is vertical. However, it has a compo-
nent A in the direction of the polarization axis of the
second lens. Component A passes through the second
Vv A lens, while component Bis absorbed.
To really appreciate this, you must toy around with
/
“&
/ ' a couple of polarizing filters, which you can do in a lab
VERTICAL COMPONENT —~ THIS COMPONENT? exercise. Rotate one above the other and see how you
GETS THROUGH 1STLENS — GETS THROUGH 2N°LENS can regulate the amount of light that gets through. Can
Figure D-9 you think of practical uses for such a system?

i Question
Consider a pair of polarizing filters crossed so that
no light gets through. If you place a third filter in|
front of the pair, still no light gets through. The
same is true if you place a third filter in back of the
pair. But if you sandwich a third filter between the
two with its polarization axis in a different direc-
tion from the other two, light does get through! (See -
Figure 27.19.) Magic? No, just physics. Can you
explain why this happens?

655
 ' Exponential Growth and Doubling Time*

You can’t fold a piece of paper in half, then fold it This means that to estimate the doubling time for
again upon itself successively for 9 times. It gets too a steadily growing quantity, we simply divide 70 per-
thick to keep folding. And if you could fold a fine cent by the percentage growth rate. For example,
piece of tissue paper upon itself 50 times, it would be when electric power generating capacity in the United
more than 20 million kilometers thick! The continual States was growing at 7 percent per year, the capacity
doubling of a quantity builds up astronomically. Dou- doubled every 10 years (since [70%]/[7%/year] =
ble one penny 30 times, so that you begin with one 10 years). If world population grew steadily at 2
penny, then have two pennies, then four, and so on, percent per year, the world population would double
and you'll accumulate a total of $10 737 418.23! One every 35 years (since [70%] /[2%/year] = 35 years).
of the most important things we have trouble per- A city planning commission that accepts what seems
ceiving is the process of exponential growth, and why like a modest 3.5-percent-per-year growth rate may
it proliferates out of control. not realize that this means that doubling will occur in
When a quantity such as money in the bank, pop- 20 years (since [70%]/[3.5%/year] = 20 years). That
ulation, or the rate of consumption of a resource means double capacity for such things as water sup-
steadily grows at a fixed percent per year, the growth is ply, sewage treatment plants, and other municipal
said to be exponential. Money in the bank may grow at services every 20 years.
5 or 6 percent per year; world population is presently Steady growth in a steadily expanding environ-
growing at about 2 percent per year; the electric power ment is one thing, but what happens when steady
generating capacity in the United States grew at about growth occurs in a finite environment? Consider the
7 percent per year for the first three quarters of the last growth of bacteria that grow by division, so that one
century. The important thing about exponential bacterium becomes two, the two divide to become
growth is that the time required for the growing quan- four, the four divide to become eight, and so on. Sup-
tity to double in size (increase by 100 percent) is con- pose the division time for a certain kind of bacterium
stant. For example, if the population of a growing city is one minute. This is then steady growth—the num-
takes 10 years to double from 10 000 to 20 000 people ber of bacteria grows exponentially with a doubling
and its growth remains steady, in the next 10 years the time of one minute. Further, suppose that one bac-
population will double to 40 000, and in the next 10 terium is put in a bottle at 11:00 a.m. and that growth
years to 80 000, and so on. continues steadily until the bottle becomes full of
There is an important relationship between the bacteria at 12 noon.
percent growth rate and its doubling time, the time it It is startling to note that at 2 minutes before noon
takes to double a quantity:** the bottle was only 1/4 full, and at 3 minutes before
69.2 percent noon only 1/8 full. Table E-1 summarizes the amount
COUDIIS TG =e of space left in the bottle in the last few minutes before
percent growth per unit time
noon. If bacteria could think, and if they were con-
M 70 percent cerned about their future, at which time do you think
percent growth rate they would sense they were running out of space? Do
you think a serious problem would have been evident
at, say, 11:55 a.m., when the bottle was only 3-percent
full (1/32) and had 97 percent open space (just yearn-
* This appendix is adapted from material written by Univer- ing for development)? The point here is that there isn’t
sity of Colorado physics professor Albert A. Bartlett, who
much time between the moment the effects of growth
strongly asserts, “The greatest shortcoming of the human
race is man’s inability to understand the exponential func-
tion.” Look up Professor Bartlett’s still timely and provocative
article, “Forgotten Fundamentals in the Energy Crisis,” in the @ Question A
September 1978 issue of the American Journal of Physics, or
his revised version in the January 1980 issue of the Journal of When was the bottle half full?
Geological Education.
** For exponential decay we speak about half-life, the time
for a quantity to reduce to half its value. An example of this
case is radioactive decay, treated in Chapter 39.

656 Appendix E: Exponential Growth and Doubling Time

 B Question C
Portion Full Portion Empty According to a French riddle, a lily pond starts with
ree iani

ties ae54am. 1/ (1.5%) 63/64 (98.5%)

a single leaf. Each day the number of leaves dou-
11:55 a.m. (3%) Sil SACO two) bles, until the pond is completely full on the thirti-
11:56 a.m. (6%) 15/16 (94%) eth day. On what day was the pond half covered?
11:57 a.m. (12%) 7/8 (88%)
One-quarter covered?
11:58 a.m. (25%) 3/4 (75%)
11:59 a.m. (50%) Ly2 (50%)
12:00 noon (100%) None (0%) Exponential Growth
{6p oeee
become noticeable and the time when they become
overwhelming.
Suppose that at 11:58 a.m. some farsighted bacte-
ria see that they are running out of space and launch a E8 |-- =n 22 - enn ee ee eee ee nny
<= 1
!
full-scale search for new bottles. And further suppose = 1 I

they consider themselves lucky, for they find three new oO |<—$<$___——_»
4 TS areal ie Sab aghe So vad, oar ; Wy, 1
empty bottles. This is three times as much space as
they have ever known. It may seem to the bacteria that
7 ae , DOUBLING TIMES!
their problems are solved—and just in time.

Figure E-1 Graph of a quantity that grows at an exponential

@ Question B rate. Notice that the quantity doubles during each of the suc-
cessive equal time intervals marked on the horizontal scale.
If the bacteria are able to migrate to the new bottles Each of these time intervals represents the doubling time.
and their growth continues at the same rate, what
time will it be when the three new bottles are filled
to capacity? three doubling times, its size will increase eightfold
(23 = 8); in four doubling times, it will increase sixteen-
fold (24 = 16); and so on. This is best illustrated by the
Table E-2 illustrates that the discovery of the new story of the court mathematician in India who years
bottles extends the resource by only two doubling ago invented the game of chess for his king. The king
times. In this example the resource is space—such as was so pleased with the game that he offered to repay
land area for a growing population. But it could be the mathematician, whose request seemed modest
coal, oil, uranium, or any nonrenewable resource. enough. The mathematician requested a single grain
of wheat on the first square of the chessboard, two
grains on the second square, four on the third square,
and so on, doubling the number of grains on each suc-
ceeding square until all squares had been used. At this
rate there would be 2° grains of wheat on the sixty-
fourth square alone. The king soon saw that he could
not fill this “modest” request, which amounted to more
wheat than had been harvested in the entire history of
4 Bi59 a.m. Bodies di 2,3.and 4 are each 1/8 full Earth!
12:00 noon Bottles 1, 2, 3, and 4 are each 1/4 full As Table E-3 shows, the number of grains on any
12:01 p.m. Bottles 1, 2, 3, and 4 are each 1/2 full square is one grain more than the total of all grains on
12:02 p.m. Bottles 1, 2, 3, and 4 are each all full the preceding squares. This is true anywhere on the
board. For example, when four grains are placed on
the third square, that number of grains is one more
Continued growth and continued doubling lead than the total of three grains already on the board. The
to enormous numbers. In two doubling times, a quan- number of grains (eight) on the fourth square is one
tity will double twice (2? = 4), or quadruple in size; in more than the total of seven grains already on the
board. The same pattern occurs everywhere on the

657
 Square Grains Total Grains
Number on a Square Thus Far

Figure E-2 A single grain of wheat placed on the first wWDHH

ema
eo
square of the chess board is doubled on the second nDnse
square, and this number is doubled on the third square,
and so on. There is not enough wheat in the world for this
process to continue to the sixty-fourth square!

board. In any case of exponential growth, a greater count of that quantity in the entire history of growth.
quantity is represented in one doubling time than in all The consequences of unchecked exponential
the preceding growth. This is important enough to be growth are staggering. It is very important to ask, Is
repeated in different words: Whenever steady growth growth really good? Is bigger really better? Is the motto
occurs, the numerical count of a quantity that exists of some businesses, “Grow or die,” a good guide for
after a single doubling time is one greater than the total humankind as a whole?

continue at the same rate for the rest of the next

30 y. True or false: In the year 2002 there will be
1. In 2000, the population growth rate of the world
more Kenyan teenagers than the total number of
was 1.4% per year, and the total world population
Kenyan people who ever lived.
was 6.1 billion. If this rate continued, how long
would it take for the world population to double? . If world population doubles in 40 y and world food
. What annual percentage increase in world popula- production also doubles in 40 y, how many people
tion would be required to double the world popula- then will be starving each year compared to now?
tion in 100 years? . Suppose you get a prospective employer to agree to
. In an economy that has a steady inflation rate of 7% hire your services for a wage of 1¢ for the first day,
per year, in how many years does a $1 lose half 2¢ the second day, and so forth. Your employer
its value? agrees to double your wage each day for a month.
. At a steady inflation rate of 7%, what will be the What will be your total wages for the month?
price every 10 y for the next 50 y for a theater ticket . In the last question, how will your wages for only
that now costs $10? For a coat that now costs $100? the 30th day compare to your total wages for the
For a car that now costs $10 000? For a home that previous 29 days?
now costs $100 000? . Oil has been produced in the U.S. for about 120 y. If
. If the population of a city with one overloaded there remains in the country as much undiscovered
sewage treatment plant grows steadily at 5% annu- oil as all that has been used, what is wrong with the
ally, how many overloaded sewage treatment plants argument that the remaining oil will be sufficient
will be necessary 42 y later? for another 120 y?
. In 1985 the population growth rate for the United . If fusion power were harnessed today, the abundant
States was 0.7%, for Mexico 2.6%, and for Kenya, the energy resulting would likely sustain and even fur-
highest growth rate in the world, 4% (taking into ther encourage our present appetite for continued
account births, deaths, and immigration). If these growth. In a relatively few doubling times human
rates were steady, how long would it take for the pop- beings on Earth could produce an appreciable frac-
ulation in each of these countries to double? tion of the solar power input. Make an argument that
. Suppose that the 4% growth rate for the population the current delay in harnessing fusion is a blessing
of Kenya has always been about the same, and will for the human race.

658 Appendix E: Exponential Growth and Doubling Time

 Problem-Solving Practice

For many students, the major difficulty with problem solving is getting
PNB started. In most cases, start by identifying the underlying physics concept,
and then express the concept in equation form. There may be more than one equa-
tion that applies, so choose the equation that incorporates the given values and the
unknown value you're looking for. Rewrite the equation, solving for the unknown,
and then let the terms in your equation guide you to a solution.
There are several guiding principles that will help you get organized to tackle
problems. Refer frequently to the summary in each section as you work through
the practice problems.

Contents
Chapter 2 Linear Motion.............. 660 Chapter 21 Temperature, Heat,
and Expansion ............. 680
3 Projectile Motion.......... 663 .
22 Heat Transfer............... 681
4 Newton's First Law of > rhea
Motion—Inertia............ 665 23 Change of Phase........... 681

5 WNewton’s Second Law 24 Thermodynamics .......... 682

of Motion—Force and 25 Vibrations and
Acceleration............... 666 Wine as ee 683

6 Newton's Third Law 26" eo

Sound F527.ee 8 683
of Motion—Action :
and Reaction io Orniiirrecsh..¢ 667 27 Light old Arado ceDrath Old Cito. GtcHEe 684

7 Momentum................. 668 29 Reflection

and Refraction ............. 685
Be Emerg Varcetreesbe
rotor eriscesses 670
32 Electrostatics.............. 686
9 Circular Motion............ 674
4 33 Electric Fields and
11 Rotational Mechanics ..... 675 Potential ................... 687

12 Universal Gravitation ...... 676 34 Electric Current............ 689

13 Gravitational 35 Electric Circuits............ 690
Interactions................ 677
‘ 37 Electromagnetic
14 Satellite Motion............ 677 Gnduction Some: 691

18 Solids PA Rc hieh teOC) Pe Re oe) 678 39 The Atomic Nucleus

19° Liquids .....:............---- 678 and Radioactivity .......... 691

BOF GASOS oe ee
Fie oes es 679

problems
* The author thanks Dean Baird and Phillip Wolf for their assistance in writing the new
for this appendix.
659
 daptr2 Linear Motion
Summary
w Speed is the rate at which distance is covered:
Speed = distance d
a if
m Instantaneous speed is the speed at any instant.
m Average speed is the total distance covered divided by total time:
Arotal
V,average Eta

m Velocity is speed in a given direction.

m When acceleration is constant, average velocity is half the sum of the
initial and final velocities:
= Venal 7 Vo

m Acceleration is the rate at which velocity changes with time:

: change of veloci
Acceleration = ==
time interval
Dar is ae
(Delta, A, means “change in’or “final value — initial value.”)
m Velocity acquired with constant acceleration from restis acceleration
multiplied by the time interval: v = at
mw Distance covered from rest at constant acceleration: d= sat?
@ Acceleration due to Earth's gravity: g = 10 m/s? (or more precisely, 9.8 m/s?)
mw For free fall, velocity acquired from rest is acceleration due to gravity
multiplied by the time interval: v = gt
Distance fallen: d = }ge?
If a falling body doesn't begin with zero velocity, these relationships are
Ue gtand dy i+ set”, where v, is the initial velocity, and the
+ (positive) sign may be replaced by a — (negative) sign, depending on
your choice of positive and negative directions.

Find the maximum height attained by a ball thrown straight up with an

initial speed of 30 m/s. Ignore air resistance.
Step 1 Identify the underlying physics concept and write the equation
that best expresses it:
In the absence of air resistance, a ball thrown straight up takes the same
time going up as it does coming down
The concept here is free fall (any projectile under the influence of only
gravity is in free fall). Height, the vertical distance, is given by d = 5et?.
Step 2 Rewrite the equation so that the term whose value youre looking
for is isolated on the left side of the equation:
In this case, we are looking for d, so there is no need to rewrite the equation.

660 Appendix F Problem-Solving Practice

 Sample Problem (continued)
Step 3 Substitute the values of the terms, with their units, for the vari-
ables in your equation. (This may involve repeating the process
for unknown terms.)
d = gt? = 5(10 m/s2) 2. We still need to find tin order to solve for d.
Since the ball starts going up at 30 m/s and loses 10 m/s each second, its
upward motion takes 3 s, so t= 3s andd= $(10 m/s?)(3 s)2.
Step 4 Do the necessary calculations:
d = 3(10 m/s?)(3 s)? = 4(10 m/s2)(9 s2) = 45 m
Step 5 Evaluate your solution:
Note that the units of the solution are correct for distance. Also, from a
d = vt, where average velocity is Soms+0 =15m/s,andtimeis3s, ae Problem
Practice
we get d= 15 m/s X 3s = 45m. =
=
ay
Speie

—————————— EEE afer eieehe Sse iain

Practice Problems
1. Find the speed of a baseball that crosses from the front to the back of home
plate, a distance of 0.3 m, in 0.01 s.
2. Find your average speed if you run 50 min 10s.
3. A tennis ball travels the length of the court, 24 m, in 0.5 s. Find its average
speed.
4. A bus travels 30 km in 4h. What is its average speed in km/h?
5. How far will you travel if you maintain an average speed of 10 m/s for 40 s?
6. A cyclist travels for 30 min with an average speed of 10 km/h. How far does
she travel?
7. What is the acceleration of a bus that goes from rest to a speed of 50 km/h
in 10 s? (Hint: You can express acceleration in units of km/h:s.)
8. On a distant planet a freely falling object gains speed at a steady rate of
20 m/s during each second of fall. Find its acceleration.
9. What is the acceleration of a ball that starts from rest and rolls down a ramp,
gaining a speed of 25 m/s in 5 s?
10. An apple drops from a tree and hits the ground in 1.5 s. What is its speed
just before it hits the ground?
11. Ona distant planet a freely falling object has an acceleration of 20 m/s?.
What speed will a body dropped from rest on this planet acquire in 1.5 s?
12. A skydiver jumps from a helicopter hovering at high altitude. If there were
no air resistance, how fast would she be falling 12 s after jumping?
13. An apple drops from a tree and hits the ground in 1.4 s. How far does it fall?
14. Ona distant planet a freely falling object has an acceleration of 20 m/s. What
vertical distance will an object dropped from rest on this planet cover in 1.8 s?
15. What vertical distance will a body dropped from rest fall in 12 s of free fall?

661
 16. What is the instantaneous velocity of a fréely falling object 10 s after it is
released from rest? What is its average velocity during this 10-s interval?
How far will it fall during this time?
17. If you were to walk with a speed of 2.0 m/s for 2.0 h, how far would you travel?
18. The ocean’s level is rising about 1.5 mm per year. At this rate, in how many
years will sea level be 3 m higher than it is now?
19. The speed of sound in air is about 344 m/s. If you're seated 250 m from
home plate at a ball park, how much time passes between seeing a baseball
being struck and hearing it? (Hint: Light travels nearly a million times faster
than sound.)
20. Johnny Hotfoot slams on the brakes of his car moving at 60 mph (26.7 m/s)
and skids to a stop in 4 s. (a) What is the deceleration of the car? (b) How far
does it skid?
21. Kenny Klutz drops his physics book off his aunt’s high-rise balcony. It hits
the ground below 1.5 s later. (a) With what speed does it hit? (b) How high is
the balcony? Ignore air drag.
22. You drop your pencil from your desk, which is 1.0 m above the floor.
(a) How long does it take for the pencil to hit the floor? (b) How fast is it
going just before it hits the floor?
23. Tara Trucker is driving at 27 m/s through a fog that limits her visibility to
30 m. She suddenly sees a car in front of her traveling in the same direction
at 10 m/s. If she fails to apply the brakes, how much time does Tara have
between seeing the car and crashing into it?
* 24, You drive to the city at an average speed of 40 km/h
and return at an aver-
age speed of 60 km/h. Find your average speed for the entire trip? Explain
why the answer is not 50 km/h.
Saae Harry Hopeless averages 40 km/h for the first half of his car trip. How fast
should he drive on the remaining half of the trip to have an average speed of
80 km/h for his trip?
226. A train moves at a constant speed of 60 km/h toward a station 30 km away.
At that moment Fanny Fastbird leaves her perch on the locomotive and flies
toward the station at a constant speed of 100 km/h relative to the ground.
When the bird reaches the station, she immediately turns around and flies
back to the train at the same speed. When reaching the train she again imme-
diately turns around and flies back to the station, repeating the process until
the train passes the station. What total distance is traveled by the bird?
Zi. Use the time-independent equation for uniformly accelerated motion,
V2,al ~ V2 = 2ad, to solve the following: A rocket traveling at 40 m/s
accelerates at 2 m/s. Find its speed when it has traveled 200 m.
uae
(The equation is derived from d= v,verage t, where v average 2 °
solving for ¢, and then substituting tin the equation d= u,t + 5at?).
28. A new test vehicle will accelerate at a steady 4 m/s* over a 500-m track. How
long will the vehicle take to travel the track?
“ar+ F When Valerie Volleyballer jumps to spike a ball, she rises a total of 2.0 m in
the air after accelerating through 0.5 m (from crouch to full extension).
What is her acceleration during takeoff?
*These problems are particularly challenging.

662 Appendix F Problem-Solving Practice

capter3 Projectile Motion
Summary
m@ The resultant of two vectors that are parallel to each other (in either the
same or exactly opposite directions) is their algebraic sum.
m@ The resultant Vof two vectors A and B at right angles to each other is found
using the Pythagorean theorem: V= V A* + B
m@ When gravity is the only force acting on a projectile and the curvature of
Earth underneath the projectile is unimportant, the horizontal compo-
nent of velocity does not change.

Practic
Problem
1. Ina physics lab, a 10-g marble, after rolling down a ramp, shoots off the
edge of a table with a horizontal velocity of 1.2m/s.Thetableis1.0m |
high. You want the marble to land in a shallow cup on the floor. How far |
from the edge of the table should you place the cup?
Step 1 Identify the underlying physics concept and write eeequation
that best expresses it: j
The concept is projectile motion in the
absence of air drag, where the horizontal
component of motion remains constant ite

while the vertical component has an

acceleration of 10 m/s?. You are looking
for the horizontal distance the ball travels
when it leaves the table. The main equa-
tion for this is d= vt.
Step 2 Rewrite the equation so that the term whose value yourre looking
for is isolated on the left side of the equation: De
In this case, you are looking for dso there is no need to rewrite the equation.
Step 3 Substitute the values of the terms, with their units, for the vari-
ables in your equation. (This may involve repeating the process for
unknown terms.) ‘

d= vt= (1.2 m/s)t. You must find ¢ (the time in the air) in order to ane for ;
d. Find the time from the formula for the vertical distance d= ee
Rearranging the equation to solve for tfgives t= a Since you are
concerned with two distances, horizontal and verde use x for horizontal :
distance, and y for vertical distance. Then x = vt= v oe
Step 4 Do the necessary calculations:

v = 1.2m/s /200%)= 0.54m

663
 Step 5 Evaluate your solution:
If the cup were taller, then you'd solve the problem by letting y be the verti-
cal distance below the tabletop to the top of the cup. (You may have to take
the cup’s height into account if you do this in lab!) Note that the marble’s
mass doesn't matter.

2. Ignoring air drag, what is the

maximum speed possible for a
horizontally moving tennis ball
as it clears the 1.0-m-high net
and strikes within the court's
border, 12.0 m away?

Again, the concept is projectile motion in the absence of air drag, where the
horizontal and vertical components of velocity are independent. You are
asked for the initial horizontal speed, so write v = 4 where dis horizontal
distance traveled in time t.
You are looking for v, so there is no need to rewrite the equation.
4 12m
t t
You don’t know the time, but physics tells you that the ball’s time of flight f
will be the same time it takes to freely drop a vertical distance of 1.0 m from
rest. We say from rest because the initial vertical component of velocity is
zero—the ball moves horizontally over the net. From d = sgt:
re 2(1.0m)
10 m/s?
— 9.455
p= 4= 32M— 26.6 m/s
Notice that the units of the solution are correct for speed.

Practice Problems
1. Calculate the resultant velocity of Freda Flyer who normally flies at 100 km/h
and then encounters a 10-km/h headwind (wind coming from ahead).
. Calculate Freda Flyer’s speed in a 10-km/h tailwind (wind coming from behind).
3. Calculate the resultant velocity of a pair of 100-km/h velocities at right
angles to each other.
4. A certain right triangle has sides of 3, 4, and 5. If two vectors of magnitude
3 and 4 are at right angles to each other, what is their resultant?
5. Ifa 5-unit vector has a vertical component of 3 units, what is its horizontal
component?
. If the 5-unit vector has a vertical component of 4 units, what is its horizontal
component?
7. Ifa 14-unit vector makes an angle of 45° with the horizontal, what are its
horizontal and vertical components?

664 Appendix F Problem-Solving Practice

 . An experimental jet plane, just after takeoff, climbs with a speed of 500 km/h at
an angle of 37° with the horizontal. At what rate is the plane gaining altitude?
. If the sun is directly above the jet plane in the preceding problem, how fast
does the shadow of the plane travel across the ground?
. Aball rolls off the edge of a balcony at 10 m/s. What is its speed after 1 s in
the air?
. A football is kicked 40 m. If the ball is in the air for 4 s, with what initial
speed was it kicked?
. Aplane is flying at an altitude of 8000 m at a speed of 250 m/s. At what hori-
zontal distance ahead of its target must a water balloon be released to strike
the target on the ground (neglecting air resistance)?
13. Suppose that Spud Webb, in moon attire, jumps a vertical distance of 8.0 m
on the moon. Acceleration due to gravity there is 1.6 m/s*. What is Spud’s
hang time?
Practice
Problem
14. Suppose that Spud makes the same jump from a horizontally-moving skate-
board on the moon’s surface. Is his hang time more, less, or the same?

chapter Newton’s First Law of

Motion—Inertia
Summary
m At Earth's surface, g = 9.8 m/s? (or roughly, 10 m/s*).
w Weight = mass X acceleration due to gravity: W= mg
mw Net force is the vector sum of all forces acting.
w Net force = 0 for an object in equilibrium.

Practice Problems
1. What is the weight in newtons of Lily Lightweight, who has a mass of 40 kg?
. What is the weight in newtons of Lily’s convertible, which has a mass of
1800 kg?
. What is the net force on a 1000-N barrel falling in air with an air drag of 400 N?
. When a 1000-N barrel is sinking through the water at a constant speed,
what is the upward force of the water on the barrel?
. What would be the weight of a gold crown on the eee if it has a mass of
3 kg? The acceleration due to gravity on the moon is ¢|that on Earth.
. What is the mass of a 100-N crate of delicious Bae
. Larry Lightweight stands on a pair of bathroom scales. Each scale reads
300 N. What is Larry’s mass?
. Suppose Larry stands with more weight on one scale than the other. If one
scale reads 400 N, what does the other read?

665
 9. Just as a 1-kg ball sitting at the edge of a table falls off the edge, it is kicked
horizontally with a force of 10 N. What is the net force on the ball during
the kick?
10. A high-flying jet cruises at an altitude of 30 000 feet at a constant velocity of
700 km/h. The force of the jet engines is 40 000 N. How much air drag acts
on the craft?

chapter Newton’s Second Law of

Motion—Force and Acceleration
Summary P
@ The acceleration of an object is given by Newton's second law: a = =
@ Acceleration is in the same direction as the net force.
mw When air resistance is present, a falling object accelerates until air drag
equals the weight—then the net force on it is zero and the acceleration is
zero. It has reached terminal speed.
m@ The pressure Pon an object is the applied force F divided by the area A
over which the force acts: P = 4

Practice Problems
1. Calculate the acceleration of a 100-kg cart when the net force on it is 50 N.
2. Calculate the horizontal force needed to make a 1-kg hockey puck
accelerate at 1000 m/s?.
3. What is the acceleration given to a 50-kg block of cement when it is pulled
sideways with a net force of 800 N?
4, What is the pressure on a table when a 15-N dictionary with a 0.05-m* cover
lies flat on it?
5. Heather can apply a force of 72 N to a wagon in which sits her little brother,
Bryce. The combined mass of Bryce and the wagon is 48 kg. If starting from
rest, how much speed will the wagon pick up after Heather has pushed the
wagon for 3 s?
6. When the wagon in the previous problem reaches a speed of 8 m/s, Heather
lets go and Bryce puts on the brakes. If the wagon comes to rest 6 s later,
how much force did the brakes apply?
7. A golf ball leaves the tee at a speed of 170 mph (75 m/s). If the ball has a
mass of 0.05 kg and gains this speed in 0.02 s, what is the average force of
impact of the club on the ball?
8. A500-kg subcompact car and a 1500-kg standard car are given equal accel-
erations. How much greater is the force that acts on the more massive car?
9. An astronaut of mass 90 kg walks in space outside her spaceship and
receives a 30-N force from a nitrogen spurt gun. (a) What acceleration does
she experience? (b) If the duration of the spurt is 2 s, how fast will she be
moving relative to the spaceship? 7

666 Appendix F Problem-Solving Practice

10. A 2000-kg pickup truck is moving at a speed of 40 m/s as its brakes are
applied, and comes to a stop in 10 s. Assuming uniform acceleration, (a)
what is the braking force applied to the truck? (b) how far does the truck
travel while the brakes are applied?
11. Scarlet Skydiver, who has a mass 60 kg, jumps from a stationary helicopter.
(a) What is the net force on her as she emerges from the helicopter. (b) What
is the net force on her 10 s into the dive, when she has reached terminal
speed? (c) What is her acceleration when she reaches terminal speed?
12. Suppose Scarlet then opens her parachute. Air drag on the chute and
Scarlet then becomes 2000 N. (a) What is the net force on her now? (b) What
is her acceleration?
13. As Scarlet and the parachute slow down, the drag decreases until it equals
Scarlet’s weight. At that point, what is her acceleration? Will the new termi-
nal speed be greater than, less than, or the same as the terminal speed
before the parachute was opened? Practice
Problem-
14, After being pushed and released, a 50-kg crate slides across a factory floor.
Friction on the sliding crate is 200 N. What is the crate’s acceleration?
15. What is the acceleration of a 20-kg container of paint pulled upward
(not sideways) with a force of 300 N?
16. Skelly the child skater is propelled by
rocket power. Skelly and the rocket
~
together have a mass of 25 kg. When the
thrusting force is 100 N and friction is
20 N, (a) what will be Skelly’s accelera-
tion? (b) How far will he go in 5 s ifhe
starts from rest?
17. A firefighter of mass 80 kg slides down a vertical pole with an acceleration
of 4 m/s2. What is the friction force that acts on the firefighter?
18. The frictional force on BlockA is half its “
weight. Blocks A and B have the same mass.
What is the acceleration of the two blocks?

chaper6 Newton's Third Law of

Motion—Action and Reaction
Summary
w Force occurs when two objects interact. The interaction actually consists of
two forces: each object exerts a force on the other. The two forces are equal
in strength and opposite in direction.
m When a force occurs, there are two objects and two forces; one force acts
on each object. xh

Practice Problems
1. What will be the acceleration of recoil when a 60-kg person on rollerblades
pushes against a wall with a force of 30 N?

667
 2. Two people attempt a tug-of-war on low-friction ice. One person has four
times the mass of the other. Relative to the acceleration of the heavier per-
son, what will be the acceleration of the lighter person?
3. Two blocks, one three times as massive as the other, are connected by a
compressed spring. When the spring is released, both blocks fly apart. Rela-
tive to the acceleration of the heavier block, what is the acceleration of the
lighter block?
4. What is the net force on a falling 1000-N barrel hitting a pavement with
5000 N of force?
5. A boxer punches a sheet of paper in midair, and brings it from rest up to a
speed of 40 m/s in 0.05 s. If the mass of the paper is 0.01 kg, what force does
the boxer exert on it?
6. A 7-kg bowling ball moving at 6.0 m/s strikes a 1-kg bowling pin. If the ball
slows to 4.5 m/s in 0.05 s, how much force does it exert on the pin?

chapter? Momentum
Summary
mw The impulse that acts on an object is the product of the force exerted on it
multiplied by the time the force acts: Impulse = Ft
m The momentum p ofan object is the product of its mass and velocity:
p= mv
mg The impulse-momentum relationship is Ft = A(mv).
mw When objects collide and there is no net external force, momentum is
conserved—it’s the same after the collision as before (even if the collision
is inelastic).
m Momentum is a vector quantity, and momenta combine by vector rules.

ee, Ss
i. ¥t
. c i.

ge a 4
=
Sample
i T Problem
E

An 80-kg astronaut carrying a 20-kg tool kit is drifting at a speed of 2 m/s

toward a spacecraft that is motionless in intergalactic space. If she throws the
tool kit toward the spacecraft with a speed of 6 m/s as seen from the space-
craft, what is her final velocity (speed and direction)?
Step 1 Identify the underlying physics concept and write the equation
that best expresses it:
The underlying concept here is conservation of momentum, for no external
forces act on the system of the astronaut plus the thrown tool kit. The
momentum of the astronaut and tool kit before throwing = the momentum
of the astronaut after throwing and the momentum of the thrown tool kit.
MV, + Mv, = M,V,' + M,V,' where m, is the mass of the astronaut, v, is
her speed before the throw, m, is the mass of the tool kit, v, is the speed of
the tool kit before the throw, v,' is her speed after the throw, and v,' is the
speed of the thrown tool kit. (All speeds are relative to the spacecraft.)

668 Appendix F Problem-Solving Practice

 Sample Problem (continued)
Step 2 Rewrite the equation so that the term whose value youre looking
for is isolated on the left side of the equation:
'
mM, v, + M5V5 — M5V5
Solve for v,':%,, v,'es:= ™,

Step 3 Substitute the values of the terms, with their units, for the
variables in your equation:
MV, + Mv, — Mv,' z (80kg X 2 m/s) + (20 kg X 2 m/s) — (20 kg x 6 m/s)
m, 80 kg
Step 4 Do the necessary calculations:
(80 kg X 2 m/s) + (20 kg X 2 m/s) — (20 kg x 6 m/s)
80 kg
_ 160 kg-m/s + 40 kg-m/s —120 kg-m/s Proble
Practic
80 kg
_ 80kg-m/s
~ 80kg
=1m/s

Step 5 Evaluate your solution:

The units of the solution are correct for speed. Since the answer is positive,
the astronaut is moving at 1 m/s towardthe spacecraft. = == —

Practice Problems
1. Acar of mass 1100 kg moves at 24 m/s. What braking force is needed to
bring the car to a halt in 20 s?
2. What average force is exerted on a 25-g egg by a bed sheet if the egg hits the
sheet at 4 m/s and takes 0.2 s to stop? (Remember to work in kilograms!)
3. A 100-kg quarterback is traveling 5 m/s and is stopped by a tackler in 1 s.
Calculate (a) the initial momentum of the quarterback, (b) the impulse
imparted by the tackler, and (c) the average force exerted by the tackler.
4. A 40-kg football player going through the air at 4 m/s tackles a 60-kg player
who is heading toward her at 3 m/s, in the air. What is the speed and direc-
tion of the entangled players?
5. A jet engine gets its thrust by taking in air, heating and compressing it, and
then ejecting it at a high speed. Ifa particular engine takes in 20 kg of air per
second at 100 m/s, and ejects it at 500 m/s, calculate the thrust of the engine.
6. A 40-kg projectile leaves a 2000-kg launcher with a speed of 400 m/s. What
is the recoil speed of the launcher?
7. Acar of mass 1400 kg travels at 20 m/s and collides with a stationary truck
of mass 2800 kg, with its parking brake off. The two vehicles interlock as a
result of the collision and slide along the icy road. What is the velocity of the
car—truck system?

669
 8. A 1-kg dart moving horizontally at 10 m/s strikes and sticks to a wood block
of mass 9 kg, which slides across a friction-free level surface. What is the
speed of the block and dart after collision?
9. A 10 000-kg truck moving at 10 m/s collides with a 2000-kg car moving at
30 m/s in the opposite direction. If they stick together after impact, how
fast, and in what direction, will they be moving?
10. Ina fireworks display a 3-kg body moving at 4 km/h due north explodes
into three equal pieces: A, at 4 km/h east; B, at 5 km/h 37° south of west;
and C, at 15 km/h due north. After the explosion, what is the total momen-
tum of all the pieces?

chapterS Energy
Summary
mw When aconstant force moves an object in the direction of the force, the
work done is equal to the force multiplied by the distance the object is
moved: W= Fd
Work transfers energy from one place to another or from one form
to another.
m@ Power is the rate of doing work: P = n (or,transforming energy, P = 2)
@ Mechanical energy due to position is potential energy. Gravitational
potential energy is weight x height: PE = mgh
m Mechanical energy due to motion is kinetic energy: KE = 3 mv?
m Work can change the kinetic energy of an object: W= A KE
This is called the work—energy theorem.
m Work from outside forces other than gravity can change the gravitational
potential energy of an object: W= APE
m@ The law of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be created or
destroyed. This law is also an important ingredient in problem solving.
m@ Asimple machine is a device that transfers work from one place to another.
In so doing, it can multiply force or change the direction of the force.
mw The mechanical advantage of a machine is the force output divided by the
force input: .

ah se
_ _ output

@ In accord with the conservation of energy, no machine can put out more
work than is put into it. Because some energy is inevitably converted to
less useful forms, the useful work output of a machine is less than the total
work input.
lm Efficiency is a measure of how successful the machine is in doing work.
It is the ratio of work output to work input:

Sarre
We

lm Efficiency is also the ratio of actual mechanical advantage to theoretical

mechanical advantage:
_ AMA
E= TMA

670 Appendix F Problem-Solving Practice

 Sample Problems
1. Asimple pendulum 1 m long has a 5-kg bob.
(a) Calculate the work done by an outside force @<eeeeeeeetigm—ennneeeee
in pulling the pendulum froma verticaltoa + :
horizontal position. (b) If the pendulum is > :
then released, what will be the speed of the re '
bob as it passes through the lowest point of ~ 2aue?
its path?
Step 1 Identify the underlying physics concept and write the equation
that best expresses it:
(a) The outside force has to counteract the gravitational force mg, and it
acts through a vertical distance h equal to the length of the pendulum:
W= Fd= mgh
Practice
Problem
Step 2 Rewrite the equation so that the term whose value you're looking
for is isolated on the left side of the equation:
You are looking for W, so use the equation as it is written.
Step 3 Substitute the values of the terms, with their units, for the
variables in your equation. (This may involve repeating the
process for unknown terms.)
W = Fd = mgh = (5 kg)(10 m/s?)(1 m)
Step 4 Do the necessary calculations:
(5 kg)(10 m/s?)(1 m) = 50J
W=50J
Step 5 Evaluate your solution:
The units of the solution are correct for work.
(b) The underlying concept here is conservation of energy. The KE at the
poe will equal the PE at the top, or KE} ottom = PE top»
OF gmv* bottom =— MENjop. rs
Solve 4mv? = mgh for v: v? = cle = 2gh, so v= V 2gh.
V2gh = V 2(10 m/s*)(1 m)
V2(10 m/s?)(1 m) = 4.5 m/s
v=4.5m/s

The units of the solution are correct for velocity.

Notice that the speed at the bottom of the swing is the same speed the bob
would acquire if it were simply dropped down the same vertical distance,
and the speed doesn’t depend on the mass of the bob. Further thought will
show that the time taken to swing down is longer than the time taken to
drop vertically. Be careful to distinguish between time and speed when
solving problems using energy.

671
 es

Sample Problems (continued)

2. Acar traveling along a level road at —r
speed vslams on the brakes and skids AG TEs
to a stop. The force of friction on the
car is half the car’s weight. How far
does the car slide?
Draw vectors for all the forces acting on the skidding car—weight,
normal force, and the force of friction. The underlying concept is the
work-energy theorem.
The only force F that does work to reduce the KE is the force of friction.
This force acts through d, the distance of skidding. The mass of the car is
m, and its initial speed is v. When the car stops sliding, its final speed will
be zero, so the change in KE is simply the F
initial KE at speed v. .S
Use the equation W= AKE = Fad. (VT,
Work done on the car is Fd, so
Fd = AGmv?).
AGmv?) mg
Solve Fd = Amv”) for d: d= —>
The terms m, v, and Fare all unknown. Since Fis the force of friction,
substitute f for F:
> A(gmv?)
Pee
Since fis half the car’s weight, f= ae Substitute “ fous:
= 5mv? ware

Cid
Note how the equations guide your thinking: The final expression tells you
that the stopping distance is proportional to the square of the speed,
which is consistent with it being proportional to KE. It also tells you that if
gwere greater, the force of friction would be greater and skidding distance
less—which is quite reasonable. Cancellation of mass tells you that the
mass of the car doesn’t matter. All cars skidding with the same initial
speed, with friction equal to half their weights, will skid the same distance.
2 = 2/02 years . .
Note that has the unit ~ = = m. This is the correct unit for distance.

Practice Problems
1. Calculate the work done as a 100-N force pushes a crate 5 m along a
factory floor.
2. Calculate the work done by a person who carries a 50-N box vertically
3m up a ladder.
3. What is the potential energy of the 50-N box when it is raised 3 m?
4. Calculate the power expended by the person who carries the 50-N box
3 mhighin3s.
5. Calculate the kinetic energy of a 10-kg cart traveling at 4 m/s.

672 Appendix F Problem-Solving Practice

 . Calculate the change in kinetic energy when the speed of a 10-kg cart
increases from 4 m/s to 10 m/s.
- How much work is required to make the change in kinetic energy in the previ-
ous problem? (Why is your answer the same as in the previous problem?)
- How much work is done by a person who picks up a 3-kg crate from the
floor, raises it 2 m, and sends it flying with a speed of 4 m/s?
- At one point in its fall, a falling object has a kinetic energy of 5 J anda
potential energy of 10 J (relative to the floor). It continues to another point
where its potential energy is 3 J. What is its kinetic energy at this point?
10. Calculate the efficiency of a machine that has a useful energy output of
220 J when the work input is 300 J.
Ly. Use the conservation of energy to find an equation for the speed of a freely
falling object that falls from rest at a height h. That is, equate the loss of PE
to the gain of KE and solve for velocity v.
Problem
Practice
12. A pole vaulter wishes to clear a 4-m bar. How fast must she run? (Assume
that all her kinetic energy is converted into gravitational potential energy.)
13. A 1-kg projectile is fired at 10 m/s from a 10-kg launcher. The momenta of
the projectile and recoiling launcher are the same (but in opposite direc-
tions). Show that the KE of the projectile is ten times greater than the KE of
the recoiling launcher.
14. In the hydraulic machine shown, you observe
that when the small piston is pushed down a
distance of 10 cm, the large piston rises 1 cm.
If the small piston is pushed down with a force
of 200 N, how much force is the large piston
exerting?
15. (a) What is the theoretical mechanical advantage of a 5-m-long inclined plane
that has the high end 1 m above the ground? (b) What is the actual mechani-
cal advantage if 100 N of effort is needed to push a block of ice that weighs
400 N up the plane? (c) What is the efficiency of the inclined plane?
16. What is the efficiency of the body when a cyclist expends 1000 watts of
power to deliver mechanical energy to the bicycle at the rate of 100 watts?
ive In the pulley system shown, (a) ideally, what force is necessary
to raise the 10-kg weight with a constant speed? (b) If the object
rises 4 cm, how far does the puller's hand move? (c) If the sys-
tem is 40% efficient, what force is necessary to raise the 10-kg
block at a constant velocity?
18. A 500-kg roller coaster car is pulled to the top of a hill 45 m high
and arrives at the top with zero speed. (a) How much work is
done by the chain that pulls the car to the top? (b) How fast will
the car be going when it gets back to ground level, 45 m below?
(c) How fast will the car go at a point 29 m above ground?
19. The same roller coaster car is pulled to the top of the 45.0-m-high hill and
this time arrives with a speed of 4.0 m/s. How fast will the car go when at
a point 29 m above ground? Why is your answer not that of the previous
problem plus 4.0 m/s?

673
 20. Roger Rollerblader skates side-to-side in a half-pipe of 4-m radius. He
jumps the lip and rises 3 m above it. How fast is he going as he jumps the
lip? How fast is he going at the bottom of the half-pipe before the jump?
(Ignore all friction.)
21. A person atop a 30-m cliff throws a ball at 4 m/s at an angle of 37° above the
horizontal. How fast does the ball hit the ground?

capter9 Circular Motion

Summary
m@ Rotational speed is the number of rotations or revolutions made per unit
of time.
@ A centripetal force Fpulls an object of mass m toward the center of a circle
of radius r: F=

Practice Problems
1. Find the number of revolutions of a bicycle wheel of diameter 0.7 m when
the bike goes a distance of 22 m down the street.
2. Harry Hotrod rounds a corner in his sports car at 50 km/h. Fortunately, a
force of friction holds him on the road. If he rounds the corner at twice the
speed, how much greater must the force of friction be to prevent him from
skidding off the road?
3. Calculate the tension in a 2-m length of string that whirls a 1-kg mass at
2 m/s in a horizontal circle.
4. Answer the previous question for the case of (a) twice the mass, (b) twice
the speed, (c) twice the length of string (radial distance), and (d) twice the
mass, twice the speed, and twice the radial distance all at the same time.
5. In the Olympic hammer-throw event, an athlete throws a 7.3-kg lead ball
attached to a 1.2-m cable. The athlete swings the ball in a circle three or four
times before letting it go. If the ball attains a speed of 27 m/s, how much
tension is there in the cable just before it is released?
6. Spin Out is a carnival ride consisting of a large open cylinder. Riders stand
inside with their backs against the cylinder wall. (a) What is the centripetal
force acting on you in the ride if the radius of the cylinder is 3.5 m, your mass
is 50 kg, and you are traveling at 5 m/s? (b) What force keeps you from sliding
downward and how does that force relate to the above spinning speed?
7. A certain cord will break if its tension exceeds 250 N. Suppose the cord is
attached to a 0.5-kg ball. (a) If the ball is swung in a horizontal circle at the
end of an 0.8-m cord, how fast can the ball move before the cord breaks?
(b) If the ball is to be swung with a speed of 25 m/s, what is the shortest
length of cord that can be used?

674 Appendix F Problem-Solving Practice

captr11 Rotational Mechanics
Summary
m Torque is the product of the component of force acting perpendicular to
the lever arm and the length of the lever arm: 7 = FX d
m@ When a system is in rotational equilibrium, the sum of the torques is zero:
xT =0
m@ The resistance of an object to changes in its rotational state of motion
is called rotational inertia J. For objects that are small compared with dis-
tance of rotation, = mr?, where mis the mass of the object and rits
radial distance.
m@ Angular momentum is the product of rotational inertia Jand rotational
velocity w: Angular momentum = Jw. For circularly moving objects that
are small compared with radial distance, angular momentum = mur.
Problem
Practic
m@ In the absence of an external torque, angular momentum is conserved.

Practice Problems
A meter stick is placed with the fulcrum at the 50-cm mark as shown in the diagram.

1. Ifa 300-g mass is placed at the 0-cm mark (50 cm from the fulcrum), at
what mark should a 500-g mass be placed so that the system is balanced?
2. Ifa 300-g mass is placed at the 30-cm mark (20 cm from the fulcrum), at
what mark should a 500-g mass be placed so that the system is balanced?
3. Ifa 120-g mass is placed at the 25-cm mark and a 25-g mass at the 10-cm
mark, where should a 500-g mass be placed to balance the system?
4. Suppose the mass of the stick is 200 g, and a single 500-g mass is to play
“solitary seesaw” at the 0-cm mark. Where should the fulcrum be located?
5. A horizontal meter stick has a 3-kg blob of clay stuck on one end, at the
0-cm mark, and a 1-kg blob stuck on the other end, at the 100-cm mark.
Neglecting the mass of the stick itself, where is the center of gravity of the
stick and clay system?
6. A horizontal meter stick will balance at the 50-cm mark. Where will it bal-
ance if a stick with the same mass dangles vertically from the 100-cm mark?
7. A10 000-N vehicle is stalled one-quarter of the way across a bridge. Calcu-
late the additional forces supplied at the supports on both ends of the
bridge due to the vehicle’s weight.
8. (a) Find the angular momentum of a 5-kg iron ball swinging in a horizontal
circle at 3 m/s at the end of a 4-m rope. (b) What happens to the angular
momentum when both the speed and length of rope are doubled?
9. Suppose that a trapeze artist rotates once each second while sailing through
the air. If she pulls her arms and legs in more tightly to reduce her rotational
inertia to one third of what it was, how many rotations per second will result?

675
 10. A ball of gas in outer space rotates once each month while contracting due
to gravity. When it contracts to reduce its rotational inertia to one-tenth,
find the number of rotations it makes per month.
11. What happens to the rotational inertia of a simple pendulum when the
mass of the bob is doubled and the length of the pendulum is halved?
(See Figure 11.14.)
12. What happens to the rotational inertia of a simple pendulum when both the
mass of the bob and the length of the pendulum are doubled?
13. What happens to the rotational inertia of a simple pendulum when both the
mass of the bob and the length of the pendulum are halved?
14. Find the change in the rotational inertia of a solid cylinder when both its
mass and its radius are doubled.

cptv12 Universal Gravitation

Summary
@ The force of gravitation between two bodies decreases as the square of the
mM,
distance between them increases: F ~ dz
m Between every pair of objects there is a gravitational force of attraction
F that is directly proportional to the product of the masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between their centers. The con-
stant of proportionality Gis 6.67 x 10~!! N-m?/kg?:

Practice Problems
116 Find the change in the force of gravity between two planets when the dis-
tance between them is reduced to one-tenth of the original distance.
. Find the change in the force of gravity between two objects when both
masses are doubled and the distance between them is also doubled.
. Consider a bright point light source located 1 m from a square opening that
is 1 m? in area. Light passing through the opening illuminates an area of
4m? ona screen 2 m from the opening. (a) Find the area illuminated if the
screen is moved to distances of 3 m, 5 m, and 10 m. (b) How can the same
amount of light illuminate more area as the screen is moved farther away?
. Earth’s surface is one Earth radius from its center. The gravitational force on
a 1-kg object at Earth's surface is 9.8 N. What is the gravitational force on
this object if it is moved to a point four Earth radii from the center of Earth?
. If you stand 1 km from the center of a typical mountain of mass 5 X 10!! kg,
you'll be gravitationally attracted to it (as you're attracted to everything
else). Likewise, you're attracted to the moon (mass 7.4 X 10°? kg), which is
3.8 X 10° km away. Which of the two, the mountain or the moon, exerts the
greater force on you?
. Jack has a mass of 50 kg. Suppose he climbs a beanstalk so high that his
weight at the top is one-half what it is on the surface of Earth. How far is
the top of the beanstalk from the center of Earth?

676 Appendix F Problem-Solving Practice

caper13 Gravitational Interactions
Summary
@ The gravitational field is equal to the ratio of the gravitational force on an
object to the mass of the object: g = £
m@ The magnitude of g has the same value as the acceleration of a freely
falling object g.
@ At Earth’s surface, the magnitude of g is equal to a where M is Earth's
mass, and Rits radius.
@ Ocean tides are caused by the difference in gravitational pulls of the moon
(and the sun) on opposite sides of Earth.
m A black hole is a collapsed star with a gravitational field strong enough
that escape speed from it exceeds the speed of light. So light cannot leave
a black hole. Problem
Practice
Practice Problems
1. The mass of a star is somehow doubled without any change in its radius.
How does the gravitational field at its surface change?
2. The mass of a star increases by a factor of four, while its radius doubles.
What happens to the gravitational field at its surface?

chapter 14 Satellite Motion

Summary
m@ The speed ofa satellite in circular orbit is constant.
m The speed of a satellite in an elliptical orbit decreases as it recedes from
Earth and increases as it approaches Earth.
m The sum of the kinetic and potential energies is constant in any orbit.

Practice Problems
1. The force of gravity between Earth and an Earth satellite is given by
F= Gee where mis the mass of the satellite, Mis the mass of Earth, and
r is the radial distance between the satellite and the center of Earth. If the
satellite follows a circular orbit, the force is a centripetal force, given by
je
Equate the two expressions for force to show that the speed is v = pom.
2. The speed of a satellite in circular orbit is given by the equation v = CM
where Gis the gravitational constant, M is the mass of Earth, and ris the
radial distance between the satellite and the center of Earth. Equate this to
the other expression for speed, v = 4. Find the equation for the time the
satellite takes to completely orbit Earth—the period T. Use the complete orbit
2nr, for the distance traveled, and T for the period of revolution.

677
 chapter'18 Solids
Summary
A 5 - a! iit!
m@ Density is mass per unit volume: p = 7, m
m@ Weight density is weight per unit volume: py = 77
@ Hooke's law states that the amount of stretch (or compression) x of a
spring is directly proportional to the applied force F:
F= kx where kis the spring constant.
@ Scaling is the study of how size affects weight, strength, and surface area.
w As the linear dimensions of an object are multiplied by some number, the
area grows as the square of the number and the volume grows as the cube
of the number.
m As an object grows proportionally in all directions, the ratio of surface area
to volume decreases.

Practice Problems
1. Find the density of a 5-kg solid cylinder that is 10 cm tall with a radius
of 3 cm.
2. What is the weight of a cubic meter of cork? Could you lift it? (For the den-
sity of cork, use 400 kg/m.)
3. A certain spring stretches 3 cm when a load of 15 N is suspended from it.
How much will the spring stretch if 45 N is suspended from it (and it doesn't
reach the spring’s elastic limit)?
4. If a certain spring stretches 4 cm when a load of 10 N is suspended from it,
how much will the spring stretch if it is cut in half and 10 N is suspended
from it?
5. A 1-cm’ cube has sides 1 cm in length. What is the length of the sides of a
cube of volume 3 cm?
6. If each of the linear dimensions of a storage tank is reduced to half its former
value, by how much does the overall surface area of the tank decrease? By
how much does its volume decrease?
7. Acube 2 cm on a side is cut into cubes 1 cm on a side. (a) How many cubes
result? (b) What was the surface area of the original cube and what is the
total surface area of the smaller cubes? What is the ratio of surface areas? (c)
What are the surface-to-volume ratios of the original cube and the combi-
nation of all the smaller cubes?
8. Larger people at the beach need more suntan lotion than smaller people. Rel-
ative to asmaller person, how much lotion will a twice-as-heavy person use?

chaptv 19 Liquids
Summary
m@ In going down a vertical distance din a liquid, the pressure increase is equal
to the weight density of the liquid multiplied by the distance: AP = py, d
m@ Total pressure in a liquid is the pressure created by the liquid plus atmos-
pheric pressure.

678 Appendix F Problem-Solving Practice

 m An immersed object is buoyed upward by a force equal to the weight of the
fluid it displaces.
@ A floating object displaces a weight of fluid equal to its own weight.
@ Changes in pressure at any point in an enclosed fluid at rest are transmit-
ted undiminished to all points in the fluid and act in all directions.

Practice Problems
1. Calculate the approximate volume of a person of mass 100 kg who can just
barely float in fresh water.
2. A rectangular barge 5 m long and 2 m wide floats in fresh water. (a) Find
how much deeper it floats when loaded with 500 kg of sand. (b) If the barge
can only be pushed 10 cm deeper into the water before water overflows to
sink it, how many kilograms of sand can it carry?
3. A dike in Holland springs a leak through a hole of area 1 cm? at a depth of
2 m below the water surface. What force would a boy have to exert with his Practic
Proble
thumb to plug the leak? Could he do it?
4, Amerchant in Katmandu sells you a solid gold 1-kg statue for a very reason-
able price. When you get home, you wonder whether or not you got a bar-
gain, so you lower the statue into a measuring cup and measure its volume.
What volume will verify that it’s pure gold?
5. When a 2.0-kg object is suspended in water from a spring scale, the scale
reading is 1.5 kg. What is the density of the object?
6. How much pressure do you experience when you balance a 5-kg ball on the
tip of your finger, say of area 1 cm??

chaptr20 Gases
Summary
m@ When the temperature of an enclosed gas is kept constant, the product of
pressure and volume of the gas is constant.
@ Internal pressure in a flowing fluid decreases when the flow increases.

Practice Problems
1. Nitrogen and oxygen in their liquid states have densities only 0.8 and 0.9
that of water. Atmospheric pressure is due primarily to the weight of nitro-
gen and oxygen gas in the air. If the atmosphere liquefied, would its depth
be greater or less than 10.3 m?
2. Find the change in pressure inside a party balloon that is squeezed to one-
third its volume with no change in temperature.
3. Air in a cylinder is compressed to one-fourth its original volume with no
change in temperature. What happens to its pressure?
4. In the previous problem, if a valve is opened to let out enough air to bring
the pressure back down to its original value, what percentage of the mole-
cules escape?
5. Ona perfect fall day, you are hovering at low altitude in a hot-air balloon,
accelerating neither upward nor downward. The total weight of the balloon,
including its load and the hot air in it, is 20 000 N. Find the weight of the
displaced air.
679
 6. Referring to the previous problem, find the volume of the displaced air.
7. Amercury barometer reads 760 mm at sea level. When it is carried to an alti-
tude of 5.6 km, the height of the mercury column is reduced to half its initial
value, or 380 mm. What is the air pressure at this altitude relative to sea-level
pressure? If the barometer is taken up another 5.6 km to an altitude of
11.2 km, will the height of its mercury column fall another 380 mm and be
zero? Why or why not?

chaptr21 Temperature, Heat, and

Expansion
Summary
m The quantity of heat Q lost or gained by a substance is equal to the mass of
the substance m multiplied by its specific heat capacity cand the tempera-
ture change AT: Q = mcAT

Practice Problems
1. Acook pours 1 L of ice water at 0°C into a pan of hot water at 80°C and finds
that the mixture reaches a temperature of 60°C. How much hot water was in
the pan?

To solve the problems below you need to know about the average coefficient of
linear expansion, a, which differs for different materials. We define a to be the
change in length per unit length for a one degree Celsius temperature change.
That is, a = AL/L per °C. For aluminum, a = 24 x 10~§/°C, and for steel,
a = 11 X 10~°/°C. The change in length AL of a material is AL = La AT.
2. A newly developed metal alloy undergoes a series of tests. In one test, a bar
of the alloy is cut to a length of 1.0000 m when its temperature is 0.0°C.
When heated to 100.0°C the bar’s length becomes 1.0015 m. What is the
alloy’s coefficient of linear expansion a?
3. The Eiffel Tower in Paris stands 300.0 m tall on a day of average tempera-
ture, 22.0°C. How much taller is the steel tower on a hot summer day
(T = 40°C)? Express your answer in centimeters.
4. An aluminum rod grows 0.0033 m in length when its temperature is
raised from 20°C to 100°C. What was the initial length of the rod before
it was heated?
5. Two equal-length strips of aluminum and steel are heated. Which expands
more? How much greater is the expansion of one metal compared with
the other?
6. Two 5.00-m strips of metal, one of aluminum and one of steel, are the same
length at room temperature, 20.0°C. When heated to 200°C, how many cen-
timeters longer is one strip than the other?
7. A 15.0-m length of steel rod expands 4.00 mm when heated. What is the
temperature change?

680 Appendix F Problem-Solving Practice

cuptr22 Heat Transfer
Summary
@ Heat is transferred by conduction, convection, and radiation.

Practice Problems
1. A gas water heater burns natural gas (methane, CH ,): Each gram of natural
gas burned yields approximately 13 000 calories of energy. A typical water
heater takes in water at about 20°C (68°F) and raises its temperature to 60°C
(140°F). A typical “low-flow” shower-head might use around 10 L of water per
minute (which we can estimate is 5 L of hot water and 5 L of cold water
mixed), and a typical shower might last 8 min. A liter of water has a mass of
1000 g. So, how much natural gas does a typical shower require?
2. Pounding a nail into wood makes the nail warmer. Consider a 5-g steel nail
6 cm long, and a hammer that exerts an average force of 600 N on it when Problem
Practice
driving the nail into a piece of wood. About how much hotter will the nail
become? (The specific heat capacity of steel is 450 J/kg°C.)

chapter23 Change of Phase

Summary
@ Fora change in phase, Q= mL, where mis the mass of the substance
changing phase, and Lis its heat of fusion or heat of vaporization.
@ The heat of fusion of water is L = 80 cal/g, or 0.335 MJ/kg.
@ The heat of vaporization of water is L = 540 cal/g, or 2.26 MJ/kg.

Practice Problems
1. Water at the surface of a small pond in Toronto is at the freezing point as the
sun sets on a winter day. In one hour, the water loses 5 738 000 J of thermal
energy to its surroundings. How much water in the pond turns to ice in that
hour? Express your answer in kilograms.
2. Consider a 0.63-kg sample of metal at room temperature of 20°C. The addition
of 642 000 J increases its temperature to its melting point (782°C). An addi-
tional 59 400 J causes the sample to completely liquefy. (a) What is the specific
heat capacity of the sample? (b) What is the heat of fusion of the sample?
3. At an Antarctic research station, 100 kg of ice at —20°C is fed into the heating
system in order to produce steam in a furnace. Given that the specific heat
capacity of ice is 0.48 that of water, calculate the heat needed to convert all
the ice to steam at 100°C.
4, Five people, all of about equal masses, are in a perfectly sealed room in
which an air conditioner is operating. The air conditioner removes heat at
the rate of 500 kcal/h, maintaining a constant temperature. (a) What is the
average heat output per hour of each person in the room? (b) What is the
power rating in watts for an electric light bulb that puts out energy at the
same rate as one of the individuals?

681
 . A6.0-g sample of sugar is burned in a calorimeter. The temperature of 1.0 kg
of water in the calorimeter rises from 20°C to 44°C. Find the energy value of
the sugar per gram.
. Five grams of fat are burned in a calorimeter, raising the temperature of 2.0 kg
of water from 20°C to 42°C. What is the energy value per kilogram of the fat?
. Consider a bear that hibernates in a small burrow for the winter. The bear
enters the burrow having a mass of 300 kg and emerges months later having
a mass of 250 kg. Assuming the loss of mass was a loss of fat, how much
energy does the bear release to the burrow during hibernation? (Use the
energy value for fat you found in the previous problem.)
. When hydrogen and oxygen are burned to produce water, heat is produced
at the rate of 58 kcal/mole of water. A mole contains 6.02 x1073 molecules.
How much heat energy is produced per molecule of water?
. Aconcert hall has an inside volume of 12 000 m°. The air in it has a density
of 1.3 kg/m’ and a specific heat of 0.24 kcal/kg-°C. How much heat energy
must an air conditioner remove from the air to reduce the temperature of
the air by 10°C?

chapter24 Thermodynamics
Summary
m@ Heat added to a system equals the sum of the increase in internal energy
and external work done by the system: Q = AE + W. (If work is done by the
system [for example, if a gas expands], the sign of Wis positive. If work is
done on the system [for example, if a gas is compressed], the sign of Wis
negative.)
5, ot Tole
m Carnot’s ideal efficiency for a heat engine is IE = eee where
Trot and T,,jg are temperatures of hot and cold reservoirs.
m@ In the absence of external influences, heat flows from hot to cold.

Practice Problems
1. During a certain thermodynamic process, a sample of gas expands and
cools, reducing its internal energy by 2500 J, while no heat is added or taken
away. How much work is done during this process?
. Suppose an engine with an ideal efficiency of 25% is constructed so that the
hot reservoir has a temperature of 100°C (373 K). What would the tempera-
ture of the cold reservoir be?
. Suppose an engine with an ideal efficiency of 33% is constructed. If the
temperature of the cold reservoir is 20°C (293 K), find the temperature of the
hot reservoir.

682 Appendix F Problem-Solving Practice

cuptr25 Vibrations and Waves
Summary
m@ The period T of a wave is equal to the reciprocal of its frequency f:
T=1/f
m@ The speed v of a wave is equal to the product of its wavelength J and its
frequency f:v = Af

Practice Problems
1. What is the frequency, in hertz, that corresponds to each of the following
periods? (a) 0.10 s (b) 5 s (c) gps (d) 24h
2. What is the period, in seconds, that corresponds to each of the following
frequencies? (a) 10 Hz (b) 0.2 Hz (c) 60 Hz (d) 1.1574 x 10~° Hz
3. A metronome is set so that it makes ten complete vibrations in 12 s. Find Practi
Probl
the frequency of the metronome.
4. While sitting on a pier, Carlos notices that incoming waves are 2.0 m
between crests. If the waves lap against the pier every 0.5 s, find (a) the fre-
quency and (b) the speed of the waves.
5. Light travels at a speed of 3 X 10° m/s in a vacuum, and for practical purposes,
through air as well. The wavelength of a shade of yellow light is 5.80 < 10~? m.
Find the frequency of this light.
6. A gamma ray is high-frequency light. Find the wavelength of a gamma ray
with a frequency of 10°? Hz.
7. If the speed of a longitudinal sound wave is 340 m/s, and the frequency is
1000 Hz, what is the wavelength of the wave?
8. Refer to Figure 25.14 on page 381. What is the longest wavelength of a
standing wave that can be produced on an 80-cm-long string when prop-
erly plucked? What are the next two longest wavelengths of standing waves
that can be produced?

chapter26 Sound
Summary
m The speed vofa sound wave is equal to the product of its wavelength A
and its frequency f:v = Af

Practice Problems
1. Find the wavelength of a 680-Hz tone in air, where the wave speed is 340 m/s.
2. Find the wavelength of a 68 000 Hz ultrasound wave in air.
3. Find the frequency of a sound wave that has a wavelength of 1.5 m. Could
you hear this sound?
4. Your teacher says “Hello” to you from across the gym, 34 m away. How long
does it take the sound to reach you?
5. Imagine a hiker camping in the mountains. Just before going to sleep he
yells “WAKE UP,” and the sound echoes off the nearest mountain, returning
8 h later. How far away is that mountain?

683
 6. For years, scientists were mystified by sound waves picked up by underwa-
ter microphones in the Pacific Ocean. These so-called T-waves were among
the purest sounds in nature. Eventually they traced the source to underwa-
ter volcanoes whose rising columns of bubbles resonated like organ pipes.
What is the wavelength of a typical T-wave whose frequency is 7 Hz? (The
speed of sound in sea water is 1530 m/s.)
. Suppose that you put your left ear down against a railroad track, and your
friend one kilometer away strikes the track with a hammer. How much
sooner will the sound get to your left ear than to your right ear? (The speed
of sound is about 5950 m/s in steel and 340 m/s in air.)

chaptr27 Light
Summary
m The speed of light cis equal to the product of its wavelength A and its fre-
quencyf: c= Af

Practice Problems
1. Common wavelength designations are the micrometer (wm) and nanome-
ter (nm), where 1 wm = 10~-° m, and 1 nm = 107° m. Express the wave-
length of the red light from a helium—neon laser, 0.000000633 m, in
micrometers and in nanometers.
. Convert the following wavelengths to frequencies in hertz: 400 nm, 500 nm,
600 nm, 700 nm.
. The wavelength of light emitted by a CO, laser is 10.6 wm. What frequency
light is this, and in what part of the spectrum is it?
. Laser pointers emit light waves with a wavelength of 670 nm. What is the
frequency of this light?
. The wavelength of green light is about 500 nm. How many wavelengths
thick is a5 mm-thick thumbnail? A 100-m thick hair?
. When Mars is 90 million km from Earth, how long would it take for a radio
wave from a video camera mounted on the back of a Mars Rover to tell peo-
ple on Earth that the Rover is about to go over a cliff? How long would it take
for a radio signal from Earth to reach the Rover saying “Stop”? Why do our
Mars Rovers have to be “intelligent” enough to figure out how to deal with
obstacles themselves?
. Lindsay’s favorite radio station broadcasts at a frequency of 97.3 MHz
(97 300 000 Hz). What is the wavelength of these radio waves? How does
the wavelength compare with the height of an average ceiling? (What's
the wavelength of radio waves broadcast by your favorite station?)
. When listening to a radio station broadcasting at 101 MHz (101 million
waves per second) you wonder how long the wavelength of these waves is.
What is the answer, and how does it compare to your height?
. Rick uses a cutting laser in his engraving business. The frequency associated
with the laser light is 2.40 x 10!4 Hz. (a) What is the wavelength of the cut-
ting laser’s light? (b) Is this light inside or outside the range of visible light?

684 Appendix F Problem-Solving Practice

10. Light of wavelength 560 nm travels through a 1-cm vacuum gap. (a) How
many wavelengths fit into the gap? (b) What is the time taken for light to
travel the gap?
11. The Hydra galaxy is moving away from Earth at 6.0 X 10’ m/s. What fraction
of the speed of light is this?
12. The average speed of light slows to 0.75c when it refracts through a particu-
lar piece of plastic. (a) What change is there in the light’s frequency in the
plastic? (b) In its wavelength?
13. Suppose that you wish to draw Figure 27.12 (page 413, an eclipse of the sun)
to scale on a roll of butcher paper, and you decide to use a scale of 1 cm =
1000 km on the paper. How large would the moon be (3500 km diameter)?
Earth (12 800 km diameter)? The sun (1 400 000 km diameter)? How far
away from Earth would you have to draw the sun (Earth-sun distance is
150 000 000 km)?
14. In one of Michelson's experiments, a beam from a revolving mirror traveled Practic
Proble
15.0 km to a stationary mirror. Find the round-trip time for the beam
returning to the revolving mirror.
15. If the revolving mirror in Problem 14 has eight sides, how rapidly, in revs/s,
must the mirror revolve so that light initially reflecting from one face is
received by the adjoining next face?

cptr29 Reflection and Refraction

Summary
@ The law of reflection states that the angle of reflection 6, is equal to the
angle of incidence 6, (in the same plane): 0, = 6;
w Refraction is caused by a difference in the speeds of a wave in two media.

Practice Problems
1. Angelina is 1.5 m tall and stands 10 m in front ofa flat mirror. How far
behind the mirror is her image?
2. Rita walks at a speed of 2 m/s toward a mirror. What is the relative speed of
Rita with respect to her image?
3. You are in an almost dark room and put a tiny light bulb on the floor, 2m
from a wall. You place a 50-cm-tall bowling pin on the floor, halfway
between the light and the wall. How tall will the shadow of the pin be on the
wall? (You may find it helpful to draw a diagram.)
4. In the previous problem, how will the area of the shadow on the wall com-
pare with the cross-sectional area of the bowling pin?
5. No glass is perfectly transparent. Mainly because of reflections, about 92%
of light passes through an average sheet of clear windowpane. The 8% loss
is not noticed through a single sheet, but through several sheets it is appar-
ent. How much light is transmitted by two sheets?

685
 The following problems require using Snell's law, which involves sine func-
tions. Snell’s law states that n sin 0, = n’sin 0, where 6, and 6, are the angles
of incidence and refraction, respectively, and n and n are the indices of
refraction in the corresponding two media.
6. A light beam in air (” = 1.00) makes an angle of 45° with the normal to a
glass window pane (' = 1.44). (a) What is the angle to the normal of the
light beam after it is refracted into the glass? (b) What is the angle to the
normal of the light beam after it exits the other side of the glass into air?
7. Alight beam strikes a glass plate normal to the surface of the plate. What is
the angle of the beam to the normal within the glass? (Use n = 1.0, m' = 1.4.)
8. (a) A fish looks upward in water (n = 1.33) at an angle of 25° to the vertical
(i.e., 25° to the normal to the water’s surface). Can the fish see out into the
air? If so, at what angle to the vertical is the fish’s line of sight outside the
water? (b) Answer the same questions if the fish looks upward at an angle
of 50° to the vertical.
9. The fish described in Problem 8 is wondering what the greatest angle to the
vertical is at which she can look and see out into the air. What is that angle?
10. The critical angle in diamond (the angle within the diamond beyond which
total internal reflection occurs) is 24.6°. What is the index of refraction of
diamond?

cuptr32 Electrostatics
Summary
m The standard unit of charge is the coulomb (C).
mw A flow of charge of 1.0 C/s is one ampere (1.0 A) of current.
m Coulomb's law states that the electrical force F between two charged
objects having charges q, and q, is proportional to the product of the
charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between

m When the constant of proportionality is included, Coulomb's law is

F= ae, where k = 9.0 X 109 N«m2/C2.

Practice Problems
1. A pair of 10-cent coins are electrically charged, one with a charge of +20 uC
(0.000020 C) and the other a charge of —10 wC (—0.000010 C). When they
are brought together, what is the charge on each after contact?
2. If50 uC of positive charge is transferred to a body, which is then found to
have a charge of —10 yC, what was its original charge?
3. The charge on an electron is 1.6 x 10~!° C. How many electrons make a
charge of 1 C?
4. How many electrons per second must pass a given point in order to have a
current of 2.0 A?
5. The battery of a car delivers 50 A for 2 s to start a car. (a) How many
coulombs of charge move through the starter during this 2 s? (b) How many
electrons make up this amount of charge?

686 Appendix F Problem-Solving Practice

 6. What is the electrostatic force between a pair of electrons 1.0 m apart?
7. If the force between a pair of electrons is 1.0 N, how far are they from each
other?
8. What is the electrostatic force between two balloons, each having 5.0 uC
(0.0000050 C) of charge, when they are 0.30 m apart?
9. Consider two charged objects. One carries a charge of 18 WC (0.000018 C).
When the two are separated by a distance of 0.9 m, there is a force of 2.7 N
between them. What is the charge on the second object?
10. Proportional reasoning: Consider a pair of electrically charged coins sus-
pended from insulating threads, a certain distance from each other. There is
a specific amount of electrostatic force between them. (a) If the charge on
one coin were halved, what would happen to the force between them? (b) If
the charge on both coins were doubled, what would happen to the force
between them? (c) If the distance between the coins were tripled, what
would happen to the force between them? (d) If the distance between them Practic
Proble
were reduced to one-fourth the original distance, what would happen to the
force between them? (e) If the charge on each object were doubled and the
distance between them were doubled, what would happen to the force
between them?

cuptr33 Electric Fields and Potential

Summary
mw An electric field occupies the space around every electric charge.
m The strength of an electric field E created by a point charge q follows the
inverse-square law and is given by E = a~ = The force exerted by this
field on some other charge q' is F= q'E.
@ The electric potential, or voltage, at any point in an electric field is the
electrical potential energy per unit charge at that point: V= =
m Acapacitor is a device for storing charge and energy.

Practice Problems
1. What is the electric field 1.0 m from an isolated proton?
2, What is the electric field 1.0 m from an isolated helium nucleus (an alpha
particle)?
3. What is the electric field 1.0 m from an isolated electron?
4. What is the electric field 1.0 m from an isolated hydrogen atom?
5. The electric field 1.0 m from a charged Van de Graaff generator is 2500 N/C.
Calculate the charge on the generator.
6. Earth may be considered as a huge sphere that is negatively charged. The
magnitude of the electric field at the surface is 100 N/C. Calculate the
charge of Earth. (The radius of Earth is 6.4 x 10°m.)

687
 . British scientist J. J. Thomson was the first to measure the ratio of an elec-
tron charge to its mass, and expressed surprise at the value he found.
(a) Calculate the ratio. (The mass of an electron is 9.1 x 1073! kg.)
(b) Using the result from Problem 6, compare your answer with the charge-
to-mass ratio for Earth. (Earth's mass is 6.0 < 1024 kg.)
. An alpha particle has twice the charge of a proton, and about four times its
mass. Calculate the ratio of charge to mass for an alpha particle. (The mass
ofaproton is 1.67 X 10-2’ kg.)
. When a 0.0040-C charge is near a charged Van de Graaff generator, it experi-
ences an electrostatic force of 12 N. What is the strength of the electric field
in that region of space?
. How much electrostatic force would a 0.060-C charge experience ina
2400 N/C electric field?
. Acharged object experiences 36 N of electrostatic force when placed in a
5800 N/C electric field. What is the charge on the object?
. How much potential energy is converted to kinetic energy when 1.0 C of
charge is allowed to flow between two points separated by a potential dif-
ference of 115 V2
13. How much energy is stored when 7.2 C of charge is moved through a poten-
tial difference of 1.5 V2
14. During a particular thunderstorm, an electric potential difference of
48 000 000 V is established between a cloud and the ground. If a lightning
bolt transfers 32 C between the cloud and ground, how much energy
is released?
15. How much charge is driven through a circuit by a 9.0 V battery delivering
3.0 J of energy?

688 Appendix F Problem-Solving Practice

cupter34 Electric Current
Summary
@ Electric current is a flow of electric charge, usually electrons.
@ Current /is equal to the quantity of charge q passing a given point
per unit time : [= 4, (1A =1C/s)
m Except for superconductors, all conductors have resistance to the flow of
charge, measured in ohms (().
@ Resistance of a wire varies directly with its length and inversely with its
cross-sectional area.
m@ Ohm's law states that current Jis equal to the ratio of voltage V to
resistance R: [ = y
m Electric power Pis the rate at which electrical energy Eis converted to Proble
Practic
other forms of energy: P = f
m@ Electric power Pin a circuit carrying current Jacross voltage Vis equal to
the product of the current and the voltage: P = IV

Practice Problems
1. A car’s starter motor draws 50 A. How much charge flows if the motor runs
for 0.75 s?
2. How long does it take for 52 C to pass through a wire carrying a current of
8.0 A?
3. How much current passes through a person whose resistance is 100 000 0
and to whom 120V is applied? If resistance is lowered to 1000 02
4. Acurrent of 4 A flows when a resistor is connected across a 12-V battery.
What is the resistance of this resistor?
5. What is the resistance of a clothes iron that draws 8 A when connected to
120 V2

6. How much energy is expended in lighting a 100-W bulb for 30 min?

7. Amotor connected to 120 V draws a current of 10 A. What power is being
consumed? How much energy does the motor use in 8 h of operation?
8. What current flows in a 60-W bulb in a 120-V circuit? What is the resistance
of the filament?
9. How much current is drawn by a 100-W stereo system connected to a
120-V outlet?
10. How much does it cost to operate a 100-W lamp continuously for one week
if the power utility rate is 10 cents per kilowatt-hour?
11. An old electrical device is found in the closet of an abandoned barn. Its
label indicates that it uses 8.5 W of power and 1.7 A of current. Part of the
label is missing and the voltage rating cannot be seen. What was the operat-
ing voltage of the device?
12. A 1500-W hair dryer connected to a 120-V outlet runs for 3 min (180 s).
(a) How much current does the hair dryer draw? (b) How much energy does
it use? (c) How many kWh of energy were used? (1 kWh = 3 600 000 J)

689
 cuptr35 Electric Circuits
Summary
mw Any path along which electric charge (usually electrons) can flow is a circuit.
@ A circuit is wired in series when electric devices form a single pathway for
electron flow.
@ The total, or equivalent, resistance of a series circuit is equal to the sum of
individual resistances along the current path:
R equivalent =R+R+R,+R,t+...
w Acircuit is wired in parallel when the paths branch, providing separate
paths for electron flow.
mw The amount of current in each branch of a parallel circuit is inversely pro-
portional to the resistance of the branch.
g@ The total current in a parallel circuit is equal to the sum of currents in
its branches.
m@ For resistors in parallel, the equivalent resistance is always less than the
value of any individual resistor.
m@ For resistors in parallel, the equivalent resistance can be found from
ee 1 SeLegal eee ginal
FR quivalent R, R, R;
Note: For two resistors in parallel, this rule can be simplified:
R = RR,
equivalent (R, + R,)

Practice Problems
1. What is the equivalent resistance of two 12-Q resistors connected in series?
2. What is the equivalent resistance of a 6-Q and 9-Q resistor connected
in series?
3. What is the equivalent resistance of two 12-Q resistors connected in parallel?
4. What is the equivalent resistance of a 6-Q and 9-Q resistor connected
in parallel?
5. Youre given three 10-Q resistors. Find (a) the maximum equivalent resis-
tance of the three when connected and (b) the minimum equivalent resis-
tance of the three when connected. Describe each circuit.
6. Find the equivalent resistance of three 10-Q resistors when one is con-
nected in series to two that are connected in parallel.
7. Ifa flashlight has four 1.5-V D cells in series with a bulb having a resistance
of 18 Q, find the current in the circuit.
8. A string of 50 party lights operates at 120 V. (a) In series, what is the voltage
across each bulb? (b) What is the resistance of each bulb if 0.1 A flows
through the string of bulbs?

690 Appendix F Problem-Solving Practice

cduptr37 Electromagnetic Induction
Summary
m Ina transformer, the relationship between the primary and secondary
voltages depends on the number of turns in the primary and secondary
coils:
V,primary wa V,secondary
(# primary turns) ~ (#sSecondary turns)

m Neglecting slight losses due to heating, the power used in the secondary
circuit is equal to the power provided by the primary coil: Nesrimary = secondary
Since P= VI, (VI) primary = (VI) secondary *

Practice Problems
1 . The primary coil of a step-up transformer draws 100 W. Find the power pro-
vided to the secondary circuit. Problem
Practic
Zs An ideal transformer has 50 turns in its primary coil and 250 turns in its sec-
ondary coil. A 12-V AC source is connected to the primary. Find (a) the AC
voltage available at the secondary, (b) the current in a 10-Q device con-
nected to the secondary, and (c) the power supplied to the primary.
3. A model electric train requires 6 V to operate. If the primary coil of its trans-
former has 240 turns, how many turns should the secondary have if the pri-
mary is connected to a 120-V household circuit?
4. Neon signs require about 12 000 V for their operation. What should be the
ratio of the number of loops in the secondary to the number of loops in the
primary for a neon-sign transformer that operates off 120-V lines?
. Power of 100 kW is delivered to the other side of a city by a pair of power
lines between which the voltage is 12 000 V. (a) What current flows in the
lines? (b) Each of the two lines has a resistance of 10 2. What is the voltage
change along each line? (c) What power is expended in the form of heat in
both lines together (as distinct from power delivered to customers)?
(d) State why it is so important to step voltages up with transformers for
long-distance transmission.

cptr39 The Atomic Nucleus and

Radioactivity
Practice Problem
1 . Suppose that you want to find out how much gasoline is in an underground
storage tank. You add 1 gallon of gasoline that contains some long half-life
radioactive material that gives off 50 000 decays each minute. You pour this
radioactive gallon into the underground tank and let it mix. One day later
you remove a gallon of gasoline from the underground tank, and measure
its radioactivity. You detect 20 radioactive decays each minute. How much
gasoline is in the tank?

691
 This glossary gives meanings for terms printed in boldface in the text. The
section reference at the end of each meaning is that of the section where the
term is introduced.
A simple, phonetic spelling is given for terms that may be unfamiliar or
hard to pronounce. CAPITAL LETTERS indicate the syllable that receives the
heaviest stress. Accent marks are used when two syllables in a word are
stressed; a lowercase syllable followed by an accent mark receives the sec-
ondary stress. The phonetic spellings are simple enough so that most can be
interpreted without referring to the following key, which gives examples for
the vowel sounds and for consonants that are commonly used for more than
one sound.

Pronunciation Key
a cat ew new or for
ah father g grass OW now
ar car i,ih him oy boy
aw walk i kite S so
ay say j jam sh shine
ayr air ng sing th thick
e,eh hen (e) hot u,uh sun, forces
ee meet O hole Ze zebra
eer deer 00 moon zh pleasure
er her 00q pull

692 Glossary
A_ The symbol for ampere. (34.2) Also, when in lower- apogee (AP-uh-jee) The point in a satellite’s ellipti-
case italic, the symbol for acceleration. (2.4) cal orbit farthest from the center of Earth. (14.4)

aberration (ab-er-RAY-shun) Distortion in an image Archimedes’ principle (ark-uh-MEE-deez) The

produced by a lens. (30.8) relationship between buoyancy and displaced fluid:
An immersed object is buoyed up by a force equal
absolute zero The temperature at which a substance to the weight of the fluid it displaces. (19.3)
has no kinetic energy per particle (thermal) to give
up. This temperature corresponds to 0 K, or to astigmatism (uh-STIG-muh-tizm) A defect of the
=273°C. (21.1, 24.1) eye caused when the cornea is curved more in one
direction than in another. (30.7)
acceleration (ak-sel-er-RAY-shun) The rate at which
velocity is changing. The change may be in magni- atom The smallest particle of an element that can be
tude, direction, or both. (2.4) identified with that element. Consists of protons and
neutrons in a nucleus surrounded by electrons. (17.0)
action force One of the pair of forces described in
Newton's third law. (6.2) atomic mass number Total number of nucleons (neu-
trons and protons) in the nucleus of an atom. (39.4)
additive primary colors Red, blue and green light.
These colors when added together produce white atomic number Number of protons in the nucleus of
light. (28.5) an atom. (17.7, 39.4)

adiabatic (ay-dee-ah-BAT-ik) Term applied to expan- average speed Path distance divided by time
sion or compression of a gas occurring without gain interval. (2.2)
or loss of heat. (24.3)
axis (AK-sis) (a) The straight line around which an
air resistance Friction, or drag, that acts on some- object may rotate or revolve. (9.1) (b) A horizontal or
thing moving through air. (5.4) vertical reference line in a graph. (Appendix C)

alternating current (AC) Electric current that

repeatedly reverses direction, twice each cycle.
Usually at 60 cycles per second, or hertz (Hz), in
barometer An instrument used to measure the pres-
North America, or 50 hertz elsewhere. (34.7)
sure of the atmosphere. (20.3)
ampere (AM-peer) SI unit of electric current. A flow
beats A throbbing variation in the loudness of sound
of one coulomb of charge per second is one ampere
caused by interference when two tones of slightly
(symbol A). (34.2)
different frequencies are sounded together. (26.10)
amplitude (AMP-lih-tewd) The distance from the
Bernoulli’s principle (ber-NOO-leez) The statement
midpoint to the maximum (crest) of a wave or,
that the pressure in a fluid decreases as the speed of
equivalently, from the midpoint to the minimum
the fluid increases. (20.7)
(trough). (25.2)
bimetallic strip (bi’-meh-TAL’-ik) Two strips of
aneroid barometer (AN-er-oyd buh-ROM-uh-ter)
different metals, such as one of brass and one of
An instrument used to measure atmospheric pres-
iron, welded or riveted together into one strip.
sure; based on the movement of the lid of a metal
Because the two substances expand at different
box. (20.4)
rates, when heated or cooled the strip bends. Used
angle of incidence (IN-sih-dens) Angle between an in thermostats. (21.8)
incident ray and the normal to a surface (see Figure
blackhole A mass that has collapsed to so great a
rae Wes|
density that its enormous local gravitational field
prevents light from escaping. (13.6)
angle of reflection Angle between a reflected ray and
the normal to a surface (see Figure 29.3). (29.2)
blue shift An increase in the measured frequency of
light from an approaching source; called the blue
angular momentum (mo-MEN-tum) Product of rota-
tional inertia and rotational velocity. (11.6) shift because the apparent increase is toward the
high-frequency, or blue, end of the color spectrum.
antinodes_ The positions on a standing wave where Also occurs when an observer approaches a source.
the largest amplitudes occur. (25.8) (25:9)

693
boiling The change of phase from liquid to gas that center of gravity Point at the center of an object's
occurs beneath the surface in the liquid. The gas weight distribution, where the force of gravity can
forms bubbles that rise to the surface and escape. be considered to act. Abbreviated CG. (10.1)
(23.4)
center of mass Point at the center of an object’s mass
bow wave The V-shaped wave produced by an object distribution, where all its mass can be considered
moving on a liquid surface faster than the wave to be concentrated. For everyday conditions, it is
speed. (25.10) the same as the center of gravity. (10.2)

Boyle’slaw For a constant number of molecules of centrifugal force (sen-TRIH-fuh-gul) An apparent

gas at constant temperature, the product of pres- outward force on a rotating or revolving body. It is
sure and volume is constant. (20.5) fictitious in the sense that it is not part of an inter-
action but is due to the tendency of a moving body
breeder reactor A nuclear fission reactor that not to move in a straight-line path. (9.4)
only produces power but produces more nuclear
fuel than it consumes by converting a nonfission- centripetal force (sen-TRIH-peh-tul) A center-
able uranium isotope into a fissionable plutonium directed force that causes an object to move ina
isotope. (40.4) curved (sometimes circular) path. (9.3)

Brownian motion Random movement observed chain reaction A self-sustaining reaction in which
among microscopic particles suspended in a fluid one reaction event stimulates one or more addi-
medium. (17.4) tional reaction events to keep the process going.
(40.1)
buoyancy (BOY-un-see) The apparent loss of weight
of an object immersed or submerged in a fluid. charge The fundamental electrical property to which
(19.2) the mutual attractions or repulsions between elec-
trons or protons is attributed. (32.1)
buoyant force (BOY-unt) The net upward force
exerted by a fluid on a submerged or immersed chemical formula A description that uses numbers
object. (19.2) and symbols of elements to describe the propor-
tions of elements in a compound or reaction.
(17.6)

circuit (SER-kit) Any complete path along which

C (a) The symbol for coulomb. (32.3) (b) When
charge can flow. (35.1)
preceded by the degree symbol, °, the symbol for
Celsius. (21.1) coherent (ko-HEER-ent) As applied to light waves,
having identical frequency and identical phase, and
cal The symbol for calorie. (21.5)
traveling in the same direction. Lasers produce
calorie (KAL-er-ee) A unit of heat. One calorie (sym- coherent light. (31.7)
bol cal) is the heat required to raise the temperature
complementary colors (kom’-pluh-MENT’-uh-ree)
of one gram of water one Celsius degree. One Calo-
Two colors of light beams that when added together
rie (with a capital C) is equal to one thousand calo-
appear white. (28.6)
ries and is the unit used in describing the energy
available from food. (1 cal = 4.184 J, or 1 J = 0.24 cal) component (kom-PO-nent) One of the vectors, often
(21.5)
mutually perpendicular, whose sum is a resultant
capacitor (kuh-PAS-ih-ter) vector. Any resultant vector may be regarded as the
A device used to store
combination of two or more components. (See
charge in a circuit. (33.6)
resultant.) (3.3)
Carnot efficiency (KAR-no) Ideal maximum percent-
compound A chemical substance made of atoms of
age of input energy that can be converted to work
two or more different elements combined in a fixed
in a heat engine. (24.5)
proportion. (17.6)
Celsius scale (SEL-see-us) A temperature scale with
0 as the melt-freeze temperature for water and 100
compression (kom-PRE-shun) (a) In mechanics, the
act of squeezing material and reducing its volume.
as the boil-condense temperature of water at stan-
dard pressure (one atmosphere at sea level). (21.1) (18.4) (b) In sound, a pulse of compressed air (or
other matter); opposite of rarefaction. (26.2)

694 Glossary
condensation (kon’-den-SAY’-shun) The change of critical mass The minimum mass of fissionable
phase of a gas into a liquid; the opposite of evapo- material in a nuclear reactor or nuclear bomb that
ration. (23.2) will sustain a chain reaction. (40.1)

conduction (a) In heat, energy transfer from particle crystal (KRIS-tul) A regular geometric shape found
to particle within certain materials, or from one in a solid in which the component particles are
material to another when the two are in direct con- arranged in an orderly, three-dimensional, repeat-
tact. (22.1) (b) In electricity, the flow of charge ing pattern. (18.1)
through a conductor. (32.4)
current See electric current.
conductor (a) Material through which heat can be
transferred. (22.1) (b) Material, usually a metal,
through which electric charge can flow. Good con-
ductors of heat are generally good charge conduc-
tors. (32.4)
density (DEN-sih-tee) A property of a substance,
conservation of charge The principle that net elec- equal to its mass per volume. (18.2) i
tric charge is neither created nor destroyed but is NS

transferable from one material to another. (32.2) destructive interference Combination of waves —
where crests of one wave overlap troughs of
conserved Term applied to a physical quantity, such another, resulting in a wave of decreased ampli-
as momentum, energy, or electric charge, that tude. (25.7)
remains unchanged during interactions. (7.4)
diode (DI-od) An electronic device that restricts cur-
constructive interference Addition of two or more rent to flow in a single direction in an electric cir-
waves when wave crests overlap to produce a cuit. (34.8)
resulting wave of increased amplitude. (25.7)
diffraction (dih-FRAK-shun) The bending of a wave
convection A means of heat transfer by movement of around a barrier, such as an obstacle or the edges of
the heated substance itself, such as by currents ina an opening. (31.2)
fluid. (22.2)
diffraction grating A series of closely spaced parallel
converginglens A lens that is thickest in the middle, slits or grooves that are used to separate colors of
causing parallel rays of light to converge to a focus. light by interference. (31.4)
(30.1)
diffuse reflection (dih-FYOOS) The reflection of
cornea (KOR-nee-uh) The transparent covering over waves in many directions from a rough surface (see
the eyeball. (30.6) Figure 29.7). (29.4)
correspondence principle Ifa new theory is valid, it
direct current (DC) Electric current whose flow of
must account for the verified results of the old the-
charge is always in one direction. (34.7)
ory in the region where both theories apply. (16.5)
dispersion (dih-SPER-zhun) The separation of light
coulomb (KOO-lom) SI unit of charge. One coulomb
into colors arranged according to their frequency,
(symbol C) is equal to the total charge of 6.24 x 1018
by interaction with a prism or diffraction grating,
electrons. (32.3)
for example. (29.10)
Coulomb’slaw The relationship among electrical
displaced Term applied to the fluid that is moved
force, charges, and distance: The electrical force
out of the way when an object is placed in fluid. A
between two charges varies directly as the product
submerged object always displaces a volume of
of the charges and inversely as the square of the
fluid equal to its own volume. (19.2)
distance between them. (32.3)

crest One of the places in a wave where the wave is diverginglens A lens that is thinnest in the middle
highest or the disturbance is greatest. (25.2)
and that causes parallel rays of light to diverge. (30.1)

critical angle The minimum angle of incidence for Doppler effect (DOP-ler) The change in frequency
which a light ray is totally reflected within a of a wave due to the motion of the source or of the
medium. (29.12) receiver. (25.9)

695
eddy Changing, curling paths in turbulent flow of electromagnet (ih-lek’-tro- MAG ’-net) Magnet with
a fluid. (20.7) a field produced by electric current; usually in the
form of a wire coiled around a piece of iron. (36.5)
efficiency In amachine, the ratio of useful energy out-
put to total energy input, or the percentage of the electromagnetic induction (ih-lek’-tro-mag-NET-
work input that is converted to work output. (8.8) ik in-DUK-shun) The phenomenon of inducing a
voltage in a conductor by changing the magnetic
elapsed time The time that has passed since the field near the conductor. (37.1)
beginning of an event. (2.5)
electromagnetic spectrum The range of electromag-
elastic Term applied to a material that returns to its netic waves extending from radio waves to gamma
original shape after it has been stretched or com- rays. (27.3)
pressed. (18.3)
electromagnetic wave A wave that is partly electric
elastic collision Collision in which colliding objects and partly magnetic and carries energy. Emitted by
rebound without lasting deformation or heat gen- vibrating electric charges. (27.3)
eration. (7.5)
electrostatics (ih-lek’-tro-STAT’-iks) The study of
elasticity (ih-las-TIH-sih-tee) The property ofa solid electric charges at rest. (32.0)
wherein a change in shape is experienced when a
deforming force acts on it, with a return to its original element A substance made of only one kind of atom.
shape when the deforming force is removed. (18.3) Examples of elements are carbon, hydrogen, oxy-
gen, and nitrogen. (17.1)
elastic limit The distance of stretching or compress-
ing beyond which an elastic material will not return ellipse (ih-LIPS) An oval-shaped curve that is the
to its original shape. (18.3) path of a point that moves such that the sum of its
distances from two fixed points (foci) is constant
electric charge See charge. (see Figure 14.7). (14.3)

electric current The flow of electric charge; mea- energy The property of an object or a system that
sured in amperes (C/s). (34.2) enables it to do work; measured in joules. (8.3)
electric field A force field that fills the space around entropyA measure of the amount of disorder in a
every electric charge or group of charges. Measured system. (24.7)
by force per charge (N/C). (33.1)
equilibrium (ee-kwih-LIH-bree-um) In general, a
electric potential Electrical potential energy per state of balance. Examples: The state of a body on
coulomb (J/C) at a location in an electric field; which no net force acts. (4.7) The state of a body on
measured in volts and often called voltage. (33.5) which no net torque acts. (11.2) The state of a liquid
in which the processes of evaporation and conden-
electrical potential energy Energy a charge has due
sation are taking place at equal rates. (23.3)
to its location in an electric field. (33.4)
escape speed The minimum speed necessary for an
electric power The rate at which electrical energy is
object to escape permanently from a gravitational
converted into another form, such as light, heat, or
field that holds it. (14.5)
mechanical energy (or converted from another
form into electrical energy). (34.11) evaporation (ih-vap’-or-AY’-shun) The change of
phase from liquid to gas that takes place at the sur-
electric resistance The resistance of a material to
face of a liquid. (23.1)
the flow of electric current through it; measured in
ohms (symbol Q). (34.4) eyepiece Lens of a telescope closest to the eye;
enlarges the real image formed by the first lens.
electrical force A force that one charge exerts on an-
(30.5)
other. When the charges are the same sign, they repel;
when the charges are opposite, they attract. (32.1)

electrically polarized Term applied to an atom or

molecule in which the charges are aligned so that
one side is slightly more positive or negative than fact A close agreement by competent observers of a
the opposite side. (32.7) series of observations of the same phenomena. (1.4)

696 Glossary
Fahrenheit scale (FA-ren-hit) The temperature scale force Any influence that tends to accelerate an
in common use in the United States. The number 32 object; a push or pull; measured in newtons. A vec-
is assigned to the freezing point of water, and the tor quantity. (4.3)
number 212 to the boiling point of water (at stan-
dard atmospheric pressure). (21.1) forced vibration The vibration of an object that is
made to vibrate by another vibrating object that is
Faraday’s law (FA-ruh-dayz) Induced voltage ina nearby. The sounding board in a musical instru-
coil is proportional to the product of the number of ment amplifies the sound through forced vibration.
loops and the rate at which the magnetic field (26.6)
changes within those loops. (37.2) In general, an
electric field is induced in any region of space in force field That which exists in the space surround-
which a magnetic field is changing with time. The ing a mass, electric charge, or magnet, so that
magnitude of the induced electric field is propor- another mass, electric charge, or magnet intro-
tional to the rate at which the magnetic field duced to this region will experience a force. Exam-
changes. (37.7) ples of force fields are gravitational fields, electric
fields, and magnetic fields. (13.1)
farsighted Term applied to a person who has trouble
focusing on nearby objects because the eyeball is so free-body diagram A diagram showing all the forces
short that images form behind the retina. (30.7) acting on an object. (5.4)

field See force field. free fall Motion under the influence of the gravita-
tional force only. (2.5)
first law of thermodynamics Heat added to a system
is transformed to an equal amount of some other freezing Change in phase from liquid to solid. (23.5)
form of energy; a version of the law of energy con-
servation. (24.2) frequency (FREE-kwen-see) The number of events
(cycles, vibrations, oscillations, or any repeated
first postulate of special relativity All the laws of event) per time; measured in hertz (or events per
nature are the same in all uniformly moving refer- time). Inverse of period. (25.2)
ence frames. (15.4)
friction The force that acts to resist the relative
fission See nuclear fission. motion (or attempted motion) of objects or materi-
als that are in contact. (4.3)
fluid Anything that flows; in particular, any liquid or
gas. (5.4, 19.6) fulcrum (FOOL-krum) The pivot point ofa lever. (8.7)

focallength The distance between the center of a fusion See nuclear fusion.
lens and either focal point. (30.1)

focal plane A plane passing through either focal

point of a lens that is perpendicular to the principal
axis. For a converging lens, any incident parallel g (a) The symbol for gram. (4.5) (b) When in lower-
beam of light converges to a point somewhere on a case italic, the symbol for the acceleration due to
focal plane. For a diverging lens, such a beam gravity (at Earth’s surface, 9.8 m/s*). (2.5) (c) When
appears to come from a point on a focal plane. in lowercase bold, the gravitational field vector (at
(30.1) Earth’s surface, 9.8 N/kg). (13.1) (d) When in upper-
case italic, the symbol for the universal constant of
focal point For a converging lens, the point at which gravitation (6.67 x 10°!! Nm?/kg?). (12.4)
a beam of light parallel to the principal axis con-
verges. For a diverging lens, the point from which general theory of relativity Einstein’s generalization
such a beam appears to come. (30.1) of special relativity, which features a geometric the-
ory of gravitation. (15.0)
focus (FO-kus); pl. foci (FO-si) (a) For an ellipse, one
of the two points for which the sum of the distances generator A machine that produces electric current
to any point on the ellipse is a constant. A satellite by rotating a coil within a stationary magnetic field.
orbiting Earth moves in an ellipse that has Earth at (37.3)
one focus. (14.3) (b) For optics, the point where
parallel light rays converge. (30.1) global warming See greenhouse effect.

697
gravitational field (grav’-ih-TAY’-shun-ul) A force incoherent (in’-ko-HEER‘*-ent) As applied to light
field that exists in the space around every mass or waves, having a jumbled mixture of frequency,
group of masses. (13.1) phase, and possibly direction. (31.7)

greenhouse effect The warming effect whose cause induced (in-DEWSD) (a) Term applied to electric
is that short-wavelength radiant energy from the charge that has been redistributed on an object
sun can enter the atmosphere and be absorbed by because of the presence of a charged object nearby.
Earth more easily than long-wavelength energy (32.6) (b) Term applied to a voltage, electric field, or
from Earth can leave. (22.7) magnetic field that is created due to a change in or
motion through a magnetic field or electric field.
grounding Allowing charges to move freely along a (Bins. 3)
connection between a conductor and the ground.
(32.6) induction (in-DUK-shun) The charging of an object
without direct contact. (32.6) See also electromag-
group Elements in the same column of the periodic netic induction.
table. (17.8)
inelastic Term applied to a material that does not
return to its original shape after it has been stretched
or compressed. (Also called plastic.) (18.3)
h (a) The symbol for hour (though hr is often used).
inelastic collision A collision in which the colliding
(2.2) (b) When in italic, the symbol for Planck's
objects become distorted and/or generate heat
constant. (38.2)
during the collision. (7.5)
half-life The time required for half the atoms ofa
inertia (ih-NER-shuh) The reluctance of any body to
radioactive isotope of an element to decay. Also
change its state of motion. Mass is the measure of
used for decay processes in general. (39.5)
inertia. (4.3)
heat Energy transfer via random molecular motions,
infrared Electromagnetic waves of frequencies lower
resulting in gain or loss of internal energy. (21.2)
than the red of visible light. (27.3) >-
heatengine A device that changes internal energy to
mechanical work. (24.5) infrasonic (in’-fruh-SON’-ik) Term applied to sound
pitch too low to be heard by the human ear, that is,
hertz (HERTS) The SI unit of frequency. One hertz below 20 hertz. (26.1)
(Hz) is one vibration per second. (25.2)
in parallel Term applied to portions of an electric
hologram (HOL-uh-gram) A three-dimensional ver- circuit that are connected at two points and provide
sion of a photograph produced by interference pat- alternative paths for the current between those two
terns of laser beams. (31.8) points. (35.2)

Hooke’slaw The distance of stretch or squeeze in phase (FAYZ) ‘Term applied to two or more waves
(extension or compression) of an elastic material is whose crests (and troughs) arrive at a place at the same
directly proportional to the applied force. (18.3) time, so that their effects reinforce each other. (25.7)

Huygens’ principle (HI-gunz) Every point on any inseries Term applied to portions of an electric cir-
wave front can be regarded as a new point source of cuit that are connected in a row so that the current
secondary waves. (31.1) that goes through one must go through all of them.
(35.2)
hypothesis (hi-POTH-uh-sis) An educated guess; a
reasonable explanation of an observation or experi- instantaneous speed (in-stan-TAY-nee-us) Speed at
mental result that is not fully accepted as factual any instant of time. (2.2)
until tested over and over again by experiment. (1.3)
insulator (IN-suh-lay-ter) (a) A material that is a
Hz Thesymbol for hertz. (25.2) poor conductor of heat and that delays the transfer
of heat. (22.1) (b) A material that is a poor conduc-
tor of electricity. (32.4)

impulse (IM-puls) Product of force and time interval interaction A mutual action between objects where
during which the force acts. Impulse equals each object exerts an equal and opposite force on
momentum change. (7.2) the other. (6.1)

698 Glossary
interference pattern (in’-ter-FEER’-ens) A pattern Kelvin scale A temperature scale whose zero (called
formed by the overlapping of two or more waves absolute zero) is the temperature at which it is
that arrive in a region at the same time. (25.7) impossible to extract any more internal energy
from a material. 0 K = -273°C. There are no negative
internalenergy The total energy stored in the atoms temperatures on the Kelvin scale. (21.1)
and molecules within a substance. (21.4)
kg The symbol for kilogram. (4.5)
inverse-square law A physical quantity varies
inversely as another quantity squared. Example:
kilocalorie (KIL-o-kal-er-ee) A unit of heat. One kilo-
Illumination varies inversely as the square of the
calorie equals 1000 calories, or the amount of heat
distance from the source. (12.5)
required to raise the temperature of one kilogram of
inversely When two values change in opposite direc- water by 1°C. (21.5)
tions, so that if one is doubled the other is reduced
to one half, they are said to be inversely propor- kilogram (KIL-o-gram) The fundamental SI unit of
tional to each other. (5.2) mass. One kilogram (symbol kg) is the amount of
mass in one liter of water at 4°C. See Appendix A.
ion (I-un) Anatom (or group of atoms bound (4.5)
together) with a net electric charge, which is due to
the loss or gain of electrons. (17.8) kinetic energy (kih-NET-ik) Energy of motion, equal
(nonrelativistically) to half the mass multiplied by
iridescence (ih-rih-DES-ens) The phenomenon the speed squared. (8.5)
whereby interference of light waves of mixed fre-
quencies reflected from the top and bottom of thin km_ The symbol for kilometer. (2.2)
films produces a spectrum of colors. (31.6)

iris (I-ris) The colored part of the eye that surrounds

the black opening through which light passes. The iris
regulates the amount of light entering the eye. (30.6)
L_ The symbol for liter. (19.3)
isotope (I-suh-top) A form ofan element having a
particular number of neutrons in the nuclei of its laser (LAY-zer) An optical instrument that produces
atoms. Different isotopes of a particular element a beam of coherent light—that is, having the waves
have the same atomic number but different atomic all the same frequency, phase, and direction. (31.7)
mass numbers. (17.7, 39.4)
law A general hypothesis or statement about the
relationship of natural quantities that has been
tested over and over again and has not been contra-
J The symbol for joule. (8.1) dicted. Also known as a principle. (1.4)
joule (JOOL) The SI unit of work and of all other law of conservation of angularmomentum An
forms of energy. One joule (symbol J) of work is done object or system of objects will maintain a constant
when a force of one newton is exerted on an object angular momentum unless acted upon by an
moved one meter in the direction of the force. (8.1) unbalanced external torque. (11.7)

law of conservation of energy Energy cannot be cre-

ated or destroyed. It may be transformed from one
K (a) The symbol for kelvin. (21.1) (b) When in lower- form into another, but the total amount of energy
case, the symbol for the prefix kilo-. never changes. (8.6)

kcal The symbol for kilocalorie. (21.5) law of conservation of momentum In the absence
of a net external force, the momentum of an object
kelvin (KEL-vin) The SI unit of temperature. A tem- or system of objects is unchanged. (7.4)
perature measured in kelvins (symbol K) indicates
the number of units above absolute zero. Since the law ofinertia Every body continues in its state of
divisions on the Kelvin scale and Celsius scale are rest, or of motion in a straight line at constant
the same size, a change in temperature of one speed, unless it is compelled to change that state by
kelvin equals a change in temperature of one Cel- a net force exerted upon it. Also known as Newton's
sius degree. (21.1) first law. (4.4)

699
law of reflection The angle of incidence for a wave m (a) The symbol for meter. (2.2) (b) When in italic,
that strikes a surface is equal to the angle of reflec- the symbol for mass. (4.5)
tion. This is true for both partially and totally
reflected waves. (29.2) machine A device for increasing (or decreasing) a
force or simply changing the direction of a force.
law of universal gravitation For any pair of objects, (8.7)
each object attracts the other object with a force
that is directly proportional to the product of the magnetic domain A microscopic cluster of atoms
masses of the objects, and inversely proportional to with their magnetic fields aligned. (36.4)
the square of the distance between their centers of
magnetic field A force field that fills the space
mass. (12.4)
around every magnet or current-carrying wire.
lens (LENZ) A piece of glass (or other transparent Another magnet or current-carrying wire intro-
material) that can bend parallel rays of light so that duced into this region will experience a magnetic
they cross, or appear to cross, at a single point. force. (36.2)
(30.1)
magnetic pole One of the regions on a magnet that
lever (LEH-ver, LEE-ver) A simple machine, made of produces magnetic forces. (36.1)
a bar that turns about a fixed point. (8.7)
mass A measure ofan object's inertia; also a measure
leverarm The perpendicular distance between an of the amount of matter in an object. Depends only
axis and the line of action of a force that tends to on the amount of and kind of particles that com-
produce rotation about that axis. (11.1) pose an object—not on its location (as weight
does). (4.5)
lift In application of Bernoulli’s principle, the net
upward force produced by the difference between mechanical advantage The ratio of output force to
upward and downward pressures. When lift equals input force for a machine. (8.7)
weight, horizontal flight is possible. (20.8)
mechanicalenergy The energy due to the position
light-year The distance light travels through a or the movement of something; potential or kinetic
vacuum during one year. (27.2) energy (or a combination of both). (8.3)

line spectrum Pattern of distinct lines of color, mirage (mih-RAHZH) A floating image that appears
corresponding to particular wavelengths, that in the distance and is due to the refraction of light
are seen in a spectroscope when a hot gas is in Earth’s atmosphere. (29.9)
viewed. (28.11)
molecule (MOL-uh-kyool) Two or more atoms of the
linear momentum Product of the mass and the same or different elements bonded to form a larger
velocity of an object. Also called momentum. (This particle. (17.5)
definition applies at speeds much less than the
speed of light.) (11.6) momentum The product of the mass and the veloc-
ity of an object (provided the speed is much less
linear speed The path distance moved per unit of than the speed of light). Has magnitude and direc-
time. Also called simply speed. (9.2) tion (a vector quantity). Also called linear momen-
tum. (7.1)
longitudinal wave (lon-jih-TEWD-ih-nul) A wave in
which the vibration is in the same direction as that monochromatic (mon ’-o-kro-MAT’-ik) Havinga
in which the wave is traveling, rather than at right single color or frequency. (31.4)
angles to it. (25.6)

lunar eclipse The cutoff of light from the full moon

when Earth is directly between the sun and the
moon, so that Earth’s shadow is cast on the moon.
N_ The symbol for newton.
(13.4)
natural frequency A frequency at which an elastic
object, once energized, will vibrate. Minimum
energy is required to continue vibration at that fre-
quency. Also called resonant frequency. (26.7)

700 Glossary .
neap tide A tide that occurs when the moon is nuclear fusion (Few-zhun) The combining of nuclei
halfway between a new moon and a full moon, in of light atoms, such as hydrogen, into heavier
either direction. The tides due to the sun and the nuclei accompanied by the release of much energy.
moon partly cancel, so that the high tides are lower (40.6)
than average and the low tides are not as low as
average. (13.4) nucleon (NEW-klee-on) The principal building block
of the nucleus; a neutron or a proton. (17.7, 39.1)
nearsighted Term applied to a person who can
clearly see nearby objects but not clearly see distant nucleus The positively charged center of an atom,
objects. The eyeball is elongated so that images which contains protons and neutrons and has
focus in front of rather than on the retina. (30.7) almost all the mass of the entire atom but only a
tiny fraction of the volume. (17.7)
netforce The combination of all the forces that act
on an object. (4.6)

neutral equilibrium The state of an object balanced

so that any small movement neither raises nor low- objective lens In an optical device using compound
ers its center of gravity. (10.5) lenses, the lens closest to the object observed.
(30.5)
neutron An electrically neutral particle that is one of
the two kinds of particles that compose an atomic ohm (OM) The SI unit of electric resistance. One
nucleus. (17.7) ohm (symbol Q) is the resistance of a device that
draws a current of one ampere when a voltage of
newton SI unit of force. One newton (N) is the force one volt is impressed across it. (34.4)
applied to a one-kilogram mass that will produce
an acceleration of one meter per second per sec- Ohm’slaw The statement that the current in a circuit
ond. (4.5) is directly proportional to the voltage impressed
across the circuit, and is inversely proportional to
Newton's firstlaw See law of inertia. the resistance of the circuit. (34.5)

Newton’s law of cooling The rate of cooling of an opaque Term applied to materials that absorb light
object—whether by conduction, convection, or without reemission, and consequently do not allow
radiation—is approximately proportional to the light through them. (27.5) >
temperature difference between the object and its
optical fiber A transparent fiber, usually of glass or
surroundings. (22.6)
plastic, that can transmit light down its length by
Newton's second law _ The acceleration produced by means of total internal reflection. (29.12)
a net force on a body is directly proportional to the
outofphase Term applied to two waves for which
magnitude of the net force, is in the same direction
the crest of one wave arrives at a point at the same
as the net force, and is inversely proportional to the
time that a trough of the second wave arrives. Their
mass of the body. (5.3)
effects cancel each other. (25.7)
Newton's third law Whenever one body exerts a
force on a second body, the second body exerts an
equal and opposite force on the first. (6.2)

node Any part of a standing wave that remains sta- parallel circuit An electric circuit in which devices
tionary. (25.8) are connected to the same two points of the circuit,
so that any single device completes the circuit inde-
normal A line perpendicular to a surface. (29.2) pendently of the others. (35.4)

normal force For an object resting on a horizontal pascal (pas-KAL) The SI unit of pressure. One pascal
surface, the upward force that balances the weight (symbol Pa) of pressure exerts a normal force of one
of the object; also called the support force. (4.7) newton per square meter. (5.5)

nuclear fission (FIH-shun) The splitting of an Pascal’s principle Changes in pressure at any point
atomic nucleus, particularly that of a heavy ele- in an enclosed fluid at rest are transmitted undi-
ment such as uranium-235, into two main parts minished to all points in the fluid and act in all
accompanied by the release of much energy. (40.1) directions. (19.6)

701
penumbra _A partial shadow that appears where light potential See electric potential.
from part of the source is blocked and light from
another part of the source is not blocked. (27.6) potential difference The difference in electric
potential (voltage) between two points. Free charge
perigee (PEH-rih-jee) The point in a satellite's ellipti- flows when there is a difference, and will continue
cal orbit where it is nearest the center of Earth. (14.4) until both points reach a common potential. (34.1)

period (a) The time required for a complete orbit. potential energy Energy of position, usually related
(14.2) (b) The time required for a pendulum to to the relative position of two things, such as a
make one to-and-fro swing. In general, the time stone and Earth, or an electron and a nucleus. (8.4)
required to complete a single cycle. (25.1)
power Rate at which work is done or energy is trans-
periodictable A chart that lists elements by atomic formed, equal to the work done or energy trans-
number and by electron arrangements, so that ele- formed divided by time; measured in watts. (8.2)
ments with similar chemical properties are in the
same column (Figure 17.11). (17.8) pressure Force per surface area where the force is
normal to the surface; measured in pascals. (5.5)
perturbation The deviation ofan orbiting object
from its path around a center of force caused by the principal axis The line joining the centers of curva-
action of an additional center of force. (12.6) ture of the surfaces of a lens. (30.1)

phase One of the four possible forms of matter: principle A general hypothesis or statement about
solid, liquid, gas, and plasma. Often called state. the relationship of natural quantities that has been
(23.0) tested over and over again and has not been contra-
dicted; also known as a Jaw. (1.4)
photoelectric effect The ejection of electrons from
certain metals when exposed to certain frequencies principle of flotation A floating object displaces a
of light. (38.3) quantity of fluid of a weight equal to its own weight.
(19.5)
photon (FO-ton) In the particle model of electro-
magnetic radiation, a particle that travels only at projectile Any object that moves through the air or
the speed of light and whose energy is related to through space, acted on only by gravity (and air
the frequency of the radiation in the wave model. resistance, if any). (3.4)
(Ziel Oe)
proton A positively charged particle that is one of
pigment A material that selectively absorbs colored the two kinds of particles found in the nucleus of
light. (28.3) an atom. (17.7)

pitch Term that refers to how high or low sound fre- pulley A type of lever that is a wheel with a groove in
quencies appear to be. (26.1) its rim, which is used to change the direction of a
force exerted by a rope or cable. A pulley or system
Planck’s constant A fundamental constant of of pulleys can also multiply forces. (8.7)
quantum theory that determines the scale of the
small-scale world. Planck’s constant (symbol h) pupil The opening in the eyeball through which light
multiplied by the frequency of radiation gives the passes. (30.6)
energy of a photon of that radiation. (38.2)

plasma (PLAZ-muh) A fourth phase of matter, in

addition to solid, liquid, and gas. In the plasma quantum (pl. quanta) (KWONT-um) The fundamen-
phase, which exists mainly at high temperature, tal “size” unit; the smallest amount of anything. One
matter consists of positively charged ions and free quantum of light energy is called a photon. (38.2)
electrons. (17.9)
quantum mechanics The branch of physics that is
polarization (po-ler-ih-ZAY’-shun) The aligning of the study of the motion of particles in the micro-
vibrations in a transverse wave, usually by filtering world of atoms and nuclei. (38.8)
out waves of other directions. (27.7)
quantum physics The branch of physics that is the
postulate (POS-tyoo-lit) A fundamental assumption. general study of the microworld of photons, atoms,
(15.3) and nuclei. (38.8)

702 Glossary
quark (KWORK, KWARK) One of the elementary par- relative Regarded in relation to something else.
ticles of which nucleons (protons and neutrons) are Depends on point of view, or frame of reference.
made. (39.1) Sometimes referred to as “with respect to.” (2.1)

relative humidity A ratio between how much water

vapor is in the air and the maximum amount of
water vapor that could be in the air at the same
radiantenergy Any energy, including heat, light, and
temperature. (23.2)
X-rays, that is transmitted by radiation. It occurs in
the form of electromagnetic waves. (22.3) relativistic kinetic energy Kinetic energy at very
high speeds approaching the speed of light. (16.2)
radiation (a) Energy transmitted by electromagnetic
waves. (22.3) (b) The particles given off by radioac- relativistic momentum Momentum at very high
tive atoms such as uranium. (39.2) speeds approaching the speed of light. (16.4)
radioactive Term applied to an atom with a nucleus resolution (rez-uh-LOO-shun) (a) The process of
that is unstable and that can spontaneously emit resolving a vector into components. (3.3) (b) In
a particle and become the nucleus of another optics, a measure of how well closely adjacent opti-
element. (39.2) cal images are distinguished.
rarefaction (rayr-uh-FAK-shun) A disturbance in air resonance (REZ-uh-nuns) A phenomenon that
(or matter) in which the pressure is lowered. Oppo- occurs when the frequency of forced vibrations on
site of compression. (26.2) an object matches the object’s natural frequency,
and a dramatic increase in amplitude results. (26.8)
rate In physics, how fast something happens, or
how much something changes per unit of time; a restenergy The “energy of being,” given the
change in a quantity divided by the time it takes for equation E, = mc. (16.3)
the change to occur. (2.0)
restmass The intrinsic mass of an object, a fixed
ray A thin beam of light. (27.6) property independent of speed or energy. (16.2)
raydiagram A diagram showing rays that can be resultant (rih-ZUL-tunt) The vector sum of two or
drawn to determine the size and location of an more component vectors. (3.2)
image formed by a mirror or lens. (30.3)
retina (RET-ih-nuh) The layer of light-sensitive tis-
reaction force The force that is equal in strength sue at the back of the eye. (30.6)
and opposite in direction to the action force, which
acts simultaneously on whatever is exerting the reverberation (rih-verb-er-AY-shun) Persistence of
action force. (6.2) a sound, as in an echo, due to multiple reflections.
(29.5)
realimage An image that is formed by converging
light rays and that can be displayed on a screen. revolution Motion of an object turning around an
(30.2) axis outside the object. (9.1)

red shift A decrease in the measured frequency of rotation The spinning motion that takes place when
light (or other radiation) from a receding source; an object rotates about an axis located within the
called the red shift because the decrease is toward object (usually an axis through its center of mass).
the low-frequency, or red, end of the color spec- (9.1)
trum. (25.9)
rotational inertia The reluctance of an object to
reflection The bouncing back ofa particle or wave change its state of rotation, determined by the dis-
that strikes the boundary between two media. (29.1) tribution of the mass of the object and the location
of the axis of rotation or revolution. (11.4)
refraction The change in direction of a wave as it
crosses the boundary between two media in which rotational speed The number of rotations or revolu-
the wave travels at different speeds. (29.6) tions per unit of time; often measured in rotations
or revolutions per second or per minute (RPM).
regelation The phenomenon of ice melting under (9.2)
pressure and freezing again when the pressure is
reduced. (23.7)

703
rotational velocity Rotational speed together with shock wave A cone-shaped wave produced by an
a direction for the axis of rotation or revolution. object moving at supersonic speed through a fluid.
(11.6) (25.11)

simple harmonic motion Periodic motion in which

acceleration is proportional to the distance from an
equilibrium position and is directed toward that
s Thesymbol for second. (2.2) equilibrium position. (25.2)

satellite An object that falls around Earth or some sine curve A curve whose shape represents the crests
other body rather than falling into it. (3.6, 14.1) and troughs of a wave, as traced out by a swinging
pendulum that drops a trail of sand over a moving
saturated Term applied to a substance, such as air, conveyor belt. (25.2)
that contains the maximum amount of another
substance, such as water vapor, at a given tempera- solar eclipse The cutoff of light from the sun to an
ture and pressure. (23.2) observer on Earth when the moon is directly
between the sun and Earth. (13.4)
scalar quantity A quantity in physics, such as mass,
volume, and time, that can be completely specified sonic boom The sharp crack heard when the shock
by its magnitude, and has no direction. (3.1) wave that sweeps behind a supersonic aircraft
reaches the listener. (25.11)
scaling The study of how size affects the relationship
among weight, strength, and surface area. (18.5) space-time A combination of space and time, which
are viewed in special relativity as two parts of one
scatter To absorb sound or light and reemit it in all whole. (15.1)
directions. (28.8)
special theory of relativity The theory, introduced in
schematic diagram Diagram that describes an elec- 1905 by Albert Einstein, that describes how time is
tric circuit, using special symbols to represent dif- affected by motion in space at a constant velocity,
ferent devices in the circuit. (35.5) and how mass and energy are related. (15.1)

scientificmethod An orderly method for gaining, specific gravity The ratio of the mass (or weight) ofa
organizing, and applying new knowledge. (1.3) substance to the mass (or weight) of an equal vol-
ume of water. (18.2)
second law of thermodynamics Heat will never of
itself flow from one object to another of higher specific heat capacity The quantity of heat required
temperature. (24.4) to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a sub-
stance by one degree Celsius. Often simply called
second postulate of special relativity The speed of “specific heat,” or “heat capacity.” (21.6)
light in empty space always has the same value
regardless of the motion of the source or the spectroscope An instrument used to separate the
motion of the observer. (15.5) light from a hot gas or other light source into its
constituent frequencies. (28.11)
semiconductor Material that can be made to behave
as either a conductor or an insulator of electricity. spectrum For sunlight and other white light, the
(32.4) spread of colors seen when the light is passed
through a prism or diffraction grating. In general,
series circuit An electric circuit in which devices are the spread of radiation by frequency, so that each
arranged so that charge flows through each in turn. frequency appears at a different position. (28.1)
If one part of the circuit should stop the current, it
will stop throughout the circuit. (35.3) speed How fast something is moving; the path dis-
tance moved per time. The magnitude of the veloc-
shadow A shaded region that results when light falls ity vector. (2.2)
on an object and thus cannot reach into the region
on the far side of the object. (27.6) spring tide A high or low tide that occurs when the
sun, Earth, and the moon are all lined up so that
shell model of the atom A model in which the elec- the tides due to the sun and moon coincide, mak-
trons of an atom are pictured as grouped in con- ing the high tides higher than average and the low
centric shells around the nucleus. (17.8) tides lower than average. (13.4)

704 Glossary
stable equilibrium The state of an object balanced heat to flow from one object or substance to
so that any small displacement or rotation raises its another. (21.2)
center of gravity. (10.5)
thermal equilibrium The state of two or more
standing wave Wave in which parts of the wave objects or substances in thermal contact when they
remain stationary and the wave appears not to be have reached a common temperature. (21.3)
traveling. The result of interference between an
incident (original) wave and a reflected wave. (25.8) thermodynamics The study of heat and its transfor-
mation to mechanical energy. (24.0)
streamline The smooth path of a small region of
fluid in steady flow. (20.7) thermonuclear fusion Nuclear fusion brought about
by extremely high temperatures. (40.6)
strongforce The force that attracts nucleons to one
another within the nucleus; a force that is very thermostat A type of valve or switch that responds to
strong at close distances but decreases rapidly as changes in temperature and that is used to control
the distance increases. (39.1) the temperature of something. (21.8)

subtractive primary colors The colors of magenta, time dilation An observable stretching, or slowing,
yellow and cyan. These are the three colors most of time in a frame of reference moving past the
useful in color mixing by subtraction. (28.7) observer at a speed approaching the speed of light.
(15.1)
superconductor Material that has infinite conduc-
tivity at very low temperatures, so that charge flows torque (TORK) The rotational analog of force; the
through it without resistance. (32.4) product of force and the lever arm (measured in
newton-meters). Torque tends to produce rota-
support force Force that completely balances the tional acceleration. (11.1)
weight of an object at rest. (4.7, 13.3)
total internal reflection The 100% reflection (with
no transmission) of light that strikes the boundary
between two media at an angle greater than the
tangential speed The speed of an object moving critical angle. (29.12)
along a circular path. (9.2)
transformer A device for increasing or decreasing
tangential velocity Component of velocity tangent voltage through electromagnetic induction. (37.5)
to the trajectory of a projectile. (12.2)
transmutation The conversion of an atomic nucleus
telescope Optical instrument that forms images of of one element into an atomic nucleus of another
very distant objects. (30.5) element through a loss or gain in the number of
protons. (39.6)
temperature The property of a material that tells
how warm or cold it is relative to some standard. In transparent Term applied to materials that allow
an ideal gas, the molecular kinetic energy per mole- light to pass through them in straight lines. (27.4)
cule. (21.1)
transverse wave A wave with vibration at right
terminal speed The speed at which the acceleration angles to the direction the wave is traveling. (25.5)
of a falling object is zero because friction balances
the weight. (5.7) trough (TRAWF) One of the places in a wave where
the wave is lowest, or the disturbance is greatest, in
terminal velocity Terminal speed together with the the opposite direction from a crest. (25.2)
direction of motion (down for falling objects). (5.7)

terrestrial radiation Radiant energy emitted from

Earth. (22.7)

theory A synthesis of a large body of information ultrasonic Term applied to sound frequencies above
that encompasses well-tested and verified hypothe- 20 000 hertz, the normal upper limit of human
ses about aspects of the natural world. (1.4) hearing. (26.1)

thermal contact The state of two or more objects or ultraviolet Electromagnetic waves of frequencies
substances in contact such that it is possible for higher than those of violet light. (27.3)

705
umbra_ The darker part of a shadow where all the wave A “wiggle in space and time”; a disturbance
light is blocked. (27.6) that repeats regularly in space and time and that is
transmitted progressively from one place to the
unstable equilibrium The state of an object bal- next with no actual transport of matter. (25.0)
anced so that any small displacement or rotation
lowers its center of gravity. (10.5) wave front The crest, trough, or any continuous por-
tion of a two-dimensional or three-dimensional
universal gravitational constant The constant Gin wave in which the vibrations are all the same way at
the equation for Newton's law of universal gravita- the same time (see Figure 29.14). (29.6)
tion; measures the strength of gravity. (12.4)
wavelength The distance from the top of the crest of
a wave to the top of the following crest, or equiva-
lently, the distance between successive identical
parts of the wave. (25.2)
V_ (a) The symbol for volt. (33.5) (b) In lowercase
italic, the symbol for speed or velocity. (2.2, 2.3) weight The force on a body due to the gravitational
(c) In uppercase italic, the symbol for voltage. (33.5) attraction of another body (commonly Earth). (4.5)
vector An arrow whose length represents the magni- weightlessness The condition of free fall toward or
tude of a quantity and whose direction represents around Earth, in which an object experiences no
the direction of the quantity. (3.1)
support force (and exerts no force on a scale). (13.3)
vector quantity A quantity in physics, such as force, weight density Weight of a substance divided by its
that has both magnitude and direction. (3.1)
volume. (18.2)
velocity Speed together with the direction of motion. white light Light, such as sunlight, that is a combi-
(2.3) nation of all the colors. Under white light, white
objects appear white and colored objects appear in
vibration An oscillation, or repeating back-and-forth
their individual colors. (28.1)
motion, about an equilibrium position. (25.0)

virtualimage An image formed through reflection or work The product of the force on an object and the
refraction that can be seen by an observer but can- distance through which the object is moved (when
not be projected on a screen because light from the force is constant and motion is in a straight line in
the direction of the force); measured in joules. (8.1)
object does not actually come to a focus. (29.3, 30.2)

volt The SI unit of electric potential. One volt (sym- work-energy theorem The theorem that states that
bolV) is the electrical potential difference across whenever work is done, energy changes. (8.5)
which one coulomb of charge gains or loses one
joule of energy. (33.5)

voltage (VOL-tij) (a) Electric potential; measured in

volts. (33.5) (b) Potential difference; measured in
volts. (34.1)

voltage source A device, such as a dry cell or genera-

tor, that provides a potential difference. (34.3)

W (a) The symbol for watt. (8.2) (b) When in italic,

the symbol for work. (8.1)

watt (WAT) The SI unit of power. One watt is

expended when one joule of work is done in one
second. (8.2)

706 Glossary
Aberrations, 471, 475-476 warm, rising of, 327-330 Astronauts, 186
chromatic, 476 weight of, 293 weightlessness of, 187
spherical, 475 Air conditioner, 350 Astronomer, 179
Absolute temperatures, 298 Air pressure, and density, 297-298. See Astronomical telescope, 472
Absolute zero, 308, 354-355 also Atmospheric pressure Atmosphere, 290-296
Absorbers, heat, 332-333 Air resistance, 63 adiabatic processes and, 358-360
Acceleration, 15-19 acceleration and, 17, 24, 66, 68-70 condensation in, 341-342
in action-reaction pair, 80 on projectile path, 34, 37 density of, 290-291
air resistance and, 17, 24, 66, 68-70 speed and, 63-64, 66, 68-70 refraction of, 452-454
defined, 15, 59 Air table, 47 Atmospheric pressure, 292-293
directional nature of, 15-16 Air-traffic controller, 30 can crushing experiment and, 296
of falling object, 17-19, 66-70 measurement of
Alcohol, ethyl, density of, 261
force as cause of, 59-60 with aneroid barometer, 296
in free fall, 17-19, 66-68 Alpha Centauri, 228, 407 with simple mercury barometer,
due to gravity, 17, 18, 66-68, 183, Alpha particles, 250, 611, 612 294-295
184 in storms, 300
Alpha rays, 611
mass and, 60, 77-78 Atmospheric tides, 193
negative, 15 Alternating current, 539
converting to direct current, 540 Atom, 244-248
net force and, 60-61
generators and, 580-582 age of, 246
of projectile, 33-34, 36
characteristics of, 501-502
along straight line, 16 Altimeter, 296
classification of, 251
Accommodation, 474 Ammeter, 572, 573 in crystal, 259
Achromatic lenses, 476 Ampere (unit of current), 533 electron orbits in, 602-603
Amplitude, of wave, 374 electrons in, 252-254
Acoustics, 447
evidence for, 248
Action Aneroid barometer, 296 hydrogen, 245
on bodies of different masses, Angle, critical, 457, 458-459 models of, 596-597
77-78 Bohr, 501, 596, 601-605
Angle of attack, 301
equal and opposite reaction and, shell, 253
82 Angle of incidence, 444
nucleus of, 250-252, 609-611
identifying, 75-76 Angle of reflection, 444 relative sizes of, 603-605
Action force, 75 Angular momentum, 161-164 size of, 246-247
Action-reaction pair, 77-82 conservation of, 163-164 Atomic bomb, 240
horse-cart problem and, 80-82 defined, 161
Atomic mass number, 613
why cancellation does not occur, Antifreeze, 345
Atomic nucleus, 250-252, 609-611
78-79 Antinodes, 380
Atomic number, 251, 613
Adams, John, 178 Apogee, 206
Atomic spectra, 436-438
Addition, color, 427, 430 Archeologist, 621
Attitude, scientific, 2-3
Adiabatic processes, 358-360 Archimedes’ principle, 278-279
Available energy, 106
Air for air, 299
Archimedes’ principle for, 299 convection as application of, 328 Average speed, 12, 20
Bernoulli’s principle and, 300-301 Area, 269-270 Axis, 123
buoyancy of, 299
Aristotle
compressed, 391-392
on motion, 43-44, 46
dry, density of, 292
on speed of falling objects, 3
as insulator, 326 Bacon, Francis, 2
mass of, 292, 293 Art, vs. science, 5-6
Balance
nature of sound in, 391-392 Artist, 430 equilibrium and, 142-143
saturated, 341 Astigmatism, 475 torque and, 152-154

707
Barometer Careers Clock, light, 219-220, 221
aneroid, 296 astronomer, 179 Clouds, 342
simple mercury, 294-295 civil engineer, 264
Coal, formation of, 111
water, 294 firefighter, 350
oceanographer, 573 Coherent light, 494
Battery
photographer, 475° Collisions, 94-98
lighting bulbs with, 548-549
politician, 624 elastic, 95
symbol for, 554
Carnot, Sadi, 362 heat generated by, 98
Beats, sound, 398—400 inelastic, 95-96
Carnot efficiency, 362-363
Bell, Alexander Graham, 394 net momentum before and after, 95
Cavendish, Henry, 173
Bernoulli, Daniel, 300 Color, 421-438
Bernoulli's principle, 300-301 Cells, dry and wet, 533 complementary, 427-429
Cellular field technician, 590 effect of light source on, 423
Beta particle, 612
of light emitted by elements,
Celsius, Anders, 308
Beta rays, 611, 612 436-438
Big Bang theory, 178-179 Celsius scale, 308, 355 by reflection, 422—424
Bimetallic strips, 317 Center of gravity, 136-146 of sky, 432-433
defined, 136-137 of sunset, 433-435
Binoculars, 472 locating, 139 by transmission, 424-425
Biology, 1 of people, 145-146 of water, 435-436
Black, as absence of light, 421-422 torque and, 152-154 Color addition, 427, 430
Black dwarf star, 194 Center of mass, 138 Color mixing, 426-427, 429-431, 434
Black holes, 193-195 Centrifugal force, 127-131 Color separation
Blind spot, 473-474, 484 Centripetal force, 126-128 by diffraction grating, 437, 489-490
Chain reactions, 630-631 by prism, 421, 437
Blue shift, 383
by thin film, 490, 491
Bohr, Niels, 501, 596, 589, 604 Chaos, 606
Color spectrum, 421-422. See also
Boiling, 343-345, 346 Charge, 501
Spectrum
conductors of, 508-509
Bouncing, 91-92 Color subtraction, 428-429, 430-431
conservation of, 502-504
Bow waves, 384-385 by contact, 509 Communications satellites, 209
Boyle, Robert, 298 Coulomb’s law and, 504-507 Complementary colors, 427-429
Boyle’s law, 297-298 electrical potential energy per, 524
flow of, 531-532 Components of vectors, 31-32
Breeder reactor, 635-636 Compound microscope, 472
by friction, 509
British thermal unit (Btu), 311 by induction, 510-512 Compounds, 250
Brown, Robert, 248 negative, 251-252, 501-504 interaction of elements in forming,
polarization of, 512-514 253
Brownian motion, 248
positive, 251-252, 501-504 molecular, 250
Buoyancy, 277-278 types of, 501-504
of air, 299 Compression, 264-266, 391-392,
Chemical energy, 106 397-398
Archimedes’ principle and, 278-279
Chemical formula, 250 Condensation, 341-343
Buoyant force, 277, 278-279
principle of flotation and, 282-283 Chemist, 252 in atmosphere, 341-342
volume and, 280 Chemistry, 1 in cooling process, 348
rate of, 343
Chinooks, 359-360
Condenser lens, 473
Chromatic aberration, 476
Conduction, heat, 325-326
Caloric, 311, 355-356 Ciliary muscle, 474
Conduction electrons, 532, 541-542
Calorie, 311, 312 Circuit. See Electric circuits
Conductivity, 534
Cameras, parts and function of, 471 Circuit breakers, 558
Conductors, 508-509
Capacitor, 526, 527 Circular motion, 122-132
charge by induction and, 510-512
Carbon, 534 Circular orbits, 202-203, 206 electric field within, 521-523
Carbon dating, 621-622 Civil engineer, 264 heat, 325-326

Carbon dioxide, and terrestrial Climate, and specific heat of water, Conservation
radiation, 335-336 315 of angular momentum, 163-164
of charge, 502-504

708 Index
 of energy, 109-111 effect of, on submerged objects, shadow of, 413
of momentum, 92-94 280-281 shape of, 188-189
Constant speed, 14 of gases, 292 tilt of, 192
of liquids, 274 Earth tides, 193
Constant velocity, 14
relationship to pressure, 297
Constructive interference, 379, Eclipse
of various substances, table, 261
486-487 lunar, 191, 413
weight, 261, 274
solar, 191, 413
Contact Destructive interference, 379, 382,
charging by, 509 Ecologist, 336
397-398, 486-487
thermal, 309 Eddies, 301
Deuterium, 251, 613
Contraction, length, 232-234 Efficiency, 114-117
Diamond, critical angle of, 458-459
Convection, 327-329 defined, 115
Diffraction, 405, 483-486 of engines, 116-117, 361-363
Earth’s magnetic field as effect of,
574 Diffraction grating, 437, 489 Einstein, Albert, 4, 216, 240, 565,
winds as effect of, 328 Diffuse reflection, 446-447 605
Converging lens, 463-465 Diode, 540 general theory of relativity and, 212
mass-energy equivalence and,
Cooling, Newton's law of, 334 Dipoles, electric, 513
236-237
Cooling processes, 348-349 Dirac, Paul A. M., 174 on particle theory of light, 597
Copernicus, Nicolaus, 44, 55, 171 Direct current, 539-540 on photoelectric effect, 405, 598
space-time and, 213, 216, 217-218
Cornea, 473 Direction
special theory of relativity and, 212
Correspondence principle, 239 as factor in velocity, 13-14, 15
unified field theory and, 506
of vector, 28
Cosmic rays, 621 Elapsed time, 17
Disordered energy, 364-365
Coulomb, Charles, 505, 562 Elastic collisions, 95
Dispersion of light, 454-456
Coulomb (unit of charge), 505 Elasticity, 263-264, 393
Displacement of fluid, 277-278,
Coulomb's law, 504-507 282-283 Elastic limit, 263
Crests, wave, 374 Archimedes’ principle and, 278-279 Electrical forces, 500-502
overlap of, 397 Distance balance of, 506
equation for, 21 computational example of, 507
Critical angle, 457, 458-459
of free fall, 19-20 Electrical polarization, 512-513
Critical mass, 631-632
gravity and, 175-177 Electrical resistance, 534-535
Crystals speed and velocity vs., 21
discovery of, 258-259 Electric charge. See Charge
Diverging lens, 464, 465
ice, 319-321, 345 Electric circuits, 548-558
metal, 259 Doppler, Christian, 383 circuit breakers and, 558
sodium chloride, 258-259 Doppler effect, 382-384 compound, combining resistors in,
structure of, 258-259 Drift speed, 541-542 555-557
Current. See Electric current parallel, 552-554, 557-558
Dry cells, 533
overloading of, 557-558
Curve, radiation, of sunlight, 426 Dyes, mixing of, 429-531 schematic diagrams of, 554,
556-557
series, 550-551
short, 558
Darwin, Charles, 5 Earth source of electrons in, 542-543
De Broglie, Louis, 600, 601, 602 average temperature of, 335 speed of electrons in, 541-542
De Broglie wavelength, 600 curvature of, 200 Electric current, 531-544
escape speed of, 207-208 alternating, 539-540
Decay, radioactive, 610-611, 617, 618,
falling, 171 defined, 532
619 gravitational field of, 182-184 direct, 539-540
Deceleration, 15 gravity’s effect on, 177 effect on body, 537-538
Decibel, 394 magnetic field of, 574 magnetic field and, 568-569
motion of measurement of, 533
Degrees, 308
Copernicus’ theory of, 44, 55 meters to detect, 572
Delta notation, 59 Galileo’s theory of, 44-45
Electric dipoles, 513
Density, 260-262 Newton's theory of, 171
atmospheric, 290-291 satellites of, 199-200 Electrical energy, 543-544
storage of, 526-527

709
Electric field, 517-518 Bernoulli's principle and, 300-301 Evaporation, 339-340
inside conductor, 521-523 law of, 110 as cooling process, 348-349
configurations of, 519-520 defined, 105-106 rate of, 343
induction of, 587 disordered, 364-365 Evolution, Darwin’s theory of, 5
strength of, 518 dissipation of, 114
Excitation of electrons, 438
Electric field lines, 519-521 electric, 526-527, 543-544
generator source of, 582 Expansion. See Thermal expansion
Electrician, 55 gravitational potential, 107 Eye, 473-474
Electric motors, 572-573 heat, 309 Eyeglasses, polarizing, 414-415
generators vs., 580, 582-583 heating process and, 347-348
internal, 310 Eyepiece, 471, 472
Electric potential, 524-525
ionization, 604 Extremely low frequency (ELF)
Electrical potential energy, 523-524
kinetic. See Kinetic energy radiation, 591
Electric power, 543-544 for life, 117
Electric shielding, 521-523 light, 375
Electric shocks, 537-538 machines and, 111-114
mass and, 236-237 Fact, defined, 2
Electromagnet, 568-569
mechanical, 105-106
Electromagnetic force, 173 Fahrenheit, Gabriel, 308
potential. See Potential energy
Electromagnetic induction, 577-591 radiant. See Radiant energy Fahrenheit scale, 308
Faraday’s law and, 579 release of, and freezing, 348-349 Fall, free. See Free fall
rest, 236-237
Electromagnetic spectrum, 408 Falling, around versus into, 199-200
satellite motion and, 205-206
Electromagnetic waves, 330, 375, 408, sound, 375 Faraday, Michael, 577
589-591 thermal. See Kinetic energy Faraday’s law, 587
Electron, 252-254 transfer by wave, 330-335, 375-376 electromagnetic induction and, 579
charge of, 501 transformation of, 109-110 Farsightedness, 474
conduction, 532, 541-542 in car engine, 117
Fibers, optical, 459
configuration of, in shell model of to heat, 116-117
atom, 253 in pendulum, 110 Field, 182. See also Electric field; Grav-
diffraction of, 600 units of itational field; Magnetic field
electric forces of repulsion in, 252 calorie, 311 Field lines, 183, 519-520
excitation of, 438 joule, 104 magnetic, 564-565, 570
as magnet, 565-566 useful, 117
Films, thin
source of, in circuit, 542-543 wave, reflection of, 442-443
iridescence from, 491-493
speed of, in circuit, 541-542 zero-point, 355
single-color interference from, 490,
Electron beam, 248 Energy levels, 601-603 491
Electron microscopes, 248, 249, 485, Engines Firefighter, 350
601 efficiency of, 116-117
Fission, nuclear, 629-634
Electron orbits, differences in, 604 heat, 361-363
mass-energy relationship and, 237
internal combustion, 358
Electron waves, 601-603 Flanges, 265
steam turbine, 362-363
Electrostatics, 500-514 Floating, and density, 280-281
Entropy, 365-366
Elements, 244-245 Flotation, 282-283
Equilibrium
artificial transmutation of, 620
of condensation and evaporation, Flow, steady, and Bernoulli’s
natural transmutation of, 617-619
343 principle, 301
periodic table of, 253-254
net force of zero in, 51-53 Fluid
Elliptical orbits, 203-204, 206 neutral, 142
buoyancy in, 277-279, 299
Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 367 stable, 142
flotation in, 282-283
Emitters, heat, 332-333 thermal, 310
friction of, 63
unstable, 142
Empedocles, and concept of light, 404 pressure in, 273-277, 300
Equivalence, mass-energy, 636-639
Energy, 103-118 Focal length, 465
available, 106 Equivalent resistance, 555
Focal plane, 464
body’s output of, computational Escape speed, 207-209
Focal point, 464
example, 312 Ethyl alcohol, density of, 261
changes of phase and, 347-350 Foci, elliptical, 203
Euclid, and concept of light, 404 Fog, 342
chemical, 106
conservation of, 109-111, 118 Food, energy value of, 311

710 Index
Force, 44 Frequency energy source of, 582
acceleration and, 59-60 blue and red shifts and, 383 function of, 533
action, 75 color and, 422-424 motor vs., 580, 582-583
action and reaction, 82 Doppler effect and, 382-383 Van de Graaff, 517, 527-528,
in action-reaction pair, 78-79 natural, 395-396 531-532
applied, 64-65. See also Pressure resonance and, 395-396 Generator effect, 583
buoyant, 277, 278-279, 282 period and, 375
Glass
centrifugal, 127-130 pitch and, 391
critical angle of, 457
centripetal, 126-128 vibration, 374
transparency of, 409-411
electrical. See Electrical forces wave, 376-377, 383
friction, 44-45 Gold, density of, 261, 262
Friction, 44-45
fundamental, 173 centripetal force and, 127 Graphs of motion, 21-24
gravitational. See Gravitational charging by, 509 Grating, diffraction, 437, 489
force; Gravity defined, 44 Gravitation
in impulses, 87-90 efficiency loss and, 114
interaction as producer of, 74 effect on galaxy, 177-178
fluid, 63 in stars, 193-195
internal, 92 mechanical advantages and, 115 universal, 168-179
lines of, 517-518 motion and, 45, 63-64 universal constant of, 172-174,
magnetic. See Magnetic forces
Fringes, interference, 487-488, 495, 504-507
net, 60-61, 51-53
496, 600 universal law of, 172-174, 504-507
newton as unit of, 50
normal, 51 Fuel, 116-117 Gravitational field, 182-185, 517
nuclear, 173, 252 Fulcrum, 112-113 near black hole, 194-195
pairing of, 75 measuring strength of, 183
Fuse, 558
reaction, 75 inside planet, 184-185
Fusion shielding potential of, 523-524
resultant of, 30
heat of, 347
strong, 610 Gravitational force
in stars, 193-194
support, 51 as centripetal force, 126
thermonuclear, 111, 640
vector addition of, 53-54 of moon on Earth, 187-188
See also Nuclear fusion
as vector quantity, 28 as weight, 49-50
weak, 506 See also Gravity
work and, 103-104 Gravitational interactions, 182-195
Forced vibration, 394 Galaxy Gravitational potential energy, 107
Force field, 182, 517 distance of center from Earth, 229 Gravity, 17
Formula, chemical, 250 effect of gravity on, 177-178 acceleration and, 17, 18, 66-68, 183, 184
Fosbury flop, 145 Galilei, Galileo center of. See Center of gravity
acceleration of falling object and, Earth’s, at moon's distance, 170
Fovea, 473
66, 70 Earth’s shape and, 177
Frames of reference, 214 on motion, 44—45 falling object and, 17
length contraction and, 232-234 scientific method and, 2 inverse-square law and, 175-176
postulates of special relativity and, speed of light and, 405 mass and, 172-174
216-218 measurement during free fall, 18
Galvanometer, 572
time dilation and, 218-229 motion and, 45
Gamma rays, 330, 611, 612 Newton's concept of, 168-170, 182
Franklin, Benjamin, 511
Gas, 290-302 period of pendulum and, 372
Free-body diagram, 64, 72
Archimedes’ principle and, 278-279 potential energy and, 106-107
Free fall, 17-21 Bernoulli’s principle and, 300-301 reduction with distance, 175-176
air resistance and, 17, 24, 66, 68-70 Boyle's law and, 297-298 satellite in circular orbit and, 202
defined, 17 condensation of, 341-343 simulated, 131-132
distance covered in, 19-21 liquids vs., 290 thermonuclear fusion and, 111
gravity measurement in, 18 Pascal’s principle and, 284-285 torque and, 152-154
Newton’s second law of motion as state of matter, 255 Greenhouse effect, 335-336
and, 66-68 various densities of, 292
speeds of object in, 17-19 Grounding, 511
Gasoline
Freeze drying, 346 as energy source, 117
Group, of elements, 250
Freezing, 319-321, 345-346 thermal expansion of, 317 Gymnastics, and rotational inertia,
energy release and, 348 159-160
Geiger counter, 616
simultaneous boiling and, 346 Gyroscope, 161
Generator
Freon, 349 alternating current and, 580-582

711
Half-life, radioactive, 615-616 I-beams, 265 sound waves and, 397-398
water waves and, 486-487
Halley, Edmund, 170 Ice
density of, 261 Young’s experiment with, 487-490
Harmonic motion, simple, 373
expansion of, 319-320 Interference fringes, 487—488, 495,
Hearing loss, and loud sounds, 400 496, 600
formation of, and energy release,
Heat, 309 347 Interference pattern, 379, 480, 486,
calories as unit of, 311 melting of, 347 487, 488
conduction of, 325-326
Ice crystals, 346 Interferometer, 216, 492
conversion of energy into, 116-117
emitters and absorbers of, 330-333 Ignition temperature, 641 Internal combustion engines,
generated by collisions, 95 Illusions, optical, 418 116-117, 358
internal energy and, 310 Image Internal energy, 310, 313
measurement of, 311-312 constructing, through ray dia- Internal force, 92
poor conductors of, 325-326 grams, 467-470
transmission of, 325-336 Internal resistance, 555
formation of, by lens, 465-466, 470
useful energy as, 117 real, 465, 466 International System of Units, 50, 311
Heat engines, 361-363 virtual, 445, 465 Inverse proportion, 60
Heating process, and energy, 348-349 Impact, force of, 88-90 Inverse-square law, 175-176, 562
Heat of fusion, 347 Impulse Ton, 252-253, 503, 613
Heat of vaporization, 347 as change in momentum, 87-90
Ionization energy, 604
defined, 87
Heat pump, 350 Iridescence from thin films, 491-493
effects of bouncing on, 91-92
Heat transfer, 350 forces involved in, 87 Iris, 473
Heavy water, 613 Incidence, angle of, 444 Iron
Helium law of reflection and, 457 flotation and, 282
density of, 292 Inclined plane, 115 magnetic domains in, 566-567
model of atom of, 501 Isotopes, 251
Incoherent light, 493
Henry, Joseph, 577 radioactive, 613-614
Index of refraction, 452
Hertz, Heinrich, 374, 597
Induction
Hertz (unit of frequency), 374 charge by, 510-512
Hologram, 492, 495-496 electromagnetic, 577-579
Jack, 115-116
Hooke, Robert, 263 Inelastic collisions, 95-96
Jolly, Philipp von, 173
Hooke'’s law, 263, 264, 373 Inelasticity, 263
Joule, 102
Horse-cart problem, 80-82 Inertia, 46-51
Jumping, 22, 38, 89
defined, 46
Human body
center of gravity of, 145-146 demonstrations of, 47
cooling through perspiration, 340 Earth’s motion and, 55
effect of electric current on, mass as measure of, 48-50
Newton's law of, 46-48 Kelvin, Lord, 308, 355
537-538
energy output of, computational rotational, 154-160 Kelvin (unit of temperature), 298, 308
example, 312 See also Momentum Kelvin scale, 308, 355
principal axes of rotation of, Infrared radiation, 330, 331, 408, 411
Kilocalorie, 311
159-160 Infrasonic sound waves, 391
Kilogram, 50
Humidity, relative, 341 In phase, 380 Kilowatt, 105, 543
Huygens, Christian, 405, 406, 480, 597 Instantaneous speed, 17-19 Kilowatt-hour, 543
Huygens’ principle, 480-483 Insulators, 326, 508-509
Kinetic energy, 108-109
Hydraulic press, and Pascal's Interactions, 74 defined, 108
principle, 284-285 increasing, 307
Interference, 379-380
Hydrogen color separation and, 489 relativistic, 238
atoms of, 245 constructive, 379, 398, 487 satellite motion and, 205-206
density of, 292 destructive, 379, 381, 398, 487 temperature and, 308, 339-340
Hypothesis for measurement of light wave-
in scientific method, 2 lengths, 492
testable nature of, 4-5 single-color, from thin films, 490

712 Index
Laser, 494 coherent, 495 pressure in, 273-276
Laser light, 484, 493-494 colored, mixing, 426-427 equation for, 273, 274
diffraction of, 405, 483-486 net force due to, 277
Laws, 2
dispersion of, 454-456 relationship to depth and
Boyle's, 297-298
early concepts of, 404-405 volume, 275-277
conservation
incoherent, 493 as phase of matter, 255
of angular momentum, 163, 164
interference for measurement of, submersion in, effect of density on,
of charge, 502-504
492 280-281
of energy, 110-111
laser, 484, 493-494 thermal expansion of, 317
of momentum, 92-94
monochromatic, 487-488, 493 Locke, John, 179
Coulomb's, 504-507
nature of, 394-395, 597
Faraday’s, 587 Lodestones, 562
opaque materials and, 411-412
Hooke’s, 263, 264, 373 Longitudinal waves, 378-379
particle nature of, 405, 597
inertia, 46-48
polarization of, 414-415 Loudness, 394, 400
inverse-square, 175-176, 562
rays of, 412-413
Newton's Lunar eclipse, 191, 413
refraction of, 451-452
of cooling, 334
scattered, 432, 434
of motion, first, 46-48
spectroscopic analysis of, 437-438
of motion, second, 60-62 speed of, 405-407, 410
of motion, third, 74-82 Machines, 111-114
calculation of, 406
of universal gravitation, 172-174, constancy of, 215-216 defined, 111
504-506 measurement of, 218 efficiency of, 114
Ohm's, 535-538 speed of sound vs., 393 Magnetic declination, 574
of reflection, 443-444 temperature and, 453
Snell's, 452
Magnetic domain, 566-567
transparent materials and, 409-411
of thermodynamics Magnetic field, 182, 564-565
visible, 330, 331
first, 355-357 changes in
wave nature of, 330, 375, 405
second, 360-361 transformers and, 586
white, 421
universal gravitation, 172-173 voltage induction and, 579
complementary colors and,
See also Principle of Earth, 574
427-428
electric currents and, 568-569
Lead, density of, 261 frequencies of, 426-427
induction of, 587-589
Length contraction, relativistic, Light clock, 219-220, 221 nature of, 562-565
232-234 Lightning, 511-512, 521 voltage induction and, 577-579
equation for, 234, 239
Light pipes, 459 Magnetic field lines, 564-565, 570
Lens, 463-476
Light quanta, 597 Magnetic forces, 563
achromatic, 476
Light source, and color, 423-424 on current-carrying wires, 571
in common optical instruments,
on moving charged particles, 570
471-473 Light waves
condenser, 473 diffraction of, 483-486 Magnetic poles, 563-564, 574
converging, 463-464 Huygens’ principle and, 480-483 Magnetic tides, 193
defects of, 475-476 interference and, 486-487 Magnetism, 562-576
diverging, 463-464, 465 polarization of, 414-415
Magnifying glasses, 465, 467
focal length of, 465
Light year, 407 ray diagram for, 467
focal plane of, 464
focal point of, 464 Linear momentum, 161. See also Mass
image formation by, 465-466, 470 Momentum acceleration and, 60, 77-78
objective, 472 Linear speed, 123, 124, 125 of air, 292, 293
principal axis of, 464 center of, 138
Lines of force, 517-518
projection, 473 critical, 631-632
Line spectrum, 437 defined, 49
Lever, 111-113
Liquids, 273-285 density vs., 260
Leverage, 151 Archimedes’ principle and, 278-279 kinetic energy and, 108
Lever arm, and torque, 151 boiling of, 343-345 as measure of inertia, 48-50
Leverrier, Urbain, 178 buoyancy and, 277-278 momentum and, 87
density of, 274 unit of, 50
Life, energy for, 117 evaporation of, 339-340 universal gravitation and, 172-174
Lift, 301 flotation and, 282-283 volume vs., 48-49
Light, 404-418 freezing of, 345-346 weight vs., 49-50, 66-68
black as absence of, 421 gases vs., 290
blue and red shifts and, 383 Pascal's principle and, 283-285

713
Mass-energy equivalence, 636, 639 of light rate of, 10
early, 404-405 relativity of, 10-11, 214-215,
Mass-energy relationship 216-217
particle, 405, 597
equation representing, 236-237 satellite. See Satellites
wave, 330, 375, 405
nuclear fission and, 237 simple harmonic, 373
of matter, 244-255
Mass number, 613 of solid, 259 in space-time, 213-214
Mass spectrometer, 637-638 uniform, 216-217
Moiré pattern, 380, 399
violent, 43-44
Mathematics, 1 Molecules, 249 wave, 375-376
Matter Momentum, 86-99 Motor, 572-573
atomic nature of, 244-255 angular, 161-164 generator vs., 580, 582-583
expansion and contraction of, 307 changes in, 87-90
kinetic energy in, 308 Motor effect, 583
conservation of, 92-93
molecules in, 249 law of, 94, 95, 96 Muon, 234
phases of, 255 decreasing
changes in, 339-350 over long time, 88-89
plasma phase of, 255 over short time, 89-90
See also Gas; Liquids; Solids defined, 86 Natural frequency, 395
Maxwell, James Clerk, 589, 590, 597 in elastic collisions, 94-95
Natural motion, 43
Mechanical advantage, 112-114 increasing, 88
in inelastic collisions, 95-96 Neap tides, 191
defined, 112
determining, 114 linear, 161 Nearsightedness, 475
ratio of actual to theoretical, 115 net, 95 Negative acceleration, 15
theoretical, 115 relativistic, 234-236
Neptune, discovery of, 178
as vector quantity, 98-99
Mechanical energy, 105-106 Neptunium, 634
Monochromatic light, 487-488, 493
Mechanics Net force
quantum, 604, 605 Moon
eclipse of, 191, 413 acceleration and, 60-61
rotational, 150-164 defined, 51
escape speed of, 208
Melting, 347 equilibrium and, 51-53
falling, 169-170, 171
Mercury gravitational force on Earth, Net momentum, 95
density of, 261 187-190 Net speed, 541-542
effect of atmospheric pressure on, ocean tides and, 187-190
294 Neutral equilibrium, 142
orbit of, 188, 190-191
Metals shape of, 188 Neutral layer, 265
conductivity of, 508-509 Morley, Edward W., 216 Neutron, 251
crystal structure of, 259 charge and, 501
Motion, 10-24
photosensitive, 598 in heavy elements, 610
air resistance and, 17, 24, 66, 68-70
Meteorologist, 291 mass of, 609
Aristotle’s theories of, 43-44, 46
Meters, 572-573 Brownian, 248 Newton, Isaac, 46, 70, 596-597
circular, 122-132 concept of falling moon and,
Metric system, 50, 311
components for projectile, 33-34 169-170
Michelson, Albert, 216 Earth’s, 44-45, 55, 171 discovery of universal gravitation
speed of light experiment of, and, 168-170
energy of, 108
406-407 law of universal gravitation,
of falling objects, 17-21
Microscope friction and, 44-45, 63-64 172-173, 504-506
compound, 472 gravity and, 45 laws of cooling, 334
diffraction and, 485 inertia and, 46 laws of motion
electron, 249, 485, 601 law of action and reaction and, first, 46-48
scanning tunneling, 248 75-82 second, 60-62
Microwaves, 330, 408 length contraction and, 232-234 third, 74-82
natural, 43 light theory of, 404
Millikan, Robert, 599
Newton's laws of satellite motion and, 203
Mirage, 452-453 first, 46-48 study of color and, 421, 437
Mirrors, 444-445 second, 60-62 Newton (unit of force), 50
Models third, 74-82
Newton-meter, 104, 151
of atom of planets, 48
projectile, 28-39 Nodes, 380
Bohr’s, 501, 596, 601-605
shell, 253 Normal, 444

714 Index
Normal force, 51 Particles Plasma
Nuclear fission, 629-634 alpha, 250, 611, 612 as state of matter, 255
mass-energy relationship and, 237 beta, 612 use in controlled nucelar fusion,
charged, magnetic forces on, 570 630
Nuclear fission reactor, 633-634,
as waves, 600-601 Plato, and concept of light, 394
635-636
waves as, 599
Nuclear forces, 173, 252 Pluto, discovery of, 178
Pascal, Blaise, 273, 284
Nuclear fusion, 629, 639-642 Plutonium, 634-635
Pascal (unit of pressure), 65, 273
controlling, 641-642 Polarization
in stars, 193-194 Pascal's principle, 284-285 of charge, 512-514
Nuclear power plant technician, 635 Pascal's vases, 276-277 of light, 414-415

Nuclear reaction, decrease in mass in, Pelton, Lester A., 91-92 Polarization axis, 414
237 Pelton wheel, 91 Poles, magnetic, 563-564, 574
Nucleon, 250, 609 Pendulum Police officer, 384
Nucleus, atomic, 250-252, 609-611 rotational inertia and, 155 Politician, 624
vibration of, 372-373
Pollution, thermal, 361, 367
Penumbra, 412
Postulates of relativity, 216
People. See Human body first, 216-217
Objective lens, 472 Perigee, 206 second, 217-218
Oceanographer, 573 Period Potential, electric, 524-525
Ocean tides, 187-192 frequency and, 375 Potential difference, 531, 534
Oersted, Hans Christian, 562 orbital, 202
Potential energy, 106-107
of pendulum, 372
Ohm, Georg Simon, 535 defined, 106
Periodic table of elements, 253-254 electrical, 523-524
Ohm (unit of resistance), 535
Perspiration, cooling function of, 340 gravitational, 107
Ohm's law, 535-538 satellite motion and, 205-206
Perturbations, 177-178
Oil, formation of, 111 Power
Phase, 380
Opaque materials, and light, 411-412 defined, 105
Phases of matter, 255 electric, 543-544
Oppenheimer, Frank, 373 changes of, 339-350 watt as unit of, 105
Optical fibers, 459 Photoelectric effect, 405, 598 Power transmission, 587
Optical illusions, 418 Photographer, 475 Pressure, 64-65
Optical instruments, lenses in, Photons, 405, 597 atmospheric, 292-293
471-473 defined, 65
Photosensitive metals, 598
Orbit density and, 297-298
Photosynthesis, 117
circular, 202-203, 206 equation for, 274
elliptical, 203-204, 206 Physics fluid speed and, 300
moon’, 188, 190-191 content of, 1 in liquid, 273-277
mathematics and, 1 regelation and, 346
Order, 364-365
as most basic science, 1 unit of, 65
Oscillation theory of universe, 179 quantum, 501, 605
Principal axis, 464
Osmium, density of, 261 Pigment, 424
Principal quantum number, 603
Out of phase, 380 colored, mixing, 429-431
Principle, 2
Overloaded circuit, 557-558 ~ Pioneer space missions, 48, 208
Archimedes’, 278-279, 299
Oxygen, density of, 292 Pistons, and Pascal's principle, 284 Bernoulli’s, 300-301
Pitch, 391 of flotation, 283
Huygens’, 480-483
Planck, Max, 597
Pascal’s, 284-285
Planck’s constant, 597 See also Laws
Paints, mixing of, 429-431
Planets Printing, color, 430-431
Parabolic path, 35-38, 136
escape speeds of, 208
Parallel circuits, 552-554 Prisms, 437
gravitational field inside, 184-185
overloading of, 557-558 color separation by, 421, 437
motion of, 48
lenses and, 463-464
Parallelogram, in addition of vectors, 31 tangential velocities of, 169-170
light dispersion through, 454-455
Particle nature of light, 405, 597

715
Procyon, 229 Radioactive half-life, 615-616 Relativistic kinetic energy, 238
Projectile, 33-39 Radioactive isotopes, 613-614 Relativistic momentum, 234—236
air resistance and, 34, 37 Radioactive nuclei, 610 Relativity, 212-229, 232-240
defined, 33 general theory of, 212
Radioactive tracers, 623-625
horizontal motion of, 33-34 special, 212
parabolic paths of, 34-38 Radioactive waste, 636 first postulate of, 216-217
projection angle and range of, Radio waves, 330, 408, 484 second postulate of, 217-218
36-37 diffraction of, 484 space and time and, 214-229
satellites, 39 length, energy, and momentum,
Radium, half-life of, 615
speed of, 37 232-240
upwardly moving, 35-38 Rainbow, 455-457
Religion, vs. science, 5-6
vertical motion of, 33-34 Rarefaction, 391-392, 397-398
Resistance
Projection lens, 473 Rate, defined, 10
electrical, 534-535
Projectors, 473 Ratio, 318 equivalent, 555
Proportion, 318 Ray diagrams, constructing images internal, 555
Protactinium, 617 through, 467-470 See also Air resistance

Proton, 251-252 Rays, 412 Resistors, 536

charge of, 501 alpha, 611 combining in compound circuit,
mass of, 609 beta, 611, 612 5955-556
cosmic, 621 Resolution, vector, 31
Pseudoscience, 146
gamma, 330, 611, 612
Pulley, 113-114 Resonance, 395-397
incident, 444
Pupil, 473 reflected, 444 Rest energy, 236-237
X-, 330, 408, 496, 609 Resultant
Pyramids, construction of, 7
Reaction net force as, 53
Pythagorean theorem, 30
action-reaction pair, 77-82 of vectors, 30
on bodies of different masses, Retina, 473
77-78
Reverberations, 447
identifying, 75-76
Quanta, light, 597 Revolution, defined, 123
Reaction force, 75, 78-79
Quantum mechanics, 604, 605 Revolutions per minute (RPM), 124,
Reactor
Quantum number, principal, 603 132
breeder, 635-636
Quantum physics, 501, 605 nuclear fission, 633-634, 635-636 Ripple tanks, 487
Quarks, 251, 504, 609 Real image, 465, 466 Roemer, Olaus, 405-406
Red giant star, 194 Roller coaster designer, 130
Red shift, 383 Rotation
body’s principal axes of, 159-160
Reflection, 332, 442-448
Radar waves, 383 defined, 123
angle of, 444
Radiant energy, 330 rate of, 123-124
color by, 422-424
absorption of, 331-334 diffuse, 446-447 Rotational inertia, 154-160
emission of, 332-333 Huygens’ principle and, 482 defined, 154
greenhouse effect and, 335-336 law of, 443-444 formulas for, 157
types of, 330 of sound, 447-448 gymnastics and, 159-160
Radiation, 330-331, 610-625 total internal, 457-459 Rotational mechanics, 150-164
damage by, 624-625 Refraction, 442, 448-454 Rotational speed, 123-124
extremely low frequency (ELF), 591 atmospheric, 452-454
infrared, 330, 331, 408, 411 Rotational velocity, 161
Huygens’ principle and, 482
natural background of, 624-625 index of, 451 RPM (revolutions per minute), 124,
penetrating power of, 612 of light, 451-452 132
terrestrial, 335-336 Snell’s law of, 452 Rutherford, Ernest, 250-251, 501, 620
ultraviolet, 330, 408 of sound, 449-450
Radiation curve of sunlight, 426 Refrigeration cycle, 349
Radiation detectors, 616 Regelation, 346
Radiation of energy, 330-331 Relative, defined, 10
Radioactive decay, 610-611, 618, 619 Relative humidity, 341

716 Index
Satellite design engineer, 205 Solar eclipse, 191, 413 instantaneous, 12, 17-19
Satellites, 39, 199-209 Solar system kinetic energy and, 108
communications, 209 center of mass of, 138 length contraction and, 232-234
energy conservation and, 205-206 Newton on, 171 of light. See Light, speed of
linear, 123, 124, 125
escape speeds for, 207-209 Solids, 258-270
net, 541-542
orbits of compression and stretching of,
circular, 202-203 projectile, 37
264-266 rate of change of, 16, 19
elliptical, 203-204 density of, 260-262 relativity of, 214-215
Saturation of air with water vapor, 341 elasticity of, 263-264 rotational, 123-124
Scalar quantities, 29 expansion of, 315-317 satellite, 203
as phase of matter, 255 in circular orbit, 202-203
Scaling, 267-270 scaling and, 267-270 in elliptical orbit, 203-204
Scanning tunneling microscope, 248 structure of, 258-259 of sound, 376, 393
Scattering of light, 432, 434 thermal expansion of, 315-317 terminal, 68-69
Schematic diagrams, 554, 556 Sonic boom, 385-386 units of, 11-12
Sound, 390-400 velocity vs., 13-14
Science
in air, 391-392 wave, 376-377
basic concepts of, 1-7
mathematics as language of, 1 media that transmit, 392 Spherical aberration, 476
physics as most basic, 1 natural frequency and, 395 Spring, elasticity of, 263-264
pseudoscience vs., 146 origin of, 390-391
reflection of, 447-448 Spring tides, 190
technology vs., 5
theories of, 3 refraction of, 449-450 Stability, 142-144
speed of, 376-393 Stable equilibrium, 142
Scientific attitude, 2-3
Sound beats, 398-400 Standing waves, 380-382
Scientific methods, 1-2
Sound waves, 376-377 Stars
Scientific notation, 173
Doppler effect and, 382-384 black dwarf, 194
Scientists, social responsibility of, 240 infrasonic and ultrasonic, 391 elements in, 245
Scintillation counter, 616 interference and, 397-398 gravitation in, 194
Seismologist, 378 Space nuclear fusion in, 193, 194
contraction of, 233 red giant, 194
Semiconductors, 509
mass and weight in, 48-49 Static-free environment, 503
Series circuits, 550-551
Space program, 48, 408 Steady flow, and Bernoulli’s principle,
Shadows, 412-413 301
Space-time, 213-214
Shell model of atom, 253 Steam turbine, 362-363, 582
Space travel, 222-229
Shock, electric, 537-538
Special relativity. See Relativity, Steel
Shock waves, 385-386 special compression of, 264—265
Short circuit, 558 elasticity of, 263, 393
Specific heat capacity, 313-315
Simple harmonic motion, 373 defined, 313 Streamlines, 301
Simulated gravity, 131-132 of water, 314-315 Strong force, 610
Sine curve, 373, 374 Spectrometer, 437 Strong nuclear force, 252
mass, 637-638 Subatomic particles, 250-251, 609
SI units, 50, 311
Spectroscope, 437, 438 Subtraction, color, 428-429, 430-431
Size, effects on weight, strength,
and surface area, 267-270 Spectrum Sun
atomic, 436-438 eclipse of, 191, 413
Sky, color of, 432-433 electromagnetic, 408 escape speed of, 209
Skydiving, and terminal speed, 69 line, 437 ocean tides and, 189-190
Slash (/) symbol, 11 of white light, 421, 437
Sunlight, 421, 425-426
Slide show, 3-D, 417 Speculation, 4 dispersion of, 454-456
Snell, W., 452 Speed, 11-13 greenhouse effect and, 335-336
air resistance and, 63-64, 66, 68-70 radiation curve of, 426
Snell’s law, 452
average, 12, 20 rainbows and, 455-457
Social responsibility of scientists, 240 constant, 14 scattered, 432, 434
Socrates, and concept of light, 404 defined, 11 spectrum of, 421
drift, 541-542
Sodium chloride, structure of, 250, Sunset, colors of, 433-435
escape, 207-209
259

717
Superconductors, 509 Thermonuclear fusion, 111, 639-640 Ultrasonic sound waves, 391
Supernova, 245 Thermostat, bimetallic strips in, 316 Ultrasound, 485
Support force, 51 Thin films Ultraviolet radiation, 330, 408
Surface area, relationship to volume, iridescence from, 491-493 Umbra, 412
269-270 single-color interference from,
Unified field theory, 506
490-491
Surfing, physics of, 32 Units, SI, 50, 311
Thin-lens equation, 467
Systéme International d’Unités, 50, Universal gravitation, 168-179
o1t) Thorium, 617
law of, 172-174, 504-506
3-D viewing, 416-418
Universal gravitational constant,
Tides 172-173, 504
atmospheric, 193
Table, air, 47 Universe
Earth, 193
magnetic, 193
expansion of, 178-179
Tacoma Narrows Bridge collapse, 396 oscillation of, 179
ocean, 187-192
Tangential velocity, 169-170
neap, 191 Unstable equilibrium, 142
Tanks, ripple, 487 spring, 190 Uranium
Technology, vs. science, 5 Time chain reaction in, 631-632
Telescopes, 471-472 change in momentum and, 88-90 density of, 261
elapsed, 17 isotopes of, 614
Temperature, 307-308
as part of space-time, 213-214 as nuclear fuel, 633-634
absolute, 298
as perceived by space travelers, radioactive decay of, 618, 619
air saturation and, 341-342
218-220 transmutation of, 617
electrical resistance and, 534
equalization of Time dilation, 214, 218-220 Uranium dating, 623
through conduction, 325-326 equation for, 221 Uranus, perturbations of, 177-178
through convection, 327-329 space travel and, 222-229
Useful energy, 117
ignition, 641 twin trip as example of, 222-228
kinetic energy and, 308, 339-340 Time travel, 228-229
radiant energy and, 331
Toppling, 140-141
Tension, 52
Torque, 150-154 Vacuum
Terminal speed, 68-69 balanced, 152 atmospheric pressure and, 295
Terminal velocity, 69 center of gravity and, 152-154 sound in, 392
Terrestrial radiation, 335-336 defined, 150 speed oflight in, 407, 410
Terrestrial telescope, 472 Total internal reflection, 457-459 Van de Graaff generator, 517, 527-528,
Tracers, radioactive, 623-625 531-532
Theory, 3
of evolution, 5 Transformers, 583-586 Vaporization
general, of relativity, 212 cooling process and, 349-350
Transistors, 509
of gravitation, 168-170 energy absorption and, 347, 350
Transmission, color by, 424—425 energy required for, 347
special, of relativity, 212
See also Relativity, special Transmutation, 617-618 heat of, 347
unified field, 506 artificial, 620 Vector, 28-39
natural, 617-618 components of, 31-32
Thermal contact, 309
Transparency, and light, 409-411 defined, 29
Thermal energy. See Kinetic energy
force, 53-54
Transverse waves, 378
Thermal equilibrium, 310 geometric addition of, 30-31
Tritium, 251, 613 momentum, 98-99
Thermal expansion, 315-318
computation of, 318 Troughs, wave, 372 Pythagorean theorem in finding
of liquids, 317 overlap of, 397 resultant of, 30
of solids, 315-317 Tuning forks velocity, 29
of water, 319-321 beats and, 398-399 Vector quantity, 28
Thermal pollution, 361, 367 compressions and rarefactions and, Velocity, 13-14
Thermodynamics, 354-365 392 acceleration and, 15
first law of, 355-357 vibration of, 394 changing, 14
second law of, 360-361 Turbine, 362-363, 582 components of, 31-32, 33
thermal pollution and, 367 Twin trip, and time dilation, 222-228 constant, 14
rotational, 161

718 Index
 satellite, 169-170 Water pressure, 273-277 Wet cells, 533
speed vs., 13-14 Water vapor White light, 421
tangential, 169-170 saturation and, 341 Winds
terminal, 68-69 terrestrial radiation and, 336 chinooks, 359-360
units of, 13
Watt, James, 105 as effect of convection, 328-329
vector addition of, 29-31
vector representation of, 29 Watt (unit of power), 105, 543-544 Work, 103-104
See also Speed Wave crests, 374 categories of, 104
defined, 103
Vibration, 372 Wave fronts, 449 electric potential energy and, 524
of electric charges, 408-411
Wavelength, 374 gravitational potential energy and,
of electromagnetic wave, 415 de Broglie, 600 523
forced, 394 wave speed and, 376-377 power and, 104-105
frequency of, 374
Wave motion, 375-376 ratio of input to output as
of pendulum, 372-373
efficiency, 115
of tuning fork, 394 Waves, 372-386
units of, 104
Violent motion, 43-44 bow, 384-385
defined, 372 Work-energy theorem, 108
Virtual image, 445, 465 diffraction of, 483-486
Visible light, 330, 331 electromagnetic, 330, 375, 408,
Vision, defects in, 474-475 589-591
electron, 601-603 X-ray patterns, of solids, 258-259
Volt, defined, 524-525
energy transfer and, 330-335, X-rays, 330, 408, 496, 609
Volta, Allesandro, 524 375-376
Voltage frequency of, 376-377, 383
amount induced, and magnetic interference and, 379-380
field changes, 579 light. See Light waves
longitudinal, 378-379 Young, Thomas, 487-488, 597
defined, 524-525
effects of transformer on, 584-586 moiré pattern of, 380, 399
induction of, 577-579 as particles, 599
primary and secondary, 583-586 particles as, 600-601
radar, 383 Zero, absolute, 308, 354-355
Voltage source, 533-534
radio, 330, 408, 484 Zero-point energy, 355
Voltmeter, 572, 573 reflection of, 442-443
Volume refraction of, 448-449
mass vs., 48-49 shock, 385-386
relationship to surface area, sine curve representation of, 373,
269-270 374
Voyager space missions, 48 sound. See Sound waves
standing, 380-382
transverse, 378
Wave speed, 376-377
Water Wave troughs, 372
color of, 435-436 Weak force, 506
crystal form of, 319-320
density of, 261, 274, 319-320 Weight
changes in space, 49
displaced, 277-278, 282-283
defined, 49, 187
energy required to freeze and
mass vs., 49-50, 66-68
vaporize, 347-348
scaling and, 267-270
freezing of, 345, 346
weightlessness and, 186-187
heavy, 613
specific heat of, 314-315 Weight density, 261, 274
thermal expansion of, 319-321 Weightlessness, 186-187

719
Acknowledgments

For improvements in this edition I am enormously grateful to

Kenneth Ford (Figure 26.15) and consultant Charles Spiegel (Figure
30.25). These two worked very hard to make it squeaky clean. Ken, re-
tired Executive Director and CEO of The American Institute of
Physics, reviewed every equation and sentence for physics accuracy,
while Charlie did the same for syntax.
For getting this book started in the first place, and being great re-
sources for subsequent editions, I am thankful to my two friends
Marshall Ellenstein (Figure 1.3) and Paul Robinson (Figure 5.8), who
are pilot teachers. I miss my late son James (Figure 11.23) who cut the
stencils for shading the artwork in the first edition—I’m thankful he
left me a grandson, Manuel (Figure 6.15).
For critiquing sample chapters of the first edition, which carries
over to this edition, I am thankful to Hal Eastin, Donald Gielow, Robin
Gregg, Charlie Hibbard, Willa Ramsey, and especially to pilot teachers
Nathan Unterman and Nancy Watson, and consultants Clarence
Bakken, Art Farmer, and Sheron Snyder.
For input to the second edition, which carries over to this edition, I
thank Robert Baruffaldi, Howard Brand, Ted Brattstrom, Paul Doherty,
Peter Crooker, Jerry Hosken, Meidor Hu, Mario Iona, Chelcie Liu, John
Learned, Dack Lee, Tenny Lim (Figure 8.4), Ron Lindemann, Marshall
Mok, Lev Okun, Ernie Santner, John Suchocki, Vic Stenger, Chester
Vause, Kellie Werkmeister, and my daughter Leslie (Figure 17.1).
For input to this edition, I am grateful to Clarence Bakken, Jim
Court, Alan Davis, Sumner Davis, Ken Ganezer, Bruce Gregory, Lon-
nie Grimes, Manuel Hewitt, Jerry Hosken, Marilyn Hromatko, Mei
Tuck Hu, John Hubisz, Dan Johnson, Annie Kwak, Jose Larios, Dack
Lee, Cherie Lehman, Graham Robertson, Les Ross, Ronald Shaw, and
David Yee. I thank Dean Baird and Phillip Wolf for helping to write the
new problems in Appendix FI thank Meidor Hu (Figure 33.17) for
manuscript assistance. I am grateful to Helen Yan (Figure 22.13) for
hand lettering the illustrations.

720
Conceptual Physics Photo Album

Conceptual Physics is a very personal book, and this is reflected in

the many photographs of family and friends found throughout this
edition. My wife Millie appears with our grandson Manuel in the “You
cannot touch without being touched” photo (Figure 6.15). My late
son James, Manuel’s father, is shown illustrating gyroscopic motion
in Figure 11.23, and again as a tot in the magnifying glass in Figure
30.8. My son Paul illustrates adiabatic compression in Figure 24.3,
and his wife Ludmila holds the polarizing filters in Figure 27.19. My
favorite photo of my daughter Leslie holding a molecular model is
seen in Figure 17.1. My brother Dave Hewitt (no, not a twin) and his
wife Barbara operate the water pump in Figure 20.9. Other family
members include “nephews” Marques Jones, who compares thermal
conductivities to open Unit 3, and Ryan Paterson showing magnetic
induction in Figure 36.10.
The pilot with the sound-canceling earphones in Figure 26.15 is
physicist Ken Ford, whose savvy for physics embellishes this edition,
and to whom this book is dedicated. The photo of washtub bass shown
in Figure 26.8 comes from the album of his son Paul’s wedding.
Dear friends include Charlie Spiegel (Figure 30.25), whose
grammatical touch is added to every page of this edition, and Mar-
shall Ellenstein (Figure 1.3). Lab manual author Paul (Pablo)
Robinson lies between beds of sharp nails in Figure 5.8. Friend and
mathematics teacher Gwen Roberts’s granddaughter, Amor Yates,
opens Unit 4, and CCSF colleague David Yee’s daughter Sarah opens
Unit 5.
Meidor Hu, formerly in Figure 1.1 of the second edition, now
stands electrified in Figure 33.17. Other dear friends include my for-
mer student Tenny Lim, a design engineer who puts energy into her
bow in Figure 8.4, and Helen Yan, an orbit analyst for an aerospace
company and coauthor of the Next-Time Questions. Helen holds the
same box in Figure 22.13 that she held as a physics student for the
first edition some ten years ago. Her hand lettering adorns the illus-
trations in this book. In Figure 7.11, colleague Will Maynez operates
the air track he designed for the CCSF physics department.
These photographs of people very dear to me, all the more make
Conceptual Physics a labor of love.

721
The people who made up the Conceptual Physics team—representing design services,
editorial, editorial services, electronic publishing technology, manufacturing & inventory
planning, market research, marketing services, online services & multimedia development,
product planning, production services, project office, and publishing processes—are listed
below. Bold type denotes core team members.

Barbara A. Bertell, Kristen Braghi, Kathleen J. Dempsey, Judy Elgin,

Frederick Fellows, Ellen Levinger, Don Manning, Caroline M. Power,
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Additional Credits
Cover by Kerry Loftus Design

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723
1. About Science s Unit Ill. Heat
Unit I. Mechanics 21. Temperature, Heat, and Expansion
NO. Linear Motion 22. Heat Transfer
3. Projectile Motion 23. Change of Phase
4. Newton’s First Law of Motion: Inertia 24. Thermodynamics
5 . Newton’s Second Law of Motion: Unit IV. Sound and Light
Force and Acceleration
25. Vibrations and Waves
6. Newton’s Third Law of Motion:
26. Sound
Action and Reaction © i
27. Light
7. Momentum
28. Color
8. Energy
29. Reflection and Refraction
9. Circular Motion
30. Lenses
10. Center of Gravity
31. Diffraction and Interference
11. Rotational Mechanics
12. Universal Gravitation Unit V. Electricity and Magnetism
13. Gravitational Interactions 32. Electrostatics
14. Satellite Motion 33. Electric Fields and Potential
15. Special Relativity: Space and Time 34. Electric Current
16. Special Relativity: Length, 35. Electric Circuits
Momentum, and Energy — 36. Magnetism
Unit Il. Properties of Matter 37. Electromagnetic Induction
17. The Atomic Nature of Matter Unit VI. Atomic and Nuclear Physic
18. Solids 38. The Atom and the Quantum
19. Liquids 39. The Atomic Nucleus and Radioactivity
20. Gases 40. Nuclear Fission and Fusion