CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
Nature of research & Need of research
A cyclical process of steps that typically begins with identifying a research problem or issue of
study. It then involves reviewing the literature, specifying a purpose for the study, collecting and
analyzing data, and forming an interpretation of information. This process culminates in a
report, disseminated to audiences, that is evaluated and used in the educational community.
(Creswell, 2002)
In less comprehensive terms, educational research is an organized approach to asking,
answering, and effectively reporting a question.

Educators need to be consumers (and producers) of research. Creswell (2002) notes the
following reasons, describing the various purposes of educational research:
1. Improve Practice
Research can suggest ways of improving practice that have been verified with many applications
and by many different types of people, which is difficult for practitioners.
2. Add to Knowledge
Research can add to what we know about how people learn and what we can do help facilitate
the learning process.
3. Address Gaps in Knowledge
Research can address areas in which little is know, like perhaps the effects of online versus
traditional classroom learning.
4. Expand Knowledge
Research can allow us to extend what we know in ways we never conceived.
5. Replicate Knowledge
Research can act as a test to verify previous findings.
6. Add Voices of Individuals to Knowledge
Research can add an important perspective for different learning types. Much of the educational
research prior to the Eighties is based on able, white, middle-to-upper class males. This is
certainly not reflective of our increasingly heterogeneous students, and research helps revise
theory and practice to reflect different student needs.

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These are only a few of the many reasons research is important, particularly to educators. In an
increasingly data-driven society, it is vital that educators know how to locate, find, and interpret
research on their own. Further, educators need to be able to conduct quality research to examine
issues within their own contexts.
What are the Basic Types of Research?
Briefly, get used to using the following words: quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods. We
will review each on this site, but for now, consider these brief descriptions:
1. Quantitative Research (QUANT)–descriptive and inferential statistics
This type of research design is best for “What?” questions.
2. Qualitative Research (QUAL)–descriptive and thematic analysis
This type of research design is best for “How?” and “Why?” questions.
3. Mixed Methods (MIXED)–integrated, synthesis, and multi-method approaches
This type of research design is good for any questions you can think of, particularly those that
can’t be answer easily with numbers alone. Consider the “best” way to evaluate student
achievement, for example.

Format of Research Report

A. Preliminary Section
1. Title Page
2. Acknowledgments (if any)
3. Table of Contents
4. List of Tables (if any)
5. List of Figures (if any)
6. Abstract
B. Main Body
1. Introduction
a. Statement of the Problem
b. Significance of the Problem (and historical background)
c. Purpose
d. Statement of Hypothesis
e. Assumptions

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f. Limitations
g. Definition of Terms
2. Review of Related Literature (and analysis of previous research)
3. Design of the Study
a. Description of Research Design and Procedures Used
b. Sources of Data
c. Sampling Procedures
d. Methods and Instruments of Data Gathering
e. Statistical Treatment
4. Analysis of Data
contains:
a. text with appropriate
b. tables and
c. figures
5. Summary and Conclusions
a. Restatement of the Problem
b. Description of Procedures
c. Major Findings (reject or fail to reject Ho)
d. Conclusions
e. Recommendations for Further Investigation

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 CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH

1.1) RESEARCH BY PURPOSE

1.2) RESEARCH BY METHOD
1.1) RESEARCH BY PURPOSE:
1.1.1) Basic Research
1.1.2) Applied Research
1.1.3) Action Research
1.1.4) Evaluation Research
1.1.5) Research and Development
1.2) RESEARCH BY METHOD:
1.2.1) Qualitative Research
1.2.2) Quantitative Research
1.2.1) QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
1.2.1.1) Historical Research
1.2.1.2) Ethnographic Research
1.2.2) QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
1.2.2.1) Descriptive Research
1.2.2.2) Correlational Research
1.2.2.3) Causal Comparative Research
1.2.2.4) Experimental Research
1.1) RESEARCH BY PURPOSE
Research by purpose is based on the degree to which findings have direct educational
application and degree to which they are generalizable.
1.1.1) BASIC RESEARCH:
Basic research is either directly or indirectly involves the development of theory. The
purpose of basic research is solely the theory development and refinement. Basic research
establish general principles for learning.
For example basic research has been conducted to determine principle of reinforcement and their
effects on learning. Basic research provide theory that produce the implications for solving
educational problems
1.1.2) APPLIED RESEARCH:
Applied research is concerned with application of theory to the solution of problems. The
purpose of applied research is applying or testing theory and evaluating its usefulness in solving
educational problems. Applied research provide data to support theory, guide theory revision or
suggest development of new theory. Applied research has tested the principle to determine the
effectiveness in improving learning.
1.1.3) ACTION RESEARCH:
The solution of practical problem through the application of scientific method is called
action research or the solution of local problem in local setting. It is not concerned with
generalization. The primary purpose of action research is the solution of a given problem, not
contribution to science. Teacher is very much a part of this process. The value of action research
is confined primarily to those who conducting it. The value of action research to true scientific
progress is limited, because it did not developed sound theories having implications for many
classrooms, not just one or two. Action research provide immediate answer to the problems, that
cannot wait for theoretical solution.

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1.1.4) EVALUATION RESEARCH:
Evaluation is the systematic process of collecting and analyzing data in order to make
important decisions. The purpose of evaluation research is select an alternative in order to make
decisions. There may be only two alternatives. For example continue a program or not, adopt a
new curriculum or keep the current. Evaluation is a type of research whose purpose is to
facilitate decision making
1.1.5) RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT:
Major purpose is not to formulate or test theory but to develop effective products for use
in schools
1.2) RESEARCH BY METHOD
1.2.1) QUALITATIVE RESEARCH:
Qualitative research involves the collection of extensive narrative data in order to gain
insight into a phenomena of interest. Data analysis includes the coding of data and production of
verbal synthesis. It is a holistic and process oriented. In qualitative research we study many
variables. It give answer of what, why, how. In qualitative research we do not want to control or
intervene anything, but to study the phenomena as they are or were in naturalistic setting
1.2.1.1) ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH:
Ethnographic research involves intensive data collection, that is the collection of
extensive narrative data on many variables over an extended period of time, in a
naturalistic setting. The purpose of ethnographic research is to understand the behaviour
occurs in a context. It just not to describe the way things are? But also gaining insight
into how things got to be they way they are? It used variety of methods for data collection
to achieve holistic understanding of a phenomena. It is also called multi method research.
The most common strategies are observation and case study method using a number of
variables.
For exampleA case study of parental involvement at early childhood education
1.2.1.3) HISTORICAL RESEARCH:
Historical research involves studying, understanding and explaining past events.
The purpose of historical research is to arrive at conclusion concerning causes, effects or
trends of the past occurrences that may help to explain present events and anticipate
future events. It is less frequently conducted than other types. There are certain
educational problems and issues such as grading policies that can be better understood in
the light of past experiences. Historical research studies do not gather data by
administering instruments to individuals. They must seek out the data that are already
available. Source of data primary and secondary.Primary sources has firsthand
knowledge such as eyewitness, reports and original documents. Secondary sources has
secondhand information
For Example
Factor leading to the development and growth of cooperative learning
Trends in reading instruction 1940-1995
1.2.3) QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH:
The collection of numerical data in order to explain, predict and or control the
phenomena of interest. Data analysis is mainly statistical. In quantitative research
hypothesis are tested. It is more focused and process oriented. In this research we

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 study one or small number of variables in order to describe the current
relationship/condition. It wants to control or intervene the variables
1.2.2.1) DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH:
Involves collecting data in order to test hypothesis or answer the questions
concerning the current status of the subject of the study. A descriptive study determines
and report the way things are? Descriptive data are typically collected through a
questionnaire survey, interview or observation. In descriptive research we developed
instrument for specific studies. Instruments development requires time and skills
For example: How does secondary school teacher spend their time in classroom.
1.2.2.2) CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH:
Attempts to determine whether and, to what degree, a relationship exist between
two or more quantifiable variables. The purpose of correlational research study may be
establish relationship (or lack of it) or to use a relationship to make prediction. The
correlational research never establish a cause-effect relationship, only a relationship. The
existence of high relationship permits prediction. The degree of relationship between two
variables are generally expressed as correlation co-efficient which is a number between
0.00 – 1.00. Two variables that are not related will produced a co-efficient near to .00 and
the two variables that are highly related will produced a co-efficient near to 1.00. For
making any decision the degree of relationship is necessary
For Example:
The relation between intelligence and self-esteem.
1.2.2.3) CAUSAL COMPARATIVE RESEARCH:
This type of research is based on cause-effect relationship. In causal comparative
study the independent variable or “cause” is not manipulated it has all ready occurred.
Due to lack of manipulation and control cause effect relationship established are the best
tenuous and tentative, causal comparative studies are less expensive and take less time to
conduct
For Example:
The effect of sex on algebra achievement
1.2.2.4) EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH:
It is the type of research in which independent variable can be manipulated. In
experimental study the researcher manipulated at least one independent variable and
observe the effect on one or more dependent variables.
In other words the researcher determine “who gets what” which group of subject will get
which treatment; the groups are generally referred to as experimental or control groups.
Manipulation differentiate it from the other methods. This is the only type of research
that can truly established cause effect relationships
For Example:
The effect of positive reinforcement on attitude toward the schools

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 Comparing positivist (or objectivist) and naturalist (or interpretivist) approaches to
research:

Positivist Naturalist
 The purpose of research is to discover the  Realities are multiple, constructed, and
truth. holistic. The purpose is to understand
meaning from the perspectives of the
participants.
 Knower and known (or observer and  Knower and known are interactive,
observed) must remain separate to limit inseparable.
observer bias.
 Emphasis on control of extraneous  Researcher’s ability to control extraneous
variables. variables is rejected, instead, they must be
described and their possible influence
accounted.
 Context is de-emphasized and variations  Description and exploration of the context
between contexts “controlled” for to the of the research is critical.
greatest extent possible.
 Research participant are “objectified” --  Participants are seen as involved in the
frequently referred to as research subjects. research. They are often asked for their
taken on the interpretation of the results.
 Data is often quantified, even if it is  Data is often non-numeric. The focus is on
descriptive (i.e. interviews). rich description of the event(s) and context.
 Focus on generalization of research  Focus on unique aspects of the context,
findings generalization is downplayed.

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Qualitative, Quantitative and mixed method

Quantitative Research Design

 All the data collected will be counted/quantified

 Aim: to approve/disprove a hypothesis. A hypothesis should be in a form of question
 Advantage: It’s an efficient method of gathering information
 Disadvantage: It doesn’t explain the question of ‘why?’

Qualitative Approach

 The data collected are non-numerical and gathered to be analyzed in-depth, not to be
quantified
 Aim: to answer a research question
 Advantage: Contextual information is gathered, and thus, reasons of why phenomena
happen can be explained and explored
 Disadvantage: Time consuming

Mixed Method Research

 Combination of both
 Advantage: balancing efficient data collection and in-depth analysis with the data that
provides context
 Challenge: researchers need to make sure that the two data are complement to each other
and not duplicative

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 CHAPTER 2
SELECTION OF A RESEARCH PROBLEM

A research problem, in general, refers to some difficulty which a researcher experiences in the
context of either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the same.

Techniques Involved in Defining, Refining and Finalizing a Problem

• To define a problem correctly, a researcher must know:
– what a problem is?
• State the components of a research problem as under:
– an individual or a group which has some difficulty or the problem.
– some objective(s) to be attained at.
• If one wants nothing, one cannot have a problem.
– Must be alternative means (or the courses of action) for obtaining the objective(s)
one wishes to attain
• There must be at least two means available to a researcher for
• if he has no choice of means, he cannot have a problem.
– There must remain some doubt in the mind of a researcher with regard to the
selection of alternatives.
• This means that research must answer the question concerning the relative
efficiency of the possible alternatives.
– There must be some environment(s) to which the difficulty pertains.
• SELECTING THE PROBLEM
– The research problem undertaken for study must be carefully selected.
– The task is a difficult one, although it may not appear to be so.
– Subject which is overdone should not be normally chosen, for it will be a difficult
task to throw any new light in such a case.
– Controversial subject should not become the choice of an average researcher.
– Too narrow or too vague (fuzzy) problems should be avoided.
– The subject selected for research should be familiar and feasible so that the
related research material or sources of research are within one’s reach.

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 – Contact an expert or a professor in the University who is already engaged in
research.
– Read articles published in current literature available on the subject and may think
how the techniques and ideas discussed there in might be applied to the solution
of other problems.
– Discuss with others what he has in mind concerning a problem. In this way he
hould make all possible efforts in selecting a problem.
– The importance of the subject, the qualifications and the training of a researcher,
the costs involved, the time factor
• Whether he is well equipped in terms of his background to carry out the
research?
• Whether the study falls within the budget he can afford?
• Whether the necessary cooperation can be obtained from those who must
participate in research as subjects?
– The selection of a problem must be preceded by a preliminary study. This may
not be necessary when the problem requires the conduct of a research closely
similar to one that has already been done.
• But when the field of inquiry is relatively new and does not have available
a set of well developed techniques, a brief feasibility study must always be
undertaken.
• TECHNIQUE IN DEFINING/REFINING A PROBLEM
– statement of the problem in a general way;
– understanding the nature of the problem;
– surveying the available literature
– developing the ideas through discussions; and
– rephrasing the research problem into a working proposition.
• (i) Statement of the problem in a general way:
– the problem should be stated in a broad general way, keeping in view either some
practical concern or some scientific or intellectual interest.
– In case of social research, it is considered advisable to do some field observation,
some sort of preliminary survey or what is often called pilot survey.

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 – Then the researcher can himself state the problem or he can seek the guidance of
the guide or the subject expert in accomplishing this task.
• (ii) Understanding the nature of the problem:
– Understand its origin and nature clearly
– to discuss it with those who first raised it in order to find out how the problem
originally came about and with what objectives in view
– A discussion with those who have a good knowledge of the problem concerned or
similar other problems.
– The researcher should also keep in view the environment within which the
problem is to be studied and understood.
• (iii) Surveying the available literature:
– All available literature concerning the problem must necessarily be surveyed and
examined
• It will be well-conversant with relevant theories in the field, reports and
records
• To find out what data and other materials -- “Knowing what data are
available often serves to narrow the problem itself as well as the technique
that might be used.”
• If there are certain gaps in the theories, or whether the existing theories
applicable to the problem under study are inconsistent with each other, or
whether the findings of the different studies do not follow a pattern
consistent with the theoretical expectations and so on.
• for indicating the type of difficulties that may be encountered in the
present study as also the possible analytical shortcomings.
• (iv) Developing the ideas through discussions:
– often produces useful information
– Various new ideas can be developed
– Discuss problem with colleagues and others who have enough experience in the
same area or in working on similar problems --- known as an experience survey.
– People with rich experience are in a position to enlighten the researcher on
different aspects of his proposed study and their advice and comments are usually

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 invaluable to the researcher --- sharpen his focus of attention on specific aspects
within the field.
• (v) Rephrasing the research problem:
– to rephrase the research problem into a working proposition
– rephrasing the problem into analytical or operational terms is not a difficult task
– Through rephrasing, the researcher puts the research problem in as specific terms
as possible so that it may become operationally viable and may help in the
development of working hypotheses
• The following points must also be observed while defining a research problem:
– (a) Technical terms and words or phrases, with special meanings used in the
statement of the problem, should be clearly defined
– (b) Basic assumptions or postulates (if any) relating to the research problem
should be clearly stated
• Defining a research problem:
– (c) A straight forward statement of the value of the investigation (i.e., the criteria
for the selection of the problem)
– (d) The suitability of the time-period and the sources of data available
– (e) The scope of the investigation or the limits within which the research

– Defining a research problem is crucial in defining the quality of the answers, and
determines the exact research method used.
– A quantitative experimental design uses deductive reasoning to arrive at a testable
hypothesis.
– Qualitative research designs use inductive reasoning to propose a research
statement.
CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH PROBLEM
 the variables in the problem must be clear
 it should be limited in scope and should be specific,
 It must have a goal
 it should be free from ethical constraints
 good research problem must be researchable.

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SOURCES OF RESEARCH PROBLEMS
 Social problems like unemployment, crimes, female genital mutilation , etc
 theory deduction
 funding agencies
 past researches and literature review
 casual observation
 related literature
 current social and economic issues
 personal interest and experience
 replication of previous studies
 clarification of contradictory research results

RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

MEANING AND IMPORTANCE

What are research objectives?
 Description of what is to be achieved by the study
Importance
 Narrows and focus the study
 Guides information to be collected
 Facilitate development of METHODOLOGY
TYPES OF OBJECTIVES
 Broad objective
 Specific objectives

Broad objective
 States what is to be achieved by the study in general terms.
 Usually only one per study
 Related to core problem and topic of the study
 Shows target population and place
 Use action verb

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Example:
 To determine the factors associated with increased number of diarrhea cases
among under fives in X village
Specific objectives
 Describe the variables that are measured by the study
 Several in one study
 Use action verb
Example:
1. To find out methods used for excreta disposal
2. To find out methods used for water treatment
3. To determine the feeding habits of the under fives

Qualities of specific objectives

 Stated in logical sequence
 Clear and unambiguous
 What is to be done?
 Specific
 Addressing one thing only
 Measurable
 Can be evaluated
 Use proper action verbs (Determine, Find out, Identify)
 Attainable, given the resources available
 Realistic, given the local conditions
 Time bound, can be achieved in the given time
Qualities – SMART
 Specific
 Measurable
 Attainable
 Realistic
 Time bound

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 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Before you begin writing a grant proposal, take some time to map out your research strategy. A
good first step is to formulate a research question.
A Research Question is a statement that identifies the phenomenon to be studied. For example,
“What resources are helpful to new and minority drug abuse researchers?”
To develop a strong research question from your ideas, you should ask yourself these things:
 Do I know the field and its literature well?
 What are the important research questions in my field?
 What areas need further exploration?
 Could my study fill a gap? Lead to greater understanding?
 Has a great deal of research already been conducted in this topic area?
 Has this study been done before? If so, is there room for improvement?
 Is the timing right for this question to be answered? Is it a hot topic, or is it becoming
obsolete?
 Would funding sources be interested?
 If you are proposing a service program, is the target community interested?
 Most importantly, will my study have a significant impact on the field?

A strong research idea should pass the “so what” test. Think about the potential impact of the
research you are proposing. What is the benefit of answering your research question? Who will it

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help (and how)? If you cannot make a definitive statement about the purpose of your research, it
is unlikely to be funded.
A research focus should be narrow, not broad-based. For example, “What can be done to prevent
substance abuse?” is too large a question to answer. It would be better to begin with a more
focused question such as“What is the relationship between specific early childhood experiences
and subsequent substance-abusing behaviors?”

Literature Review
A literature review surveys books, scholarly articles, and any other sources relevant to a
particular issue, area of research, or theory, and by so doing, provides a description, summary,
and critical evaluation of these works in relation to the research problem being investigated.
Literature reviews are designed to provide an overview of sources you have explored while
researching a particular topic and to demonstrate to your readers how your research fits within a
larger field of study.

Importance of a Good Literature Review

A literature review may consist of simply a summary of key sources, but in the social
sciences, a literature review usually has an organizational pattern and combines both
summary and synthesis, often within specific conceptual categories. A summary is a recap of
the important information of the source, but a synthesis is a re-organization, or a reshuffling, of
that information in a way that informs how you are planning to investigate a research problem.
The analytical features of a literature review might:
 Give a new interpretation of old material or combine new with old interpretations,
 Trace the intellectual progression of the field, including major debates,
 Depending on the situation, evaluate the sources and advise the reader on the most
pertinent or relevant research, or
 Usually in the conclusion of a literature review, identify where gaps exist in how a
problem has been researched to date.
The purpose of a literature review is to:
 Place each work in the context of its contribution to understanding the research problem
being studied.

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  Describe the relationship of each work to the others under consideration.
 Identify new ways to interpret prior research.
 Reveal any gaps that exist in the literature.
 Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies.
 Identify areas of prior scholarship to prevent duplication of effort.
 Point the way in fulfilling a need for additional research.
 Locate your own research within the context of existing literature [very important].

Types of Literature Reviews

It is important to think of knowledge in a given field as consisting of three layers. First, there are
the primary studies that researchers conduct and publish. Second are the reviews of those studies
that summarize and offer new interpretations built from and often extending beyond the primary
studies. Third, there are the perceptions, conclusions, opinion, and interpretations that are shared
informally that become part of the lore of field.
In composing a literature review, it is important to note that it is often this third layer of
knowledge that is cited as "true" even though it often has only a loose relationship to the primary
studies and secondary literature reviews. Given this, while literature reviews are designed to
provide an overview and synthesis of pertinent sources you have explored, there are a number of
approaches you could adopt depending upon the type of analysis underpinning your study.

Types of Literature Reviews

Argumentative Review

This form examines literature selectively in order to support or refute an argument, deeply
imbedded assumption, or philosophical problem already established in the literature. The
purpose is to develop a body of literature that establishes a contrarian viewpoint. Given the
value-laden nature of some social science research [e.g., educational reform; immigration
control], argumentative approaches to analyzing the literature can be a legitimate and important
form of discourse. However, note that they can also introduce problems of bias when they are
used to make summary claims of the sort found in systematic reviews

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Integrative Review

Considered a form of research that reviews, critiques, and synthesizes representative literature on
a topic in an integrated way such that new frameworks and perspectives on the topic are
generated. The body of literature includes all studies that address related or identical hypotheses
or research problems. A well-done integrative review meets the same standards as primary
research in regard to clarity, rigor, and replication. This is the most common form of review in
the social sciences.

Historical Review

Few things rest in isolation from historical precedent. Historical literature reviews focus on
examining research throughout a period of time, often starting with the first time an issue,
concept, theory, phenomena emerged in the literature, then tracing its evolution within the
scholarship of a discipline. The purpose is to place research in a historical context to show
familiarity with state-of-the-art developments and to identify the likely directions for future
research.

Methodological Review

A review does not always focus on what someone said [findings], but how they came about
saying what they say [method of analysis]. Reviewing methods of analysis provides a framework
of understanding at different levels [i.e. those of theory, substantive fields, research approaches,
and data collection and analysis techniques], how researchers draw upon a wide variety of
knowledge ranging from the conceptual level to practical documents for use in fieldwork in the
areas of ontological and epistemological consideration, quantitative and qualitative integration,
sampling, interviewing, data collection, and data analysis. This approach helps highlight ethical
issues which you should be aware of and consider as you go through your own study.

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Systematic Review

This form consists of an overview of existing evidence pertinent to a clearly formulated research
question, which uses pre-specified and standardized methods to identify and critically appraise
relevant research, and to collect, report, and analyze data from the studies that are included in the
review. The goal is to deliberately document, critically evaluate, and summarize scientifically all
of the research about a clearly defined research problem. Typically it focuses on a very specific
empirical question, often posed in a cause-and-effect form, such as "To what extent does A
contribute to B?" This type of literature review is primarily applied to examining prior research
studies in clinical medicine and allied health fields, but it is increasingly being used in the social
sciences.

Theoretical Review

The purpose of this form is to examine the corpus of theory that has accumulated in regard to an
issue, concept, theory, phenomena. The theoretical literature review helps to establish what
theories already exist, the relationships between them, to what degree the existing theories have
been investigated, and to develop new hypotheses to be tested. Often this form is used to help
establish a lack of appropriate theories or reveal that current theories are inadequate for
explaining new or emerging research problems. The unit of analysis can focus on a theoretical
concept or a whole theory or framework.

Structure and Writing Style

I. Thinking About Your Literature Review

The structure of a literature review should include the following:
 An overview of the subject, issue, or theory under consideration, along with the
objectives of the literature review,

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  Division of works under review into themes or categories [e.g. works that support a
particular position, those against, and those offering alternative approaches entirely],
 An explanation of how each work is similar to and how it varies from the others,
 Conclusions as to which pieces are best considered in their argument, are most
convincing of their opinions, and make the greatest contribution to the understanding and
development of their area of research.
The critical evaluation of each work should consider:
 Provenance -- what are the author's credentials? Are the author's arguments supported by
evidence [e.g. primary historical material, case studies, narratives, statistics, recent
scientific findings]?
 Methodology -- were the techniques used to identify, gather, and analyze the data
appropriate to addressing the research problem? Was the sample size appropriate? Were
the results effectively interpreted and reported?
 Objectivity -- is the author's perspective even-handed or prejudicial? Is contrary data
considered or is certain pertinent information ignored to prove the author's point?
 Persuasiveness -- which of the author's theses are most convincing or least convincing?
 Value -- are the author's arguments and conclusions convincing? Does the work
ultimately contribute in any significant way to an understanding of the subject?

II. Development of the Literature Review

Four Stages

1. Problem formulation -- which topic or field is being examined and what are its component
issues?
2. Literature search -- finding materials relevant to the subject being explored.
3. Data evaluation -- determining which literature makes a significant contribution to the
understanding of the topic.

4. Analysis and interpretation -- discussing the findings and conclusions of pertinent literature.

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Consider the following issues before writing the literature review:

Clarify

If your assignment is not very specific about what form your literature review should take, seek
clarification from your professor by asking these questions:

1. Roughly how many sources should I include?

2. What types of sources should I review (books, journal articles, websites; scholarly versus
popular sources)?
3. Should I summarize, synthesize, or critique sources by discussing a common theme or issue?
4. Should I evaluate the sources?
5. Should I provide subheadings and other background information, such as definitions and/or a
history?

Find Models

Use the exercise of reviewing the literature to examine how authors in your discipline or area of
interest have composed their literature review sections. Read them to get a sense of the types of
themes you might want to look for in your own research or to identify ways to organize your
final review. The bibliography or reference section of sources you've already read are also
excellent entry points into your own research.

Narrow the Topic

The narrower your topic, the easier it will be to limit the number of sources you need to read in
order to obtain a good survey of relevant resources. Your professor will probably not expect you
to read everything that's available about the topic, but you'll make your job easier if you first

21
limit scope of the research problem. A good strategy is to begin by searching the HOMER
catalog for books about the topic and review the table of contents for chapters that focuses on
specific issues. You can also review the indexes of books to find references to specific issues that
can serve as the focus of your research. For example, a book surveying the history of the Israeli-
Palestinian conflict may include a chapter on the role Egypt has played in mediating the conflict,
or look in the index for the pages where Egypt is mentioned in the text.

Consider Whether Your Sources are Current

Some disciplines require that you use information that is as current as possible. This is
particularly true in disciplines in medicine and the sciences where research conducted becomes
obsolete very quickly as new discoveries are made. However, when writing a review in the social
sciences, a survey of the history of the literature may be required. In other words, a complete
understanding the research problem requires you to deliberately examine how knowledge and
perspectives have changed over time. Sort through other current bibliographies or literature
reviews in the field to get a sense of what your discipline expects. You can also use this method
to explore what is considered by scholars to be a "hot topic" and what is not.

III. Ways to Organize Your Literature Review

Chronology of Events

If your review follows the chronological method, you could write about the materials according
to when they were published. This approach should only be followed if a clear path of research
building on previous research can be identified and that these trends follow a clear chronological
order of development. For example, a literature review that focuses on continuing research about
the emergence of German economic power after the fall of the Soviet Union.

By Publication

Order your sources by publication chronology, then, only if the order demonstrates a more
important trend. For instance, you could order a review of literature on environmental studies of

22
brown fields if the progression revealed, for example, a change in the soil collection practices of
the researchers who wrote and/or conducted the studies.

Thematic [“conceptual categories”]

Thematic reviews of literature are organized around a topic or issue, rather than the progression
of time. However, progression of time may still be an important factor in a thematic review. For
example, a review of the Internet’s impact on American presidential politics could focus on the
development of online political satire. While the study focuses on one topic, the Internet’s impact
on American presidential politics, it will still be organized chronologically reflecting
technological developments in media. The only difference here between a "chronological" and a
"thematic" approach is what is emphasized the most: the role of the Internet in presidential
politics. Note however that more authentic thematic reviews tend to break away from
chronological order. A review organized in this manner would shift between time periods within
each section according to the point made.

Methodological
A methodological approach focuses on the methods utilized by the researcher. For the Internet in
American presidential politics project, one methodological approach would be to look at cultural
differences between the portrayal of American presidents on American, British, and French
websites. Or the review might focus on the fundraising impact of the Internet on a particular
political party. A methodological scope will influence either the types of documents in the
review or the way in which these documents are discussed.

Other Sections of Your Literature Review

Once you've decided on the organizational method for your literature review, the sections you
need to include in the paper should be easy to figure out because they arise from your
organizational strategy. In other words, a chronological review would have subsections for each
vital time period; a thematic review would have subtopics based upon factors that relate to the
theme or issue. However, sometimes you may need to add additional sections that are necessary

23
for your study, but do not fit in the organizational strategy of the body. What other sections you
include in the body is up to you but include only what is necessary for the reader to locate your
study within the larger scholarship framework.
Here are examples of other sections you may need to include depending on the type of review
you write:
 Current Situation: information necessary to understand the topic or focus of the
literature review.
 History: the chronological progression of the field, the literature, or an idea that is
necessary to understand the literature review, if the body of the literature review is not
already a chronology.
 Selection Methods: the criteria you used to select (and perhaps exclude) sources in your
literature review. For instance, you might explain that your review includes only peer-
reviewed articles and journals.
 Standards: the way in which you present your information.
 Questions for Further Research: What questions about the field has the review
sparked? How will you further your research as a result of the review?

IV. Writing Your Literature Review

Once you've settled on how to organize your literature review, you're ready to write each section.
When writing your review, keep in mind these issues.
Use Evidence

A literature review section is, in this sense, just like any other academic research paper. Your
interpretation of the available sources must be backed up with evidence [citations] that
demonstrates that what you are saying is valid.

Be Selective

Select only the most important points in each source to highlight in the review. The type of
information you choose to mention should relate directly to the research problem, whether it is
thematic, methodological, or chronological. Related items that provide additional information

24
but that are not key to understanding the research problem can be included in a list of further
readings.

Use Quotes Sparingly

Some short quotes are okay if you want to emphasize a point, or if what an author stated cannot
be easily paraphrased. Sometimes you may need to quote certain terminology that was coined by
the author, not common knowledge, or taken directly from the study. Do not use extensive
quotes as a substitute for your own summary and interpretation of the literature.

Summarize and Synthesize

Remember to summarize and synthesize your sources within each thematic paragraph as well as
throughout the review. Recapitulate important features of a research study, but then synthesize it
by rephrasing the study's significance and relating it to your own work.

Keep Your Own Voice

While the literature review presents others' ideas, your voice [the writer's] should remain front
and center. For example, weave references to other sources into what you are writing but
maintain your own voice by starting and ending the paragraph with your own ideas and wording.

Use Caution When Paraphrasing

When paraphrasing a source that is not your own, be sure to represent the author's information or
opinions accurately and in your own words. Even when paraphrasing an author’s work, you still
must provide a citation to that work.

V. Common Mistakes to Avoid

These are the most common mistakes made in reviewing social science research literature.
 Sources in your literature review do not clearly relate to the research problem;

25
 You do not take sufficient time to define and identify the most relevent sources to use in
the literature review related to the research problem;
 Relies exclusively on secondary analytical sources rather than including relevant primary
research studies or data;
 Uncritically accepts another researcher's findings and interpretations as valid, rather than
examining critically all aspects of the research design and analysis;
 Does not describe the search procedures that were used in identifying the literature to
review;
 Reports isolated statistical results rather than synthesizing them in chi-squared or meta-
analytic methods; and,
 Only includes research that validates assumptions and does not consider contrary findings
and alternative interpretations found in the literature

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 CHAPTER 3
PREPARING RESEARCH PROPOSAL
RESEARCH PROPOSAL
• A research proposal is a document that provides a detailed description of the intended
program. It is like an outline of the entire research process that gives a reader a summary
of the information discussed in a project.
• Document that is typically written by a scientist or academic which describes the ideas
for an investigation on a certain topic. The research proposal outlines the process from
beginning to end and may be used to request financing for the project, certification for
performing certain parts of research of the experiment, or as a required task before
beginning a college dissertation.
Elements of a Research Proposal
• Introduction ( Rationale)
• Statement of the Research Problem
• Objectives of the Study
• Hypotheses/ Research questions
• Delimitation
• Significance of the study ( Beneficiaries of the Study)
• Literature review
• Procedure
• Population for the Study
• Sampling and Sampling Techniques (Participants for study)
• Development of Data Collection Tools
• Data-collection methods
• Data Analysis and Interpretation
• References

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 CHAPTER 4
SAMPLING

The process of selecting a number of individuals for a study in such a way that the individuals
represent the larger group from which they were selected.
A sample is “a smaller (but hopefully representative) collection of units from a population used
to determine truths about that population” (Field, 2005)
STAGES IN THE SELECTION OF A SAMPLE
 Define the target population
 Select a sampling frame
 Determine if a probability or nonprobability
 sampling method will be chosen
 Plan procedure for selecting sampling units
 Determine sample size
 Select actual sampling units
 Conduct fieldwork
TYPES OF SAMPLING
1. Probability sampling
2. Non probability sampling
PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Selection of random sampling is known as probability sampling. Best method to achieve a
representative sample.
It has four types
1. Simple random sampling
2. Stratified sampling
3. Cluster sampling
4. Systematic sampling
SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING
Selecting subjects so that all members of a population have an equal and independent chance of
being selected
 Advantages

28
 1. Easy to conduct
2. High probability of achieving a representative sample
3. Meets assumptions of many statistical procedures
 Disadvantages
1. Identification of all members of the population can be difficult
2. Contacting all members of the sample can be difficult
STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING
The population is divided into two or more groups called strata, according to some criterion,
such as geographic location, grade level, age, or income, and subsamples are randomly selected
from each strata.
 Advantages
1. More accurate sample
2. Can be used for both proportional and non-proportional samples
3. Representation of subgroups in the sample
 Disadvantages
1. Identification of all members of the population can be difficult
2. Identifying members of all subgroups can be difficult
CLUSTER SAMPLING
The process of randomly selecting intact groups, not individuals, within the defined population
sharing similar characteristics
 Clusters are locations within which an intact group of members of the population can be
found
 Examples
 Neighborhoods
 School districts
 Schools
 Classrooms
 Advantages
 Very useful when populations are large and spread over a large geographic
region
 Convenient and expedient

29
  Do not need the names of everyone in the population
 Disadvantages
 Representation is likely to become an issue
SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
 Selecting every Kth subject from a list of the members of the population
 Advantage
 Very easily done
 Disadvantages
 subgroups
 Some members of the population don’t have an equal chance of being
included
SAMPLE SIZE
 According to Uma Sekaran in Research Method for Business 4th Edition, Roscoe (1975)
proposed the rules of thumb for determining sample size where sample size larger than 30
and less than 500 are appropriate for most research, and the minimum size of sample
should be 30% of the population.
 The size of the sample depends on a number of factors and the researchers have to give
the statistically information before they can get an answer. For example, these
information like (confidence level, standard deviation, margin of error and population
size) to determine the sample size.
NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING
1. Convenience sampling
2. Purposive sampling
3. Quota sampling
4. Snowball sampling
CONVENIENCE SAMPLING
The process of including whoever happens to be available at the time …called “accidental” or
“haphazard” sampling

30
PURPOSIVE SAMPLING:
The process whereby the researcher selects a sample based on experience or knowledge
of the group to be sampled …called “judgment” sampling
QUOTA SAMPLING
The process whereby a researcher gathers data from individuals possessing identified
characteristics and quotas
SNOWBALL SAMPLING
In social science research, snowball sampling is a similar technique, where existing study
subjects are used to recruit more subjects into the sample.

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 CHAPTER 6
ETHICAL CONSIDERATION IN RESEARCH
ETHICAL ISSUES IN CONDUCTING RESEARCH
• EHICAL ISSUES
Ethics refers to the correct rules of conduct necessary when carrying out research. We
have a moral responsibility to protect research participants from harm.
• Honesty
Strive for honesty in all scientific communications. Honestly report data, results,
methods and procedures, and publication status. Do not fabricate, falsify, or misrepresent
data. Do not deceive colleagues, granting agencies, or the public.
• Objectivity
Strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, data interpretation, peer review,
personnel decisions, grant writing, expert testimony, and other aspects of research where
objectivity is expected or required. Avoid or minimize bias or self-deception. Disclose personal
or financial interests that may affect research.
• Integrity
Keep your promises and agreements; act with sincerity; strive for consistency of thought
and action.
• Carefulness
Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and critically examine your own work
and the work of your peers. Keep good records of research activities, such as data collection,
research design, and correspondence with agencies or journals.
• Openness
Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to criticism and new ideas.
• Respect for Intellectual Property
Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of intellectual property. Do not use
unpublished data, methods, or results without permission. Give credit where credit is due. Give
proper acknowledgement or credit for all contributions to research. Never plagiarize.
• Confidentiality
Protect confidential communications, such as papers or grants submitted for publication,
personnel records, trade or military secrets, and patient records.

32
 • Responsible Publication
Publish in order to advance research and scholarship, not to advance just your own
career. Avoid wasteful and duplicative publication.
• Responsible Mentoring
Help to educate, mentor, and advise students. Promote their welfare and allow them to
make their own decisions.
• Respect for colleagues
Respect your colleagues and treat them fairly.
• Social Responsibility
Strive to promote social good and prevent or mitigate social harms through research,
public education, and advocacy.
• Non-Discrimination
Avoid discrimination against colleagues or students on the basis of sex, race, ethnicity, or
other factors that are not related to their scientific competence and integrity.
• Competence
Maintain and improve your own professional competence and expertise through lifelong
education and learning; take steps to promote competence in science as a whole.
• Legality
Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and governmental policies.
• Animal Care
Show proper respect and care for animals when using them in research. Do not conduct
unnecessary or poorly designed animal experiments.
• Confidentiality
Subject to the requirements of legislation, Including the Data Protection Act, information
obtained about a participant during an investigation is confidential unless otherwise agreed in
advance.
Participants in psychological research have a right to expect that information they provide
will be treated confidentially and, if published, will not be identifiable as theirs. In the event that
confidentiality and/or anonymity cannot be guaranteed, the participant must be warned of this in
advance of agreeing to participate.
• Protection of Participants

33
 Investigators have a primary responsibility to protect participants from physical and
mental harm during the investigation.
Participants must be asked about any factors in the procedure that might create a risk,
such as pre-existing medical conditions, and must be advised of any special action they should
take to avoid risk.
• Ethical Standards - Researchers Should...
• Avoid any risk of considerably harming people, the environment, or property
unnecessarily.
• Not use deception on people participating.
• Preserve privacy and confidentiality whenever possible.
• Take special precautions when involving populations or animals which may not be
considered to understand fully the purpose of the study.
• Not offer big rewards or enforce binding contracts for the study. This is especially
important when people are somehow reliant on the reward.
• Not plagiarize the work of others
• Not skew their conclusions based on funding.
• Not commit science fraud, falsify research or otherwise conduct scientific misconduct. A
con-study, which devastated the public view of the subject for decades, was the study of
selling more coke and popcorn by unconscious ads. The researcher said that he had found
great effects from subliminal messages, whilst he had, in fact, never conducted the
experiment.
• Not use the position as a peer reviewer to give sham peer reviews to punish or damage
fellow scientists.

34
 CHAPTER 6
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH:
Qualitative research involves the collection of extensive narrative data in order to gain
insight into a phenomena of interest. Data analysis includes the coding of data and production of
verbal synthesis. It is a holistic and process oriented. In qualitative research we study many
variables. It give answer of what, why, how. In qualitative research we do not want to control or
intervene anything, but to study the phenomena as they are or were in naturalistic setting
ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH:
Ethnographic research involves intensive data collection, that is the collection of
extensive narrative data on many variables over an extended period of time, in a
naturalistic setting. The purpose of ethnographic research is to understand the behaviour
occurs in a context. It just not to describe the way things are? But also gaining insight
into how things got to be they way they are? It used variety of methods for data collection
to achieve holistic understanding of a phenomena. It is also called multi method research.
The most common strategies are observation and case study method using a number of
variables.
For exampleA case study of parental involvement at early childhood education
HISTORICAL RESEARCH:
Historical research involves studying, understanding and explaining past events.
The purpose of historical research is to arrive at conclusion concerning causes, effects or
trends of the past occurrences that may help to explain present events and anticipate
future events. It is less frequently conducted than other types. There are certain
educational problems and issues such as grading policies that can be better understood in
the light of past experiences. Historical research studies do not gather data by
administering instruments to individuals. They must seek out the data that are already
available. Source of data primary and secondary.Primary sources has firsthand
knowledge such as eyewitness, reports and original documents. Secondary sources has
secondhand information
For Example
Factor leading to the development and growth of cooperative learning

35
 Trends in reading instruction 1940-1995

Phenomenology
 A research design is a logical model that guides the investigator through the
research process.
 The major qualitative research designs include:
 Grounded theory: theory (what happens and why?)
 Phenomenology: event
 Ethnography: person
 Case study: describing experience
 Phenomenology (from Greek: phainómenon "that which appears";
and lógos "study")
 Qualitative phenomenological research is to describe a "lived experience" of a
phenomenon.
 Phenomenology: A philosophy or method of inquiry based on the premise
that reality consists of objects and events as they are perceived or understood
in human consciousness and not of anything independent of human
consciousness.
 Describe the essences of lived experience
 Phenomenology: the study of people’s conscious experience of their life-world, that
is, their “everyday life and social action” (Schram, 2003, p. 71)
 Phenomenologists focus on describing what all participants have in common as they
experience a phenomenon (e.g., grief is universally experienced).
 Study of “phenomena”: appearances of things, or things as they appear in our
experience, or the ways we experience things, thus the meanings things have in our
experience
 insist on careful description of ordinary conscious experience of everyday life (the
life-world)—a description of ‘things’ (the essential structures of consciousness) as
one experiences them.
 In qualitative research, phenomenology “aims to identify and describe the
subjective experience of respondents. It is a matter of studying everyday experience

36
 from the point of view of the subject, and it shuns critical evaluation of forms of
social life.
Barritt, et al. (1984)
 Lived experience – playing games
 Life-world – the everyday world in which games are played
History
 First used by Johann Heinrich Lambert
- Later used by Immanuel Kant and Johann Gottlieb Fichte
 Made popular in 1807 in G. W. F. Hegel’s book titled Phänomenologie des Geistes
(usually translated as Phenomenology of Spirit)
 Edmund Husserl (1859-1938) later refined the meaning into more of what we use
today.
- Phenomena can be studied only subjectively, not objectively—thus
phenomenology is a close cousin of existentialism
Assumption
 There are essence(s) in shared experience(s) that are the core meanings understood
through a phenomenon commonly experiences.
 A philosophy without presuppositions – suspend all judgments about what is real.
 Intentionality of consciousness – consciousness is always directed toward an object,
reality of an object is then related to ones’ consciousness of it.
 Refusal of the subject-object dichotomy – without meaning by subject, no reality of
object
 Researchers must depict that essence or basic structure of experience
- Must suspend prior knowledge &beliefs
- helps heighten consciousness

Types of Phenomenology
1) Transcendental constitutive phenomenology studies how objects are constituted in
pure or transcendental consciousness, setting aside questions of any relation to the
natural world around us.

37
(2) Naturalistic constitutive phenomenology studies how consciousness constitutes or takes
things in the world of nature, assuming with the natural attitude that consciousness is part
of nature.
3) Existential phenomenology studies concrete human existence, including our experience of
free choice or action in concrete situations.
4) Generative historicist phenomenology studies how meaning, as found in our experience, is
generated in historical processes of collective experience over time.
5) Genetic phenomenology studies the genesis of meanings of things within one's own
stream of experience.
6) Hermeneutical phenomenology studies interpretive structures of experience, how we
understand and engage things around us in our human world, including ourselves and
others.
7) Realistic phenomenology studies the structure of consciousness and intentionality,
assuming it occurs in a real world that is largely external to consciousness and not
somehow brought into being by consciousness.
Characteristics
1. Emphasizes a focus on people's subjective experiences and interpretations of the
world

2. Sometimes considered a school of thought or philosophical perspective

3. Wants to understand how the world appears to others
4. Analysis of experience

Methods/Approaches
1. Describe a type of experience just as we find it in our own (past) experience.
2. Interpret a type of experience by relating it to relevant features of context
3. Analyze the form of a type of experience
4. Logico-semantic model: specify the truth conditions for a type of thinking or the
satisfaction conditions for a type of intention
- i.e., Bears hibernate in the winter
- i.e., I intend to get an A in this class

38
5. Neurophenomenology: assumes that conscious experience is grounded in neural activity
in embodied action in appropriate surroundings
- mixes phenomenology with biological and physical science
Procedures to conduct phenomenological research
 The researcher determines if the research problem is best examined using a
phenomenological approach.
 The type of problem best suited for this form of research is one in which it is
important to understand several individuals’ common or shared experiences of a
phenomenon.
 It would be important to understand these common experiences in order to develop
practices or policies, or to develop a deeper understanding about the features of the
phenomenon.
 A phenomenon of interest to study, such as anger, professionalism, what it means to
be underweight, or what it means to be a wrestler, is identified.
Data collection
 In-depth interviews (mainly)
 Observations
 written or oral self-report, or even their aesthetic expressions (e.g. art, narratives, or
poetry).
Data Analysis
 The first principle of analysis of phenomenological data is to use an emergent
strategy, to allow the method of analysis to follow the nature of the data itself. Steps,
 Explore your own experiences & set aside your opinions/judgments

 Bracket judgments and everyday understandings in order to examine consciousness

itself
 Phenomenological reduction: revisiting the experience to derive the inner
structure/meaning in and of itself
 Horizonalization laying out all the data and analyzing it equally
- no one thing is more important

39
  Organize into clusters or themes
 textural description
 imaginative variation or structural description, viewing the data from multiple
perspectives
- seeing different things from different angles
 The end product should be “a composite description that presents the “essence” of
the phenomenon, called the essential, invariant structure”

CASE STUDY
Case study Definition
 The term ‘case study’ has multiple meanings. It can be used to describe a detailed
study of a single social unit (e.g. a case study of a particular organization) or to
describe a research method.
 Case study “Investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context;
when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident; and
multiple sources of evidence are used” (Yin 2003:13-14).
 Case study is an ideal methodology when a holistic, in-depth investigation is needed
(Feagin, Orum, & Sjoberg, 1991).

40
Component of Case study
 Yin (1994) suggests five components of good case study design:
1. a study’s questions
2. its propositions, if any
3. its unit(s) of analysis
4. the logic linking the data to the propositions
5. the criteria for interpreting the findings

Why Case study research Method?

 Emphasis on (societal, historical) context
 Trying to reach a full explanation of a phenomenon within a unit of analysis
 Interpret events, uncovering processes (Mohr 1982)
 ‘how’ and ‘why’ questions
 Rule of thumb: more variables .....then cases (survey research... more cases than
variables)
 Three important uses:
i. Motivation of research (falsify theories)
ii. Inspiration for new ideas (theory building)
iii. Illustration: concrete examples of theoretical constructs, show how the causal
relationships work
Types of Cases
 Yin (1993) has identified
◦ Exploratory,
◦ Explanatory: Explanatory case studies may be used for doing causal
investigations
◦ Descriptive: Descriptive cases require a descriptive theory to be developed
before starting the project
 Stake (1995) included three others:
◦ Intrinsic - when the researcher has an interest in the case;

41
 ◦ Instrumental - when the case is used to understand more than what is obvious
to the observer;
◦ Collective - when a group of cases is studied. Exploratory cases are sometimes
considered as a prelude to social research.
 How many cases?
 1 (Dyer & Wilkins 1991): Talking animal (exceptional case) Single
cases may be used to confirm or challenge a theory, or to represent a
unique or extreme case (Yin, 1994).
 Multiple 4-10 (Eisenhardt 1989)

Critique of case study research

 Case study research is the most popular qualitative research method used in the
business disciplines
 Case study research allows researchers to explore or test theories within the context
of messy real-life situations
 A disadvantage of case study research is that it can be difficult to gain access to the
particular company or group of companies that you want to study
 Another disadvantage is that the researcher has no control over the situation

42
  Case study research can be time consuming

Conduct of the case study

 There are three tasks in this stage that must be carried out for a successful project:
◦ Preparation for Data Collection,
◦ Distribution of the Questionnaire, and
◦ Conducting Interviews
Preparation for Data Collection,
 Yin (1994) identified six primary sources of evidence for case study research. The
use of each of these might require different skills from the researcher. Not all
sources are essential in every case study, but the importance of multiple sources of
data to the reliability of the study is well established (Stake, 1995; Yin, 1994). The
six sources identified by Yin (1994) are:
◦ documentation,
◦ archival records,
◦ interviews,
◦ direct observation,
◦ participant observation, and
◦ physical artifacts.
 Three principles of data collection for case studies:
◦ Use multiple sources of data
◦ Create a case study database
◦ Maintain a chain of evidence
The rationale for using multiple sources of data is the triangulation of evidence.
Triangulation increases the reliability of the data and the process of gathering it. In the
context of data collection, triangulation serves to corroborate the data gathered from other
sources. The cost of using multiple sources and the investigator's ability to carry out the
task, should be taken into account prior to deciding on the use of this technique.

Analyze the Case Study

43
 ◦ Data analysis consists of examining, categorizing, tabulating, or otherwise
recombining the evidence to address the initial propositions of a study" (Yin,
1994). The analysis of case study is one of the least developed aspects of the
case study methodology. The researcher needs to rely on
◦ experience and
◦ the literature to present the evidence in various ways, using various
interpretations. This becomes necessary because statistical analysis is not
necessarily used in all case studies. This case study employs a series of
statistical tests to help in the presentation of the data to the reader
Yin (1994) suggested the following analytic techniques:
 pattern-matching: Trochim (1989) considered pattern-matching as one
of the most desirable strategies for analysis. This technique compares
an empirically based pattern with a predicted one. If the patterns
match, the internal reliability of the study is enhanced. The actual
comparison between the predicted and actual pattern might not have
any quantitative criteria. The discretion of the researcher is therefore
required for interpretations.
 explanation-building:Explanation-building is an iterative process that
begins with a theoretical statement, refines it, revises the proposition,
and repeating this process from the beginning
 time-series analysis:Time-series analysis is a well-known technique in
experimental and quasi-experimental analysis. It is possible that a
single dependent or independent variable could make this simpler
than pattern-matching, but sometimes there are multiple changes in a
variable, making starting and ending points unclear
Develop Conclusions, Recommendations, and Implications
The reporting aspect of a case study is perhaps most important from the user perspective.
It is the contact point between the user and the researcher. A well designed research
project that is not well explained to the reader, will cause the research report to fall into
disuse. In this section, the researcher must refrain from technical jargon and resort to clear

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explanations. Those explanations are necessary to help the user understand the
implications of the findings

Grounded Theory
is a qualitative research design in which the inquirer generates a general explanation
of a process, action or interaction shaped by the views by a large number of participants.

Characteristics of a Grounded Theory

FIT (Does the theory corresponds to real-world data?)
UNDERSTANDING (Is the theory clear and understandable?)
GENERALITY (Is the theory abstract enough to move beyond the specifics in the
original research study?)
CONTROL (Can the theory be applied to produce real-world results?)

Approaches
SYSTEMATIC APPROACH, seeks to systematically develop a theory that explain
process, action or interaction on a topic.
CONSTRUCTIVIST APPROACH, advocates for a social constructivist perspective
that includes emphasizing diverse local worlds, multiple realities, and the complexities of
particular worlds, views and actions.

Nature of Data
1. Data should be best suited to formulate new theory when a theory is not available to
explain a process.
2. Detailed questions that may help to describe the data needed:
3. What was central to the process?
4. What influenced or caused this phenomenon to occur?
5. What strategies were employed during the process?
6. What effect occurred?

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Data Collection Procedures
Data may be collected by interview, observation, records, or a combination of this.
Data collection usually results in large amounts of hand-written notes, typed
interview transcripts, or video/audio taped conversations that contain multiple pieces of
data to be sorted and analyzed. This process is initiated by coding and categorizing the
data.

Method of Analysis
1. Open Coding: data are deconstructed into the simplest form possible, examined for
commonalities and sorted into categories.
2. Axial Coding: data are reassembled based on logical connections between categories.
3. Selective Coding: the “core” category is determined and the relationships between it
and secondary categories are posited. Core and secondary category relationship are
later validated.

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 CHAPTER 7
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH:

The collection of numerical data in order to explain, predict and or control the phenomena of
interest. Data analysis is mainly statistical. In quantitative research hypothesis are tested. It is
more focused and process oriented. In this research we study one or small number of variables in
order to describe the current relationship/condition. It wants to control or intervene the variables

DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH:

Involves collecting data in order to test hypothesis or answer the questions concerning the
current status of the subject of the study. A descriptive study determines and report the way
things are? Descriptive data are typically collected through a questionnaire survey, interview or
observation. In descriptive research we developed instrument for specific studies. Instruments
development requires time and skills

For example: How does secondary school teacher spend their time in classroom.

CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH:

Attempts to determine whether and, to what degree, a relationship exist between two or more
quantifiable variables. The purpose of correlational research study may be establish relationship
(or lack of it) or to use a relationship to make prediction. The correlational research never
establish a cause-effect relationship, only a relationship. The existence of high relationship
permits prediction. The degree of relationship between two variables are generally expressed as
correlation co-efficient which is a number between 0.00 – 1.00. Two variables that are not
related will produced a co-efficient near to .00 and the two variables that are highly related will
produced a co-efficient near to 1.00. For making any decision the degree of relationship is
necessary

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For Example:

The relation between intelligence and self-esteem.

CAUSAL COMPARATIVE RESEARCH:

This type of research is based on cause-effect relationship. In causal comparative study the
independent variable or “cause” is not manipulated it has all ready occurred. Due to lack of
manipulation and control cause effect relationship established are the best tenuous and tentative,
causal comparative studies are less expensive and take less time to conduct

For Example:
The effect of sex on algebra achievement

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH:

It is the type of research in which independent variable can be manipulated. In experimental

study the researcher manipulated at least one independent variable and observe the effect on one
or more dependent variables.

In other words the researcher determine “who gets what” which group of subject will get which
treatment; the groups are generally referred to as experimental or control groups. Manipulation
differentiate it from the other methods. This is the only type of research that can truly established
cause effect relationships

For Example:

The effect of positive reinforcement on attitude toward the schools.

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What is an Experiment?
• Research method in which
– conditions are controlled
– so that 1 or more independent variables
– can be manipulated to test a hypothesis
– about a dependent variable.
• Allows
– evaluation of causal relationships among variables
– while all other variables are eliminated or controlled.
Some Definitions
• Dependent Variable
– Criterion by which the results of the experiment are judged.
– Variable that is expected to be dependent on the manipulation of the independent variable
• Independent Variable
– Any variable that can be manipulated, or altered, independently of any other variable
– Hypothesized to be the causal influence
• Experimental Treatments
– Alternative manipulations of the independent variable being investigated
• Experimental Group
– Group of subjects exposed to the experimental treatment
• Control Group
– Group of subjects exposed to the control condition
– Not exposed to the experimental treatment
• Test Unit
– Entity whose responses to experimental treatments are being observed or measured
• Randomization
– Assignment of subjects and treatments to groups is based on chance
– Provides “control by chance”
– Random assignment allows the assumption that the groups are identical with respect to
all variables except the experimental treatment
Experimental Validity
• Internal Validity

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 – Indicates whether the independent variable was the sole cause of the change in the
dependent variable
• External Validity
– Indicates the extent to which the results of the experiment are applicable to the real world
Extraneous Variables that Jeopardize Internal Validity
• History Effect
– Specific events in the external environment between the 1st & 2nd measurements that are
beyond the experimenter’s control
– Common history effect occurs when competitors change their marketing strategies during
a test marketing experiment
• Cohort Effect
– Change in the dependent variable that occurs because members of one experimental
group experienced different historical situations than members of other experimental
groups
• Maturation Effect
– Effect on experimental results caused by experimental subjects maturing or changing
over time
– During a daylong experiment, subjects may grow hungry, tired, or bored
• Testing Effect
– In before-and-after studies, pretesting may sensitize subjects when taking a test for the 2nd
time.
– May cause subjects to act differently than they would have if no pretest measures were
taken
• Instrumentation Effect
– Caused by a change in the wording of questions, in interviewers, or in other procedures
used to measure the dependent variable.
• Selection Effect
– Sampling bias that results from differential selection of respondents for the comparison
groups.
• Mortality or Sample Attrition
– Results from the withdrawal of some subjects from the experiment before it is completed
– Effects randomization
– Especially troublesome if some withdraw from one treatment group and not from the
others (or at least at different rates)

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Symbolism for Diagramming Experimental Designs
X = exposure of a group to an experimental treatment
O = observation or measurement of the dependent variable
If multiple observations or measurements are taken, subscripts indicate temporal order – I.e., O1, O2, etc.
R= random assignment of test units; individuals selected as subjects for the experiment are randomly
assigned to the experimental groups
Pre-Experimental Designs
• Do not adequately control for the problems associated with loss of external or internal validity
• Cannot be classified as true experiments
• Often used in exploratory research
• Three Examples of Pre-Experimental Designs
– One-Shot Design
– One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design
– Static Group Design
One-Shot Design
• After-only design
• A single measure is recorded after the treatment is administered
• Study lacks any comparison or control of extraneous influences
• No measure of test units not exposed to the experimental treatment
• May be the only viable choice in taste tests
• Diagrammed as: X O1
One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design
• Subjects in the experimental group are measured before and after the treatment is administered.
• No control group
• Offers comparison of the same individuals before and after the treatment (e.g., training)
• If time between 1st & 2nd measurements is extended, may suffer maturation
• Can also suffer from history, mortality, and testing effects
• Diagrammed as O1 X O2
Static Group Design
• After-only design with control group
• Experimental group is measured after being exposed to the experimental treatment
• Control group is measured without having been exposed to the experimental treatment
• No pre-measure is taken

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 • Major weakness is lack of assurance that the groups were equal on variables of interest prior to
the treatment
• Diagrammed as: Experimental Group X O1
Control Group O2
Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design
• Before-After with Control
• True experimental design
• Experimental group tested before and after treatment exposure
• Control group tested at same two times without exposure to experimental treatment
• Includes random assignment to groups
• Effect of all extraneous variables assumed to be the same on both groups
• Do run the risk of a testing effect
• Diagrammed as
– Experimental Group: R O1 X O2
– Control Group: R O3 O4
• Effect of the experimental treatment equals
(O2 – O1) -- (O4 – O3)
• Example
– 20% brand awareness among subjects before an advertising treatment
– 35% in experimental group & 22% in control group after the treatment
– Treatment effect equals (0.35 – 0.20) – (0.22 – 0.20) = 13%

Posttest-Only Control Group Design

• After-Only with Control
• True experimental design
• Experimental group tested after treatment exposure
• Control group tested at same time without exposure to experimental treatment
• Includes random assignment to groups
• Effect of all extraneous variables assumed to be the same on both groups
• Do not run the risk of a testing effect
• Use in situations when cannot pretest
• Diagrammed as
– Experimental Group: R X O1
– Control Group: R O2

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 • Effect of the experimental treatment equals = (O2 – O1)
• Example
– Assume you manufacture an athlete’s foot remedy
– Want to demonstrate your product is better than the competition
– Can’t really pretest the effectiveness of the remedy

Solomon Four-Group Design

• True experimental design
• Combines pretest-posttest with control group design and the posttest-only with control group
design
• Provides means for controlling the interactive testing effect and other sources of extraneous
variation
• Does include random assignment
• Diagrammed as
• Experimental Group 1: R O1 X O2
• Control Group 1: R O3 O4
• Experimental Group 2: R X O5
• Control Group 2: R O6
• Effect of independent variable (O2 – O4) & (O5 – O6)
• Effect of pretesting (O4 – O6)
• Effect of pretesting & measuring (O2 – O5)
• Effect of random assignment (O1 – O3)
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
• More realistic than true experiments
• Researchers lacks full control over the scheduling of experimental treatments or
• They are unable to randomize
• Includes
– Time Series Design
– Multiple Time Series Design
• Same as Time Series Design except that a control group is added
Time Series Design
• Involves periodic measurements on the dependent variable for a group of test units
• After multiple measurements, experimental treatment is administered (or occurs naturally)

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 • After the treatment, periodic measurements are continued in order to determine the treatment
effect
• Diagrammed as:
O1 O2 O3 O4 X O5 O6 O7 O8
CHAPTER 8
RESEARCH INSTRUMENT
• Questionnaire
• Interview schedule
• observation
Interview schedule
Meaning of Interview schedule
• One to one direct communication between researcher and subject for collection of data.
• Series of questions to be asked in an interview is called interview schedule.
Types of Interview schedule
• Structured (for research)
• Semi-structured ( flexible but structured)
• Non-directive ( free talk on issues)
• Focused ( in depth talk on an issue ) (Media)
How to conduct an Interview
• Interview schedule should as per objectives.
• Planning of time, duration, place, mode of recording.
• Follow Formalities.
• Respect not to answer right of subject.
• Use of appropriate Language.
• Positive body language.
• Directing the interview.
• Questioning – proper stress and tone, use of sub questions if required.
Limitations
• Hesitation to express
• Vague
• Time restrictions
• Less time for thinking
• Subjective
• Researcher’s influence

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 • Consciousness
• Manipulated/polished/sophisticated/socially accepted responses may be preferred.

Questionnaire
Meaning
• Series of questions in written form.
• Indirect interview
• Widely used tool
When to use
• Objective tool
• Factual data required
• Large sample
• Minimum cost & time
• Crossing Geographical limitations
Types
• Open , Close , Mixed , E-mail , Web based , Live , Distance
Development of Questionnaire
• Objectives
• Content analysis
• Combination of Types of questions.
• Sequence of questions.
• Statistical techniques.
• Questions- clear, correct, to the point, appropriate nos.,
Administration of Questionnaire
• Appointment
• Take in to confidence
• Instructions and expectation
• Tackling queries
• Postage
• Formalities
Advantages of Questionnaire
• Objectivity
• Freedom to think

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 • Flexibility of time
• Free to answer.
Limitations of Questionnaire
• Difficult to analyze.
• Environmental effects.
• Collection is a challenge
• Ambiguous
Qualities of Good Questionnaire
• EXTERNAL INTERNAL
• Instructions • Clarity and simplicity of questions
• Primary Information • Validity and reliability
• Font style and Type • As per age of subjects.
• Grammar • Divisions as per Objectives.
• Quality, colour and size of Paper. • Pilot study
• Proper space for response.
• Postage

Interview schedule vs questionnaire

Interview Questionnaire
• Live / Real time • Own time of subject.
• Direct questionnaire • Indirect interview.
• More subjective. • More objectives.
• Useful for experts, • Useful for subjects, teacher, students etc.
Illiterate people, parents etc. • To collect factual data
• To know views. • Min time more info.
• More time per subject. • Specific data from more subjects.
• Variety of data from a person. • Formal way.
• Informal way. • Comparatively easier to analyze.
• Not easy to analyze • Rigid
• Flexible • One to many reaction.
• One to one interaction • Subject notes responses.
• Researcher note responses.

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Observation
Types of Observation
• Overt – subject are aware
• Covert - unaware
• Participant
• Non-participant
Precautions in Observation
• Appropriate tools
• Field notes
• Informal approach
• Building rapport
• What to observe
• Use of audio visual devices
Advantages
• Natural response
• Real collection of a data
• All round data
• Self experience
• Understanding the subject.
• Useful for sociological research.
• Useful for linear research.
Limitations
• Subjectivity
• Temporary form of data is acquired.
• Difficult to analyze the data.
• Time consumable.
• Practical difficulties.

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 CHAPTER 9
ANALYSIS OF DATA

QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

We now need to analyse the data from our qualitative research study in order to make sense of it
and to make accessible to the researcher (and people who read the report of the research) the
large amount of rich textual data that has been generated.
Data analysis consists of:
 examining,
 categorising,
 tabulating,
 recombining,
the evidence obtained from the research.
All this is concerned with the organisation and the interpretation of information (other than
numerical information, which is generally the preserve of quantitative research) in order to
discover any important underlying patterns and trends.
Analysis
Qualitative data analysis involves such processes as coding (open, axial, and selective),
categorising and making sense of the essential meanings of the phenomenon.
As the researcher works/lives with the rich descriptive data, then common themes
or essences begin to emerge.
This stage of analysis basically involves total immersion for as long as it is needed in order to
ensure both a pure and a thorough description of the phenomenon.
All this is concerned with the organisation and the interpretation of information (other than
numerical information, which is generally the preserve of quantitative research] in order to
discover any important underlying patterns and trends.
However, each type of qualitative research requires slightly different methods of data analysis:
Ethnography

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Grounded Theory
Phenomenology

The constant comparative method

The constant comparative method is the process that we use in qualitative research in which any
newly collected data is compared with previously collected data that was collected in an earlier
study.
This is a continuous ongoing procedure, because theories are formed, enhanced, confirmed, or
even discounted as a result of any new data that emerges from the study.
A way in which data can be constantly compared throughout a research study is by means of
coding:
 open coding - open coding is the first organisation of the data to try to make some sense
of it
 axial coding - axial coding is a way of interconnecting the categories
 selective coding - selective coding is the building of a story that connects the categories
At the end of these processes, it is hoped that one has achieved the production of a set of
theoretical propositions (i.e. a theory to explain both the data and what is actually happening).
Summary
Qualitative data analysis is the process in which we move from the raw data that have been
collected as part of the research study and use it to provide explanations, understanding and
interpretation of the phenomena, people and situations which we are studying.
The aim of analysing qualitative data is to examine the meaningful and symbolic content of that
which is found within. What we are aiming for is to try to identify and understand such concepts,
situations and ideas as:
 A person’s interpretation of the world/situation in which they find themselves at any
given moment.
 How they come to have that point of view of their situation or environment in which they
find themselves.
 How they relate to others within their world.
 How they cope within their world.

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  Their own view of their history and the history of others who share their own experiences
and situations.
 How they identify and see themselves and others who share their own experiences and
situations.
It is important that before you decide upon your method of data analysis, you become very
familiar and confident in your chosen field. The advice given throughout this web programme is
to seek help and advice if you are not absolutely certain of what you should be doing, and this
advice is reiterated here.
Having taken all that on board, now it is time to decide upon the method of data analysis that you
are going to use in your own research proposal. This, of course, will in many ways be dictated by
the methodology and data collection methods that you have already decided upon

QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

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 VARIABLES

Very simply, a VARIABLE is a measurable characteristic that varies. It may change from group to group,
person to person, or even within one person over time. There are six common variable types:

DEPENDENT VARIABLES

. . . show the effect of manipulating or introducing the independent variables. For example, if
the independent variable is the use or non-use of a new language teaching procedure, then the
dependent variable might be students' scores on a test of the content taught using that procedure. In
other words, the variation in the dependent variable depends on the variation in the independent
variable.

INDEPENDENT VARIABLES

. . . are those that the researcher has control over. This "control" may involve manipulating
existing variables (e.g., modifying existing methods of instruction) or introducing new variables (e.g.,
adopting a totally new method for some sections of a class) in the research setting. Whatever the case
may be, the researcher expects that the independent variable(s) will have some effect on (or
relationship with) the dependent variables.

INTERVENING VARIABLES

. . . refer to abstract processes that are not directly observable but that link the independent
and dependent variables. In language learning and teaching, they are usually inside the subjects' heads,
including various language learning processes which the researcher cannot observe. For example, if the
use of a particular teaching technique is the independent variable and mastery of the objectives is the
dependent variable, then the language learning processes used by the subjects are the intervening
variables.

MODERATOR VARIABLES

. . . affect the relationship between the independent and dependent variables by modifying
the effect of the intervening variable(s). Unlike extraneous variables, moderator variables are
measured and taken into consideration. Typical moderator variables in TESL and language
acquisition research (when they are not the major focus of the study) include the sex, age,
culture, or language proficiency of the subjects.

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CONTROL VARIABLES

Language learning and teaching are very complex processes. It is not possible to consider
every variable in a single study. Therefore, the variables that are not measured in a particular
study must be held constant, neutralized/balanced, or eliminated, so they will not have a
biasing effect on the other variables. Variables that have been controlled in this way are called
control variables.

EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES

. . . are those factors in the research environment which may have an effect on the dependent
variable(s) but which are not controlled. Extraneous variables are dangerous. They may damage a
study's validity, making it impossible to know whether the effects were caused by the independent and
moderator variables or some extraneous factor. If they cannot be controlled, extraneous variables must
at least be taken into consideration when interpreting results.

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