Human impact on the environment

The atmosphere and climate change

 Climate refers to the average weather conditions (temperature, rainfall and air pressure) of a large
area over a long period of time.
 Climate change refers to any change or disturbance to an established climate pattern. This has
happened in the past and is occurring now.

Composition of the atmosphere Earth’s atmosphere is a critical mixture of gases (Figure 2) which
sustain life, with
 78% nitrogen (N2)
 21% oxygen (O2)
 1% – all remaining gases, mainly carbon dioxide (CO2) and other small (trace) amounts

Sources of CO2 and CH4 emissions – greenhouse gases

Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions

Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions are produced by:

Human impact on the environment
1. cellular respiration when CO2 is exhaled
2. decomposition of dead plants and animals
3. the burning of fossil fuels as an energy source for electricity or transport
4. chemical reactions in the cement industry and the production of fertilisers
5. veld fires and domestic wood burning, which release CO2 into the atmosphere and lead to
rampant deforestation as well

Methane (CH4) emissions

Methane is the second largest contributor to the enhanced greenhouse effect, and as the planet
warms up so its contribution increases even faster. Human activities are responsible for over 60% of
total methane in the atmosphere.

CH4 emissions are produced by:

1. natural anaerobic decomposition of organic materials, e.g. in wetlands
2. melting ice in polar regions and permafrost releasing trapped CH4 bubbles
3. sea water - decomposing marine organisms release methane bubbles. As the ocean temperature
rises, more methane is released.
4. intensive agriculture: decomposing dung and compost for fertilising
gas being released by ruminants (animals with two stomachs – mostly cattle)

5. industrial / mining processes:

refining of fossil fuels (crude oil and gas)
drilling / fracking for natural gas trapped in the sediments

6. Landfill sites and waste water (sewage) treatment

7. termite populations feeding on dead trees as a result of logging release large quantities of CH4

Other potent greenhouse gases

Water vapour is the largest volume of greenhouse gas warming the planet naturally. Nitrous oxide, ozone
and CFCs (chlorofluorocarbon) all contribute to global warming as greenhouse gas pollutants.

 Nitrous oxide (N2O) N2O is released by:

1. burning wood and fossil fuels
2. biological processes which break down organic matter in the soil and sea
3. nitrogen fertilisers used for commercial farming

 Ozone (O3) An ozone molecule consists of three oxygen atoms bonded together and is either helpful or
harmful depending on where it occurs in the atmosphere.
 The ozone produced by vehicle emissions that accumulates close to the Earth is a pollutant and a harmful
greenhouse gas. These ozone emissions should be eliminated.
 Ozone can however also be helpful, especially in the upper atmosphere (15 – 50 km above the Earth’s
surface). Here the ozone serves to protect life on Earth by absorbing up to 99% of the sun’s ultraviolet
radiation.

 CFC’s CFC’s (chlorofluorocarbons) are found in aerosol sprays, solvents, fridges and foams used for fast
food packaging.
Human impact on the environment
The greenhouse effect and its importance for life on Earth

The natural greenhouse effect

The greenhouse effect refers to the natural warming of the earth by heat trapped by the greenhouse
gases such as water vapour, carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4). These gases act as an insulating
blanket in Earth’s atmosphere keeping temperatures evenly warm at a range that supports life on Earth. If
there were no greenhouse gases, the atmosphere would have a temperature of -18°C. This temperature
would be unable to sustain life.
Human impact on the environment
The enhanced greenhouse effect
An increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases due to human activities, leads to an enhanced
greenhouse effect.
This results in a significant rise in the average temperature of the earth’s surface over a period of time and
has many negative effects.

The enhanced greenhouse effect is responsible for global warming.

The effects of global warming:

1. Sharply rising temperatures result in increasing numbers of heat waves alternating with extreme
weather conditions such as powerful storms.
2. Rising sea levels cause coastal flooding. Many coastal cities will vanish.
3. Rainfall patterns are changing – once dry areas are getting volumes of rain, and areas that had
plentiful rain are slowly turned into desert areas.
4. Droughts periods are increasing leading to more frequent fires, soil erosion and desertification.
5. Food production is decreasing. Crops die as they cannot adapt to the changing seasons. Food insecurity
increases.
6. Warmer sea water kills corals in shallower parts of the oceans. Corals are carbon and methane 'sinks'
so this adds to the enhanced greenhouse effect. (The word 'sink' is used meaning holding tank or
reservoir)
7. Seawater is becoming too acidic. Increasing CO2 in seawater forms carbonic acid which weakens
marine animal exoskeletons as well as corals.
8. Desertification– fertile land becoming a desert. 33% of land is becoming desert, putting a billion people
at risk of famine. 90% of South Africa is classified as desert or semi-desert.
9. Economic, political and social conflicts will increase as natural resources are limited due to climate
change. Climate refugees are migrating from war torn, developing countries suffering the consequences
of climate change.
10. Melting polar ice caps and glaciers result in:
o polar species unable to adapt become extinct: e.g. polar bears and Arctic foxes in the Arctic Regions
and Emperor penguins in Antarctica
o global temperatures rise further as ice reflects solar radiation and does not hold heat as liquid water
does
o methane trapped in ice is released – this adds to the warming which in turn melts more ice
11. Melting permafrost in Arctic regions is releasing tons of CO2 and methane into the atmosphere

Deforestation and its influence on the CO2 concentration in the atmosphere

Human impact on the environment
Deforestation is the large-scale destruction of indigenous forests by humans felling and burning trees and
bush to clear space for other purposes. This is a major contributor to the enhanced greenhouse effect and is
estimated to contribute 20% of the total global greenhouse gas emissions

Reasons for deforestation

1. Land clearance – for farming and urban development
2. Commercial logging – of indigenous timber to supply world market demands
3. Removal of commercial plantations of non-indigenous, fast-growing trees – to supply timber for
building and for making paper
4. Mining – vegetation cleared / burnt to enable large scale mining operations
5. Fuel – trees cut down to supply firewood / charcoal for those without gas or electricity
6. Traditional medicines – indigenous trees stripped of their bark and roots to meet the increasing
demands for traditional medicines
7. Forest fires – deliberate or accidental – destroy vast areas of natural vegetation
8. Acid rain – weakens trees by damaging their leaves, limiting nutrients uptake, or poisoning them Effects
of deforestation

Effects of deforestation:

1. Increase in carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere

o Forests act as natural carbon sinks they absorb CO2 during photosynthesis, and when they die and
decompose, CO2 becomes part of the humus in the soil, enabling new plants to grow. This is the natural
carbon cycle which balances CO2 in the atmosphere.
o If forests are cut down the CO2 remains in the atmosphere contributing to global warming instead of
being part of the carbon cycle.
o The manufacturing of wood / paper products releases more CO2.
o Burning of felled trees releases the CO2 that was trapped in the trees sink

2. Increase in methane (CH4) in the atmosphere

o livestock (goats, sheep, cows) in cleared areas produce CH4 o termite populations feed on dead
trees releasing large quantities of CH4

 Other effects of deforestation include:

3. Soil degradation from nitrogen loss, exposure to wind and water erosion
4. More frequent flooding / mudslides as reduced vegetation cannot absorb heavy rainfall
5. Desertification and extinction of species occur more rapidly.

Carbon footprint: ways of reducing our ‘carbon footprint’

The term ‘carbon footprint’ refers to the total amount of CO2 emitted by an individual or group in one year

Human activities increase CO2 emissions daily

Human impact on the environment
 directly through the use of fossil fuels, or
 indirectly by using products and services processed with fossil fuel energy.

Strategies to reduce the carbon footprint

Ozone depletion
 Ozone in the stratosphere forms a protective layer that absorbs 97 – 99% of the sun’s high frequency and
dangerous ultraviolet radiation that is potentially damaging to life on Earth. In the 1970s, scientists
noticed that a ‘hole’ was forming in the ozone layer above the South pole.
 The ozone was thinning, and even disappearing at times over the polar regions, allowing the sun’s
harmful UV radiation to penetrate the atmosphere. Scientists referred to this phenomenon as ozone
depletion.

Causes of ozone depletion:

Ozone depletion is caused by various chemicals and pollutants which react with ozone.
Examples include:
 CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) and HCFCs (hydrofluorocarbons) used in older refrigerators, air-
conditioners and spray cans/aerosols – release chlorine which destroys ozone molecules
 Bromine from pesticides and fire extinguishers
 Carbon tetrachloride, a solvent used in dry cleaning and paints Consequences of ozone depletion If the
ozone layer is thinner or destroyed, more harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation reaches the Earth’s surface
causing:

Consequences of ozone depletion:

 Human damage: increased UV exposure weakens our immune system, leading to skin cancer, sun burn,
and skin ageing. It also causes cataracts and damages chromosomes.
 Agricultural damage: UV radiation interferes with photosynthesis in plant growth. As a result greenhouse
CO2 levels rise as plants no longer absorb CO2. Food security is threatened as plant growth slows down
drastically.
 Marine damage: excessive UV radiation damages marine life.
 Material damage: excessive UV radiation breaks down wood, plastics, rubber, textiles and other
construction materials.

Strategies to decrease ozone depletion

The Montreal Protocol In 1987 in Montreal, Canada,
Human impact on the environment
 30 nations signed a global treaty to reduce and eventually stop production of ozone destroying
substances such as CFCs and others.
 The Montreal Protocol is a success story, and ozone depletion has been stopped, but has not yet been
reversed.
 We need to continue our care by developing ozone friendly products, maintaining laws preventing ozone
depletion, monitoring skin cancers and increase public awareness.

Water availability
Clean fresh water is essential for the survival of all living species on Earth. Water is a renewable resource,
but the availability depends on climate conditions.

Factors affecting water availability in South Africa

Access to sufficient water is a basic human right in the Constitution of South Africa. This has improved
access for some, but service delivery is a challenge for most people of our country.

The following are major factors affecting water availability: The construction of dams
A dam is a man-made barrier usually built across a river or catchment area for the following
reasons:
 water supply for domestic and industrial use
 water supply for agricultural and food production
 flood control catchment areas
 generating hydro-electricity

The negative impacts of dams include:

 loss of habitats below the dam – making less water available
 changes in the natural flow of water
 reduced water quality
 increased sedimentation
 prevention of the natural migration of fish
Human impact on the environment
The destruction of natural wetlands
Wetlands are important ecosystems:
 Wetlands act as sponges, storing rainwater and releasing it slowly in dry seasons. This prevents flooding
and any soil erosion that would result from the quick run-off of flood waters.
 Wetlands are habitats for diverse species of animals, plants and aquatic plants which act as filters,
cleaning water that flows through them.

Wetlands are damaged by human activities:

 Wetlands are drained to build roads, factories and housing in urban areas and as by irrigation for
agriculture.
 Damming wetlands destroys their ability to filter and release water naturally.
 Wetlands are polluted by mining, industrial and domestic waste and litter.

Exotic / alien plantations deplete the water table

Many alien plants (not from SA – wattles, gums, pines, etc.) are grown in South Africa to supply timber \
wood pulp for paper.
 These are all fast growing, water-hungry plants which deplete the groundwater and reduce
biodiversity.

Water wastage
 Water is wasted in homes, on farms, in industry and on mines through carelessness, poor management and
inefficiency. 40% of our cities’ water supplies are lost to leaking pipes
 Crisis events, such as droughts or veld fires, increase the demand for water and therefore increase the risk
of wastage

The cost of water

 ‘Water for all’ as a human right was introduced in South Africa in 2006: 6 kL (kilolitres) per month is free
for a family of five. Because the building and maintenance of dams, water treatment and supply is
expensive, municipalities charge for extra usage – the greater the volume used, the greater the charge.
 Urban areas are supplied by dams situated in distant rural areas which also increases costs.

Poor farming practices

 Monoculture (planting of a single crop) uses a lot of water. Open ditch irrigation and overhead sprinkling
systems lose water to evaporation.
 Overgrazing, vegetation destruction, burning and deforestation all cause erosion which leads to water loss
through increasing run off.
 Incorrect ploughing up and down slopes (instead of contour ploughing) also causes more runoff (water
wastage), which in turn causes more erosion.

Droughts and floods

Rainfall is variable from year to year and most of our country is arid.
 During droughts availability of water decreases. Increasing temperatures lead to high rates of evaporation
from open sources such as dams and lakes. The water used from dams during these times is not easily
replaced.
 Natural vegetation allows water to soak into the soil. If vegetation is removed, or the land is too arid, then
there is nothing to hold excess water during floods – the soil is further eroded and the extra water is lost.

Boreholes deplete aquifers

Human impact on the environment
 Boreholes need to be monitored to prevent too much water being taken from aquifers.
 Mining in Gauteng and North West Province and fracking in the Karoo drain and pollute the aquifers,
decreasing availability.

Water quality in South Africa

What do we mean by the concept of water quality?
Water must be clean and treated so that it is safe to drink. Diseases such as cholera, typhoid and dysentery
are waterborne (carried by water) and cause diarrhoea which can lead to dehydration and death.
Water is used for various purposes: domestic, industrial, agricultural and mining.

Factors reducing water quality

The factors responsible for reducing water quality include:

1. Eutrophication and algae blooms

 Eutrophication occurs when high levels of nutrients from fertilisers and sewage-polluting water bodies
encourage the rapid growth of algae.
 Nitrates and phosphates from fertilisers, sewage and detergents are rich food for algae which then
reproduce very quickly. This is called an algal (or algae) bloom and shows as a thick layer of green scum on
the water.
 The algae block out light needed by aquatic organisms for photosynthesis, so these organisms die.
Anaerobic bacteria use up all the oxygen in the water to decompose the dead organisms. The result is that
all other organisms (including fish) which are dependent on the oxygen, die as well

2. Domestic, industrial and agricultural use

 Detergents, pesticides, fertilisers, sewage all negatively affect water quality
 Domestic waste must be disposed of through controlled sewerage systems in urban areas to be treated /
purified at sewerage plants.
 Untreated waste can spread diseases or lead to eutrophication, E. coli bacteria from human faeces make it
un-safe to drink ground water or river water without purification treatment.

Agricultural contamination
o Large commercial farms use huge quantities of fertilisers, hormones and pesticides to speed up plant
growth, kill insects and other pests.
o Irrigation and rainwater washes a lot of these chemicals into wetlands, dams and rivers, and some filter
into the groundwater.

Waterborne waste from industrial processing that is pumped into rivers or wetlands causes various
types of pollution depending on the industry:
o Toxic chemical pollution from paints, glues and solvents, heavy metals such as mercury and lead causes
poisoning.
o Increasing salinity (saltiness) of wastewater containing common salts used in or produced by industries
kills sensitive organisms.
o Oil and petrol spills from industries and underground storage tanks pollute and poison surrounding water
systems.

The effects of mining on the quality of water

Human impact on the environment
A lot of waste water is generated by all sectors of mining. Most of this is pumped into drainage ponds and
dams. It is then treated and recycled by responsible mining companies.

Most of the water used in mining goes to waste and pollutes the quality of water bodies in the following
ways:
 Thermal pollution: Mines also discharge large amounts of hot water which kills plant and animal life.
 Chemical contamination: The poison cyanide is used in goldmining and contaminates surface and ground
water bodies near mines.
 Metal contamination: Mine waste water contains traces of poisonous arsenic, mercury, lead and zinc
which affect nearby water bodies. Radioactive elements such as uranium are also dangerous contaminants.
 Acid mine drainage (AMD): Ground water dissolves sulfide minerals out of the rock in mines forming
sulfuric acid. This contaminates ground water and surface water bodies around disused mines for years,
impacting human and animal health negatively and resulting in a loss of biodiversity and desertification.
Thermal pollution Thermal pollution is the result of warm or extremely hot waste water from industrial
processing being pumped out into nearby waterbodies.
 Hot water kills many temperature sensitive organisms.
 Hot water has a lower oxygen content which also kills oxygen-dependent, aquatic organisms.
 The increased temperatures contribute to favourable conditions for algal bloom and eutrophication.

Alien invasive plants Alien invasive plants – they are alien since not indigenous to an area, and
invasive because they flourish and out-compete indigenous species for space and resources.
 Aquatic aliens invade water bodies containing excessive nutrients from sewage and agricultural waste.
There are many of these in South Africa but the worst is the water hyacinth (Eichornia crassipes)
 Water hyacinth reproduce quickly to form a dense mat over the surface of water bodies such as rivers,
dams and lakes. They choke irrigation canals, pipes and pumps controlling water flow.
 The dense covering or carpet of water hyacinths blocks sunlight penetrating water bodies, causes
eutrophication and kills all aquatic life. This severely decreases water quality and increases the risk of
waterborne diseases.

Role of water purification in improving quality of water

The poor quality of water is more of a problem than the lack of water supply.

If we continue to pollute our available water:

 we will damage ecosystems which are our primary sources of fresh water.
 there will be less water for all human activities, from drinking water to industrial water use.
 water will cost more to treat and recycle, and everyone will have to pay.
 there will be an increase in waterborne diseases. Water purification Water purification is expensive but
necessary to ensure clean fresh drinking water for human consumption.
 Water is treated and purified on a large scale at water treatment and sewerage plants. Fig 41. Aerial view
of storage tanks in sewerage plant 305
 Water may be purified at home using filters.
The water should be boiled to make it safe for drinking.

Figure 42: Make a simple homemade water filter using a discarded 2 L bottle
 Use a 2 L bottle with a lid
 Cut the bottom off the bottle and fill it with layers of filtering materials in the order shown in Figure 42.
 Invert it over a glass container and pour dirty water in the open end.
 Remove the lid. Clean water will drip through the filter.
 The filtered water must be boiled or chlorine tablets can be added. Recycling water improves the quality
(and availability) of water
Recycling water improves the quality (and availability) of water
Recycling used water is a necessary source of water, particularly in arid areas or in times of drought.
Human impact on the environment
 Power stations, mines and industry should all recycle their water waste.
 Domestic households can use their greywater for growing plants.
 Cities and towns should reclaim water at sewerage works and purify it for domestic use

Food security According to the World Health Organisation (1996), “food security exists when all people,
at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe, nutritious food that meets their dietary
needs and food preferences for an active, healthy life.”
Food insecurity is where there is evidence of malnutrition and starvation. This is often a result of
socio-political conditions such as wars, refugee migrations, diseases and epidemics.

Factors that influence food security

1. Human exponential population growth

For thousands of years, human population growth increased very slowly and it wasn’t until the early 1800s
that the world’s human population reached an estimated 1 billion people The estimate for 2020 is 9 billion
people on the planet. This puts enormous strain on food resources.

2. Droughts and floods (climate change)

Climate change and extreme weather conditions are caused by global warming:
 Increasing droughts are a threat to crops and reduce food security and result in famine. After diseases,
famine is the second largest cause of deaths worldwide.
 Floods are becoming more frequent because of changes in rainfall patterns and the increasing incidents of
extreme conditions such as hurricanes. Floods put enormous pressure on food production, and the ability of
humans to recover agricultural land after flooding. Floods also increase the spread of diseases.

3. Alien invasive plants and the reduction of agricultural land

Alien invasive plants reduce food security because:
 Aliens use much more water than indigenous plants and lower the water table for boreholes. This reduces
the supply of water for irrigation of food plants.
 Aliens such as gum, pine and wattle trees contain volatile oils which burn faster than indigenous species
resulting in veld fires
 The bark, stems and leaves of some alien invasive plants change the soil pH which then cannot support
agricultural production.
 Some alien plants that invade pastures and grasslands, are inedible or toxic. This negatively affects
livestock attempting to eat them.
 Weeds outcompete planted crops, which affects food production, as they are labour-intensive to remove
and control with pesticides

4. Loss of wild varieties impacts biodiversity and the gene pool

Most modern food crops and meat supplies come from plants and animals that have been selectively bred or
domesticated from wild varieties.
Human impact on the environment
Over centuries humans have improved nutrient values and food yields by selectively breeding some
varieties of plants or animals over others.
Wild varieties, however are often more resistant to pests & diseases and can be used to breed resistant genes
into domesticated crops

The gene pool refers to the wide varieties of genetic characteristics which are passed on through
reproduction:
o A large gene pool means great genetic diversity, with strong and healthy breeding stock. (Wild varieties)
o A small gene pool means low genetic diversity, and more susceptibility to problems, therefore weaker
stock. (Often a result of selective breeding)
o Ongoing destruction of habitats is resulting in mass extinction of species and shrinking of the gene pools
across all dependent food species.

Food wastage
Food security is more threatened by wastage than any shortage: Wastage occurs at every step of the food
chain: from growing, harvesting and processing, to retailing (selling) and consumption (buying and eating).

Wastage differs in developing countries from developed countries: In developing countries, 40% of food is
lost during food production and transportation because subsistence farmers:
 mostly farm in poor-quality soil or in areas that are unsuited to agriculture
 lack adequate storage and cooling facilities
 are unable to protect crops and livestock from the effects of extreme weather conditions, pest infestations
and diseases in animals
 cannot afford expensive long-distance transportation for produce and struggle with bad roads and limited
access to railways

Wastage in developed countries occurs because of:

 harvesting with machinery, which harvests ripe and unripe crops together. As a result unripe crops are
wasted.
 laws which require disease infected stocks to be completely destroyed
 surpluses occurring from commercial farming being discarded because the selling price is not high enough
 supermarkets marking foods with ‘sell-by’ and ‘eat-by’ dates. Foods past these dates are dumped even
though still perfectly edible Genetically engineered foods

Genetically modified (GM) foods can improve food security because:

 they are modified to be pest and disease resistant – which reduces the cost of pesticides
 they are modified to provide extra nutrients and greater yields
 they can be altered to tolerate drought conditions and salty soils which means they can be grown in areas
that were previously unsuitable

5. Poor farming practices

Famine is also a result of poor farming practices. The effects of climate change is making the situation
worse.
 Monoculture – this refers to the growing of high-yielding crops of plants, of a single species The
Human impact on the environment
negative effects of monoculture include:
o exponential growth of pests attracted by the concentration of food o loss of topsoil once the crop is
harvested
o loss of biodiversity
o increased application of fertilizers and pesticides o periods during which there is no food for bees

 Overgrazing and loss of topsoil

Overgrazing occurs when too many animals graze an area for prolonged periods. The plant cover which
protects and binds the soil is removed. Topsoil is vital for agriculture. It is rich in humus (organic matter) as
well as inorganic nutrients (minerals) and organisms
increased growth of unpalatable species – grazers selectively remove the palatable species

 The use of fertilisers

o Artificial fertilisers are industrially manufactured and contain nitrates, phosphates and potassium to
increase crop yields and quality and reduce growing time.
o They are expensive and drive up the cost of food production thereby lowering food security.

 The use of pesticides

Farmers use large quantities of chemical pesticides to control them.
Examples of pests are:
 microorganisms, which cause diseases such as rust and blight
 insects such as aphids, beetles, caterpillars and locusts
 rodents such as rabbits, rats and mice

o Chemical pesticides are toxic to the environment and useful species are affected as well as the pests they
target.
o Concentrations of toxins accumulate (build up) in the food chain: e.g. an owl that eats poisoned rats and
mice will accumulate more poison than the amount consumed by just one of its prey. This is called bio-
accumulation of poisons.
o When heavy rains fall, pesticides are washed from sprayed crops, as well as poisoned soil, into surface
water bodies, which affects fish and other aquatic organisms. Birds that prey on these die as well. This also
reduces food supplies for humans

Loss of biodiversity
Biodiversity refers to the variety of all living organisms on Earth. Loss of biodiversity is the most damaging
impact humans have on the environment.
Human impact on the environment
Biodiversity is important because it maintains the provision of …
 good quality fresh water and air quality  climate stabilisation  healthy quality soil formation 
pollination and natural seed dispersal  natural fuel and food from the environment  natural pest control
with predators  healthcare from medicinal plants and microbes  ecotourism and recreation in nature

Factors that reduce biodiversity

Habitat destruction occurs through:
 Farming methods (overgrazing and monoculture)
Overstocking livestock and overgrazing pastures for too long in one area results in:
o soil contamination from excessive dung and urine
o soil erosion
o makes way for alien plants to take over o reduces the diversity of vegetation leading to land degradation
and
o desertification

Growing large quantities of these single type crops (monoculture) year after year leads to:
o loss of indigenous species and biodiversity
o specific insects overbreeding and feeding on these crops o environmental pollution is caused by pesticides
and fertilisers
o poisoning and eutrophication of nearby water supplies

 Golf estates.
Most golf estates are built in ecologically sensitive areas with high natural biodiversity which is destroyed
by:
o construction of building high density housing on the estates; indigenous bush and trees are cleared and
dependent animal and bird life affected
o the same pollution impacts as for urban town-housing, with the same negative effects on birds, predators
and water bodies
o private gardens on the estate increasing the threat of alien invasive species
o golf fairways that represent monoculture on a huge scale

 Mining Both surface (open-cast) mining and underground mining destroys habitats and negatively affects
biodiversity in many ways:
o Open-cast (surface) mines take up more space and generate noise and dust pollution
o When vegetation and topsoil are removed for surface mining, animal and plant habitats are destroyed
o All mines produce tons of gas emissions, solid waste, liquid effluent (waste or sewage) and some result in
acid mine drainage. These poison underground water supplies and seep into river systems
Human impact on the environment
o Huge mining trucks destroy vegetation and compact soil reducing the drainage ability. Generally mining
exposes topsoil to erosion and degradation

 Urbanisation, As the population increases and cities grow, more indigenous vegetation is cleared to build
more industries, road networks and high density housing. This negatively impacts biodiversity by
increasing:
o all types of pollution - air, land, water, noise and light o physical barriers to animal migration and
reproduction patterns
o rainwater run off causing flooding o bioaccumulation of poisons o the growth of alien vegetation.

 Deforestation
Deforestation is the large-scale removal of indigenous trees.
The destruction of woodlands and indigenous forested areas for the purposes of timber, agriculture, fuel
supplies and other human activities leads to:
o the destruction of habitats for insects, especially pollinators such as bees, and amphibians, e.g. frogs.
Other larger dependent species are in turn affected
o the loss of many medicinal and food plant species

 Loss of wetlands and grasslands

Wetlands are the habitats of a rich biodiversity of plants of animals. Any pollution or removal of wetlands
for development threatens:
o the biodiversity of soils and vegetation (including useful and medicinal plants) associated with wetlands o
the capacity for freshwater purification and storage, erosion and flood control
o the habitats of fish and other aquatic animals o tourism, recreation, wildlife and bird conservation

Grasslands As natural grazing areas, grasslands support a rich biodiversity of wild animals and bird
species. If these habitats are removed, eroded or polluted we will lose:
o several endangered and threatened species which survive on grass seeds, worms and insects that populate
the grasslands, e.g. South Africa’s national bird, the blue crane, which lives in the grasslands
o many useful and medicinal plants o ecotourism opportunities such as hiking trails o flood control and
water filtering capacities of grasslands

Poaching is the illegal hunting or collecting of species (animal or plant) either for food or money.
Relentless removal of any species negatively affects all other species that interact with and depend on them
for survival. This results in loss of biodiversity.

Culling is the careful and legal control of animal numbers to protect biodiversity.

In South Africa, abalone, rhino and elephants are examples of animals that are poached – often only for a
small body part:
 Abalone (‘perlemoen’ in Afrikaans – Figure 60) This sea snail, is a great delicacy in Asia and has a high
market value. Abalone take 7 years to mature before they can reproduce, and as a result of overharvesting
they are a declining population. Illegal poaching and trading in abalone affects marine biodiversity.
 Rhino Rhinos are illegally killed for their horns (Figure 61) that consist of keratin, the same substance that
makes up hair, nails or claws, in all mammals. Asian buyers are willing to pay large sums for the horn
which they believe has healing and sexual properties.
 Elephants are poached for their tusks for the ivory trade in ornaments and jewellery, particularly for Asian
markets. Elephants have a great impact on biodiversity which is damaged by poaching: The animals are
being killed faster than natural populations can replace them.

Alien plant invasions outcompete natural vegetation.

They spread quickly and become the dominant vegetation, leading to a loss of biodiversity. Factors that
Human impact on the environment
reduce the loss of biodiversity Loss of biodiversity can be reduced by controlling alien invaders and the
sustainable use of the environment.
Control of alien plant invasions Alien plants are removed:
 mechanically
o by hand or machine to chop down plants o this is effective but expensive and time consuming.
 chemically
o by spraying or injecting plants with herbicides o this is also expensive and risky as it can pollute land or
water, killing many other species of plants and animals
 biologically o by introducing natural enemies of the alien invaders as control agents: e.g. wasps that form
galls on Port Jackson willows or fungi that form galls preventing black wattle from reproducing o this the
easier and more affordable option but may also be risky if the natural enemies multiply unchecked and
attack indigenous

Sustainable use of the environment means managing and using resources so that future generations
will still be able to use those resources.
 Traditional healers can be encouraged to grow medicinal plants
 Rural unemployed people – especially women – can be taught to harvest wild plants responsibly

Useful indigenous plants impact biodiversity

Some useful indigenous plants that have economic value are at risk of overexploitation unless they are
carefully managed and harvesting is legislated:
 Fynbos Nearly 2000 fynbos plants are threatened with extinction.
o increasing wild fires are destroying the biodiversity of fynbos o worldwide demand for fynbos wildflower
species (especially proteas) is also putting these plants’ habitats under pressure
 Rooibos
Rooibos tea is celebrated for its antioxidant and medicinal properties including protection again cancer,
strengthening bones, relieving stress and colic.
o Global demand for rooibos tea means that more land is needed for growing the bushes. Rooibos
plantations are now encroaching on wild fynbos lands and impacting on the biodiversity of those species.
o Farmers need to manage the plantations carefully to ensure that indigenous fauna and flora can live in
corridors in between the plantations, so as not to destroy the rich biodiversity of the fynbos.
 Devil’s claw (Harpagophytum procumbens) Devil’s claw is the hooked shaped fruit which grows in the
arid sandy parts of southern Africa. Tons are exported yearly as a treatment for back pain, fever and arthritis
o The current demand on wild Devil's claw is unsustainable as the plant has to grow for four years before it
can be harvested.
o It is listed as a protected plant and may not be harvested in the wild unless the harvester has a permit and
training in sustainable harvesting.
o Devil’s claw plants are now being cultivated for trade on a large commercial scale in an attempt to protect
the species.
 African potato (Hypoxis hemerocallidea) African potato is a perennial, grassland plant with long narrow
leaves and yellow star shaped flowers. It is used for treating TB, HIV, diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis,
cancers and urinary tract infections o Some indigenous and medicinal plant nurseries are growing and
trading with African potato plants already.
 Hoodia gordonii Hoodia is a spiny succulent which has been used generations of Khoisan people as an
appetite and thirst quencher in the dry desert regions of the country. It is now marketed worldwide as an
appetite suppressant and slimming agent.
o It is a protected plant which may not be harvested in the wild, but thousands of tons have been harvested
illegally and shipped out of the country.
o This threatens the rights of the Khoisan to an income from the plants, as well as the sustainable harvesting
of the plants.

Solid waste disposal

Human impact on the environment
Waste is material that is of no use to humans anymore. It needs to be disposed of in a safe and
environmentally friendly way. Waste can be solid, liquid or gas. In this section we learn about the impact of
solid waste on our environment.

The need to reduce solid waste or find ways of managing it

Burying solid waste in landfills is becoming a big problem:
 Landfill or dumpsites can be unsightly, toxic, smell bad, be flammable and cause air pollution.
 Vermin (e.g. rats) and flies which can carry diseases breed in dumpsites.
 Toxins can leach from the site into underground water or nearby rivers and dams. Figure 74: Landfill
dumpsites are unsightly and smell disgusting

Aspects of solid-waste disposal Management and rehabilitation of dumpsites

 Landfill or dumpsites are usually large excavated holes, eroded dongas or disused quarries or mines,
where solid waste is dumped.
 Properly managed landfills are lined to isolate the dumped waste from ground water supplies so that toxic
leachate does not cause contamination.
 Decomposition occurs anaerobically in a sealed and capped landfill and the resulting methane stays
trapped unless it is tapped for use.
 Landfill sites can be rehabilitated to prevent soil and water pollution by: o planting species that absorb and
detoxify contaminants in the soil, water, sediments or air surrounding landfills. This is called
bioremediation.
o developing parks or public use areas over landfills with planted vegetation, preferably trees, to stabilise
the ground
 Wells are then sunk into the landfill to tap off the methane in pipes. The pipes link to an underground
mains which collects the methane. This is then extracted and burned to generate electricity
 Burning methane does not emit toxins. The electricity generated can be fed into local power stations as a
clean source of energy.

 Solid waste is compacted and sealed in landfills. The moisture content and temperatures in landfills is
high which perfectly suits the development of anaerobic bacteria. These bacteria decompose (and reduce)
the waste and produce methane which stays trapped in the fill.

The need for recycling

:  reduces air, land and water pollution
 reduces the use of raw materials and saves energy
 reduces waste
 provides employment

The need for safe disposal of nuclear waste

Human impact on the environment

Nuclear waste is very toxic and is a threat to human health and the environment.
 Nuclear waste is disposed of by burying it deep under the earth or ocean in thick concrete or lead
containers. South Africa's nuclear waste from Koeberg (western Cape) and Pelindaba (Gauteng) are handled
in this way.
 Nuclear waste is not biodegradable so ways must be found that reduce the risks of these deadly emissions.