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PIEZOELECTRIC TESTING OF COMMERCIAL PVDF THIN FILM SENSOR

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 Proceedings of IMEC-2024, 6th-7th March 2024, Karachi, Pakistan

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Preface
The 13th International Mechanical Engineering Conference was held on 6th & 7th March 2024, an annual
conference collaboratively organized by Institution of Engineers Pakistan (IEP), NED University of
Engineering & Technology, Karachi and Project GetInnovative4Impact. It aims to bring together people
who are working on the Industry 4.0 and related domains.

This year, the IMEC conference was structured around 8 tracks on various thematic topics, including

 Implementation of Digital/Smart Manufacturing Systems

 Applications of Artificial Intelligence and AR/VR and MR
 Advancements in Additive and other Manufacturing Processes
 Role of Cloud Computing in Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering
 Adoption of Big Data Analytics, Visualisation and Dashboards
 Advanced Robotics and Material Handling System
 Energy 4.0, Advancements in Power Generation and Transmissions
 Advancements in Material Science and Technology.

IMEC-24 received 30 papers from all over the world. All submissions were peer-reviewed and also
evaluated during the presentation of authors on conference days. We are very pleased to report that the
quality of the submissions this year turned out to be very high. A total of 21 papers were accepted as full
papers which is around 70% full paper acceptance rate.

We acknowledge the invaluable assistance of the track chairs and the technical review committee members.
A complete list of all committee members can be found on the previous page. Most reviewers provided
detailed and constructive comments which were valuable for the authors to continue improving their papers,
even if their submissions were not selected for the conference.

Given the high-quality works done by authors, reviewers, and track chairs, we are confident that the IMEC
2024 proceedings capture the current state-of-the-art research in the learning technology field and will have
a significant impact on the research community in the longer term.

Dr. Tariq Jamil

Conference Secretary, IMEC-24
Assistant Professor,
NED University of Engineering & Technology, Karachi.

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Conference Proceedings
International Mechanical Engineering
Conference 2024
Table of Contents
S. No. Title of Paper / Authors Page No.
1. DESIGN AND SIMULATION OF PHOTOVOLTAIC POWER PARK FOR EVACUATING 7
SINDH SOLAR POTENTIAL USING HVDC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

M.M. Khan, B. Akram, M.A. Shafi, S. Jabbar, J. Faiz, and R. Nazeer

2. IMPACT OF HEAT EXCHANGER, OIL BATH CLEANING UNIT AND EXHAUST GAS 16
RECIRCULATION ON PERFORMANCE AND EMISSIONS OF A DIESEL ENGINE
FUELED BY DIESEL MIXTURES WITH CARBON NANOTUBE

Muhammad Sarfraz Ali, Sadia Saleem, Rozeena Aslam, Muhammad Imran,

Hamza Akhtar, Muhammad Ali, Muhammad Faheem Nazar, Muhammad
Hashaam Kamal, Abdul Sattar, Muhammad Babar Hurr
3. ENERGY, EXERGY AND ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF AN INDUSTRIAL BOILER: A 23
CASE STUDY OF KAPCO POWER PLANT

Muhammad Sarfraz Ali, Sadia Saleem, Rozeena Aslam, Muhammad Imran,

Hamza Akhtar, Muhammad Ali, Saleem Nawaz, Muhammad Hassan Nawaz
4. A CFD ANALYSIS FOR THERMAL PERFORMANCE ENHANCEMENT OF SOLAR 32
PARABOLIC DISH CAVITY SYSTEM USING SPHERICAL AND ELLIPTICAL CAVITIES

Shehzaib Yousuf Khan, Muhammad Uzair

5. A CONSTRAINT HEURISTIC FOR INTELLIGENT PLANNING AND SCHEDULING OF 44
OPERATING ROOMS IN INDUSTRY 4.0 PERSPECTIVES

Aisha Tayyab and Saif Ullah

6. IOT IN INDUSTRY 4.0: CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES 54

Muhammad Danish Saleem, Muhammad Mubashir Khan and Anis Fatima

7. INVESTIGATION OF DEVIATIONS IN THIN-WALLS MACHINED BY THE MILLING 76
PROCESS IN THE AEROSPACE GRADE ALUMINUM
Muhammad Wasif, Syed Amir Iqbal, Naseem Ahmed

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8. DESIGN OF SOLAR WATER DESALINATION MACHINE WITH RO AND UV 82

PURIFIER

Muhammad Sarfraz Ali, Sadia Saleem, Rozeena Aslam, Muhammad Imran,

Hamza Akhtar, Muhammad Ali, Danyal Anwar, Muhammad Saad
9. AUTONOMOUS AND EFFECTIVE SOLUTION FOR CLEANING OF AIR 91
CONDITIONING DUCT

Syed Saad Farooq, Muhammad Abdur Rafay, Muhammad Faizan Shah

10. PREDICTION & COMPARISON OF OPTIMAL MACHINING PARAMETERS OF 100
ALUMINIUM ALLOY Al5454 BY WIRECUT ELECTRICAL DISCHARGE MACHINE
USING STATISTICAL METHOD AND MACHINE LEARNING ALGORITHM

Maria Iruj, Anis Fatima, Muhammad Wasif, Muhammad Tufail

11. STOCHASTIC RESOURCE CONSTRAINT PROJECT SCHEDULING PROBLEM USING 114
REINFORCEMENT LEARNING

Arooj Zahra and Dr. Saif Ullah

12. ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE-BASED ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM FOR 140
ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDINGS

Sadia Saleem, Muhammad Sarfraz Ali, Khadija Kanwal, Afshan Almas

13. DEVELOPMENT OF AN ADJUSTABLE CUTTING TABLE FOR THE ABRASIVE 150
WATERJET MACHINE

Azmir Azhari, Hariri Zin, Hasief Zakariah and Intan Roshidi

14. PIEZOELECTRIC TESTING OF COMMERCIAL PVDF THIN FILM SENSOR 156

Abdul Qadir, Shehroze Tahir Khan, Murtaza Mehdi, Meraj Ali Shah
15. MONITORING OF WELDING DIGITIZATION USING VISION-BASED 166
CLASSIFICATION: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF CNN AND RESNET-BASED
APPROACH

Afrasyab Khan, Salman Hussain, Wasim Ahmad and Mirza Jahanzaib

16. SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS OF STEEL HOLE PLATE USING THE NEW DEVELOPED 179
CREEP MODEL BY UTILIZING COMPUTATIONAL METHODS

Mohsin Sattar, Muhammad Muzammil

17. EFFECT OF GAS-ASSISTED DIRECT THERMAL METHOD PROCESSING 197
PARAMETERS ON MICROSTRUCTURE FORMATION OF HYPOEUTECTIC AL-SI
ALLOY FEEDSTOCK BILLET

M. A. Shakirin , A.H. Ahmad, A. Megalingam, J. Aliasa, S. Naherc

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18. APPLICATION OF ABRASIVE SURFACE IN TUBES TO ENHANCE FLOW METER 205

EFFICIENCY

Quresha Saghir, Anzar Ahmed and Syed Waqar Hasan

19. APPLICATION OF MACHINE LEARNING & DATA VISUALIZATION TO PREDICT 214
THE MIXING QUALITY OF TANK-AGITATOR

Syed Abdullah Ali, Furqan, Hasnain, Abdul Rauf, Izhan, Muhammad Hateem
Arif
20. INVERSE KINEMATICS OF ROBOTIC ARM FOR WELDING DIGITIZATION IN THE 220
ARENA OF INDUSTRY 4.0

Muhammad Bilal, Salman Hussain, Wasim Ahmad and Mirza Jahanzaib

21. FABRICATION AND CHARACTERIZATIONS OF A LOW-COST THERMAL 227
ACTUATOR FOR MICRO-ELECTRO-MECHANICAL SYSTEMS (MEMS)
APPLICATIONS

Shehroze Tahir Khan, Murtuza Mehdi, Tariq Jamil and Abdul Qadir

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DESIGN AND SIMULATION OF PHOTOVOLTAIC POWER PARK FOR

EVACUATING SINDH SOLAR POTENTIAL USING HVDC
TRANSMISSION SYSTEM
M.M. Khan1, *, B. Akram2, M.A. Shafi3, S. Jabbar1, J. Faiz1, and R. Nazeer4
1
Department of Electrical Engineering and Technology, Institute of southern Punjab, 6000,
Multan, Pakistan.
2
Department of Electrical Engineering, Glasgow Caledonian University, G40BA, Glasgow
Scotland, UK
3
Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, COMSATS University Islamabad, 45550,
Pakistan.
4
Department of Electrical Engineering, NFC Institute of Engineering and Technology Multan,
Pakistan.

*
Corresponding author E-mail address: [email protected] (M.M. Khan)
ABSTRACT
Mega-sized power plants that use both conventional and unconventional energy sources and are
situated in remote locations are producing electricity. The electricity industry in Pakistan has
several issues due to outdated and inadequate domestic power plants as well as unstable, costly,
and insecure power generation. While finding adequate land to establish a Photovoltaic power Park
(PPP) is challenging, on-grid solar photovoltaic power parks (OGSPPPs) are a key step towards
addressing the energy shortfall in urban load centers. Despite this, PPPs are the most simple and
straightforward technology to deploy. The strategic challenge, though, is in determining the solar
energy potential of Pakistan's Sindh and Punjab Provinces. Sindh province is perfect for large-
scale solar installation because of its high solar irradiance and lack of fog throughout the year, the
yearly average global horizontal solar potential of Sindh is 1978.9 kWh/m2 and diffuse solar
irradiation of 871.7 kWh/m2, greater than Punjab. The ±660 KV HVDC transmission line in Sindh
is designed to transfer large amounts of power from the various Sindhi areas, which generate from
various power plants, to the load centers located in North Punjab. The findings indicate that the
PVSyst software records an annual average performance ratio of 84.8% for the Jamshoro area of
Sindh. The paper's findings show that the execution of this PPP project involves adding more
energy to load centers in order to combat energy shortages and increases in per-unit costs. This
can lead to both energy security and national economic stability.
Keywords: Photovoltaic Power Park (PPP); Solar irradiation; Power Evacuating; Sindh solar
Potential; Solar irradiance; Power Generation; On grid Solar Photovoltaic Power Park (OGSPPP);
Load centers
1. INTRODUCTION
The need for energy is growing daily as time for energy production, such as coal, natural
goes on. Nearly all homes and businesses gas, and oil, results in rising greenhouse gas
require electricity, which puts a heavy emissions that have a negative effect on the
company. The use of traditional fossil fuels environment and drive global warming [1,2].

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Cleaner energy sources including sun, wind, horizontal irradiance is decreasing and peaks
biomass, magneto hydrodynamics (MHD), in the Himalayas. While other portions of
and hydropower must be used in order to Pakistan also have significant solar potential,
replace traditional power generating methods with about 1500 kWh/m2 per year,
with new ones. These resources are encompassing more than 90% of Pakistan's
renewable since nature replenishes them total area, Figure 1 [5] shows that the
maximum solar radiation in Sindh as a whole
constantly [3]. Solar energy is among the
is slightly over 2300 kWh/m2 per year. This
most practical answers to the global energy
energy can be captured efficiently enough to
crisis. Due to the expensive impossibility of meet all of the country's energy
connecting power lines to remote and rural requirements. With Pakistan's population
areas, PPP systems have emerged as a expanding at an exponential rate and
dependable global energy generating source conventional energy supplies like gas,
[4]. furnace oil, and coal running out quickly,
photovoltaic energy is the only dependable
substitute for traditional energy sources. In
this context, a number of actions have
already been taken. To maximize the benefit
of the solar resource, system parameters must
be sized and simulated for an efficient energy
production. The energy production and
necessary PV system size may be assessed
using the modeling tool PVSyst [6,7].
Numerous studies have used PVSyst to
assess the system's performance. The
efficacy of a grid-connected, 190kWp solar
power plant was investigated by the authors
[9]. PVSyst was used to analyze the electrical
power produced by solar arrays and
photovoltaic systems in grid-tied systems in
Berlin and Kathmandu, together with all
conversion losses and losses from the
inverter system. Regarding PVSyst simulator
usage PV system-based power generating.
The authors used PVSyst to model a grid tie
system in order to determine if building a 1
MW solar photovoltaic (PV) power station
would be feasible. They achieved this by
Figure 1. Pakistan's yearly global
simulating the southern Tamandua area of
horizontal irradiance (GHI) in kWh/m2.
India and comparing performance analyses
In Pakistan's Sindh and Baluchistan, where from various geographic locations [8-11].
horizontal surface global irradiations are The objective of this research is to utilize
highest, direct solar radiation presents an PVSyst simulation to build and model a grid-
enormous opportunity for clean, green connected PV system for a specific
electrical energy production. In Pakistan's geographic area in Jamshoro, Sindh, and its
northern and northeastern areas, global potential transmitted through the already
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existing HVDC system depicted in Figure 2. Pakistan. Meteonorm-8.1 is the source of

Due to this reason installation of PPP near the meteorological data used in the design of
HVDC transmission line to evacuate photovoltaic systems and their performance
maximum Sindh solar potential and export research over a period of many months and a
this power to Punjab and other area of year.

Figure 2. Proposed PPP interconnection with the HVDC line

For the suggested site, a suitable tilt angle has assist the government in making use of
been calculated, which greatly increases the Pakistan's Sindh province's OGPPPGS.
solar energy generation capability. Design
and simulation of a PPP at Jamshoro, Sindh, 2. METHODOLOGY
with the goal of exporting electricity to For the purpose of building and scaling solar
Punjab via an HVDC transmission line with systems, Meteonorm-8.1 is used to calculate
a 4000MW evacuating capacity. The power temperature, wind speed information, and
plants are located 878 Km away from load photovoltaic irradiance for the Jamshoro
centers. Due to Sindh's greater solar potential location, which is located at latitude
than Punjab and the availability of an HVDC 25.43°N, 68.53°E, and an altitude of 23
transmission line with a 4000 MW energy meters. This section explains how to use
evacuation capacity from Sindh to Punjab, PVsyst Simulator to estimate the design and
the primary load center that experiences a create a 126 MWp DC/103 MWp AC
severe year-round energy shortage, a PPP photovoltaic system for the Proposed site in
simulation design has been proposed for Sindh. The planned solar system's size and
Jamshoro, Sindh. As a result, this study will performance analysis are estimated for a
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given geographic area using simulation-

based software called PVSyst. Researchers,
designers, and engineers utilize it as a
simulator and fundamental design for solar
energy systems. PVSyst is more efficient in
the design and development of solar systems
when selecting the right cell model and
inverter for the intended system's intended
output. Data may be manually added to
PVSyst from several locations, a massive
global database, and its meteorological data.
Tables and graphs are used to display the
software's results.
2.1 Proposed Location:
Figure 3. is the location of proposed site for
the installation of PPP near Manjhand,
Jamshoro Sindh. Vast area for the solar park
with ideal sun irradiance to generate Figure 3: Proposed location of PPP
maximum clean and green power generation.

Month Direct Diffuse Direct Diffuse Temperature Wind Relative

irradiation irradiation irradiation irradiation (°C) Velocity Humidity
(kWh/m2/day) (kWh/m2/day) (kWh/m2/month) (kWh/m2/month) (m/sec) (%)
January 4.08 1.27 126.4 39.4 14.6 1.90 58.5
February 4.67 1.91 130.9 53.5 18.5 2.20 54.4
March 5.73 2.23 177.7 69.1 24.7 2.19 47.9
April 6.11 2.80 183.4 84.1 29.2 2.70 43.2
May 6.50 3.21 201.4 99.5 33.7 3.70 43.5
June 6.89 3.33 206.7 99.8 33.6 4.40 51.0
July 6.11 3.38 191.0 104.8 32.3 4.60 60.0
August 5.66 3.23 175.4 100.3 30.9 4.09 63.7
September 5.92 2.47 177.7 74.2 30.0 3.40 61.1
October 5.11 2.04 158.3 63.4 27.4 2.11 53.2
November 4.53 1.28 136.0 38.4 21.3 1.50 55.0
December 3.68 1.46 114.1 45.2 16.3 1.80 59.4
Yearly 5.42 2.39 1978.9 871.7 26.0 2.9 54.2
Table 1. Input Data for The Proposed Location of PPP

The PVSyst program receives the following The placement of photovoltaic (PV) systems
inputs: the Meteonorm-8.1 data, radiations is crucial for solar energy generation since
from solar panels, appropriate design for different parts of the planet receive different
photovoltaic (PV) cells and arrays, quantities of solar radiation on solar cells. A
positioning of the photovoltaic field, Losses unique collection of location-specific
in the inverter system operational metrics, such as latitude, longitude, and
circumstances, efficiency and utilization of altitude, may be used to describe this
energy, index of normalized performance. positional difference. The proposed location

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of Jamshoro in southern Pakistan is situated

at an elevation of 242 meters, with latitude
25.71°N, longitude 68.29° E, and both. Total
126 MWp DC solar system with 229086 unit
of Si-mono based Longi solar cell model
LR5-72 HPH 550 M and 15 unit of Sungrow
inverter 6874 kWp.

Figure 5. PPP system

The tilt angle that is considered is typically
equal to or near the latitude value of the
geographic location where the collector
plane's global irradiance is at its maximum
and the loss with respect to the ideal
Figure 4.Tilt angle and Azimuth angle for
condition is zero. The tilt angle is 26°, the
PPP
loss with respect to optimal is 0.0% for the
Tilt angle is important to maximize solar
global collector plane, and other input data
radiation in the sun's path. Photovoltaic cells
are displayed in Table 1. An azimuth angle is
are positioned at a certain angle to maximize
essentially a measure of how the sun is
solar energy capture, especially around
oriented around the planet. It is zero when
sunrise and sunset as depicted in Figure 4.
facing the sun, therefore a solar cell should be
Tilt angle is selected for the PPP is 26° and
oriented southward to capture the lightest.
azimuth angle 0° is selected to minimize
Given the azimuth angle of 0°, seven solar
conversion losses 0.0% on this particular
pathways are found that change the major sun
angle. Overall arrangement of system model
direction shown for the proposed site. In
is depicted in Figure 5. PV array is connected
Table 02 Annual average worldwide direct
to inverter and converted all DC power into
horizontal irradiance of 1978.9 kWh/m2
AC and injected into grid. A photovoltaic
suggests a high potential for solar power
system's overall performance and efficiency
production. The monthly diffuse irradiance,
can be increased by precisely angling the
temperature, wind speed, and global
solar cells so that they face the sun the most.
horizontal irradiance are displayed in Table 1
for the proposed site. The maximum global
monthly average of horizontal irradiance is
206.7 kWh/m2 is recorded in June and
minimum in the month of December 114.1
kWh/m2.

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Months GlobHor DiffHor TAmb GlobInc GlobEff E-Array E-Grid Performance

(kWh/m²) (kWh/m²) (°C) (kWh/m²) (kWh/m²) (MWh) (MWh) Ratio (%)
January 126.4 39.4 14.62 174.7 172.8 19845 19617 0.891
February 130.9 53.5 18.52 161.9 159.8 18067 17869 0.876
March 177.7 69.1 24.66 199.2 196.3 21462 21231 0.846
April 183.4 84.1 29.16 185.9 182.8 19692 19463 0.831
May 201.4 99.5 33.74 189.4 185.9 19796 19574 0.820
June 206.7 99.8 33.60 188.1 184.7 19768 19549 0.825
July 191.0 104.8 32.34 176.9 173.6 18866 18652 0.837
August 175.4 100.3 30.86 171.8 168.8 18403 18186 0.840
September 177.7 74.2 30.00 191.1 188.2 20303 20072 0.833
October 158.3 63.4 27.44 189.0 186.5 20256 20035 0.841
November 136.0 38.4 21.27 184.3 182.2 20243 20029 0.862
December 114.1 45.2 16.26 157.3 155.4 17882 17680 0.892
Year 1978.9 871.7 26.07 2169.8 2137.0 234581 231957 0.848
Table 2. PR And Injected Energy into Grid

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The output power is obtained after all
necessary efficiency adjustments have been
made. The results of the system simulation
are shown in Table 2. 1978.9 kWh/m2 is the
yearly incidence global horizontal radiation
on the collector plane of the solar cell when
the solar plate is positioned at a 26° tilt angle
to get the best incident irradiation on the
plane. In Figure 6 incident energy on surface
area of solar plane is one of the crucial
parameters for calculating the power
production throughout the year, maximum
6.5 kWh/m2/kWp in the month of March and
September which are the best month with
moderate temperature. Minimum per day
power production 5.1 kWh/m2/kWp overall Figure 6. Reference incident energy of
annual average incident energy 5.945 PPP
kWh/m2/day. The proposed PPP has a high The system operates at peak efficiency and
potential for solar energy, and using an performance ratio recorded for more than
existing 878-kilometer HVDC transmission 89% of the time due to low temperatures
line to simulate the design of a park in Sindh 14.62° and 16.26° in the month of January
and then transmit power to Punjab is one of and December, respectively, even though
the best ways to optimize load demand. Clean incident sun irradiance is reduced in these
and green energy will be affordable and months by approximately 114.1–126.4
controlled at the unit cost of electricity. kWh/m2. This is because high temperatures
also have an impact on solar cell efficiency
and increase conversion losses that decrease
the (PR) of solar cell in the month of May and
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June is recorded 82%. Longi solar cell

efficiency is recorded 21.56% and converted
1982 kWh/m2 irradiance into 269803 MWh
with the help of 585555m2 surface area of PV
array collector. PV arrays and solar cell
modules suffer from a range of losses.
Included are the following losses: The
photovoltaic loss resulting from incident
irradiance is 1.5%, while the inverter loss
during operation is 1.1%. PV losses due to
high temperature 10.7%, The wiring loss is
1.1%, the module quality loss is 0.2%, and
the module array mismatch loss is 2.1%. The
remaining energy at the inverter's output,
231957 MWh, is supplied to the grid system's
infinite load after all energy losses have been
subtracted is depicted in Figure 9. Provide
losses and leftover energy to the solar system
linked to the grid. The entire energy
generated by solar cells, the energy lost Figure 7. Performance ratio of PPP
during photovoltaic conversion, mismatched
and wiring losses, and the total energy
available at the inverter output for grid
feeding are all shown in the proposed system.
The performance ratio (PR) is used to
evaluate the PV plant's performance. The link
between energy output and radiation
incidence on a specific location is measured
by the system's PR with incorporating all
losses. Because it remains at 84.8% for most
of the year, it is reasonable for a system of
size as depicted in Table 02 and Figure 7.
Figure 8 shows the daily production of
energy injected into the grid (kWh/day) and
the daily intake of solar irradiance
(kWh/m2/day). The PPP can inject more
energy per day than 700 MWh/day, as seen
by the maximum dotted concentration, which Figure 8. Daily input and output Analysis
is over that amount. of PPP

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Performance ratio is a crucial factor to

consider when assessing system
performance. The system's performance ratio
for the entire year is calculated to be 84.8%,
which is highest in Pakistan's Sindh province
and exhibits a strong potential for solar
energy production. It demonstrates that
Jamshoro should consider using a
Photovoltaic system to generate electrical
power and fulfil the load demand in local
level. Based on this study and performance
ratio, large capacity systems may be
developed for this location as well as the
whole Sindh province. Power can then be
sent by HVDC transmission lines to distant
regions of the nation like Punjab and KPK in
order to address the country's power crisis
and provide a less expensive energy
alternative.
REFERENCES
[1] M. M. Khan, M. A. Shafi and B. M.
Soucase, Financial Analysis of PV-Wind
Cogeneration for a Remote Village in
Gwadar-Pakistan, Southern Journal of
Research, 2(2), 145–152, 2022.
[2] M. M. Khan, M. A. Shafi and M. S. K.
Khosa, An Analysis of Stochastic Wind
Power Approach for Economic Load
Dispatch Optimization Using Genetic
Algorithm, Southern Journal of
Engineering & Technology, 1(2), 30-41,
2023.
[3] M. M. Khan, M. A. Shafi and Z. Riaz,
Figure 9: Loss diagram of PPP Magneto Hydro Dynamic Generation,
International Journal of Scientific &
4. CONCLUSION
Engineering Research, 7(2), 281—289,
In this current research, a complete design
2016.
and simulation technique for solar systems
[4] M. M. Khan, M. A. Shafi and N. Khan,
utilizing PVsyst simulation is described. The
Development of Prototype of Grid Tie
globally horizontal irradiation data of the
Inverter (Grid Synchronization and Load
suggested location is used to get more
Sharing, International Journal of
accurate results. It is found that a
Photovoltaic (PV) system's design is totally engineering and advanced technology,
5(5), 245–255, 2016.
reliant on its geographical location.
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[5] Solar modeling report, The World bank [9] Y. Sharma, and S. S. Chandel,
Solar resource mapping in Pakistan, Performance analysis of a 190 kWp grid
https://documents.worldbank.org/pt/publ interactive solar photovoltaic power plant
ication/documentsreports/documentdetai in India, Energy, 55(1), 476-485, 2013.
l/200771468096863184/solar-resource- [10]
mapping-in-pakistan-solar-modeling- . M. Khan, S. Ahmad, S. Jabbar, S.
report. 2015. Baloch, M. A. Shafi, R. Nazeer and J.
[6] M. Asim, S. Kamran, M. Farooq, M. Faiz, Simulation design of Grid Tied
Amjad, A. Qamar, Modelling of Photovoltaic (PV) system of a 1.05 kWp
optimized standalone PV system for basic DC for a geographical location of
domestic energy use in Pakistan, Journal Tandojam, Sindh, 1st International
of Faculty of Engineering & Technology, Conference on Women Development in
22(2) 61-68, 2022. Engineering, Science & Technology
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Soucase, A numerical simulation for [11]
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[8] M. A. Shafi, M. M. Khan and B. M. PVSyst Software: A geographical
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pv cell using LTSPICE-IV, East Pakistan 2024.
European journal of Physics, 5(1), 2022.

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 Proceedings of IMEC-2024, 6th & 7th March 2024, Karachi, Pakistan

IMPACT OF HEAT EXCHANGER, OIL BATH CLEANING UNIT AND

EXHAUST GAS RECIRCULATION ON PERFORMANCE AND
EMISSIONS OF A DIESEL ENGINE FUELED BY DIESEL MIXTURES
WITH CARBON NANOTUBES
Muhammad Sarfraz Ali1*, Sadia Saleem2, Rozeena Aslam1,
Muhammad Imran1, Hamza Akhtar1, Muhammad Ali1, Muhammad
Faheem Nazar1, Muhammad Hashaam Kamal1, Abdul Sattar1,
Muhammad Babar Hurr1
1
Mechanical Engineering Department, Swedish College of Engineering &
Technology, Rahim Yar Khan, Pakistan
2
Institute of Computer Science and Information Technology, The Women
University, Multan, Pakistan

*Corresponding author E-mail address: [email protected] (Muhammad

Sarfraz Ali)
ABSTRACT
Adverse atmospheric conditions and health hazards originating due to the discharge of unburned
hydrocarbons (UHC), nitrogen oxides (NOx) and carbon monoxide (CO) are the fundamental
challenges to researchers working on diesel engines. The solution is to develop cleaner
technologies to abate emissions from diesel engine exhaust. In this paper, a novel hybrid emission
control unit composed of a counter-flow heat exchanger (HE), oil bath cleaning unit (OBCU) and
exhaust gas recirculation (EGR), the combination abbreviated as HE-OBCU-EGR unit, was
designed, fabricated and implemented on the exhaust manifold of Massey Ferguson (MF-260)
tractor engine to reduce the regulated gaseous emissions. An experimental study was conducted to
investigate the effects of the HE-OBCU-EGR unit on the emissions of a four-stroke, three-cylinder
diesel engine equipped with an eddy-current dynamometer. The tests were conducted on engine
speed of 1200 to 2200 rpm with an interval of 200 rpm at full load. The AVL DiTEST and AVL
smoke meter were used to analyse the emissions of CO, UHC and NOx. To analyse the
performance parameters data acquisition system was used and values were stored in a computer.
The BSCF of the diesel engine decreased by 3.56% when the carbon nanotubes were added to pure
diesel in a concentration of 30 and 60 ppm. With these concentrations, there was an increase of
10.62% in torque when compared to pure diesel. The results obtained with the HE-OBCU-EGR
unit revealed 26.3% and 24.8% reduction in UHC and NOx emissions respectively, whereas CO
emissions were increased by 14.3% due to a limited supply of oxygen from EGR. Results revealed
that the HE-OBCU-EGR unit may help to minimize the emissions of UHC and NOx but is not
suitable to control CO emissions. To minimize the emissions of CO, this technology can be
superposed with a turbocharger or supercharger to enhance the availability of O2 in the combustion
chamber.
Keywords: Diesel engine; HE-OBCU-EGR; Nanoparticles; Carbon nanotubes; Emissions;
Performance

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1. INTRODUCTION
Diesel engines produce their amazing
performance and exceptional fuel economy
by first compressing air to extremely high
pressures and then spraying a small amount
of fuel into this highly compressed air. Diesel
engines are still plagued by excessive
emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOX) and Figure 1. (a) SEM CNTs
particulate matter (PM) [1,2]. New Rather than in the gaseous phase, the nano
technologies, like fuel post-combustion additive was largely released in the particle
emission control devices, will aid future phase. The main component of all the
pollution restrictions. It was more additions is metal, which is discharged as
economical to use fuel additives to lower the oxide in the exhaust. Additives were
number of particles smaller than 2.5μm. beneficial for trap renewal but had little effect
strategy. The freezing point of organic on suppressing soot. Fuel additives including
manganese was shown to decrease most at 15 catalytic compounds were among the most
°C, and 700 ppm was found to be the optimal tempting approaches to reduce PM.
dosing rate [3]. Additives are added to fuel to improve engine
When the metal dosage was administered, performance and reduce emissions. Nearly
notable patterns in the freezing point fall every technique for lowering diesel engine
were seen. Diesel was mixed with different emissions at the source compromises the
metal additions to enhance fuel quality, levels of NOX, particulates, and UHC [7].
resulting in more thorough combustion and The engine maker has several options at their
fewer pollutants from the exhaust. The disposal to precisely manage the emissions of
influence of a catalyst on the burning of any given contaminant during the
unburned hydrocarbons is the fundamental combustion and injection stages. The
idea behind this additive action [4]. The following facts and trends were noteworthy:
addition of noble or transitional metals to fuel (i) the increased injection speed led to a
lowers the soot ignition temperature. reduction in particulate emissions and
Diesel additives can also be categorized into improved air-fuel mixing; (ii) the injection
three groups based on the purpose for which pressure increase was advantageous as well;
they were designed: (i) pre-flame additives; and (iii) using an injector with pintles as flat
(ii) flame additives; and (iii) post-flame lowers residuals and emissions of particulate
additives[5]. matter and unburned hydrocarbons [8].
Particles begin to form above a predefined The additive method calls for a constant
threshold when the amount of additive addition of diesel fuel to all vehicles,
increases. The only factors influencing the excluding those equipped with filters. Metal-
additive dose limit were the type of engine organic compounds that were completely
and the soot emissions (normally aspirated dissolved in diesel fuel made up the bulk of
and turbocharged engines behave fuel additives. To decrease the ignition delay,
identically). Higher additive concentrations stabilize and function as an anti-oxidant, and
demonstrated a more concentrated benefit, operate as a surface-active agent, diesel fuel
even if lesser additive dosages were still is treated with a metal addition [9].
beneficial [6]. Metal-based additives effectively decreased
diesel emissions in two ways. The metals first
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work with the soot's carbon molecules in a oil bath cleaning unit, carbon nanotubes were
straight line to reduce the oxidation combined with pure diesel (D) at
temperature, or they work with water to concentrations of 30 and 60 parts per million.
process hydroxyl radicals, which quickens Table 1 displays the experiment's design. A
the soot's oxidation [10]. The nanoparticles magnetic stirrer was used for 30 minutes to
act as the soot's oxidation nucleus if the mix the CNTs added to pure diesel to produce
additives are used in the diesel engine after a homogenous emulsion fuel. Pure diesel can
combustion. be made better by adding carbon nanotubes
Engine exhaust particles are always under (CNTs). Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) bearing
suspicion, even in small amounts, due to their Amido groups were extremely reactive and
propensity to penetrate and simply dwell in could interact with a wide range of materials.
the respiratory alveoli, with severe health
repercussions. Diesel particulates have been Diesel CNTs HE-OBCU-
Name
demonstrated to match the size of particles (%) (ppm) EGR
that were most readily maintained for the D 100 0 No
longest amount of time in the respiratory DC30 100 30 No
system among all the types of dust that may DC60 100 60 No
be found in the atmosphere [11]. DHOE 100 0 Yes
Previous research demonstrates the DC30HOE 100 30 Yes
significant impact of nanoparticle additions DC60HOE 100 60 Yes
on the efficiency and emissions of diesel
engines. In this investigation, a four-stroke, Table 1. Design of experiment
single-cylinder diesel engine was used for the
experimental work. 30 and 60 parts per 3. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
million of each carbon nanotubes were Fig. 2 displays the diesel engine test bench's
combined with pure diesel. At engine speeds schematic diagram. A diesel engine with
of 1200, 1400, 1600, 1800, 2000, and 2200 three cylinders and water cooling, operating
rpm, the performance and emission on four strokes, was connected to an eddy
characteristics were measured. When current dynamometer. Engine speed ranges
nanoparticles were added to diesel fuel, the of 1200 to 2200 rpm at 100 rpm intervals
fuel's performance significantly improved. under full load were tested. The AVL
When pure diesel and carbon nanotubes are DiTEST emission analyser was used to
combined, the number of unburned measure the emissions of CO and NOx, while
hydrocarbons decreases by a maximum of the AVL smoke meter was used to measure
8.43%. Emissions of carbon monoxide were the emissions of BSFC and UHC.
decreased by 20.34% using carbon nanotubes
at 1600 rpm engine speed. When both
manganese oxide and carbon nanotubes were
utilized at a concentration of 30 and 60 ppm
each, there was a 6.2% decrease in NOx
emissions.
2. FUEL PREPARATION
In the current study, pure diesel (D) and
carbon nanotubes were utilized in a diesel Figure 2. Schematic diagram of the
engine. With and without a heat exchanger experimental setup
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The tests were conducted using manganese

oxide and multi-walled carbon nanotube fuel
blends with pure diesel. In the first test, pure
diesel was used in the engine and
performance and emission characteristics
were recorded for reference. After that
manganese oxide and multiwalled carbon
nanotubes were blended separately with the
pure diesel at a concentration of 90 ppm and Figure 3. Variation of Torque with speed
the result was recorded. After that, both 4.2 Brake-specific fuel consumption
manganese oxide and multiwalled carbon
nanotubes in a concentration of 90 ppm were Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC) is
blended with the pure diesel and results were a measure of the fuel efficiency of an internal
recorded. Before every next test, the engine combustion engine, typically expressed in
was run with pure diesel for at least 10 terms of fuel consumption per unit of power
minutes so that the residuals of the previous produced. It is commonly used to evaluate
fuel blend could be cleaned from the fuel line. the performance of engines, including diesel
Every test was repeated three times and the compression ignition engines. The engine's
average value was used for comparison. fuel consumption to power generated ratio, or
Performance parameters i.e., BTE and BSFC, is calculated over a certain period.
emission characteristics i.e., NOX, UHC, and Because the engine uses more gasoline to
CO were assessed. An exhaust gas analyzer accomplish the same performance, a lower
was used to measure the exhaust emissions. BSFC number is expected. Since BSFC often
decreases as load increases, comparing load
4. RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS to engine load is a crucial factor. The BSFC
4.1 Torque is governed by four performance
Figure 3 shows the fluctuation in the engine's characteristics: calorific value, volumetric
torque at different speeds. By shortening the fuel injection, density, and viscosity. The
ignition delay, the addition of CNTs to the studies on different Nano-additives are
pure diesel improves combustion efficiency. examined in this section. Figure 4 shows the
At an engine speed of 2200 rpm, the best Variation brake specific fuel consumption
maximum torque was found since it rises as with speed.
the engine speed rises. Additionally, the
torque increased by mixing nanoparticles
with pure diesel. More complete combustion
caused by the presence of too much oxygen
in the engine cylinder increases torque [12].
The maximum increase in torque was
achieved when carbon nanotubes were used
at a concentration of 30 and 60 ppm each with
pure diesel. With this combination, there was Figure 4. Variation brake brake-specific
an increase of 10.62% in torque when fuel consumption with speed.
compared to pure diesel.

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4.3 CO emissions
Carbon monoxide is produced as a result of
incomplete combustion and is exacerbated by
the lack of oxidants, low temperature, and
extended residence time. Figure 5 displays
the carbon monoxide emissions from the
engine. When metal oxide additives were
catalytically oxidized in an oxygen-rich
environment, carbon monoxide emissions Figure 6. Variation of nitrogen oxide
were trending lower [14]. The graph shows emissions with speed.
that at 1600 rpm, the use of carbon nanotubes 4.5 UHC emissions
with the heat exchanger oil bath cleaning unit At 1200 rpm, the DI diesel engine's emissions
decreased carbon monoxide emissions by of unburned hydrocarbons were reduced. Up
to 1600 rpm, it rises as engine speed
increases. The highest rate of unburned
hydrocarbon emissions was 1600rpm.
Subsequently, a decrease in unburned
hydrocarbon at faster rates becomes
apparent. As a result, unburned hydrocarbon
emissions from idling engines have received
attention. The engine's unburned
0.06%. hydrocarbon exhaust pattern is shown in
Figure 7. When pure diesel fuel is mixed with
Figure 5. Variation of carbon monoxide nanoparticles, the number of unburned
with speed hydrocarbons decreases [13]. The highest
reduction in unburned hydrocarbons was
4.4 NOx emissions observed when 90 parts per million of carbon
It has been discovered that NOx emissions nanotubes were combined with pure diesel.
were on the decline when diesel fuel contains
nanoparticle additives. There was a change of
1-1.4% in the cetane number of diesel fuel
due to nanoparticles which has an impact on
emissions. Compared to fuels with lower
cetane numbers, those with higher cetane
numbers have lesser premixed fuel fractions
and fewer NOx emissions [6]. Figure 6
illustrates the engine's nitrogen oxide (NOX)
emission. The data indicates a 6.2%
Figure 7. Variation of unburned
reduction in NOx emissions when carbon
hydrocarbon with speed
nanotubes were used at a concentration of 30
and 60 ppm each. 5. CONCLUSIONS
From the results of the experimental study,
carbon nanotubes additive somewhat
improves an engine's performance. The
BSCF of the diesel engine decreased by
3.56% when the carbon nanotubes were
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added to pure diesel in a concentration of 30 implementation of the HE-OBCU-EGR unit

and 60 ppm. With this concentration, there on the engine, BSCF emissions were reduced
was an increase of 10.62% in torque when by 42.9%, the UHC was decreased by 26.3%,
compared to pure diesel. NOx emissions were diminished up to
Measurements of the exhaust emissions for 24.8%, and CO emissions were increased by
the fuel with the carbon nanotube additives 14.3%. Finally, it is concluded that the HE-
show a significant decrease. The unburned OBCU-EGR unit may help to minimize the
hydrocarbons decreased maximum by 8.43% emissions of BSCF, UHC, and NOX but is not
when carbon nanotubes were blended with suitable to control CO emissions.
pure diesel. Carbon monoxide emissions
were reduced by 20.34% with carbon
nanotubes at the engine speed of 1600 rpm.
There was a 6.2% reduction in NOx emissions
when carbon nanotubes were used at a
concentration of 30 and 60 ppm with, HE-Oil
Bath cleaning Unit and Exhaust Gas
Recirculation System.
If additives were used, they must be kept
Figure 8. Comparison of altered fuel with
from venturing into the surrounding air by
base fuel
suitable traps.
A novel hybrid emission control unit having ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
a combination of a counter flow shell and The Authors would like to thank the
tube type heat exchanger (HE), oil bath management of the Swedish College of
cleaning unit (OBCU) and exhaust gas Engineering and Technology, Rahim Yar
recirculation (EGR) was designed and Khan, for supporting this experimental study.
fabricated followed by its installation on the
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ENERGY, EXERGY AND ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF AN

INDUSTRIAL BOILER: A CASE STUDY OF KAPCO POWER PLANT

Muhammad Sarfraz Ali1*, Sadia Saleem2, Rozeena Aslam1,

Muhammad Imran1, Hamza Akhtar1, Muhammad Ali1, Saleem Nawaz1,
Muhammad Hassan Nawaz1
1
Mechanical Engineering Department, Swedish College of Engineering &
Technology, Rahim Yar Khan, Pakistan
2
Institute of Computer Science and Information Technology, The Women
University, Multan, Pakistan

*Corresponding author E-mail address: [email protected] (Muhammad

Sarfraz Ali)
ABSTRACT
A boiler is the main component of a power plant. A boiler performs mainly two tasks; it converts
the energy of fuel to heat. Secondly, it has a water and steam system which converts water into
steam by using heat. This case study was done at unit-3 KAPCO power plant which is located at
Kot Addu, Punjab, Pakistan with location coordinates 30.445066443158 latitude and
70.981078147888 longitude. The boiler system in the present paper makes use of the concepts of
energy and exertion. This case study's primary goal is to evaluate the boiler's parameters and
pinpoint the system's primary energy and exhaustion losses. Energy and exhaustion flows have
also been displayed. Numerous energy-saving strategies have been developed, and energy and
energy efficiencies have also been calculated. It has also been established that employing variable-
speed drives and recovering heat from exhaust gases can save energy. This case study concludes
that exergy analysis gives more accurate performance of different devices. Boiler efficiency is
increased by further use of exhaust gases in heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) by decreasing
the temperature of flue gases from 160°C to 150°C and shortening the length of pipes which carry
heat by using variable speed drive.
Keywords: Energy; Exergy; Flue gases; HRSG; Boiler

1. INTRODUCTION AND to minimize heat loss in the boiler and

LITERATURE REVIEW optimize heat transfer to the water. Gupta and
Coal accounts for over 40% of global Rosen [2, 3] found that a variety of methods,
electricity production, with nuclear and such as hot exhaust gas loss and radiation
natural gas producing only 15% and 20% of losses, can result in energy loss from boilers.
it, respectively. As a result, boiler turbine Blower failure losses in the steam boiler
steam systems are typically used by these scenario. Finding the most likely places for
energy sources to convert their chemical energy usage is crucial for boiler process
energy potential into the production of optimization in plants. Since all of the heat
electricity. It is conceivable to envision how created by the fire fuel cannot be converted
steam boiler efficiency could be slightly into water or steam in a boiler, a significant
increased. Boiler efficiency has a significant quantity of energy is lost through flue gases.
impact on heat-related energy savings, The boiler temperature typically varies
according to Saidur [1]. Thus, it is important between 160°C and 250°C when the flue gas
exits the stack. It suggests that by lowering its
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losses, there is a great deal of potential for produces the greatest energy decreases in the
energy savings. Cai [4] suggested that power plant as compared to the condenser,
although the first rule of thermodynamics is which results in the lowest energy losses.
frequently used to compare energy use, it is Since consumption of water and water
unable to analyze the quality of energy in the rejected from the electric power plant have
future. I.e., the point at which an evaluation decreased, the plant's air cool condenser
of energy becomes relevant. Dunbar [5] proved to be environmentally beneficial.
established that the 2nd law of Patel [9] compared various coal types,
thermodynamics, which tells us how to including imported, Indian, and a
calculate the efficient use of a particular combination of both (40 percent Indian, 60
amount of energy at a certain condition, percent imported), as well as L.S.H.S. oil,
equates to exergy. The best performance is and concluded that the boiler's energy
achieved when exergy loss in a process is the efficiencies were 37%, 37.7%, 37.8%, and
least.Kanoglu et.al, [6] suggested a greater 40.1%, respectively, based on the first
awareness of energy and energy efficiency principle of efficiencies. Ohijeagbon [10]
for power plant energy management. where concluded that, at conventional reference
the power cycle is analyzed using different state temperatures of 250°C and an
energy and energy-base efficiency. evaporating ratio of 12, the energy & exergy
Examined are the cogeneration, geothermal, efficiency attained for the complete boiler
and vapour and gas power cycles; several was 69.56% & 38.57%. The analytical
cycle designs were taken into consideration. method served as the foundation for all
Som [7] determined that the energy balance calculations. Gulhane [11] ] determined that
and thermodynamic irreversibility in the boiler's exergy destruction at a residential
combustion processes, which are present in load of 1.1 MW was around 83.35%, and that
practically all circumstances, are significant. figure increased to 76.33% as the load grew
The internal energy exchange connected to to 5.6 MW. As a result, the first and second
high-temperature gradients brought on by the laws' efficiency rose with load; therefore, to
release of heat in combustion reactions was lessen irreversibility, we must focus on peak
the main cause of irreversibility. Reducing load. Kanoglu [12] found a diesel engine
the irreversibility of the conduction of heat power plant's performance characteristics.
was the main strategy for keeping the energy Energy conversion & management
dissipation in the burning process within an concluded that energy appeared to be a key
acceptable bound. Saidur [1] suggested a idea. It establishes a link between the
framework of industrial boiler energy, engineering and physical worlds and the
energy, and economic analysis. 72.46% and surrounding environment and demonstrates
24.89%, respectively, were found for energy the true effectiveness of engineering systems,
and energy efficiency. The primary source of making it an invaluable concept to identify
energy destruction was the combustion areas for development. Energy calculations,
chamber, which was supported by the flue the opposite of the current material & energy
gases. Boiler fan motors were equipped with balances, can provide deeper and more
variable-speed drives to reduce energy insightful insights into the process. It can be
consumption. Regulagadda [8] It is suggested emphasized that energy analysis has a great
that based on the thermodynamic study of a deal of potential usefulness concerning
subcritical boiler-turbine generator of a 32 energy usage and that energy plays a crucial
MW coal-fired electric power plant, the role in the process of developing energy
irreversibility of the boiler and turbine policies. Kanoglu [6] To study, increase, and
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improve energy systems through appropriate efficiency for a boiler, are described in the
strategy and policy, both energy and energy section that follows. Cost-benefit analyses of
efficiency analyses are required. Regular energy-saving measures to lower the
actions may assist increase the performance temperature of exhaust gases at the HRSG
of industrial boilers if such regulations were output and employ VSD to lower boiler fan
in place. Som [7] employed the hot-gas energy consumption are covered.
recovery systems to enhance the boiler's
existing specifications and reported that a Block Schematic:
heat recovery system might save as much as The KAPCO power plant unit 3 block
55% of the cost. The energy, energy schematic is displayed in Figure 1.
efficiency, energy losses, and energy damage Bypass Stack
associated with boilers are identified in this Steam
Stack
study, and strategies for enhancing effective HRSG
Turbine
heat transfer by reducing boiler energy Generator
Condenser
consumption through the use of variable
speed drives are suggested. Analysis has also
been done on the benefits related to energy Pump
and the economy. Many other techniques, Pump
combustor
such as managing excess air, increasing Cooling
consumption efficiency, using Desecrator
Tower
environmentally friendly fuel, recovering
excess heat, recovering condensate, Generato
Compressor Gas
improving the blowdown process, preventing Turbine
r
escape, and offering appropriate protection,
can all help reduce the amount of energy used Figure 1. Block schematic
by boilers. 2.1. The equation for energy analysis
The heat exchange system and the combustor
This paper's primary goal is to examine the are the two components that make up a boiler.
boiler's parameters and pinpoint the main Below is a discussion of these two
energy and exergy losses in the boiler system. components' energy and exergy analyses.
Energy & exergy flows have also been Because a boiler's combustion is usually
demonstrated. Numerous energy-saving well-insulated, very little heat is lost to the
strategies have been developed, and energy environment. The loss of energy will become
and energy efficiencies have also been equal with the difference between the
calculated. It has also been established that enthalpies of the reactants and products,
employing variable-speed drives & according to the 1st law of thermodynamics.
recovering heat from flue gases can save The combustor's energy balance is provided
energy. The case study concludes that energy by:
analysis provides a more precise performance 𝑑𝐸𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
for various devices. 𝐸𝑖𝑛 − 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 =
𝑑𝑡
= 0 =≫ 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 (1)
2. METHODOLOGY AND DATA 𝐸𝑖𝑛 = 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡
COLLECTION 𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝑚̇1 ℎ1 + 𝑚̇2 ℎ2 − 𝑚̇3 ℎ3 (2)
The methods used to calculate the energy & Where,
exergy efficiency and the destruction of a Ein = enrgy in
boiler, as well as the energy & exergy Eloss = enrgy loss
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𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡
Eout = enrgy out 𝜂𝑐 = (6)
𝐸𝑖𝑛
ℎ1 = fuel′s specific enthalpy (KJ/kg)
Where,
ℎ2 = air's specific enthalpy (KJ/kg)
𝜂𝑐 = efficiency of a HRSG
ℎ3 =Particular enthalpy of heated
combustion products
2.2. The exergy analysis equation
ṁ1 = mass fuel flow rate
By assuming a zero rate of change in exergy
ṁ2 = air mass flow rate
within the boiler's system and applying an
𝑚̇3 =thermal products of combustion's
exergy balance to the boiler, the maximum
mass flow rate power output, or reversible power, can be
For each fluid stream, a heat exchanger
calculated. This is done while keeping in
typically experiences negligible potential and
mind the boundary temperature of 25 °C.
kinetic energy changes as well as no work
According to the second rule of
interactions (w=0). In general, the heat
thermodynamics:
exchanger's outer shell is well-insulated to 𝑋𝑖𝑛 − 𝑋𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑋𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑦𝑒𝑑 =
stop heat loss into the surrounding medium. 𝑑𝑋𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
= 0 ==> 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 (7)
A tiny quantity of heat will, nevertheless, 𝑑𝑡

disappear. (𝑚̇1 𝜖1 + 𝑚̇2 𝜖2 ) −

The energy balance for a heat exchanger is (𝑚̇3 𝜖3 + 𝑙𝑐 ) = 0𝑐 (8)
determined by the first law of 𝑙𝑐 = (𝑚̇1 𝜖1 + 𝑚̇2 𝜖2 ) − (𝑚̇3 𝜖3 ) (9)
thermodynamics, as shown in Figure 2.
The energy efficiency of the combustor
𝑚𝑠 𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
determines the appropriate second law
efficiency, which is expressed as follows:
𝑋
𝑚𝐺𝑇 Combustion unit 𝑚𝑓𝑔 𝜓𝑐 = 1 − 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑦𝑒𝑑 (10)
𝑋 𝑖𝑛
For each fluid stream, a heat exchanger
𝑚𝑤 typically experiences negligible potential and
Figure 2. Energy balance for heat kinetic energy changes as well as no work
exchanger interactions (w=0). In general, the heat
exchanger's outer shell is well-insulated to
Assuming that there will be no mixing in a stop heat loss into the surrounding medium.
heat exchanger and using the following mass A tiny quantity of heat will, nevertheless,
flow rates: m_p for hot products, m_g for flue disappear. Assuming that there has been no
gases, m_l for water, and m_s for steam, it mixing in a heat exchanger and using the
will be understood that: following mass flow rates: m_p for hot
𝑚̇𝑝 = 𝑚̇𝐺𝑇 = 𝑚̇𝑓𝑔 (3) products, m_g for flue gases, m_l for water,
and m_s for steam, it will be understood that:
And,
𝑚̇𝑝 = 𝑚̇𝐺𝑇 = 𝑚̇𝑓𝑔 (11)
𝑚̇𝑙 = 𝑚̇𝑠
The energy balance under these assumptions 𝑚̇𝑤 = 𝑚̇𝑠
can be written as follows: Energy balance is determined by the second
𝑑𝐸𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 rule of thermodynamics, which is:
𝐸𝑖𝑛 − 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑑𝑡 = 0 (4)
𝑋𝑖𝑛 − 𝑋𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑋𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑦𝑒𝑑 = 0 (12)
(𝑚̇4 ℎ4 + 𝑚̇5 ℎ5 ) − (𝑚̇6 ℎ6 + 𝑚̇7 ℎ7 ) =
𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 (5)
A heat exchanger's efficiency can be 𝑙𝐻 =
represented using the first law as follows: (𝑚̇4 𝜖4 + 𝑚̇5 𝜖5 ) − (𝑚̇6 𝜖6 + 𝑚̇7 𝜖7 ) (13)
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Exergy efficiency is determined using the A device called a variable frequency drive
second rule of thermodynamics as follows: modifies the power supply's frequency to
𝑋 control the motor's speed. The frequency and
𝜓𝐻 = 1 − 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑦𝑒𝑑 (14)
𝑋 𝑖𝑛 the driven equipment's speed are
For analysis of energy, the exergy data we proportionate. Energy savings are substantial
took from the plant is given in Table 1. even with little speed reductions since the
power required to run pumps & motors varies
Flow rate Temper Enthalpy Entropy with a cube of the speed. By directly
(KJ/s) ature (KJ/Kg) (KJ/Kg. increasing motor voltage with frequency, the
(°C) K) percentage of applied motor voltages to
426 340.9 621.64 2.430 deliver frequency remains constant, allowing
9.72 110 43.890 1.97 for the achievement of maximum constant
435.72 1050 1424 3.29 torque. Constantly volts per Hertz is the
common word used to describe this kind of
435.72 506 1002 2.710 control.
Electrical energy is saved when an
52.19 472.4 4013 7.72 alternating current (AC) motor is slowed
down by the use of an inverter in a variable-
speed drive. In addition to reducing stack
52.19 120 554.92 1.70
losses through the limited extra air rate and
435 160 432.42 2.07 the addition of a driver to that system, these
measures also save electrical energy.
Table 1. Exergy data from power plant Because of this, running the motor at a
Boiler energy loss can be minimized in a variable speed will save electrical energy in
boiler by employing various techniques. addition to increasing boiler efficiency.
However, this thesis has taken into Oxygen prolongs the duration of the plant's
consideration energy saving through the boiler and saves fuel and emissions.
recovery of heat from exhaust gases in a Although this is an objective modification to
boiler as well as energy saving through the the motor, a motor's speed can also be altered
use of variable speed drives to lower the by changing the number of poles. Rewinding
speed of the boiler fan. it would be necessary, causing the speed to
alter step by step. Therefore, the ideal answer
2.3. Concept of variable speed drive
is to change the frequency for convenience,
One of the best-organized control strategies
economy, and accuracy. It is necessary to
is VSD. Under specific conditions, it
adjust the volts per Hz ratio to alter the motor
provides only the necessary power to
torque. An output of numerous frequencies is
overcome system resistance. In
provided by a drive. The use of variable
contemporary industrial and commercial
speed drives can be summed up as follows:
boilers, variable-speed drives are typically
lower electricity usage, less need for a
employed. When regular low-load times are
separate motor starter, better fan control, and
required due to work conditions, it works
longer equipment lifespan. By regulating the
well. If you lower the fan speed, you can
surplus air, a VSD keeps fuel efficiency high
improve combustion efficiency at low fire. A
under part load settings.
crucial factor affecting all kinds of
For a boiler with VSD, the annual energy
combustion apparatus is the ambient air
savings are provided by:
temperature. Boiler efficiency may be
significantly impacted by this.
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𝐴𝐸𝑆𝑏𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑟−𝑉𝑆𝐷 = (𝐴𝐸𝐶𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡−𝑉𝑆𝐷 − 2.5. Rules of thumb

𝐴𝐸𝐶𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ−𝑉𝑆𝐷 ) (15)  Reducing surplus air by five percent
2.4. Heat recovery from flue gases results in a one percent gain in boiler
Since not all of the heat produced by burning efficiency (or reducing the remaining
fuel can be transferred to water or steam in oxygen in stack gas by one percent boosts
the boiler, a significant amount of heat boiler efficiency by one percent).
energy is lost through flue gas;  A 22°C drop in the flue gas temperature
approximately 10 to 30 percent of the heat results in a 1% gain in boiler efficiency.
energy lost through flue gas is in the 120°C
 An increase in feed water temperature of
to 160°C range. As a result, recovering some
of the heat from the flue gases can help to 6°C resulted in economizer/condensate
increase the boiler's efficiency. Heat can be recovery and a 1% reduction in boiler fuel
recovered from flue gases by moving it usage.
through the heat exchanger that is installed  One percent (%) of fuel savings occurs
after the boiler; flue gases are typically at from a 20°C rise in the combustion
high temperatures to guarantee that they are
temperature of the air that is preheated
sufficient to pre-heat the fluid. The process of
recovering heat from flue gas can be through waste heat recovery.
expressed as follows:  A 3 mm hole with a steam pressure of 7
𝑄𝑟 = 𝑚̇𝑓𝑔 × 𝑐𝑝 × ∆𝑇𝑓𝑔 (16) kg/cm^2 would lose 32,650 litres of fuel
annually.
Savings related to energy conservation are
expressed as:  A 150 mm-diameter bare steam pipe that
carried saturated steam at a rate of 8
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑑 = 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑑
kg/cm^2 would waste 25,000 litres of
× 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 (17)
The KAPCO power plant unit 3's TS diagram furnace oil annually.70 percent of heat
is displayed in Figure 3. losses can be reduced by floating a layer
of 45 mm diameter polypropylene balls
7
T on the surface of a 90°C hot
Qin
liquid/condensate.
 The barrier to heat transfer provided by a
8
0.25 mm thick air film is equivalent to
6 3
that of a 330-millimeter thick copper
9
wall. A 3mm thick soot deposit on a heat
transfer surface can cause a 2.5 percent
Steam increase in fuel consumption.
5
2
Cycle  A scale deposit over the waterside
1 that is 1 mm thick could result in a
Qout 4
5–8% increase in fuel usage.
S
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
T-S Diagram The boiler's component-by-component heat
Figure 3. TS diagram loss is calculated, beginning with the
combustor. Using the information from the

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table and the assumptions outlined in the the potential and kinetic energies are minimal
previous subject, the energy input may be and there is no assumption of a work
computed as follows: interaction, the information from the energy
destruction table will be evaluated as follows:
𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝑚̇𝑓 ℎ𝑓 + 𝑚̇𝑎 ℎ𝑎 − 𝑚̇𝑝 ℎ𝑝 (18) 𝑙𝑐 = (𝑚̇1 𝜖1 + 𝑚̇2 𝜖2 ) − (𝑚̇3 𝜖3 ) (22)
= 𝑚̇1 (ℎ1 − 𝑇0 𝑆1 ) + 𝑚̇2 (ℎ2 − 𝑇0 𝑆2 ) − 𝑚̇3 (ℎ3 −
𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 70964.16𝐾𝑊 𝑇0 𝑆3 )

The combustion chamber's energy efficiency 𝑙𝑐 = 98535𝐾𝑊

can be determined as follows:
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 A formula and information from the table are
𝜂𝑐 = 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 × 100 (19) used to compute the combustor's exergy
efficiency via second law efficiency:
𝑙
𝜂𝑐 =77.2293% 𝜓𝐶 = 1 − 𝑋 𝑐 (23)
𝑐,𝑖𝑛

Regarding HRSG, the full exchanger is taken

into account as the control volume, and the 𝜓𝐶 = 75.73%
following formula is used to determine the
system's heat loss: Using the process outlined in the preceding
section, HRSG anticipates that the heat
(𝑚̇𝐺𝑇 ℎ𝐺𝑇 + 𝑚̇𝑤 ℎ𝑤 ) − exchanger will exergy destroyed. The
(𝑚̇𝑠 ℎ𝑠 + 𝑚̇𝑓𝑔 ℎ𝑓𝑔 ) = 𝐸𝐻,𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 (20) following formula is used to determine the
energy destruction:
𝐸𝐻,𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 171239.232 KW 𝑙𝐻 = (𝑚̇4 𝜖4 + 𝑚̇5 𝜖5 ) − (𝑚̇6 𝜖6 + 𝑚̇7 𝜖7 )(24)
𝑙𝐻 = 224150𝐾𝑊
Table 2 provides the energy efficiency of heat
exchangers based on first law efficiency. Equation and information from Table 3 are
𝐸
𝜂𝑐 = 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 55% (21) used to compute the appropriate 2nd law
𝑖𝑛 efficiency for the heat exchanger energy
Energy efficiency.
Energy 𝑙
Components
Loss(KW)
Efficiency 𝜓𝐻 = 1 − 𝑋 𝐻 = 45% (25)
𝐻,𝑖𝑛
(%)
Combustor 70964.16 77.2293 Energy Energy
Heat Components Destruction Efficiency
171239.232 55
Exchanger (Kw) (%)
Total 242203.392 Combustor 989535 75.73
Heat 224150 45
Table 2. Energy loss & energy efficiency
Table 3. Energy destruction and energy
Components exergy destruction and exergy
efficiency
efficiency of the boiler are given, starting
from the combustor. The exergy destruction These days, most boilers are built with the
of the combustor can be found by using the VSD concept in mind. The power-saving data
equation. The combustor is thought to run on is displayed in Table 4.
a steady flow procedure. Therefore, the
control volume of the combustor has zero
mass and energy change. Furthermore, since

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 Proceedings of IMEC-2024, 6th & 7th March 2024, Karachi, Pakistan

Load Tim Power Energy Pow Energy Saving industrial boilers," Energy Policy, vol.
(%) e Load Use er use (Kwh/ 38, pp. 2188-2197, 2010.
(hr) (witho (Kwh/ Lo (Kwh/ yr) [2] Gupta, Ghai, and Jain, "Energy efficiency
ut yr) ad yr) improvement strategies for industrial
VSD) (with boilers: a case study," Journal of
(Kw) VSD Engineering and Technology, vol. 1, p.
) 52, 2011.
(Kw [3] Rosen,"The relation between
) thermodynamic losses and capital costs
100 40 2.9 1160 2.9 1160 0 for a modern coal-fired electrical
0 generating station," in Proceedings of
80 90 2.9 2610 2.2 1980 630 computer-aided energy systems analysis,
0 ed, 1990.
70 80 2.9 2320 1.9 1520 800 [4] Cai and Kim, "First law of
0 thermodynamics and Friedmann
60 82 2.9 2378 1.4 1148 1230 equations of Friedmann-Robertson-
0 Walker universe," Journal of High
Total 2920 8668 5808 2660 Energy Physics, vol. 2005, p. 050, 2005.
Table 4. Power saving by using VSD [5] Dunbar, Lior, and Gaggioli, "The
component equations of energy and
Using VSD, an annual total energy savings of
exergy," Journal of Energy Resources
2660 kWh can be attained, assuming a per-
Technology, vol. 114, pp. 75-83, 1992.
KWh charge of Rs. 29.78 Pkr. This equates
[6] Kanoglu, Dincer, and Rosen,
to Rs. 79,214.8 Pkr annually.
"Understanding energy and exergy
4. CONCLUSION efficiencies for improved energy
Component-wise energy and exergy analysis management in power plants," Energy
was done for the boiler at unit 3 KAPCO Policy, vol. 35, pp. 3967-3978, 2007.
power plant. According to the first law, [7] Som and Datta, "Thermodynamic
HRSG experiences the highest heat losses, irreversibility’s and exergy balance in
which total 171.2 MW. Exergy analysis combustion processes," Progress in
represents the more accurate performance of energy and combustion science, vol. 34,
thermodynamic devices. Exergy calculation pp. 351-376, 2008.
shows that maximum exergy destruction [8] Regulagadda, Dincer, and Naterer,
occurred in HRSG whereas destruction was "Exergy analysis of a thermal power plant
calculated at 224.15MW. with measured boiler and turbine losses,"
Applied Thermal Engineering, vol. 30,
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT pp. 970-976, 2010.
For their support of this experimental [9] Ankit Patel "Energy and exergy analysis
investigation, the authors are grateful to the of a boiler with different fuels like Indian
management of the Swedish College of coal, imported coal and L.S.H.S oil,"
Engineering and Technology Rahim Yar IJERT, vol. 1, 2012.
Khan [10] Ohijeagbon, Waheed, and Jekayinfa,
"Methodology for the physical and
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[1] Saidur, Ahamed, and Masjuki, "Energy, boilers," Energy, vol. 53, pp. 153-164,
exergy and economic analysis of 2013.
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[11] Gulhane and Thakur, "Exergy

analysis of boiler in cogeneration thermal
power plant," Am J Eng Res, vol. 2, pp.
385-392, 2013.
[12] Kanoglu, Işık, and Abuşogˇlu,
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A CFD ANALYSIS FOR THERMAL PERFORMANCE

ENHANCEMENT OF SOLAR PARABOLIC DISH CAVITY SYSTEM
USING SPHERICAL AND ELLIPTICAL CAVITIES
Shehzaib Yousuf Khan1*, Muhammad Uzair1
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, NED University of Engineering &
Technology, Karachi, Pakistan

*
Corresponding author E-mail address: [email protected] (S. Y. Khan)

ABSTRACT
The objective of this work is to compare the thermal performance of spherical and elliptical cavity
receivers with a conical-shaped cavity for a solar dish cavity system. The Monte-Carlo ray-tracing
method is used to determine the radiation flux distribution and solar flux uniformity of the receiver.
The radiation flux is found to be more uniform in the spherical and elliptical cavities, and cavities
that are positioned far away from the focal plane of the solar concentrator. The result from optical
analysis is used as a boundary condition for the computational model. CFD analysis is performed
to determine thermal performance using ANSYS Fluent where convective heat loss in the cavity
receiver is calculated. Convective heat loss of the receiver with different wind speeds varying from
1 – 10 m/s is investigated in different shapes of cavity receivers. The computational results show
that the convective heat loss in spherical and elliptical cavity receivers is significantly reduced due
to the swirling action of turbulent flow inside the cavity receiver.
Keywords: Cavity receiver; Convection heat loss; CFD; Parabolic dish system; Optical analysis

1. INTRODUCTION solar central receivers. The study highlighted

A concave dish reflector is used in the Solar the effect of geometry and environmental
Cavity Dish System to direct sunlight onto a conditions on thermal losses with emphasis
receiver positioned at the focal point of the on wind direction and orientation. Stine and
system. The receiver, which is usually McDonald [2] extended the understanding of
situated above the dish, contains a solar convective heat loss in cavity receiver with
energy conversion device, like a Stirling
the effect of wind speed and orientation.
engine or a cavity receiver transferring heat
McDonald [3] studied open cavity receiver
through heat transfer fluid through
conductive tubes. Sunlight is converted into and obtained correlations for natural and
useful energy as it converges into the forced convection loss in the receivers. The
receiver, which may take the form of heat, established correlations by these early
electricity, or both. Because the system can researchers were limited to fixed operating
reach better energy conversion rates than conditions in cavity receivers until the
typical flat plate collectors or photovoltaic investigations by Paitoonsurikarn and
panels due to concentrated solar power (CSP) Lovegrove [4] where their findings were
technology, it is especially well-suited for important for optimizing dish design and
applications where space efficiency is minimizing the adverse wind effects.
crucial. Clausing [1] used an analytical model Paitoonsurikarn et al. [4] and Uzair et al. [5-
for estimating convective losses from cavity 7] examined the influence of wind patterns
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around cavity receivers coupled with distribution of solar radiation flux inside the
parabolic dish structure. Roux et al. [8] cavity as well as lowering the chances of
studied a small scale solar thermal Brayton convection loss. The improvement can be
cycle coupled with solar parabolic dish done by modifying the opening with
system at the focal point of the system. The backward facing step in cavity receiver and
study involved the investigation of geometry positioning the cavity with offset distance.
The main focus of this paper is to investigate
parameter of dish such as concentrator shape,
the effect of the spherical and elliptical
diameter, rim angle, reflectivity, optical
shaped cavities with modified receiver
errors, and solar tracing errors which effect opening on the convection heat loss. The
the efficiency of the receiver. Daabo et al. [9] numerical analysis is performed using 𝑘 − 𝜔
studied different shapes of cavity receiver to SST turbulence model inside fluid domain of
determine its effect on the optical and thermal parabolic dish cavity system. The Monte-
performance of the solar cavity dish system. Carlo ray tracing (MCRT) method is useful
Liu et al. [10] investigated the design to determine the solar flux on cavity surface
parameters of heater tube arrays in cavity which can be set as wall boundary condition.
receivers to maximize the heat absorption The spherical and elliptical cavity receivers
and minimizing thermal losses. Li et al. [11] are selected to improve the performance of
investigated cavity receivers by adding the system by reducing convection heat loss.
transparent aerogel at receiver opening which
2. SIMULATION FRAMEWORK
improved the efficiency of the receiver and
The computer simulation of the cavity
minimizing the convection loss significantly. receiver system was set up in two steps: (1)
The optical performance mainly depends on optical analysis, (2) CFD analysis. The
the cavity shape and opening of the receiver. optical modeling was carried out for a 3.8 m
Thermal shocks are caused by non- diameter parabolic dish with focal length of
uniformity of solar flux inside the cavity 2.2 m where the cavity receiver was placed.
receiver which deteriorate thermal The optical analysis was performed using
performance of cavity dish system. Monte-Carlo ray-tracing method in
Furthermore, the convection loss is affected COMSOL Multiphysics software. The ray
significantly by wind patterns, orientation tracing flux map was validated through the
and opening of the cavity receiver. The effect experiments of Shuai et al. [14]. The CFD
of cavity shapes has already been analysis was performed using ANSYS Fluent
investigated by Daboo et al. [9] but the solver where a computer-generated three-
optimum cavity shape was selected based on dimensional model was discretized into finite
maximum solar flux instead of uniform flux number of volume cells and governing
distribution. Xiao et al. [12] modified the equations were applied with finite volume
receiver opening by adding quartz window to approach. Grid convergence was also
cylindrical cavity which resulted in lower performed following validation through the
convection loss. Rajan and Reddy [15] experiments of Uzair et al. [6], so that further
performed optical analysis on corrugation CFD analysis could be performed by
cavity receiver with dish concentrator and tweaking the design parameters of the cavity
varied aperture diameter to obtain optimum receiver. The optical performance of the
opening of cavity receiver. cavity receiver was characterized by
There is a need to determine such cavity concentration ratio and solar radiation flux
shapes that allow capturing uniform uniformity index. The cavity receiver was
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selected based on the highest uniformity the aperture which is considered for the
index from optical analysis and then the validation of CFD model. Second cavity is
radiation flux profile was used as boundary spherical shape with same frustum opening.
conditions for the CFD analysis of cavity Third cavity is the same spherical shape
receiver. without any modification at receiver
The concentration ratio (𝐶𝑟 ) is aperture. Fourth cavity is the same spherical
estimated by taking ratio of solar
shape with a backward facing step inside the
concentrated flux on the receiver (𝑞) and the
cavity. Fifth and sixth cavities are the
ambient flux from the sun (𝐺𝑏𝑛 ) as
represented in Eq. (1). elliptical shape of eccentricity 0.3 and 0.7
respectively whereas having similar opening
𝑞 of fourth cavity.
𝐶𝑟 = (1)
𝐺𝑏𝑛

The solar flux uniformity index is

determined from the ratio of average solar
flux to the maximum solar flux concentrated
on the cavity surface as represented in Eq.
(2).

∑𝑞
𝜇= (2)
𝑛 ∙ max(𝑞)

2.1 Computational Domain

The design specifications of solar parabolic
dish cavity receiver system used in the
experiment of Uzair et al. [6] are provided in
Table 1.
Geometric Parameter Dimension
Aperture area of collector 11.34 m2
Aperture diameter of dish 3.8 m
Focal distance of dish 2.2 m
Surface area of receiver 0.72 m2
Aperture diameter of 0.2 m
receiver
Rim angle 45°
Table 1: Geometric Parameters
The three-dimensional computer model is Figure 1. Computer-Aided Drawing with
shown in Figure. 1 (a) which consists of a Dimensions of (a) Solar Parabolic Dish
parabolic dish coupled with a cavity receiver. Cavity System and (b) Selected Cavities.
Fig. 1 (b) shows the design specifications of
six different types of cavity receivers. First The three-dimensional computational
cavity is conical shape with frustum shape at domain for CFD analysis was extended 4 m
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upstream, 6 m downstream positioning the

cavity receiver in between the width and (b)
height of 4 m. The boundary conditions were
velocity inlet and pressure outlet at inlet and
outlet of the fluid domain, respectively, as
shown in Fig. 2 (a).
The walls of the domain were considered
completely adiabatic and no-slip condition
was assumed while the cavity walls were at
constant temperature. The operating pressure
was set to 101325 Pa, turbulent intensity of
5% and turbulent viscosity ratio of 10. The
boundary conditions were set according to
the published experimental data.
 Inlet Temperature: 300 𝐾 Figure 2. Computational grid with y+
 Inlet Velocity: 1, 3, 5, 10 m/s layers near to the wall of the cavity
receiver.
 Outlet Pressure: 0 Pa
 Cavity wall temperature: 873 K The computational grid is shown in Fig. 2(b).
The computational model for the fluid
domain of the cavity receiver was discretized
(a)
into combination of polyhedral and
hexahedral cells known as poly-hexcore
mesh with 12 inflation layers near the walls
of cavity receiver inside and outside. The
refinement region was formed in the domain
near the cavity receiver and the near-wall y+
spacing was selected carefully to achieve the
value of 𝑦+≤ 1.
2.2 Governing Equations
The flow inside the computational domain
involves turbulence as well as heat transfer
which can be approximated with steady-state
assumptions. Therefore, it is required to
model the fluid domain using the continuity,
the momentum, and the energy equations,
given by Eqs. (3), (4), and (5), respectively.
The working fluid inside the domain is air
and the thermophysical properties are kept
constant.

𝜕(𝜌𝑣𝑖 )
=0 (3)
𝜕𝑥𝑖

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𝜕(𝜌𝑣𝑖 𝑣𝑗 ) 𝜕 𝜕𝑣𝑖 𝜕𝑣𝑗 2 𝜕𝑣𝑘 𝜕𝑃 The default values of the model constants are:
= [𝜇 ( + − 𝛿 )] −
𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑖 3 𝑖𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑘 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝑀𝑡𝑜 = 0.25, 𝜉 ∗ = 1.5, 𝛽 ∗ = 0.09, 𝛽𝑖,1 =
+
𝜕
̅̅̅̅̅̅
(−𝜌𝑣 ′ ′ 0.075, 𝛽𝑖,2 = 0.0828, 𝜎𝑘1 = 1.176, 𝜎𝑘2 =
𝑖 𝑣𝑗 )
𝜕𝑥𝑗 2, 𝜎𝜔1 = 1, 𝜎𝜔2 = 1.168, 𝛼∞ ∗
= 1, 𝛼∞ =
0.52.
𝜕 1 𝜕 𝜕𝑇̅ The RANS equations also include pressure-
[𝜌𝑣𝑖 (ℎ + 𝑣𝑖 𝑣𝑗 )] = [𝑘𝑒𝑓𝑓 + 𝑣𝑖 (𝜏𝑖𝑗 )𝑒𝑓𝑓 ] velocity coupling, and this can be resolved
𝜕𝑥𝑖 2 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑗
𝑐𝑝 𝜇𝑡 using Semi-Implicit Method for Pressure-
𝑘𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝐾 + (5)
𝑃𝑟𝑡 Linked Equations (SIMPLE) [16]. The
second-order upwind scheme is used for this
The term involving −𝜌𝑣 ̅̅̅̅̅̅
′ ′
𝑖 𝑣𝑗 in Eq. (9) is finite volume solver and the discretized
known as Reynolds Stress, which is the cause RANS equations are limited to default
of turbulence, and for its closure turbulence residuals for their convergence. Also, the
equation is required. Therefore, the 𝑘 − 𝜔 under-relaxation factors are set to default for
SST model is applied to solve the non- all variables in the governing equations.
linearity in the RANS equations applied to
the fluid domain. The turbulent kinetic 2.3 Grid Independence Test
energy (𝑘) and the specific dissipation rate The simulation data is obtained after iterative
(𝜀) are represented by Eqs. (6) and (7) convergence in three different grid sizes: (1)
respectively: coarse, (2) medium and (3) fine. The
technique based on Richardson extrapolation
𝜕(𝜌𝑣𝑖 𝑘) 𝜕 𝜕𝑘 [17, 18] as prescribed by Roache [19, 20] is
= [𝛤 ] + 𝐺̅𝑘 + 𝑌𝑘 + 𝑆𝑘 (6)
𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝑘 𝜕𝑥𝑗 used for minimizing the discretization errors
𝜕𝑣𝑗 which is known as Grid Convergence Index
where 𝐺̅𝑘 = min (−𝜌𝑣
̅̅̅̅̅̅
′ ′
𝑖 𝑣𝑗 , 10𝜌𝛽 ∗ 𝑘𝜔)
𝜕𝑥𝑖 (GCI) study. Celik et al. [21] suggested that
𝑌𝑘 = 𝜌𝛽 ∗ 𝑘𝜔 the solution should be converged at a certain
where 𝛽 ∗ = 𝛽𝑖∗ (1 + 𝜉 ∗ 𝐹(𝑀𝑡 )) iteration number and the structured mesh of
0, 𝑀𝑡 < 𝑀𝑡𝑜 hexahedral cells are suitable to calculate GCI.
𝐹(𝑀𝑡 ) = 𝑓(𝑥) = { 2 2 ,
𝑀𝑡 − 𝑀𝑡𝑜 , 𝑀𝑡 > 𝑀𝑡𝑜 The GCI study consists of several steps,
2𝑘
𝑀𝑡 = which include calculations of grid refinement
𝛾𝑅𝑇
ratio (𝑟), apparent order (𝑝), relative error (𝑒)
𝜕(𝜌𝑣𝑖 𝜔) 𝜕 𝜕𝜔 and convergence index (GCI).
= [𝛤 ] + 𝐺𝜔 − 𝑌𝜔 + 𝐷𝜔 + 𝑆𝜔 (7)
𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝑘 𝜕𝑥𝑗 The coarse, medium, fine grids are described
𝛼 𝜕𝑣𝑗
where 𝐺𝜔 = ̅̅̅̅̅̅
(−𝜌𝑣 ′ ′
𝑖 𝑣𝑗 , 10𝜌𝛽 ∗ 𝑘𝜔) in Table 2 with the number of elements and
𝜈𝑡 𝜕𝑥𝑖
grid size (ℎ). The selection of grids is made
′ 2
𝑌𝜔 = 𝜌𝛽 𝜔 in a sequential manner with constant grid
𝐷𝜔 = 2(1 − 𝐹1 )𝜌𝜎𝜔,2
1 𝜕𝑘 𝜕𝜔 refinement ratio of 1.60. Eqs. (8) and (9)
𝜔 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑗
provide formulae used for grid size and grid
In above, 𝐹1 is termed as blending function refinement ratio respectively.
𝑁 1/3
and is defined as:
ℎ = [𝑁 ∑(Δ𝑉𝑖 )] (8)
𝐹1 = tanh(𝜑14 ) 𝑖=1

√𝑘 500𝑣 4𝜌𝑘
where 𝜑1 = min (max ( ), ) ℎ1 (9)
𝛽 ∗ 𝜔𝑦 𝜔𝑦 2 𝐷𝑘𝜔 𝜎𝜔 𝑦2 𝑟12 =
2
ℎ2
1 𝜕𝑘 𝜕𝜔
and 𝐷𝑘𝜔 = max (2𝜌 , 1.0 × 10−10 )
𝜎𝜔,2 𝜔 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑗

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where 𝑁 is the total number of elements and 𝒗 𝒑 𝒆𝟏𝟐 𝒆𝟐𝟑 𝑮𝑪𝑰𝟏𝟐 𝑮𝑪𝑰𝟐𝟑
Δ𝑉𝑖 is the volume of the 𝑖th cell for a certain
grid. The grid refinement ratio is similar 1 2.97 0.04460 0.01094 1.828% 0.431%
found between medium and fine mesh by
taking ratio of medium grid size to fine grid 3 2.82 0.07743 0.02100 3.509% 0.915%
size.
Grid Elements 𝒉 (mm) 𝒓 5 1.47 0.01586 0.00077 1.993% 0.948%

(1) Coarse 342,346 9.10 - 10 2.70 0.06133 0.01736 3.000% 0.817%

(2) Medium 1,402,355 5.74 1.60
Table 3: Grid Convergence Index
(3) Fine 5,925539 3.55 1.61 Calculations
The GCI is determined from the simulation
Table 2: Multiple Grid Specifications results of convection loss for conical shape
The relative error is calculated from the cavity receiver with frustum opening. The
extrapolated values for coarse to medium and GCI value is found to be 0.778% and the
medium to fine grids where it is assumed that expression for asymptotic convergence is
the grid size is approaching zero. However, it achieved. The computational results of
is easy to calculate approximate relative convection loss in the domain are plotted
errors and apparent order by neglecting 𝑞(𝑝) with three selected grid sizes varying wind
to find GCI, which are formulated as shown velocity from 1 – 10 m/s as shown in Fig. 3.
in Eqs. (10) and (11) respectively.
𝑓2
𝑒12 = |1 − |
𝑓1 (10)

1 𝑓2 − 𝑓3 (11)
𝑝= |ln | | + 𝑞(𝑝)|
ln(𝑟12 ) 𝑓1 − 𝑓2

where 𝑓1 , 𝑓2 , 𝑓3 are the values obtained from

simulation result in coarse, medium, and fine
grid respectively.
The GCIs are calculated for coarse to
medium and medium to fine using the
formula as provided in Eq. (12). All the
parameters required to calculate GCI as
shown in Table 3.
1.25 𝑒 Figure 3. Grid convergence plot for
𝐺𝐶𝐼 = (12)
𝑟𝑝 − 1 convection loss as a function of wind
speed.
The error band is formulated with the range
of extrapolated values with the simulation
results. Fig. 4 show a plot of error band based
on GCI for convection loss as a function of
wind speed. The extrapolated value and the

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range of error band can be calculated from optical model but it can not predict hot spots
Eqs. (13) and (14) respectively. and area of potential thermal stress within the
𝑓2 − 𝑓1 (13) receiver. The computer simulation result of
𝑓ℎ→0 ≅ 𝑓1 + 𝑝 concentration ratio calculated from MCRT
𝑟 −1
𝑅 = 𝑓ℎ→0 (1 ± 𝐺𝐶𝐼) (14) technique is compared with the experimental
data as shown in Figure 4. The CFD results
are also in good agreement with the
experiments of Uzair et al. [6] as shown in
Fig. 5, and therefore the model can be used
for predicting the performance of selected
cavity receivers.

Figure 4. GCI error band plot for

convection loss as a function of wind
speed.
The asymptotic convergence is achieved
through a criterion provided in Equation.
(15).
Figure 5. Optical model validation with
1 𝐺𝐶𝐼23 experimental data [14].
𝑝
×( )≅1 (15)
𝑟 𝐺𝐶𝐼12

where subscript 23 represents coarse to

medium and 12 represents medium to fine.

2.4 Model Validation

The optical model of the parabolic dish cavity
system is validated with the experimental
data as published by Shuai et al. [14]. Shuai
et al. used a limb darkening model in order to
achieve better accuracy of solar flux
simulations in such solar receiver system.
Limb darkening provides a more detailed
solar flux distribution on curved surfaces like
Figure 6. CFD model validation with
solar parabolic dish in which variation of
experimental data [6].
angular diameter and intensity are
considered. A more simplified model by Jeter
[13] can also be used for validating the
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3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION (a)

The simulation results are obtained with the
boundary conditions same as performed for
the validation but with different cavity
shapes. The solar flux in spherical and
elliptical cavities is uniformly distributed as
compared to the conical cavity receiver. The
highest solar flux is obtained in conical
receiver with the value of 16 kW/m2 as shown
in Figure 7(a). The cavity opening should be
cautiously designed to capture maximum
solar radiation and it is found that the cavities
with backward facing step inside the cavity (b)
can provide more space to distribute solar
flux. Whereas the optical performance of
cavities reduces with frustrum opening as
shown in Figure 7(a). Conical, spherical type
1 and type 2 cavities receive lower solar
radiation flux as compared to the cavities
with backward facing step opening.
The solar flux distribution in the conical
shaped cavity receiver with frustum opening
is found to be non-uniform compared to
spherical and elliptical shaped cavity
receiver. The non-uniformity of solar flux Figure 7. Comparisons of different cavity
inside the cavity could lead to higher thermal shapes for (a) solar flux distribution and
stresses resulting in thermal shocks. The (b) solar flux uniformity index.
spherical shaped cavity of type 1 and type 2
with frustum opening and simple opening Figure 7(b) shows that higher solar flux
respectively provided poor capturing of solar uniformity index in spherical and elliptical
flux inside the receiver. The reason is due to cavities with backward facing step opening.
the positioning of the cavity receiver and as The highest solar flux uniformity is obtained
the offset distance is increased relative to in elliptical cavity of 0.7 eccentricity with the
focal point in backward facing step opening, value of 0.5365 and the lowest in conical
the flux distribution becomes uniform. cavity with frustum opening with the value of
0.2955. The thermal performance is
determined from the convection loss using
CFD analysis in spherical and elliptical
cavity receivers. Figure 8 shows the
comparison of convection loss in 3 different
spherical cavity receivers with validated
conical cavity. The convection loss increases
as the wind speed is increased and it is found
higher in the frustrum opening type cavity
receivers. The lower convection loss is found
in the elliptical cavity of 0.7 eccentricity with

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backward facing step opening. There is a

68.6% reduction in the spherical cavity with
backward facing step opening as compared to
the conical cavity receiver and 70.5%
reduction in the elliptical cavity of 0.7
eccentricity as shown in Figure 9.
The significant reduction of convection loss
is caused by the vortices formation inside the
spherical and elliptical cavities which is
found near the corners of backward facing
step opening as shown in Figure 10. The
frustum type opening exhibits wider
circulation region formed outside the opening
which increases the convection loss. Whereas
the backward facing step inside the spherical
and elliptical cavities introduces a secondary Figure 9. Comparison of convection loss
circulation region which reduces the in different elliptical cavity shapes varying
convection loss greatly. wind speed.
It can be seen from this figure that as the
number of nozzles decreased, the free vortex
region at the periphery of the vortex tube
widened causing the hot temperature region
to expand. The number of inlet nozzles is an
important parameter and hence must be
chosen carefully. It affects the initial swirl,
higher the initial swirl, higher will be the
energy separation which would gradually
deteriorate under the influence of the
secondary circulation flow. The reason for
the decline in the energy separation process
is turbulent mixing. Though the multi-
circulation region is still present but the
increase in the mass flow rate resulted in the
expansion of the free vortex region. The CVT
Figure 8. Comparison of convection loss
consisting of smaller diameter of 2 mm is also
in different cavity types varying wind
shown for its temperature contours in Fig. 6
speed.
which shows agreement to the fact that the
widening of free vortex results in lower
temperature separation.

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Figure 10. A comparison of velocity

streamlines for six different type of cavity
receivers.

4. CONCLUSIONS
This research paper focused to study the
effect of spherical and elliptical shapes of
cavity receiver on optical and thermal
performance of parabolic dish cavity system.
The study involved investigation on solar
flux uniformity index and convection loss in
different cavity receivers which determine
the optical and thermal performance,
respectively. The results showed that the
backward facing step opening provided
higher efficiency in both optical and thermal
performance. The spherical and elliptical
cavities elevated from focal point of the dish
also resulted in higher uniformly of solar flux
inside the cavity receiver. The convection
loss in frustum type opening in both conical
and spherical
cavity is higher as compared with the
backward facing step opening. The elliptical
cavity receiver was further examined to
investigate the effect of eccentricity. With
higher eccentricity, the solar flux uniformity
was found to be slightly higher and
convection loss is slightly reduced in this
type. Therefore, it is recommended to use
elliptical shaped cavity receiver with
backward facing step opening.

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513–525, Nov. 2016, doi:

10.1016/j.energy.2016.08.025.
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[17] Richardson LF. The approximate and Engineering, Hermosa Publishers,
arithmetical solution by finite Albuquerque, NM, 1998.
differences of physical problems [21] Celik IB, Ghia U, Roache PJ, Freitas CJ,
involving differential equations, with an Coleman H, Raad PE. Procedure for
application to the stresses in a masonry estimation and reporting of uncertainty
Dam. Trans Roy Soc Lond, Ser. A due to discretization in CFD
1910;210:307–57. applications. J Fluids Eng, ASME
[18] Richardson LF, Gaunt JA. The deferred 2008;130:078001-1–4.
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[19] Roache, P.J., “Quantification of
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Dynamics.” Annual Review of Fluid
Mechanics, 29, 123-60, 1997.

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A CONSTRAINT HEURISTIC FOR INTELLIGENT PLANNING AND

SCHEDULING OF OPERATING ROOMS IN INDUSTRY 4.0
PERSPECTIVES

Aisha Tayyab1 and Saif Ullah1,*

1
Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Engineering & Technology,
Taxila, Pakistan
*
Corresponding author E-mail address: [email protected], (Saif Ullah)

ABSTRACT
Operating rooms are considered as critical resource in hospitals as they involve maximum
investment in hospitals. Inefficient planning of patients on operating rooms underutilized their
capacity and may not generate revenue as per their investment. In recent years, Industry 4.0 has
increased the trend of industries towards intelligent and efficient decision making which has also
attracted researchers for its implementation in healthcare industry. Therefore, current research
investigates planning and scheduling problem of patients on operating rooms in context of industry
4.0 keeping in view resource constraints. A mixed integer programming model of the considered
problem is made, and a resource constraint heuristic is introduced for intelligent planning and
scheduling of patients in operating rooms to maximize the utilization of operating rooms using
theory of constraints. Experiments are performed to validate the performance proposed heuristic
as compared to the standard scheduling rules used in literature and a case problem taken from Case
Hospital is solved. Results indicate that the proposed heuristic outperforms other scheduling
heuristics.
Keywords: Operating rooms; Planning and scheduling; Industry 4.0; Heuristic

of digital hospital and a complete monitoring

1. INTRODUCTION
system that fulfils the individual
Industry 4.0 is causing significant changes in
requirements of the patient/medical industry
industrial sectors [1]. According to
with optimized time and cost.
Dilberoglu et al. [2] and Mosterman and
Industry 4.0 is an innovative approach to
Zander [3] industry 4.0 is an integrated set of
generate new concept and undertake
intelligent production systems and advanced
development in the medical field through the
information technologies that are based on
integration of technologies, smart machines
set of integrated software systems. Drath and
and different software. It creates
Horch [4] stated that industry 4.0 is a path
connectivity and data exchange with the help
with no return and will become a competitive
of new technologies, software, sensors,
challenge for companies interested in long
robots and other advanced information
term survival. Therefore companies must be
technologies. It uses artificial intelligence
prepared for this competitive challenge [5].
(AI) to share information digitally in
Industry 4.0 is an established reality that
hospitals and enables to create full visibility
seems to fulfil various requirements of
in operation that provides a higher level of
medical field as well. Industry 4.0 seems to
information about quality, inventory, raw
be an essential part of tomorrow's medical
material, waste, output, assets and customer
field and smart factories. It can provide a type
demand visibilities, help industries to save
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time and money and improve customer at the tactical level, master surgery schedule
satisfaction [6,7]. is made and at the operational level, patients
Industry 4.0 concepts has been used in are scheduled in each surgery block. These
planning of resources. As an example, Pham three levels of plans are interrelated to each
and Klinkert [8] considered scheduling of other, and they are interdependent.
surgical cases and decided on the time to Therefore, some researches have integrating
perform surgeries to efficiently use hospital
higher level planning with medium level
resources and to increase quality of service
planning while integration of all three levels
for patients. They proposed a mixed integer
linear programming model with an objective of planning are scarce [13, 21]. The
to minimize the makespan and minimizing hierarchical level integration of different
sum of all starting times. They solved the decision levels can give local optimal results
model on CPLEX with small set of generated of schedule as there is no feedback
instances and larger instances were not information which can update the respective
solved. higher level of plan. Without integration and
In their study Gartner and Kolisch [9] feedback mechanism, the decision made at
addressed the problem of planning the patient different levels are not coherent and result in
flow in hospitals subject to scarce medical local optimal solutions. Planning decisions
resources with an objective to maximize the made at higher levels cannot incorporate the
contribution margin. Patients were classified day by day changes and particularly, seasonal
on their diagnosis related group based on changes. Therefore, an integrated approach
their clinical pathway and decision was made combining all levels of decision making is
on which day each procedure of clinical highly needed in healthcare and present study
pathway should be done. Clinical pathway serves the purpose of developing a method
defines the procedures such as different types for integration of higher, medium and lower
of diagnostic tests and surgery as well as the level planning and making the planning and
sequence in which they must be applied to scheduling decisions more realistic and
the patients. Two mixed integer programs reflective of day by day dynamic situations in
were developed and embedded in a static and hospitals.
rolling horizon approach to cope with
stochastic data. Efficient planning and Moreover, Some of the studies used the
planning decisions which have been made at
scheduling of patients is significant for the
higher planning levels such as case mix , type
performance of healthcare facilities.
and capacity of clinical resources as well as
Therefore, lot of research is available in tactical decisions on master surgery schedule
literature focusing on planning and [9]. The studies conducted on operational
scheduling of operating rooms [10-22]. In level use the data from tactical level planning
literature, planning and scheduling of which is done far ahead of time. On medium
patients in operating rooms have been studied level planning most of researches use a cyclic
at three levels of decision making, including master surgery schedule [8,11,12,23,24] to
strategic level, tactical level and operational ensure stability of schedules for surgeons and
level planning problems. At strategic level, nurses. These schedules remain the same
the operating room capacity is divided among until decided by the managers based on
different type of patients and different blocks changing demand. These cyclic schedules
are created for each type of surgeries. While lead to some of the capacity overutilized and

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long waiting lists and some of the capacity is the patients can visit the relevant departments
underutilized due to fixed blocks or rooms for and leave the hospital after the completion of
surgical specialties. Such a situation cannot treatment process as explained in below
lead to optimum utilization of critical Figure 1.
resources like operating rooms, ICU and Other Units
(Internal Medicine
recovery wards and also waiting lists keep on Elective Patients
Inpatients
Home

Surgical Ward
increasing in such a situation. To tackle this
Outpatients
problem, present study proposes a Intensive
Care Unit

reconfiguration method for master surgery

Non Elective Patients

schedule, where schedules are reconfigured Urgent

Post Anesthesia
based on demand. Present study investigates Emergency
Operating
Room
Care Unit

master surgery schedule and allocation of

operating rooms to the specialty groups and
Cardiology Patient
reconfigured at operational level which is Neurology Patient

rarely discussed in literature [23]. Further Gynecology Patient

current research first identify the bottleneck Figure 1. Flow of surgical patients in a
operating room based on the patient data and hospital
flow. Later, the respective model of operating
room planning and scheduling is solved using When the patients of different categories
optimization algorithm. Current research and different specialties visit the hospital, the
proposed a heuristic method to schedule patient treatment time or workload on various
patients in operating rooms with an aim to units of hospital is different and the
maximize the utilization of operating rooms department which have highest load as
keeping in view the patient constraints compared to the other departments becomes
related to their treatment requirements. bottleneck according to theory of constraints.
In proposed method, three planning levels,
2. PROBLEM DESCRIPTION Higher level planning, medium level
A scenario of hospital is assumed in order to planning and lower-level planning are
explain the nature of problem in this section. integrated. Planning and scheduling of three
Figure 1 shows the flow of surgical patients critical departments which have highest
in a hospital. A surgical patient is one who operational costs, including operating room
needs surgical procedures to be performed in (OT) Intensive care units (ICU), and recovery
his/her flow through the hospital. Patients wards are considered.
visiting the hospital are either elective For example, considering the flow of
patients or non-elective patients. Elective different patients from different departments
patients are those patients who are known as shown in the below Figure 2. Patients flow
beforehand and can be scheduled in surgery from three departments; cardiology,
lists. They include both inpatients and neurology and gynecology are shown in the
outpatients. Inpatients are those patients who Figure 2. All three patients need the surgical
spend at least one night at hospital and procedures to be performed as a part of their
outpatients visit the hospital for a few hours treatment as shown. In the Figure 2 for
and are not admitted to hospital. Non-elective example neurology patient visits the
patients, on the other hand are urgent or neurology department, then radiology
emergency patients who can visit the hospital department and operating room and intensive
any time depending upon level of urgency. care unit. Similarly, at the same time patients
Depending upon the treatment requirements from other departments also need surgeries in
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operating rooms. Operating rooms are  An open scheduling policy is adopted for
dedicated for different specialties by master OR.
surgery schedule at medium level planning as  Operating room staff are available.
shown in the Figure 2 through different  All operating rooms are considered as
colours. Due to load of patients, operating identical.
room may become bottleneck.
2.2 Mathematical Model:
Patients flow from three departments; A mixed integer programming model for
cardiology, neurology and gynaecology is scheduling of patients in operating rooms and
shown in Figure 2. their allocation in different planning horizons
is presented in this section. The objective
function for scheduling of patients is aimed
OPERATION THEATRE COMPLEX
Cardiology Patient to minimize the makespan of all operating
Neurology Patient

Gynecology Patient rooms in a planning horizon, as shown in

Operating Operating
Room 1 Room 2 Post
Anesthesia
Care Unit
Equation (1). The detail of makepsan is
Gynecology Discharge shown in Equation (2). While Equation (3)
Operating
Room 3
Operating
Room 4

Intensive
shows the completion time of a surgery of a
Care Unit

Neurology Discharge patient. Equation (4) and (5) represents the

Radiology earliest and latest start time of surgeries of
Coronory
Care Unit
patients. Equation (6) indicates the planned
Cardiology Discharge
start time of a patient. Equation (7) shows the
Figure 2. Patients flow from three constraints on available capacity of any
departments; cardiology, neurology and operating room and ensures that the workload
gynecology of an operating rooms should not exceed the
workload of patients on the operating room.
2.1 Assumptions: Constraint shown in Equation (8) guarantees
 List of patients obtained from forecast is that a patient can only be treated once in the
available. schedule. Equation (9) shows binary
 Only elective patients are considered for variables and Equation (10) shows non-
scheduling. negativity constraints.

(Obj )b  min(makespan)ob o  O  0  b  B,  (1)

(makespan)ob  tqpre   max tqcomp , tqpre

1    t qq  Yqqob   t q  Z qqob
SDS x ,( x 1) s x ,( x 1) (2)

q, q  Q, oO  0  b  B, 
tqcomp   tqset  tqsur  tqclr  X qob q  Q, oO  0  b  B,  (3)

LPSTq  Dq   tqpre  tqset  tqsur  q  Q (4)

EPSTq  Aq  max tqpre , tqst  q  Q, oO (5)

PSTq  avg EPSTq , LPSTq  q  Q (6)

WLob  Atob  oO, 0  b  B,  (7)

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X oqb  1 q  Q, 0  b  B,  (8)

 , Z qq, ob , U sqob , Wqob , Vqob  0,1 q  Q, s  S , o O, 0  b  B, 

x 1) x ,( x 1)  (9)
X qob , Yqqx,(,ob
STq , makespanob  0 (10)

3. CONSTRAINT HEURISTICS FOR

can be seen from Figure 3 that case mix
INTELLIGENT PLANING AND
planning, master surgery schedule and
SCHEDULING
patient scheduling are integrated. Further,
An overview of the procedure adopted for
flow of information during multi-level
multi-level intelligent planning and
planning is indicated in Figure 3.
scheduling of patients is shown in Figure 3. It

Higher level Planning

Case Mix
Strategic Planning
Planning
(Case mix Planning)

Master Medium Level Planning

Surgery Tactical Planning
Schedule (Mater Surgery Schedule)

PLANNING AND Lower level Planning

SCHEDULING Operational Planning
SYSTEM

Advance Scheduling
Functions
Output  Model solution
 Optimum Plan and  Iterations
Schedule  Genetic Algorithm
 Brach and Bound Allocation Scheduling
 Branch and Cut
 Constraints based
Heuristics
Resources
Requirement
Resources
Requirement
INPUTS
 Real Time Patient Data
Inventory  Patients Waiting List
Resources
 Real Time Procedure Durations
Supply
 Cancelled Surgeries
Hospital  Available Capacity
 Available Resources
Resources  Emergency Cases
Supply  Priority Rules
 Constraints
Supplier Surgical Patients

Figure 3. An overview of the procedure adopted for multi-level planning and scheduling

The procedure of the proposed resource constraint is presented in this section. At

constraint heuristic for multi-level intelligent higher level planning, infinite capacity plan
planning and scheduling of patients on of patients is made and patients are allocated
operating rooms based on theory of to planning horizons based on their planned
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start time. A medium level, operating room medium level plan to higher level planning
resources are configured based on the patient horizon to update the higher level plan.
Cardiology

workload on operating rooms. Similarly, plan Operation

Post
Neurology

Gynecology Ward Anesthesia Discharge Gynecology

is based on the capacity of operating rooms Patient
1
Theatre
Care Unit

and lower level schedule is made based on the Intensive

Operation
Neurology Ward Radiology Anesthesia Discharge
real capacity available in each operating Patient
2
Theatre
Care Unit

rooms room and a feedback information is Operation Coronary

Cardiology Ward Radiology Discharge

going back towards medium level planning Patient

3
Theatre Care Unit

horizons and higher level planning horizons. PUSH

Available

Step 3: Compute the workload of each Capacity

Operating

operating room with their available capacity Room 1

OFFLOAD PULL
Available
in each planning horizon to search for best Capacity

finite capacity plan. Operating

Room 2

MONDAY TUESDAY WEDNESDAY THURSDAY FRIDAY

Step 4: Schedule patients in planning horizon Figure 4. Allocations of operating rooms

in each operating room and identify the reconfigurable based on the push, pull
bottleneck operating room. and offload strategies
Step 5: Reconfigurable operating rooms 4. COMPUTATIONAL EXPERIMENTS
based on the push, pull and offload strategies AND RESULTS
as shown in Figure 4. While pulling, pushing In this section, performance of proposed
and offloading the constraints such as resource constraint heuristic is compared
priorities of patients, surgeons, supporting with the other scheduling rules used in
staff and material availability, start date and literature. The data used for experimentation
due date of patients are considered. An is obtained from a Case Hospital in Pakistan.
operating room can only offload to other The data obtained from the case hospital
operating room, if the capacity on the other includes the information of arrival date,
operating room is available in same time patient preparation time, setup time of
period. An operating room can pull a patient operating room, actual surgery duration and
from later time periods only if it has the due date of the surgery patients.
available capacity and all constraints are To check the performance of proposed
fulfilled by the pull. Similarly, an operating method on generalized data, the obtained data
room can push the patients to later time from case hospital is modified to create more
period if the constraints are fulfilled and instances. Randomly 15 instances of problem
capacity is available in later time periods. are created. The algorithm was coded in
Step 6: Once, load balancing on all the standard C# and compiled in Visual Studio
operation rooms is performed, sequence the version 2019. All tests were performed on a
patients considering precedence constraints 2.60 GHz Intel core i7 processor, with 16 GB
and other special constraints of patients and of RAM running under Windows 10.
optimum schedule of the surgeries for next
No. of No. No. No. of No. of
day is produced and released.
Operat of of Special Instan
Step 7: Feedback the optimal schedule to
ing patie Surge ties ces
medium level planning horizon to update the
rooms nts ons
patients in medium level planning horizon.
3-4 75- 3-4 6-7 15
Step 8: check, if the medium level planning
100
horizon is completed, send the feedback
Table 3. Problem data for 15 instances
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(PST). All the patients with same PST are

The performance of the proposed inserted to same planning period as the
method is compared with sequencing rules capacity of all resources on higher level is
including (1) increasing duration (ID) i.e., considered infinite. Table 2 shows the
patients are arranged in order of increasing average number of patients inserted on higher
surgery duration and (2) Decreasing duration level planning periods for all instances of
(DD), i.e., patients are scheduled in experiments.
decreasing order of their surgery duration. While making medium level plan,
Comparison of results obtained by patients are allocated to operating rooms and
proposed method is made for 15 problems for workload of operating rooms is balanced, and
a planning horizon of One Week. The regular patients are pulled to next planning horizons
capacity of operating rooms is considered as if the workload of operating rooms exceeds
8 hours per day and seven days a week. available capacity of operating rooms.
Lower-level scheduling period is taken as Operating room allocation is optimized and
one day and lookahead period is taken as one same specialty patients are inserted to same
day. Cleaning time after surgery of patient of operating room to reduce sequence
different specialty groups is taken as variable. dependent setups.
It is assumed that sequence dependent setup On the lower level planning horizon, the
time occurs when patients of different patients are sequenced in the allocated
specialty groups are operated in the same operating rooms. The optimal sequence
operating room consecutively. The same results in release of capacity of operating
input data of surgery patients for one week is rooms and more patients are pulled from next
used to evaluate all the methods. lower level planning period to fully utilize the
At first, initial allocation of patients to capacity of operating rooms. Average
planning period is based on Planned Start number of patients on all planning levels are
Time for all methods. Once the operating represented in Table 2.
rooms and surgeons are allocated to the Number of patients in different planning
patients, schedule of allocated patients is horizons
made with proposed and other methods. Lower
The objective function, i.e., Makespan of Lower
Higher Medium Level
the patients for operating rooms using Level
Level Level (Other
proposed method is calculated with same (RCBH)
methods)
number of patients as well as with increased 21 14 14 18
number of patients as a result of push pull Table 2. Average number of patients in
strategies proposed in present method. In the all planning horizons per day
RCBH method, patients are pulled to fully
utilize the capacity of operating rooms once It can be seen from the results shown in Table
the optimal schedule for the operating rooms 2 that average number of patients operated in
is made. Following comparison metrics are the schedule produced by proposed method is
used to compare the proposed RCBH method higher than the number of patients operated
with other scheduling methods. as per schedule generated by the other
methods. This increased the average number
4.1 Number of Patients Operated of patients in the schedule which is produced
During making higher level plan, patients are by proposed method i.e., from 14 to 18. More
inserted to their most suitable planning patients are inserted to operating rooms using
periods based on their planned start time push pull strategies of proposed method.

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4.2 Makespan and scheduling of patients in rolling horizon

Table 3 represents the comparison of planning periods. The proposed method
makespan values for all problems. It can be optimized the schedule of patients day by day
seen that proposed method shows less value and used a feedback method to update the
of makespan as compared to the other patient list in medium level planning horizon.
methods when the number of patients is If there is capacity available, the patients are
considered same for all methods. This shows pushed or pull between the planning horizons
that the proposed method generates schedule and the update patient list is created. Due to
of patients a can treat patients in less time as this feedback mechanism, surgeries which
compared to the other methods. However, as were not performed in any day are added in
per proposed method, there is push and pull the list based upon their priority and
strategy used to insert more patients from the rescheduled again. The developed method is
next planning horizons, if there is available intelligent due to incorporation of postponed
capacity in the operating rooms, therefore, and cancelled surgeries in the unscheduled
three are 4 more patients inserted and the total patients list and scheduling them again before
number of patients served in the planning their due date is passed. The proposed
horizon increased to 18 from 14. In this method integrates different level of decision
situation, the makespan value of proposed making and increase the utilization of
method increased as compared to the other operating rooms in each planning horizon
methods but at the same time, schedule based on the available capacity. Various
generated by proposed method increased the experiments are performed to evaluate the
utilization of the operating rooms. performance of the proposed method as
When more compared to scheduling rules used in
Patients are literature based on the data taken from Case
scheduled Hospital in Pakistan. The scheduling results
When there are same number using push obtained from proposed method are
of patients in schedule pull strategy compared with scheduling rules such as ID
and DD. Comparison of results shows that
Proposed

Proposed
Method

No. of No. of proposed method performs better in terms of

Patien Patient number of patients and capacity utilization.
ID DD ts s Future work can be extended to include real
time data of resources and patients using
Makespan

2
cloud and IOT technology to estimate the
8
3 288 values of variables using intelligent deep
9 7 2858 14 3024 18 learning algorithms and make intelligent plan
Table 3. Comparison of Average of patients on expected critical resources.
makespan values for all Problem
categories ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work has been supported by the Higher
5. CONCLUSION Education Commission of Pakistan (HEC)
In the current research, a constraint heuristic under the National Research Program of
method is proposed for intelligent planning Universities (NRPU) Project No. 20-17024.
and scheduling of patients in operating
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Research, 40(9), 2198-2207, 2013. 76,160-173, 2018.

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IOT IN INDUSTRY 4.0: CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES

Muhammad Danish Saleem1*, Muhammad Mubashir Khan2 and Anis Fatima1

1
Department of Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering, NED University of Engineering
& Technology, Karachi, Pakistan
2
Department of Computer Science & Information Technology, NED University of
Engineering & Technology, Karachi, Pakistan

*
Corresponding author E-mail address: [email protected]

ABSTRACT
Due to successive technological advancements, developments and innovations, the global
industrial landscape has drastically transformed over the last years. Industry 4.0 aims at
transforming traditional industries into intelligent ones by incorporating innovative technologies.
Industry 4.0 enables physical assets to be integrated into intertwined digital and physical
processes thus creating smart factories and intelligent manufacturing environments. Internet of
Things (IoT) is a rapidly growing technology that has drastically contributed to the Industry 4.0
realization. IoT pursues to pervade our everyday environment and its objects, linking the physical
world to the digital world and allowing people and “things” to be connected anytime, anywhere,
with anything and anyone ideally using any network and service. This study scrutinizes literature
review on IoT in the Industry 4.0 context. More specifically, it describes the IoT concept, its
security and privacy challenges and explores numerous IoT application domains. Moreover, it
presents and analyses the concept of Industry 4.0 and the benefits it offers as well as the relevant
key technologies (e.g. industrial internet of things (IIoT), cyber-physical systems (CPSs), cloud
computing, big data and advanced data analytics). Furthermore, it describes the emerging
application of IoT in Industry 4.0 and highlights the IoT and Industry 4.0 research gaps. Finally,
the need for innovation in the industrial domain and the impact and benefits that IoT and Industry
4.0 provide to everyday life and industries are described.
Keywords: Internet of Things (IoT), Industry 4.0, IoT applications

1. INTRODUCTION Internet of Things (IoT) is a rapidly growing

Nowadays, due to the rapidly evolving innovative technology with various
technological advancements, smart devices applications, functions and services in
are able to interconnect, communicate and everyday life and in a wide variety of
interact over the Internet. Moreover, over domains. IoT aims at pervading our
the years, the size of these devices has been everyday environment and its objects,
reduced whereas their processing power and linking the physical world to the digital
storage capabilities have significantly world and allowing “people and devices to
increased. Contemporary, smart devices are be connected anytime, anywhere, with
equipped with advanced embedded systems anything and with anyone” [1], [2]. IoT and
and have the capabilities of communication, more specifically, Industrial Internet of
sensing, actuation as well as real-time data Things (IIoT) along with the digitalization
retrieval, collection, storage and processing. and automation of industrial manufacturing
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are thought to be what truly have initiated

the fourth industrial revolution (Industry Initially IoT used radio-frequency
4.0). Industry 4.0 combines traditional identification (RFID) technology for
manufacturing and industrial practices with identifying the connected devices. Later on,
innovative technologies, such as large-scale IoT locate devices by using sensors,
machine-to-machine (M2M) actuators, and mobile devices. Specifically,
communications, IoT, cyber-physical integrating sensors, RFID tags and
systems (CPSs), etc. Moreover, it aims at communication protocols serves as the
fundamentally transforming traditional foundation for IoT [5]. Research shows that
industries into intelligent ones by there is tremendous growth in the area of
introducing self-maintainability, self- IoT. Most of the industries are trying to
optimization, self-cognition, and self- work on more projects related to IoT in the
customization into the industry. There is no fields of health care, agriculture, aqua-
forms, transportation and others.
doubt that by utilizing the advanced and
dynamic network of interconnected devices,
2.1 Background
IoT can offer a magnitude of solutions to
During initial days of IoT, RFID served as
industries as well as multitude of
the foundation technology, which allows
contemporary and advanced applications
user to send or receive information using
and services that cannot only enhance life radio-frequency signals. The connected
quality, but can also lead to personal, device should be attached with RFID tags,
professional and economic opportunities which contains reader and transmitter. With
and benefits [3]. the help of RFID reader, people can locate
2. IOT AND ITS APPLICATIONS and monitor the devices [6]. Main
As an off-promising technology, IoT application of RFID is transportation. Later
provides solutions to transform the on, wireless sensor networks (WSN) served
operation of many existing industrial as a building block for IoT. Here sensors /
systems. IoT allows all the prevailing actuators will be attached to the devices with
systems to connect to a network, using in the network. Sensors are used to sense the
which they can communicate among data and using actuators data will be
themselves and with the surroundings such transmitted. The main application of WSN
that some actions to take place. Connecting includes health-care. With the advancement
all the devices to a network can be done by of RFID and WSN, there is a significant
using a unique ID called IP address. IP growth in the development of IoT [5]. IoT
address helps to identify and locate a device finds its main applications in the fields of
on the network and routes the information. tracking & monitoring, health-care, home
Today commonly accepted definition for automation, environment monitoring, smart
IoT is “A network of physical objects or building, agriculture, aqua-culture and
‘things’ that can interact with each other to others. With the advancement of smart
share information and take action.” or: phones, communication protocols, sensor
“The Internet of Things (IoT) is the networks technologies; it is possible to
interconnection of uniquely identifiable connect more objects in a network. IoT
embedded computing devices within the application contains both hardware and
existing Internet infrastructure” [4]. software. IoT hardware is broadly classified
in to wearable devices and embedded system
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boards. Wearable devices will come with transportation, smart urban lightening, tele-
preassembled hardware application [7]. The care and others. IoT applications aims at
scope of wearable devices is limited to a improving the life quality for the end-user
particular application. For example, a smart community and supporting infrastructure
watch may be designed for call receiving and general-purpose operations. A survey
and fitness monitoring only. The advantage has also been conducted in which IoT
with wearable device is handy to use. The applications has categorized into the
examples of wearable devices are: Samsung following domains [11], [12]:
gear, google glass, digitsole smart shoe and
others. On the other hand, embedded system  Transportation and logistics domain:
boards are open for the user. That is, a user Applications of this domain involve
can program these boards depending on the logistics, assisted driving, mobile
application he want. In present day market, ticketing, environment monitoring,
there are so many embedded system boards augmented maps etc.
are available. Examples include Arduino  Healthcare domain: Applications of this
boards, raspberry pi boards, Samsung artik domain involve tracking, identification,
board, cloudbit, ESP8866 Wi-Fi module and authentication, data collection, sensing
others. After selecting a particular etc.
embedded system board, the user has to  Smart environment domain: Applications
choose application software. There are wide of this domain involve comfortable
range of programming languages like C, homes/offices, industrial plants, smart
C++, python etc. IoT deals with connecting museum and gym etc.
the devices to a network and sharing the  Personal and social domain: Applications
information, in this point of view one has to of this domain involve social networking,
ensure security and reliability. Also, IoT historical queries, losses and thefts etc.
deals with various kinds of devices, so in  Futuristic domain: Applications of this
order to perform the task properly, domain involve robot taxi, city
standardization is required. information model, enhanced game
Standardization provides interoperability rooms etc.
and compatibility on a global scale [8].
Many professional bodies are working on 2.2 IoT Applications
creating standards for IoT. At present A number of IoT applications are presented
organizations like IEEE, International below [12], [13], [14], [15], [16], [17], [18],
Electro-technical Standardization, China [19], [20], [210]:
Electronics
Standardization Institute, American 1) Healthcare and sanitary
National Standards Institute are working on The medical domain is one of the first
the development of standards for IoT [9]. industries which adopted IoT and was
By designing IoT applications on accepted heavily influenced. IoT technologies can
standards, one can achieve reliability and create new opportunities, services and
interoperability, which in-turn will reduce applications to improve the healthcare and
maintenance costs in the long run [10]. The sanitary domain. Moreover, IoT platforms
main aspects of the smart city project are and services enhance current living
waste management, intelligent solutions and facilitate the realization of

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Ubiquitous healthcare vision that is

“healthcare to anyone, anytime, and  Energy efficient utilities, buildings and
anywhere by removing location, time and facilities that will reduce the long-term
other restraints while increasing both the costs and waste.
coverage and quality of healthcare” [22].  Novel and effective systems of
Furthermore, in the context of IoT, all consuming, managing, distributing and
objects in the healthcare industry will be renewing resources.
equipped with sensors and patients will  Advanced traffic control and monitoring
carry mobile medical sensors. Moreover, it systems as well as more reliable public
optimizes and enhance workflow, transportation means and pedestrian
operations and drug management while support.
simultaneously decrease operational costs. It Advanced monitoring and security
also provides more effective methods for surveillance systems so as to improve public
medical records and data analysis as well as safety and security.
ad- hoc diagnosis by taking advantage of 3) Smart environments
rapidly automated decisions and continuous By utilizing fully interconnected
advanced remote patient state monitoring. technological devices and embedded
Therefore, IoT has an enormous impact on systems, IoT aims at pervading our everyday
independent living and provides smart environment and its objects and creating
solutions for ameliorating life quality and new ways to interact with these smart
supporting the aging population. environments. The concept of smart
environments evolves from ubiquitous
2) Smart cities computing and promotes the idea of "a
The rapid urban growth is already placing a physical world that is richly and invisibly
considerable strain on the existing interwoven with sensors, actuators, displays,
infrastructure and utilities and highlighting and computational elements, embedded
the need for more sustainable urban seamlessly in the everyday objects of our
planning and public services. IoT lives, and connected through a continuous
applications and services are being exploited network" [23]. Through using IoT in
in order for these new requirements to be combination with automated software
satisfied and the societal changes agents for real time tracking and monitoring,
commensurate with this rapid growth to be smart environments become a technological
responded to. Moreover, autonomic city and ecosystem of various interconnected
home networks will be intelligent and devices. These smart devices can securely
capable of sensing, monitoring and adapting communicate and interact as well as
to environmental changes as well as reacting retrieve, process, store and exchange data in
to human activities. More specifically, real time. By integrating these
through IoT, smart technologies and devices heterogeneous data into applications, the
are interconnected and as a result, they are adaptation process to dwellers and
able to improve and enhance the quality and environmental continuously changing needs
lifestyle for city dwellers as well as ensure are facilitated. As a result, their
that their essential services are provided. requirements are being promptly and
Some of the few benefits of utilizing IoT satisfactorily met. Moreover, IoT
applications and services in smart cities applications in this domain aim at improving
involve:
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the current environmental safety by allow for better energy efficiency and reduce
reducing and mitigating the potential impact the overall system downtime.
of damage and disaster. IoT technologies
allow the development of innovative real- 3. SECURITY AND PRIVACY ISSUES
time monitoring and decision-making IN IOT
support systems and applications regarding IoT has four main layers which are
environmental issues, such as early perception layer, network layer, transport
prediction and detection of natural disasters, layer (Middle-ware Layer) and application
weather conditions etc. layer. All IoT layers have their own privacy
and security concerns as conferred in Fig. 1.
4) Transportation and Logistics
Nowadays, vehicles as well as roads and 3.1 IoT Perception Layer Security and
transported goods, are equipped with more Privacy
sophisticated technological devices such as Perception layer contains groups of
on near field communication (NFC) tags, information. It is classified in to two main
radiofrequency identification (RFID) tags, sections which are perception node and
actuators, sensors etc. IoT technologies can perception network.
be used to enhance the potential of these Perception node is responsible for collecting
systems and optimize their use in the data and perception network handles the
domains of transportation, logistics and instructions of sending and managing data
suppliers, which are regarded as essential [24].
components in the productivity of many Perception layer is composed of many
industries. Intelligent transportation systems different sensor technologies like Radio
(ITS) are able to communicate, share and Frequency Identification (RFID) [25]. RFID
exchange mission-critical information and systems are exposed to privacy and security
data promptly, timely and accurately. problems. The perception layer checks
Hence, they are used to ensure that the collect and process data then transmits the
transportation network is efficiently information to the next layer which is the
monitored and controlled. IoT offers several network layer. Perception layer is
contemporary applications and services and
responsible for controlling data sources
in combination with the ubiquitous 5G
where IoT nodes are the main source of data.
mobile networks can provide industries with
The IoT nodes are widely vulnerable to
intelligent transportation and logistics
systems. These systems provide solutions attacks due to which a security and privacy
which are designed specifically for certain node in the perception layer scheme (SNPL)
needs and goals, thus accelerating is developed [26]. Some security and
productivity, profitability and operations. privacy issues of perception layer are
Moreover, they offer real-time monitoring discussed below:
and tracking throughout the entire supply
chain, thus helping enterprises increase end-
to-end visibility as well as maintain efficient
transportation control and cost-effective
management. In addition, they conduct more
effective route planning and optimization,

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information flow from tag-to-reader or from

reader-to-tag [25].

4) Spoofing:
Spoofing occurs when an attacker transmits
false and incorrect information to the RFID
system and try to make its originality falsely
and making it appear from the authenticated
and original source.
With the help of this, attackers get full
access to the system and make it vulnerable
[25].

5) RF Jamming:
Radio Frequency (RF) Jamming tries to not
comply with lower-level protocols to be able
to interfere with the ongoing legitimate
communication. This attack occurs when
Figure 1. Security and Privacy Issues in RFID tags are compromised by DoS attack
IoT that makes communication through RF
signals distributed with noise signals. The
1) Unauthorized Access to Tags: source that initiates jamming attacks could
Systems that have a large number of RFID be very powerful to damage the network or
face security issues because of the lack of it could have less power to only damage
proper authentication. Unauthorized users or small parts of the network [25].
hackers can access tags without
authorization, delete and even can modify All IoT layers are prone to security attacks
tags [25]. and threats. There are three main security
issues that are related to the perception layer.
2) Tag Cloning: First issue, is wireless signals strength [27].
Tags are distributed on different objects. In Perception layer, signals are sent and
Objects data can be viewed to be read and received to and from the sensors with the
modified with the help of some hacking
help of wireless technologies whose
techniques. This leads to tag cloning which
efficiency can be compromised by
occurs when tags can be captured by
disturbing waves. Second issue in IoT
criminals with ease who easily can make a
devices is that the sensor nodes can be
replica of tags and compromise it. [25]
stopped by the owner and the attackers due
3) Eavesdropping: to the reason of the external and outdoor
Eavesdropping is an interception of nature of IoT system could lead to physical
information between two nodes or attacks upon the IoT nodes and the IoT
communication devices [24]. The wireless system. The third issue is the nature of
characteristic of the RFID makes it easier for network topology. IoT nodes usually move
hackers to sniff out the confidential around many different places which means
the network topology is dynamic. The
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Perception layer consists of RFID and security of information and enabling the
sensors. RFID and sensors storage, power network transmission [24]. It includes
consumptions, capacity and computation mobile devices, internet and cloud
capability are limited and this led to making computing. The network layer consists of
them prone to attacks. Perception layer Wireless Sensors Networks (WSN). This
security problems can be easily addressed layer takes care of transmitting data from the
with the help of pint-to-point or end-to-end sensors to their destinations with reliability
encryption. Perception Layer can provide [25]. The network layer is responsible for
various security features and it supplies four transmitting data to and from IoT devices
purposes which are privacy of data and and hubs and to serve data routing. In this
layer, technologies like Wi-Fi, Bluetooth,
sensitive information, authentication and
3G, LTE and Zigbee are used to operate the
risk assessment. Authentication is one of the
Internet, switching, routing and gateways
security goals that must be satisfied in
[27]. Network layer is composed of
systems in order to protect systems against
protocols, communication technologies with
hackers and attackers. Cryptography can be corresponding hardware and network [28].
used to apply authentication to systems. The network layer does an important job of
Cryptography has some algorithms that can connecting the IoT nodes and IoT
be used to provide a digital signature that applications together. The main threat that
could protect against attackers. Data need to threatens the network layer is the DoS attack
be protected and secured while collecting where the attackers make the service
and forwarding to the next layer. Symmetric unavailable for the legitimate users.
and asymmetric encryption algorithms can Network layer security and privacy issues
also be used to apply privacy to data. are listed below [25]:
Encryption algorithms are easy to be
1) Sybil Attack:
implemented in sensors due to their benefit
In a Sybil attack, the attacker works on
which is low power consumption. Location
attacking the system by manipulating the
anonymity and identity anonymity are must
node to have the single node more than one
to hide and secure sensitive information.
identity. This results in false information
This can be achieved by KAnonymity
[25].
approach that protects information like
identity, location and sensitive data of users.
2) Sinkhole Attack:
Risk assessment has an important role in IoT
Sinkhole attack works on trying to present
security because of its help in discovering
compromised nodes attractive to other close
new threats of systems. Also, it helps in
nodes. So, all data will flow from nodes to
defining security strategies that could be
compromised nodes which result in packets
classified to be the best. Also, it prevents
drop.
security breaches [25].
The system believes that the data have been
transmitted to the other side while system
3.2 IoT Network Layer Security and
traffic is silenced. Sinkhole attack can cause
Privacy
DoS attack due to more energy
The next layer after the perception layer is
consumption. Sinkhole attack process seems
the network layer. The network layer is the
to be unknown to the network where
layer that is responsible for providing
attackers deceive the system to make it
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believe that all transmitted data is received heterogeneous which makes it impossible to
to the receiver [25]. use network protocols as it is. Protecting the
network’s objects has equal importance of
3) Sleep Deprivation Attack: protecting the network itself. The objects
Sleep Deprivation Attack works on the point should be able to have some actions to be
of keeping sensor nodes awake for a portion taken to from a guard to protect themselves
of time which leads to batteries consumption from attacks initiated against the network by
which in turns minimize batteries life time having the ability to know the network state.
which results in causing the sensor nodes to In order to achieve this, there must be good
shut down. This attack can keep the sensor protocols and software in the network that
node awake for some time. Energy help the objects to respond the situations and
constrained devices are prone to this attack. behaviours that are abnormal or affect the
objects and the network security. Security of
4) Denial of Service (DoS) Attack: Network layer is divided to three types
DoS attack occurs when an attacker works which are authentication, routing security
on enforcing the network to flood with a lot and data privacy. Implementing
of useless traffic which results in resources authentication and encryption could stop
exhausting of the system. So, the network of illegal accesses to nodes and this, in turn,
the system becomes unavailable to the users prevents spreading fake information.
[25]. Routing algorithms must be used to ensure
data privacy of data transmitted between the
5) Malicious code injection: sensors and the system. To improve the
Malicious code injection attack occurs when ability of the system to figure out errors and
an attacker tries to make a sensor node to protect the system against any kind of
insert some code that is malicious into the failure, the system has to provide multiple
system which in turns cause the network to paths for data routine. To monitor the system
shut down. Then, the attacker gets full and protect it against any kind of intrusion,
control over the network [25]. safety control mechanisms must be
implemented. To check whether data
6) Man-in-the-Middle Attack: received on an end is the same as the original
Man-in-the-middle attack is like a form of data sent from the other end, data integrity
eavesdropping attack. In Man-in-the-middle methods must be implemented [25].
attack the target is the communication
channel where unauthorized user can 3.3 IoT Transport (Middle-ware) Layer
monitor and control the communication Security and Privacy
between other two parties. Also, the The next layer after the network layer in IoT
unauthorized user can impersonate the systems is the Transport (Middle-ware)
identity of the victim and then Layer. Transport (Middle-ware) Layer
communicates through the channel to gain consists of data storage technologies like
information [25]. cloud computing. It is split into three layers
IoT introduces machine-to-machine which are local area, core network and
communication which has compatibility access network. The security problems of
security issue. In machine-to-machine the transport layer are classified as follows
communication network components are [25]:

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1) Unauthorized Access security threats and prepare

Unauthorized system access can occur when countermeasures for security threats [28].
an attacker deletes data or forbid IoT Application Layer provides access to the
services access to cause damage to the IoT users for IoT applications. Security can be
system. Attackers can have unethical access applied into the application layer by adding
to intrude into the network with security into the functional architecture in a
misconfiguration access control rights [25]. form of policies of access control.
Application layer's security issues can be
2) DoS Attack eliminated and solved by using firewalls,
DoS attack generates a lot of useless traffic anti-virus and intrusion detection systems.
to shut down the system. Attackers can shut The security problems of application layer
down the service of the network to make the can be classified as follows:
system unavailable for a portion of time. A
big number of DoS attacks can be started to 1) Malicious Code Injection
attack the IoT system. Malicious code injection occurs when an
attacker inserts a code that is malicious into
3) Malicious Insider the system and steal user’s data. Hackers
Malicious Insider attack occurs when an influence the attack on the system from end
insider tampers data for personal benefits or users [25]. Malicious code injection cannot
third parties’ benefits. One of the possible be prevented using anti-virus tools. Also, it
ways to protect IoT systems against can automatically activate itself or need the
malicious insider attack is Isabelle insider attacker to take action to start attacking the
framework that detect any violation occurs system.
in the policy.

3.4 IoT Application Layer Security 2) DoS Attack

The last layer in IoT after Transport DoS attacks offer a smokescreen that carry
(Middleware) Layer is the application layer. out attacks to violate the defence of the
Services offered by the application layer in system. It tricks the users about where the
several ways have the role of structuring the attack is happening. It makes the user
application layer. It is visible to the end user believe that the attack is occurring in another
and it is the uppermost layer [24]. This layer part of the system. DoS put user un-
ensures authenticity, integrity and encrypted sensitive information into the
confidentiality. The lack of standards that hands of hackers. DoS attackers has the
work on managing the applications ability to destroy the availability of the
development process and their interactions service or the application.
can cause many issues in the security of the
application layer. It is difficult to confirm 3) Spear-Phishing Attack
data privacy and authentication for Spear-Phishing attack initiates when an
applications that work with different attacker try to start an attack on users by an
authentication mechanisms. Application email to victims and try to lure victims to
layer is composed of different service open the email to get more sensitive data
domains like connected cars and healthcare. from victims. SpearPhishing is a multistage
Each application should consider its own process where an attacker collects

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information on a target or a group of targets There are various types of intrusion

[25]. detection technologies, two of them are data
mining approach and anomaly detection.
4) Sniffing Attack Risk Assessment is required in giving
Sniffing attack occurs when an attacker justifications for the security strategies and
introduces sniffing into the system in a form improving security structure. Encryption
of a sniffing application that in turn gain technologies can be used in order to prevent
information of the network which results in data from being stolen or abused.
corrupting the system. Sniffing can be Encryption can be a way to ensure the
categorized into DNS poisoning, ARP security of data. Encryption also can be a
poisoning, DHCP attack, MAC flooding and way to prevent malicious activities from
password sniffing [25]. attackers and malicious users [25].

There are several IoT applications security 4. INDUSTRY 4.0

issues. IoT applications have different With growing advancements in
mechanisms for authentication which in manufacturing processes, the concept of
turns makes data privacy, identity Industry 4.0 has emerged, becoming an
authentication and integration of all of IoT increasingly relevant global topic in the last
applications very difficult. When designing few years. This term was first presented in
IoT application, these following three points 2011, in an article published by German
must be taken in consideration how users government regarding an initiative about
interact with the application, the amount of high-tech strategy for 2020 [29].
data and who will manage the system. IoT Industry 4.0 is the fourth industrial
applications users must have tools that revolution and can be compared with the last
enable them to control, manage and decide three industrial revolutions that have
upon which data they want to disclose. Users emerged over the last centuries, that have
must be knowing how their data is being brought relevant changes in manufacturing
used, when and by whom. Transport due to disruptive technological advances
(Middleware) layer and application layer [30]. The first industrial revolution, in the
security is partitioned into four categories middle of the 18th century, was enabled by
which are risk assessment, authentication the use of steam and waterpower, while the
data security and intrusion detection. second industrial revolution that emerged
Authentication prevents malicious users during the second half of 19th century was
from accessing the system by integrated characterized by mass production and the
identity identification. Middle-ware layer replacement of steam power by electricity.
uses some major technologies like cloud In the last years of 20th century, the use of
technologies which are easily compromised computers, electronics and Information
and also vulnerable to the insider threat. Technology have triggered the third
Virtualization is another technology that is industrial revolution [31], [32]. However,
used in this layer which is exposed to data the emerging fourth industrial revolution is
threat and DoS attack. Intrusion detection being shaped by the integration of Cyber-
technologies start an alarm on the presence Physical Systems (CPS) and Internet of
of any abnormal event in the system. This Things (IoT) in industrial processes [29].
can be done by the continuous keeping of a This new industrial paradigm will bring
log and monitoring of intruder’s activities. together the digital and physical worlds
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through the use of technologies, allowing interaction and digital-to-physical

the improvement of productivity and conversion.
efficiency among the companies that are
adopting this new manufacturing paradigm. Industry 4.0 focuses on the end-to-end
This concept is an umbrella term that digitalization of all physical assets and their
embraces a set of future technological integration into digital ecosystems, while
developments regarding CPS, IoT, Big Data, enabling them to seamlessly generate,
Cloud Manufacturing, Augmented Reality analyse and communicate data including the
(AR) and Robotics [30]. The adoption of digitalization and integration of vertical and
these technologies is crucial to the horizontal value chains, the digitalization of
development of intelligent manufacturing product and service offerings and the digital
processes, including smart devices, business models and customer access [36].
machines and product that are able to The following eight planning objectives are
autonomously exchange information, the prerequisites for achieving Industry 4.0
trigger actions and control each other. are; standardization of systems, efficient
management, establishment of a
Industry 4.0 is a complex technological comprehensive and reliable industrial
system that has been widely discussed and broadband infrastructure, safety and
researched by academics and companies in security, organization and design of work,
recent years, holding a huge potential to staff training and continuing professional
greatly influence the industrial sector and development, establishing a regulatory
bringing several economic and social framework and improving the efficiency of
opportunities through the paradigm shift resource use [37].
regarding to work organization, business
models and production technology [33]. A crucial new aspect of the manufacturing
Furthermore, this emerging industrial and production process is the dynamic
revolution, besides the transformation in interaction between the real and virtual
manufacturing, will have a great impact in worlds in which the industrial production
many other areas, such as, products and machinery is no longer simply processes the
services, new business models and markets, products, but it also communicates with
economy, work environment and skills them. As a result, industry production value
development [30]. Industry 4.0 can be chains and business models are radically
regarded as a highly integrated, digitalized, transformed into intelligent ones, thus
automated and autonomous, and efficient leading to the development of smart
manufacturing environment. Industry 4.0 factories. Moreover, this new manufacturing
may also be defined as the “digitization of paradigm lays high emphasis on creating
the manufacturing sector, with embedded smart products and developing smart
sensors in virtually all product components processes by utilizing smart machines and
and equipment, ubiquitous cyberphysical transforming conventional manufacturing
systems, and analysis of all relevant data” systems in smart factories. Smart factories
[35]. In addition, Industry 4.0 is driven by allow the development of intelligent
the following four technological clusters; manufacturing environments throughout the
data, computational power and connectivity, entire value chain and they are the outcome
analytics and intelligence, human-machine of integration through digitalization, usage
of flexible and adaptive structures and
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strategies as well as of artificial intelligence intelligent manufacturing. IIoT, which is

methods [38]. used in the context of Industry 4.0, can be
considered to be a complex system of
4.1 Industry 4.0 Technologies diverse systems and devices. More
Industry 4.0 aims at enhancing and specifically, with a view of producing a
upgrading the current manufacturing system which functions more efficiently
facilities, management, maintenance than the sum of its parts, IIoT combines
systems and technologies to an intelligent several contemporary key technologies [41].
level by utilizing the key technologies such Through the use of appropriate services,
as IoT, Internet of Services (IoS), CPS, networking technologies, applications,
autonomous, flexible and cooperative sensors, software’s, middleware and storage
robotics, simulations that leverage real-time systems, IIoT provides solutions and
data and mirror real world into a virtual functions to develop insight and improve the
model, big data analytics, augmented reality potential and capability of monitoring and
(AR), additive manufacturing, information controlling enterprises processes and assets.
and communication technologies (ICT) and IIoT services and applications provide vital
advanced networking technologies e.g. solutions for more effective scheduling,
cloud computing etc. [39], [40]. Moreover, planning and controlling of manufacturing
it seeks to address the dynamic global operations and systems.
market and the competitive nature of today’s Additionally, through the various
industries in line with the continuously interconnected devices that are able to
changing customers and market needs. communicate and interact both with each
Horizontal and vertical system integration other and with more centralized controllers,
will also allow the capabilities, functions, IIoT will decentralize analytics and
departments and enterprises to be evolved in decision-making, thus rendering real-time
an interconnected network that enables an responses and reactions feasible. As a result,
automated value chain. Intelligent the overall availability and maintainability
manufacturing will pave the way for the of enterprises is enhanced, their operational
advancement of modern industry and efficiency is improved, productivity is
economy as it will apply cutting-edge accelerated, their product time-to-market is
technologies to various traditional products decreased by reducing unplanned downtime
and systems [40]. In an Industry 4.0 context, and their overall operational efficiency is
data collection, analysis and comprehension optimized. Thus, it increases the enormous
from many diverse sources, including potential for unprecedented levels of
production systems and equipment, as well economic growth and productivity
as customer management enterprise systems efficiency [42].
will become the norm to support decision
making in real time. Some of the key 2) Cyber-physical systems
technologies involved in Industry 4.0 are Cyber-physical technologies and
briefly described and analysed below: frameworks, also known as cyber-physical
systems (CPSs), have been increasingly
1) Industrial internet of things adopted in industry due to the significant
Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) is a technological advancements in the domains
specific category of IoT which focuses on its of computer science, ICT and manufacturing
applications in modern industries and [43]. Unlike traditional embedded systems,
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CPS-enabled systems contain “cyber twined the main benefits of cloud computing.
services such as control algorithms and Moreover, users and enterprises have
computational capacities” [40] along with prompt access to applications, programs and
specialized computational capabilities, services which are rapidly provisioned with
physical assets and networked interactions minimal management effort and are hosted
and involve a large number of trans in the “Cloud” at any time and from any
disciplinary methodologies. The CPSs place. Hence, enterprises in the industrial
concept facilitate an ecosystem of cyber domain use various cloud-based
manufacturing, where smart machines applications widely in order to enhance the
process production data through a wireless crucial for their effective function systems
embedded network system. Moreover, CPSs
such as Customer Relationship Management
are defined as transformative technologies
(CRM), Human Resource Management
that can seamlessly link the physical with
(HRM) etc. Furthermore, enterprises that
the virtual world through their advanced and
utilize cloud computing can avoid the
novel systems [44]. Hence, they are
designed and developed to have both complexity of owning and maintaining their
physical inputs and outputs so as to enable own Information
and enhance the interaction with humans Technology (IT) infrastructure and the up-
using innovative modalities [45]. front costs which can be accomplished by a
“pay-asyou-go” method allowing the
3) Cloud computing enterprises to start small and invest into
Cloud computing or simply “Cloud” plays a more resources if there is more service
leading role in enhancing and transforming demand [48]. Some further benefits and
the current industry as it is a kind of significant advantages include high
outsourcing that combines large numbers of availability and maintainability, consistent
computer servers and resources with a view accessibility to data and services from any
to offering computer programs, high-level connected device as well as reduced
services and resources on an on-demand or development cost and product time-to-
pay per-cycle basis in real time. market. Taking into consideration the
Cloud computing is “a set of networks continuously evolving nature, the numerous
enabled services, providing scalable, application domains and multiple benefits of
guaranteed, normally personalized, cloud computing, a lot of profits can be
inexpensive computing infrastructure on yielded in the industrial domain, thus, more
demand, which could be accessed in a and more enterprises of different sizes and
simple and pervasive way” [46]. Cloud types are rapidly adopting this advanced
computing is divided into three levels of technology with the aim of enhancing their
service offerings, namely Software as a capabilities and capacity at a minimum cost
Service (SaaS), Platform as a Service (PaaS) [49].
and Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) which
support different levels of virtualization and 4) Big data
management of the solution stack [47]. The The digitalization of everyday life through
use of advanced applications and services the adoption of smart devices and advanced
that dynamically scale with the increased technologies (e.g. IoT, Artificial
number of users is considered to be one of Intelligence (AI), Social Networks (SNS)
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etc.) has led to the increase of data sources 5. EMERGING APPLICATION OF IOT
and the diversity of digital content as well as IN INDUSTRY 4.0
data types, forms and structures [50]. Manufacturing comprises of a core
Consequently, an enormous volume of industrial component which has a vital
heterogeneous data, named big data, is impact on people’s livelihood and a nation’s
generated and increases exponentially on a economy. Additionally, it is one of the
daily basis. Volume, variety, veracity, largest and highly interconnected IoT
velocity and value are the key factors which markets and it involves a wide variety of
characterize and differentiate big data from operations, processes, services, products etc.
traditional data. Big data plays a key role in With the aim of enhancing the overall
industries and intelligent manufacturing as it production, productivity and product quality
can provide enterprises with numerous management (PQM) throughout the various
advantages, merits and benefits through stages of the lifecycle of products, IoT offers
various predictive and prescriptive insights. applications and services under the umbrella
Hence, enterprises, which want to remain of Industry 4.0 which includes advanced
competitive, should give priority to the monitoring and tracking, performance and
implementation and utilization of maintainability optimization and human
contemporary advanced analytical tools, machine interaction. Hence, it stands for a
techniques, methods and applications with reason that IoT can provide a lot of solutions
the aim of processing big data, gleaning for Industry 4.0 in the manufacturing
intelligence and retrieving the value of the domain which is characterized by its
vital data in each case. These tools are complexity and breadth of applications with
named big data analytics (BDA) and use its diverse CPSs and its manufacturing
parallel and analytic techniques to analyse operation management (MOM)
huge volume of diverse, rapidly methodologies [49]. Internet of things (IoT)
transforming data enabling, thus, the is a pervasive technology and now it has
collection, the process and the management numerous applications in every technology
of vital information and statistics [51]. By sector. The fourth industrial revolution has
far, the most effective way for enterprises to also been evolved through the connected
gain immense benefits over their technologies enabled by the IoT. In fact, IoT
competitors, optimize operations, enhance provide a connected framework for large
productivity, quality and efficiency and scale manufacturing and production which
reduce operational costs is to use all the is very efficient, fast, cost effective, and free
newly gained knowledge in order to from the traditional manufacturing faults. In
generate invaluable insights and improve Industry 4.0, IoT apprehends the basic
equipment service and maintainability. concept of intelligent manufacturing 4.0,
Nonetheless, in order to fully utilize big data also known as smart manufacturing that
and exploit all of its benefits, enterprises transform the overall dilemma of every
must change their decision-making culture sector, it uses Service-Oriented Architecture
and take into consideration that no matter (SOA) and is considered to be a novel
how much the potential of big data and manufacturing model that takes advantage
analytic tools increase, the need for human of and fully utilizes various advanced
insight should not be overlooked [52]. information and manufacturing techniques,
methodologies and technologies using IoT
[49]. It aims at fundamentally transforming
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traditional enterprises into intelligent ones maximize profits while simultaneously

so as to effectively respond to demand- minimizing possible cost and waste.
dynamic economies keyed on
“customers, partners and the public; 6. RESEARCH GAPS
enterprise performance and variability It is obvious that in the context of Industry
management; realtime integrated 4.0, IoT can enhance and transform the
computational materials engineering and current industries and yield a lot of benefits
rapid qualification, demanddriven supply due to its advanced technologies,
chain services; and broad-based workforce applications and services. It is also vital to
involvement” [53]. IoT enabled intelligent point out that IoT not only aims at
manufacturing 4.0 uses the combined transforming industries and increasing their
intelligence of people, processes and productivity but also adding value to the
machines so as to increase production, core purpose of enterprises and mitigating
product quality and productivity efficiency. the weaknesses caused by legacy systems.
It offers smart solutions for the detection and Hence, it should be compatible with existing
monitoring of potential damage, devices, systems and infrastructure and be
malfunctions and breakdowns. able to embed intelligence into them. As a
Moreover, it enhances control and result, enterprises that are undergoing digital
management, improves maintainability and transformation will be facilitated to adopt
availability and optimizes resource and implement IoT and exploit its numerous
management and sharing. Additionally, it benefits and solutions without having to
applies cutting-edge technologies to various directly invest in totally brand-new
traditional systems, services and products. equipment as cost might far outweigh the
As a result, it is obvious that IoT enables immediate benefits. Nonetheless, in order
intelligent manufacturing 4.0 has a drastic for Industry 4.0 to be fully implemented and
impact on the overall function and for IoT to be adopted and fully utilized by
economics state of enterprises and will pave industries and enterprises, a lot of challenges
the way for the advancement of modern and research gaps are addressed as shown in
industries. It aims at developing real-time, Table 1.
autonomous and human like intelligent
decision-making systems that reduce the Summary of Gap Analysis
S.No
need for human involvement and . Gap Category Domai Referenc
intervention. In order for this to be n e
Developmen
accomplished, artificial intelligence, t of smart
machine learning, genetic algorithms and devices,
Constructio
other advanced technologies, methodologies n of network
and techniques are also used. This fact environments
comprises a major distinguishing factor , Lack of Smart
Product [35],
digital digital
between IoT enabled intelligent 8 strategy in manufactu
i on [36],
Enginee [37],
manufacturing 4.0 and traditional line with -
ring [38].
manufacturing. Nonetheless, the goal of resource ring
scarcity as
both manufacturing domains remains the well as the
same, that is, to satisfy customers lack of
standards
requirements and market needs as well as and poor data
security
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 Availability, reliability, mobility and other

Many elaborate studies, which analyse vital QoS criteria
IoT challenges, integration and  Security, privacy and confidentiality of data
implementation problems and research gaps  Interoperability and scalability
involving standardization activities,  Fault tolerance and functionality safety
addressing and networking as well as  Management of operations,
security and privacy were analysed [12]. resources, energy and data
 Networking addressing and
Key IoT challenges involves interoperability identification
and standardization, data and information  Architecture, protocols and
confidentiality, encryption and privacy, standardization activities
naming and identity management, IoT
greening as well as object and network In addition to these, there are also many
security [15], communication and intricate studies, regarding vital challenges,
identification technologies, distributed integration and implementation problems
system technologies, intelligence and and open research issues of Industry 4.0.
emphasized security issues such as data Several challenges and fundamental issues
confidentiality and privacy and trust [16]. In in various sections that occur throughout the
addition to these, secure reprogrammable implementation of Industry 4.0 are
networks and privacy, energy efficient intelligent decision making and negotiation
sensing, architecture and protocols, mechanism, high speed industrial wireless
Geographic Information System (GIS) network (IWN) protocols, manufacturing
based visualization, data mining and cloud specific big data and its analytics, system
computing [17], object mobility, M2M modelling and analysis, cyber and property
communications, data management, security, modularized and flexible physical
network architecture and system design, artefacts and investment issues [46].
addressing, naming and traffic Moreover, some of science and technology
characterization and security [18], privacy challenges concerning the implementation
and data analytics, interoperability on of Industry 4.0 involves the development of
products and services as well as resources smart devices, the construction of network
and energy management are the most environments, big data analysis, processing
common open issues to be investigated [20]. and digital production, lack of digital
The management of fault tolerance, strategy in line with resource scarcity as well
functional safety, latency and scalability of as the lack of standards and poor data
data, mixed criticality and scalable as well security are regarded as the main obstacles
as secure real-time collaboration, data for the technological implementation of
management and mining, security and Industry 4.0 due of which some
privacy are also regarded as the main manufacturers and enterprises hesitate to
challenges which enterprises face in IoT implement Industry 4.0 due to these
development [22]. To sum up, based on the concerns [37]. These barriers instigate
above-mentioned studies, the most uncertainties about financial benefits, lack
significant and common IoT challenges and of strategies of coordinating across different
open research gaps which industries and organizational units, missing talent, skills
enterprises should be aware of are: and capabilities, hesitation to go through
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radical transformation and concerns implement new technological means,

regarding the thirdparty providers security. practices and methodologies and seek for
Some of the main concluded challenges in new innovative approaches to increase their
the implementation of Industry 4.0 are found productivity.
to be [31]:
The four broad types of innovation that
 Lack of courage to push through the radical enterprises mostly target at are; product
change needed for introducing Industry 4.0 innovation, process innovation, position
 Lack of necessary talents for making innovation and paradigm innovation.
Industry 4.0 happen Generally, innovations result in more
 Lack of a clear business case justifying changes such as manufacturing paradigm
investments in Industry 4.0 IT architecture shifts, progress in technologies, create new
 Difficulty in coordinating actions across opportunities and bring about new
different organizational units, such as challenges. In order for enterprises to sustain
research & development (R&D), IT, in the context of globalization, there is a
manufacturing, sales, and finance need to create new values and drive
departments, due to poor interaction innovation to achieve more competitive
between them success in their business, also the digital
 Uncertainty about insourcing versus transformation and the virtualization
outsourcing and lack of knowledge about process needs to be adapted. Moreover,
service providers innovations in the manufacturing process
 Concerns about cyber security when should be incorporated and integrate
involving third-party technology/software technological and managerial approaches so
as to strengthen overall competence.
and implementation providers
Industry 4.0 is a response to the newly
 Concerns about data ownership when
created challenges in a fastchanging and
working with third-party providers
evolving environment. It is regarded as a
 Challenges with integrating data from
highly integrated, digitalized, automated,
disparate sources to enable Industry 4.0
autonomous and efficient intelligent
applications.
manufacturing environment and it
constitutes a new level of organization and
7. DISCUSSION control throughout the entire value chains.
Technological advances and digitalization More specifically, it puts emphasis on the
of everyday life have led to the increase of development of smart factories and
rapidly changing customers’ needs and intelligent manufacturing and aims to deal
requirements. Simultaneously, the fierce with customers and market changing needs
competition which prevails in global and transform conventional industries into
markets has drastically risen. As a intelligent ones. Industry 4.0 combines the
consequence, the need for flexibility and powers of traditional industries with cutting
real time response to these changes is edge technologies e.g. IIoT, CPSs, cloud
becoming vital. Therefore, with a view to computing, big data and advanced data
fulfilling and satisfying these new demands, analytics etc. enabling physical assets to be
staying ahead of their competitors, integrated into intertwined digital and
enhancing their product and service quality physical processes. The main contribution to
and raising their profits, enterprises opt to the realization of Industry 4.0 was made by
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IoT. It allows people and “things” to be implement and adapt to Industry 4.0 and IoT
connected anytime, anywhere, with will reap many benefits and profits and will
anything and anyone ideally using any be able to stay ahead of market competition.
network and service. Additionally, IoT Nonetheless, IoT in Industy 4.0 are still at an
pursues to pervade our everyday early stage of development, adoption and
environment and its objects, linking the implementation, therefore there are still
physical to the digital world. IoT which is various open issues and challenges that need
regarded as a dynamic and global network of to be addressed.
uniquely addressable interconnected
“things” aims at implementing autonomous, 8. CONCLUSION
robust and secure connections. Moreover, IoT is an innovative and rapidly growing
IoT provides various applications, functions technology which offers various novel
and services in everyday life and in a wide applications, services and solutions and
range of markets and industries. By links the physical to the digital world. It also
implementing and adapting to Industry 4.0 allows people and “things” to be connected
and IoT technologies, unprecedented levels anytime, anywhere, with anything and with
of economic growth and productivity anyone ideally using any path/network and
efficiency can be achieved by enterprises, any service. Moreover, it improves the
such as: quality for the end-user community and our
lives in general and supports infrastructure
 Development of production systems and general-purpose operations. In addition,
which are characterized by interoperability, it aims at transforming the current industries
flexibility, adaptability, agility and into intelligent ones utilizing the dynamic
proactivity network of interconnected devices.
 Optimization and improvement of Enhancing their operation and functionality,
efficiency, speed and quality particularly in increasing their productivity and reducing
engineering, operation, administration and their costs and waste are some of the many
decision-making benefits and profits that enterprises can gain
 Enhancement of overall application, by using IoT. Moreover, enterprises that
services and system availability and fully adopt IoT in Industry 4.0 will be ahead
maintainability of their competitors, become more agile,
 Acceleration of productivity and adapt to the continuously changing market,
reduction of lead time resulting in create products of higher quality that satisfy
decreasing timeto-market customers’ needs and requirements.
 Facilitation of the adaptation to Moreover, in the context of Industry 4.0, IoT
individualized customer requirements and can be utilized in combination with other
market demands innovative technologies such as big data,
cloud computing, CPSs etc. in order to
IoT in Industry 4.0 can provide a enhance and transform the current
multitude of contemporary solutions, manufacturing systems into intelligent ones.
applications and services and can yield Industry 4.0 allows for machines to become
significant personal, professional and independent entities that are able to collect
economic opportunities. Hence, enterprises and analyse data and give advice upon it
and industries that are able to fully without requiring any human intervention as
it introduces self-maintainability, self-
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expectations and R&D challenges. and Communication (ISCC) (pp. 952-

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INVESTIGATION OF DEVIATIONS IN THIN-WALLS MACHINED BY THE

MILLING PROCESS IN THE AEROSPACE GRADE ALUMINUM

Muhammad Wasif1, Syed Amir Iqbal1, Naseem Ahmed1

1
Department of Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering, NED University of Engineering and
Technology, Karachi. Pakistan.

*
Corresponding author E-mail address: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
A research has been conducted to figure out the impact of cutting speed over the deviation in the
thin-walls machined in the aerospace grade Aluminum 6061-T6. In this research, an experimental
setup has been designed to machine the thin-walls (ribs) of thickness ranging from 1 mm to 3 mm.
CNC milling machine is used to machine the thin-walls precisely using a constant tool path,
including both roughing and finishing operations. Two workpieces of Aluminum 6061-T6 have
been prepared upon which milling operation has been applied with the different cutting speeds. It
has been found that the thinner walls exhibit higher deviation as the cutting speed is increased,
whereas, the thicker walls have lower deviation, if the cutting speed is increased. It contradicts the
hypothesis in the previous research that the deviation in the thin walls can be decreased by using
the high-speed machining in the metals. Hence this research outlines a unique characteristic of the
Aluminum 6061-T6 grade, which exhibits a different pattern of deviation in the thin-walls cut
through the milling process.
Keywords: milling, aerospace grade Aluminum, T6061-T6, thin-walls, deviation.

1. INTRODUCTION
To reduce the mass of vehicle’s components, geometries will be intended to perform at
thin-walled Aluminum alloy components are high cutting speeds due to advantages of
used in wide variety of applications in having high materials removal rates and
various industries, most notably in the good surface finish.
aviation/aerospace sector. The ratio of the Rejection of parts and rework may result in
height to the thickness of the milling wall is high cost and delayed time of response to the
a typical characteristic in thin-walled strategic and defense-based projects, such as
structures, which is 15:1 [1] Thin-walled rockets, satellites and other products.
parts of aerospace grade Aluminum 6061-T6 In this research, various factors would be
and 7071 series are being used in industry. explored which leads to high distortion
During the machining of thin-walled alloys, potential of thin-walled structures and
most of the material is removed, due to which address a few measures which may perhaps
excessive heat is generated, resulting in large lead to reduction in the predisposition of the
deformations in the thin-walls. This is one of thin-walled parts to deform. A limited
the major concerns of machining of such literature review is available regarding the
class of materials, that is its vulnerability to machining of thin-walled parts; however, the
deform because of nature of convoluted research articles were reviewed critically and
structure. The machining of intricate hence presented below.
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Due to ongoing advancements in the field of Based on the above literature review, it can
High-speed milling (HSM), currently be stated that the major challenge
available machine tools can accurately and encountered when machining of above
precisely process hard metals, difficult-to- components is distortion / bending,
cut materials, complicated 3D geometry, and dimensional error, surface finish, flatness,
micro/nano-features [2]. Schultz and parallelism, perpendicularity and clamping.
Moriwaki define the cutting speed for HSM To investigate the effects of controllables
of aluminum alloys in the range from 2500 to parameters of high-speed milling and the
10,000 m/min [3]. Izamshah et al. developed thin-wall thickness, comprehensive research
Finite Element Model to specifically predict has been conducted to explore the deflection
the distortions or displacements for in the thin-walls and the surface roughness.
machining thin-wall component made of By varying the controllable parameters, it has
Titanium [4]. Izamshah et al. experience the been found that the deflection and the
magnitude of wall deflection decreases as the roughness can be overcome.
value of tool’s helix angle increase [5]. Ding Hence the research article comprises of six
et al. conclude that higher cutting speed, sections, the first section presents the
smaller feed rates, and positive rack angles introduction, literature review and the
results in thinner deformation layers in problem statement of the work. The second
machined surface [6]. Using the carbide tool, section defines the design of research, the
Yang et al. accurately predict chattering and third section discusses the tool path planning
stability for peripheral milling of thin-walled for the machining, whereas the fourth section
Al 6061-T6 plate and workpiece with a outlines the measurement methodology of
curved surface. [7]. Sun et al. indicate that the sample workpieces through the CMM.
force-induced deformation has a significant The fifth section presents the discussion over
effect on chatter stability in milling thin-wall the measurements and analysis, and the final
parts [8]. Due to the low stiffness value, section concludes the research work.
Bolar and Joshi noticed increased deflection
at the free end during machining thin-wall 2. DESIGN OF EXPERIMENT
Al-7075-T6 as they expected during their There are three major controllable
simulation [9]. Kuczmaszewski et al. found parameters used for the machining, which
that Surface quality was low in the transverse are; spindle speed, feedrate and depth of cut,
rolling direction. In addition, the carbide tool among which spindle speed are considered to
produced higher roughness values than the be varied, whereas, the feedrate and depth of
PCD tool. They also noticed that the cut are kept constant for the machining in
maximum deflection was seen in the center Aluminum 6061-T6 alloy workpiece. The
of the workpiece, and high deflection was deflection in the thin-wall was measured
noted in the transverse rolling direction [10]. after the machining. The following table
Czyzycki et al. demonstrated that a high- presents the parameters to be set for the two
speed camera may be used to evaluate thin pieces to be cut with the levels.
wall deflections during milling, as evidenced The other parameters which remained
by comparisons to displacement unchanged during the experiments are
measurements using a laser sensor with an diameter of the tool, tool geometry, cutting
accuracy of up to 11% and modeling using condition (dry) and workpiece material (Al
the finite element approach with a 22 percent 6061-T6).
error [11].

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Table 1. Controllable process parameters

seven ribs on the CNC milling machine.
Parameter Levels Input parameters and their levels are already
Workpiece 1 Workpiece 2 shown in the 2. For the said experiments 3-
Feed Rate 1,000 1,000 Axis Vertical CNC Machining Center was
(mm/min) used. The machining of the workpiece of Al
Spindle Speed 2000 4000 6061-T6 is conducted using the generated
(r/min) tool path and is shown in Fig. 2. Two
Depth of Cut 0.1 0.1 workpieces were machined.
(mm)

Using the controllable parameters, seven

types of ribs are machines on the Al 6061-T6
workpiece of thickness 1mm, 1.25mm,
1.5mm, 1.75mm, 2mm, 2.5mm and 3mm.
The machining was performed in sequential
manner by applying roughing and finishing.
Fig. 1 shows the final geometry of the Al
6061-T6 workpiece.

Figure 2. Machining of thin walls

4. MEASUREMENTS AND ANALYSIS

Figure 1. Geometry of the workpiece To measure the deflection in the thin walls
cut by the milling process, the rib sections are
3. TOOL PATH AND MACHINING cut into the pieces through the lines shown in
The milling of the workpiece of Al 6061-T6 Fig. 2. Each piece is precisely labelled and
was applied on the roughing and finishing of using a marker, a grid of 3 x 3 has been
the thin walls. For roughing, step over is developed as shown in Fig. 3. A
considered 70 percent of tool diameters, scan Messprotokoll ZEISS Calypso coordinate
type is spiral, cut type is zig-zag. For measuring machine (CMM) has been used to
finishing operation, type of cut is “climb” is measure the deflection of the thin wall with
selected. Geometric and machining codes for respect to the base of the ribs. Here the
roughing and finishing for all 27 samples location of points 1 to 9 are measured
were generated using the CAM software. through the CMM. For each column of the
About 1000 mins were required to machine grid the base points are taken as the
the two workpieces of Al 6061-T6 with the reference, such as 7 in the first columns, and
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the locations of 1 and 4 are deducted from it. Points Thicknesses of Thin Walls
It provides the deviation of point 1 and 4 with 1.0 1.2 1.5 1.7 2.0 2.5 3.0
respect to the 7. Hence the same method is 0 5 0 5 0 0 0
1 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
applied on each of the three grids of the rib. 25 28 96 61 62 79 11
The procedure is applied to all the seven ribs 2 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
on both the workpieces of the Aluminum. 10 27 85 61 59 85 12
Hence a total of 144 points are measured 3 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
76 01 01 78 60 76 08
through the CMM. The deviation of the six
4 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0
points with respect to the three base points 98 17 14 73 69 84 18
are presented in Table 2 and 3 for both the Al 5 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.0
6061-T6 workpieces. The deviations of the 22 56 82 44 52 81 17
upper part of the rib (points 1-2-3) and the 6 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0
35 55 48 88 43 89 17
medium part of the rib (points 4-5-6) are also Mean 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.0
plotted against the thicknesses of each rib for Deviation 61 14 54 18 91 32 14
the two workpieces are shown in Fig. 4 and
Fig. 5. Table 3. Deviation of Point 1 – 6 for
Workpiece 2

Figure 3. Sample Machined Thin Walls

Points Thicknesses of Thin Walls

1.0 1.2 1.5 1.7 2.0 2.5 3.0
0 5 0 5 0 0 0
1 0.0 0.0 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0
80 02 85 38 78 23 37
2 0.1 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.0
43 38 18 56 56 90 33
3 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0
10 63 80 12 73 46 35
4 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.0 Figure 4. Deviation in Grid Points in
94 15 76 64 67 16 26 Workpiece 1
5 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.0 (a) Upper part of the Rib, (b) Middle Part
90 49 75 84 45 39 31 of the Rib
6 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0
88 68 27 04 62 52 30
Mean 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0
Devia 91 44 93 17 58 69 29
tion
Table 2. Deviation of Point 1 – 6 for
Workpiece 1

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workpieces 1 (cut with lower cutting speed)

is between 0.1 mm to 0.2 mm, and the
deviation in the workpiece 2 (cut with the
higher cutting speed) is within the 0.1 mm
range.
The factors which influence the deviation in
the thin walls are usually the temperature
generated during the machining, tool path
strategy, use of coolant and other ambient
factors. Whereas, in this research a unique
characteristics of the material Al 6061-T6
has been seen which totally changes the
hypothesis assumed by the previous research
for the metal machining. Hence, it can be
considered that the aerospace aluminum
grade Al 6061-T6, exhibits entirely different
characteristics as compared to the other
metals.

Figure 5. Deviation in Grid Points in 6. CONCLUSION

Workpiece 2 An experimental setup has been developed to
(a) Upper part of the Rib, (b) Middle Part investigate the unique characteristics of an
of the Rib aerospace grade Aluminum Al 6061-T6,
which shows the deviation in the thin-walls
5. DISCUSSION do not reduce with the increase in the cutting
In the previous research, it has been stated speed. Rather it is observed less in the
that the deflection in the thin walls can be workpieces, machined with the lower cutting
reduced by applying the higher cutting speed, speed. Though for the slightly thick walls
in contrast to this, higher deflection in the ranging from 1.75 mm to 3.00 mm, they
thin walls of thicknesses 1 mm and 1.25 mm show the same characteristics of lower
have been observed in the workpiece no. 2, deviations with the higher cutting speed.
which was machined with the higher spindle During this research, several other
speed. In workpiece no. 2, at points 1, 2, 3, 5 parameters are kept constant to solely
and 6, the deflection was between 0.1 mm observe the influence of the cutting speed
and 0.2 mm, whereas it was slightly less in over the deviation of the thin walls.
the point 5 (see Fig. 5a and 5b). Whereas in
Fig. 4a and 4b, it can be seen that for the 6. REFERENCES
same thicknesses, the deflection was [1] Balon, P., et al., High speed machining of
between 0.05 mm to 0.15 mm for the points the thin-walled aircraft constructions.
1 to 6. Hence it can be inferred that for the Mechanik, 2017. 90(8-9): p. 726-729.
thin-walls of aerospace Aluminum grade Al [2] M. Rahman, W.Z.-G.W.Y.-S., A review
6061-T6, the thin walls shows a different on high-speed machining of titanium
characteristics. alloys. JSME International Journal, 2006.
For the other thicknesses (1.5 mm to 3.0 49(1).
mm), the statement of the previous research
might be true, where the devotion in the

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[3] Schulz, H. and T. Moriwaki, High-speed induced deformation effect in milling

machining. CIRP annals, 1992. 41(2): p. thin-walled parts. International Journal of
637-643. Machine Tools and Manufacture, 2018.
[4] R. Izamshah R.A, J.P.T.M., Songlin [9] Bolar, G. and S. Joshi. 3D finite element
Ding, Finite Element Analysis of modeling of thin-wall machining of
Machining Thin-Wall Parts. Key aluminum 7075-T6 alloy. in 5th
Engineering Materials, 2011. 458: p. 283- International & 26th All India
288. Manufacturing Technology, Design and
[5] R. Izamshah, Y.M.Y., M. Hadzley, Research Conference. 2014.
Effects of End Mill Helix Angle on [10]
Accuracy for Machining Thin-Rib Kuczmaszewski, J., et al., Assessment of
Aerospace Component Applied the accuracy of high-speed machining of
Mechanics and Materials, 2013. 315: p. thin-walled EN AW-2024 aluminium
773-777. alloy elements using carbide milling
[6] Liqiang Ding, X.Z., C. Richard Liu, cutter and with PCD blades, in Advances
Dislocation Density and Grain Size in Manufacturing. 2018, Springer. p.
Evolution in the Machining of AI6061-T6 671-680.
Alloys. Journal of Manufacturing Science [11]
and Engineering, 2014. 136: p. 041020-1 Czyzycki, J., P. Twardowski, and N.
to 041020-10. Znojkiewicz, Analysis of the
[7] Yun Yang, W.-H.Z., Ying-Chao Ma, Min Displacement of Thin-Walled Workpiece
Wan, Chatter Prediction for the Using a High-Speed Camera during
Peripheral Milling of Thin-walled Peripheral Milling of Aluminum Alloys.
Workpieces with Curved Surfaces. Materials, 2021. 14(16): p. 4771.
International Journal of Machine Tools
and Manufacture, 2016.
[8] Yuwen Sun, S.J., Predictive modeling of
chatter stability considering force-

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DESIGN OF SOLAR WATER DESALINATION MACHINE WITH RO

AND UV PURIFIER

Muhammad Sarfraz Ali1*, Sadia Saleem2, Rozeena Aslam1,

Muhammad Imran1, Hamza Akhtar1, Muhammad Ali1, Danyal Anwar1,
Muhammad Saad1
1
Mechanical Engineering Department, Swedish College of Engineering &
Technology, Rahim Yar Khan, Pakistan
2
Institute of Computer Science and Information Technology, The Women
University, Multan, Pakistan

*Corresponding author. Tel.: +92-3458329528

E-mail address: [email protected] (Muhammad Sarfraz Ali)

ABSTRACT
In all ages of human beings, water performs a very vital function for everyone. As is well known,
contaminated water can lead to several potentially fatal diseases. Water-related problems plague
many nations worldwide, the majority of which lack access to potable water. We have seen that
many villages are experiencing power outages, and middle-class people and tiny communities are
unable to purchase a water filter. Conventional energy has a finite supply and negatively impacts
the environment. In this study work, we use an unconventional approach that uses a solar-powered
water purifier. We need to take the purifying process to the next level so that everyone can afford
it. Direct current is produced by the solar panel and is kept in a battery. The filtration mechanism
that this purifier uses to remove undesirable germs and debris from water is powered entirely by
solar energy. By driving a pump that pushes water through a purifier's network of filters, pumps,
and hoses, the motor's rotation aids in the removal of pollutants. The method we employed in this
purifier was using solar panels to power the motor that lifted the water.
Keywords: RO membrane, Pre filters, Purifier, Solar panel, Small scale

1. INTRODUCTION water-borne illnesses including cholera,

One of the most important resources in the diarrhoea, and typhoid caused roughly 2439
world is water. Thirty percent of Earth is land deaths and over 1.5 million cases of the
and seventy percent is water. Water is disease.
necessary for both human survival and A water resource must be both reasonably
animal well-being. The process of purifying priced and trustworthy. Many parts of the
water involves taking out unwanted nation have brackish, saline, or polluted
chemicals, biological pollutants, suspended water supplies. In the Rahim Yar Khan
particles, and gases. According to a survey district and the coastal regions of Karachi,
conducted by physicians, an average male salinity is a serious issue. The method for
and female should drink around 3.7 litres and purifying water that is already accessible is
2.7 litres of water respectively each day to called RO, and one of the conventional
maintain a healthy lifestyle [1]. In Pakistan, energy sources that may be used to power our
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system is sunshine [2]. The most reliable way stalks, and coarse particles, this kind of
to purify polluted water is RO filtration. The filtering is employed. A winnowing sieve is
RO system's semi-permeable membrane used to filter the contaminants out of the raw
removes excess minerals as well as other water. Since the sieve cannot filter small
soluble particles including bacteria, fungi, suspended particles in raw water, this
viruses, and algae. The device efficiently approach cannot be employed in extremely
removes particles as small as 0.0001 microns turbid or muddy conditions.
while turning the motor. In Pakistan, access
1.2 Filtration through cloth:
to clean drinking water is a big issue in both In the villages, the filter medium is made of
rural and urban areas [3]. There are several white, thin cotton fabric or old, abandoned
conventional techniques for purifying clothing. Uncooked water including particles
drinking water, including the use of chlorine of dust, germs, insects, plants, or mud detritus
pills, pots for good chlorination, slow and
can be removed using this filter. Only a
quicksand filters, and fluoride removal. limited amount of the suspended particles in
However, these techniques are more complex the water may be removed by this cleaning
to use and yield lower purity levels than RO. method. In Pakistani communities, the
In this study, we present a concept that uses a technique of cloth filtering is rather
solar panel to raise the water level in a tank widespread.
and supply power to a RO system for
purification [4]. In the event of an 1.3 Filtration through Clay
environmental issue or power outage, such as Vessels (Earthen Pot):
a flood or other disaster, the solar purifier's Occasionally, rather turbid water is filtered
battery stores energy, enabling the process to using clay jars with the proper particle size.
continue using solar power. It is a simple-to- Muddy water is collected in a large clay pot
assemble portable purifier that may be used or jar and let sit on the pot's lower surface,
in remote locations without electricity. This allowing the water to drip through the jar's
purifier operates without producing any porous clay wall. The trickling water is
pollutants [5]. combined in a clay pot by lowering it to the
Rural communities across the world have bottom of the porous clay container.
embraced basic, low-tech healing methods, Y. Zhang et al. [6] uses solar energy, which
with the specific goal of removing obvious is a free energy source, and stores it in
pollutants from water obtained from adjacent batteries. After that, the water is heated to a
resources. These conventional techniques are predetermined temperature (below boiling
quick and effective in eliminating some types points) using cheap heating coils. The
of particles from the water, but they don't filtering chalk allows the cold water to be
provide enough water to meet current further purified once it has condensed. At this
standards for drinking quality. This is a great point, the water returns to ambient
method for rural areas, and with a simple temperature by condensation. We can acquire
disinfection step, they can often provide pure drinking water using this procedure. We
water free of germs. There are several experienced nearly every phase of the
approaches. product development process, from obtaining
1.1 Filtration along Winnowing client requirements to completing the design.
Sieve M. Rizwan et al. [7] suggested that solar-
When the water source is contaminated by powered water filtration devices could be
airborne contaminants such as dried leaves, considered a significant way to generate
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clean water. Solar energy is now a stable solar panel, charge controller, battery, and
energy source that produces no pollution. A inverter make up the power supply. A booster
solar-powered water purification system's pump, a reverse osmosis system, and a
design is entirely based on the thermal control circuit with a sensor, microcontroller,
technique, which harnesses the sun's heat- and relays make up the purification unit. A
converting energy to create heat. The process booster pump generates high pressure to
of absorbing heat to cause water to evaporate complete the reverse osmosis process. The
is the most important component. According microprocessor monitors the water tank's
to research, liquids are often heated using flat level and stops it from overflowing. We may
plate collectors, which generate heat at get pure water in the water tank by employing
comparatively modest temperatures (27°C to this method.
60°C). A solar-powered water purification The fundamental idea of reverse osmosis.
system is made up of a filter that eliminates
Solar panels are used to capture solar
impurities and a solar collector that collects radiation. A battery is then used to store this
sunlight to guarantee vaporization, the initial energy. A relay that operates on
stage of purification. There are now four electromagnetic principles connects the
distinct concepts in development. battery to the purifying unit. The reverse
R. K. Kumawat et al. [8] revealed from their osmosis system, water tank, and high-
study that reverse osmosis affected water pressure motor make up the purification unit.
purification. Reverse osmosis technology Reverse osmosis may be performed because
using raw water has advanced significantly in of the pressure created by the high pressure.
the creation of high-yielding, energy- The 8051 microprocessor monitors the water
efficient systems. The main objectives for level in the tank and stops it from
this field of study turned out to be a decrease overflowing. We can receive clean water
in energy consumption, an extension of from the water tank through this technique.
membrane life, and an increase in energy
2. METHODOLOGY
recovery. The main goal of the study is to As indicated in Fig. 1. Filters, solar panels,
optimize the variables in the pre-treatment booster pumps, solar charge controllers,
process of various water sources (ponds, reverse osmosis membranes, and other
canals, and surface waters) for reverse components are the main parts of this
osmosis plants. This will extend the purifier. This purifier's operation is entirely
membrane life of the raw water by lowering reliant on solar panel electricity. Batteries are
its solids content. To guarantee the greatest used to store energy, which is obtained from
possible decrease in total solids as well as in solar power.
several chemical parameters (BOD, TDS,
and bacteria), experiments were conducted.
Raw
These characteristics were determined to be Water Filters Booster RO
Membrane
Pump
ideal for feeding the pretreatment effluent Tank

into the reverse osmosis section of the plant,

producing RO water that is safe for human Solar
Battery Purifier/Fresh Reject
consumption. Charge
Controller
Water Tank Water

R. M. Garud et al. [9] identified a purifying

method including reverse osmosis. The three
Solar
primary circuits in this system are the control, Panels
purification, and power supply circuits. The

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Figure 1. Block Diagram of System 3. COMPONENTS SPECIFICATIONS

The solar panel is composed of photovoltaic 3.1 Reverse Osmosis Membrane
cells, which convert solar radiation into The membrane is composed of three layers.
electrical energy. The energy from the panel All other kinds of particles are blocked from
is stored in batteries, and a solar charger entering the first layer by a polyamide sheet
controller controls the voltage and amperage that is 0.2 microns thick. Any nutrients,
the panel delivers to keep the batteries' load bacteria, chemicals, or viruses that are
from being overcharged. The power supply present in the water can be removed by the
then activates the filters and motor rotor, polysulfide layer. The cleansed water travels
which in turn causes the eccentric swing through the polyester foundation, which is
wheel to move eccentrically. The diaphragm the last. Following the purification process,
is driven by the water scaffold assembly, the clean and dirty water are separated. Table
which is made up of three cameras attached 1 shows the technical specifications of the
to the eccentric tread wheel, turning in RO plant.
reverse. The diaphragm of the RO booster
Characteristics Values
pump can continue to reproduce due to the
Voltage and Frequency 110V~220V
engine's continual spinning, which serves to
pump and increase the water once it enters. Wattage 23W - 36W
Inlet TDS < 500 ppm
The RO membrane can eliminate the bulk of
Chlorine Level < 0.2 ppm
pollutants by forcing the water through a
Pressure Tank 3.0G Plastic Tank
semi-permeable membrane, which eliminates
all water impurities. There are three layers in Flush Type Manual
the membrane. The first layer is composed of Table 1. Technical Specifications of RO
a 0.2-micron-thick polyamide sheet that Plant
excludes all other types of particles. The
The membrane is composed of three layers.
polysulfide layer can eliminate any nutrients,
All other kinds of particles are blocked from
bacteria, chemicals, or viruses that are
entering the first layer by a polyamide sheet
present in the water. The polyester
that is 0.2 microns thick. Any nutrients,
foundation, through which the cleaned water
bacteria, chemicals, or viruses that are
passes, is the final. Both the clean and the
present in the water can be removed by the
filthy water are separated after the
polysulfide layer. The cleansed water travels
purification procedure. Figure 2 shows the
through the polyester foundation, which is
design of the model.
the last. Following the purification process,
the clean and dirty water are separated.

Figure 2. Design of the Model

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Figure 3. Reverse Osmosis Process inches, or 1.7 square feet, which is similar to
A typical three-stage reverse osmosis system a standard medium-sized house mirror.
consists of three different kinds of filters. A
3.4 Solar Charger Controller
sediment filter is designed to capture bigger An electrical gadget called a solar charge
particles floating in water, such as rust and controller regulates the amount of electricity
mud. The carbon filter purges water of that the solar panel supplies to the battery.
VOCs, chlorine, and other minor impurities. This makes sure that energy is not
Reverse osmosis membrane that is semi- replenished during the day and that the solar
permeable and effectively eliminates almost panel receives electricity during the night to
all leftover impurities. prevent the deep cycle battery from being
depleted. While some charge controllers
come with other capabilities like load control
and illumination, power management is the
primary objective.
3.5 Storage Battery
It is a crucial component of the setup.
Seasonal variations in atmospheric
conditions result in variations in the intensity
of solar radiation. The impurity pump is
Figure 4. Inside of an RO Membrane shielded from overvoltage by the constant
Filter 12V voltage. It features a 12-volt output
3.2 Booster Pump voltage and a 5-amp output current.
Booster pumps are used to increase water 3.6 Sediment Filter
pressure. Usually, the osmotic pressure is Sand, grit, precipitated mineral particles,
higher. Purification requires that water flow insoluble iron oxide, and other debris are
from a high concentration to a low removed by the sediment cartridge, which
concentration. Therefore, to perform the prevents them from clogging the reverse
reverse osmosis process, the high- osmosis film surface or plugging the drain
concentration lateral pressure must be higher flow restrictor, which reduces the amount of
than the osmotic pressure. water produced. Sediment filters rated to
3.3 Solar Panel remove particles as small as 5 microns are
In this concept, solar energy is captured using used in the majority of RO systems. We
a solar panel. Photovoltaic cells are used to advise changing this filter at least once every
make solar panels. The power output is six months. It is necessary to change TINY
entirely dependent on the light's intensity. We RO sediment filters every three months.
are utilizing a 20-watt miniature solar panel 3.7 Carbon Filter
to charge a 12-volt battery that is exposed to City utilities disinfect drinking water to stop
sunlight. This portable solar panel is the growth of dangerous bacteria, viruses,
lightweight and has a wide range of uses. The and other microbes that can cause life-
panel is specifically made to charge tiny threatening diseases or even death.
batteries with a maximum capacity of 10,000 Nevertheless, over time, TFC films may
mAh or 10 Ah. The dimensions of little solar
degrade in these chlorinated water sources.
panels vary from 0.6 x 2.55 inches to 14 × 18
A basic chlorine level of 1.0 mg/L (1.0 ppm)
is required for water going through the plant
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by the majority of city water utilities. building's roof, and gravity distributes the
Extended TDS passage (less impurity water to the lower stories. Basement pumps
rejection) may be allowed by the RO feed the tank with water from the mains
membranes after 1000 ppm-long regions of system, and when the tank is empty, the
free chlorine openness. In addition to pumps start up again. In this sense, the tower
eliminating chlorine, the carbon filter shields serves as a reservoir and a supply of water.
the membrane underneath it.
4. DESIGN CALCULATIONS
3.8 UV Lamp
UV lamp: A UV lamp is typically used in 4.1 Design solar parameters
Ultra Violet disinfection. To create clean, The following are the primary panel designs
safe drinking water, a UV light is employed. that have an impact on collector panel
A strong UV light known as UV-C, or performance.
germicidal UV, is employed in this  Power for Application: The manifold
procedure. UV-C rays enter the body of the panel is directly impacted by the power
pathogens and assault them. The harmful needed for a certain application. In terms
organisms' DNA has been modified to of cost and received power, bigger panels
prevent growth and disease-causing have larger areas. This panel has an 18W
properties. UV treatment only adds energy to maximum power output.
the water; it makes no chemical changes. The angle of Latitude: To maximize solar
There is no removal of the sterilised bacteria energy absorption, the panel should be
from the water. These rays can render 99.9% kept at the angle of latitude. The angle
of the bacteria inactive. Unlike chemical between the earth's equator plane and the
disinfection, UV radiation does not cause live line connecting a specific place on its
things to build an immune system. surface to the equatorial centre is known
3.9 Flow Restrictor as the latitude of a certain location.
As the name suggests, a flow restrictor limits  Using the following method, the
the flow of RO reject water. The flow latitude angle is determined.
restrictor not only regulates the purifier's  Check off all three points. i.e.
recovery ratio but also generates back  The Equatorial plane lines.
pressure on the RO membrane to maintain  The Earth's centre.
high pressure within it, which is a  The location on a globe map
prerequisite for RO purification. The high- where the panel is to be created.
pressure water entering from the booster
 Join the location point with the earth
pump will flow freely from the RO
point.
membrane's reject exit if the flow restrictor is
 Determine the angle formed by the
not employed. Low pressure inside the RO
earth's centre point and the equatorial plane
membrane and increased water waste are the
line.
results of this. If the pressure inside the RO
membrane is not high, the membrane will not  Average Power Intensity: The average
function. power intensity for any locality is the unit
of power collected per day.
3.10 Water Tank
The primary purpose of a water tank is to 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑔𝑙𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 6.1 𝐾𝑊ℎ⁄𝑚2. 𝑑𝑎𝑦 (1)
hold water. Another name for it is the storage But,
tank. Water is stored in a tank on the 1 𝐾𝑊ℎ⁄𝑚2 = 3.6 𝑀𝐽⁄𝑚2
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 The angle of Incidence: It depends upon

𝐴𝑣𝑔. 𝑔𝑙𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 6.1 × 3.6 the time of day also the angle of sunrays
= 211.96 𝑀𝐽 ⁄𝑚2 makes the horizontal Surface measured
i.e, w.r.t,
(21.96 × 106 )⁄24 × 60 As the sun travels the angular distance of
= 15250 𝐽⁄𝑚2 . 𝑚𝑖𝑛 180° for 12 hrs. it travels at an angular
speed of 180/12 = 15°/hr.
15250⁄60 = 254 𝐽⁄𝑚2 . 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑈⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 1𝑊
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑣𝑔. 𝑔𝑙𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
= 254 𝑊 ⁄𝑚2
Sr. # Water quality parameter Units Permissible limits Results
1 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) (mg/L) 1000 55.0
2 pH - 6.5-8.5 7.44
3 Alkalinity (mg/J) NGVS 2.4
4 Total Hardness (mg/L) 500 36.0
5 Chloride (mg/L) 250 5.7
6 Calcium (mg/L) NGVS 11.2
7 Magnesium (mg/L) NGVS 1.9
8 Sodium (mg/L) NGVS 7.0

Table 2. Purified Water Properties

The ideal angle of incidence is the angle 𝐼𝑛 = 𝐼𝑏𝑛 × 𝐴 × cos ∅
which makes the sun at an angle of Latitude
(Q) & incidence = 90° 6 = 254 × 𝐴 × cos 70
𝐴𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 = 𝑄 = 20𝑜 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝐴 = 0.069066 𝑚
𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 90𝑜 − 20𝑜
= 70𝑜 Consider it a rectangular panel having a side
ratio of 1:3
4.2 Area of Collector
𝐼 2 = 0.069066
The collector's area mostly affects the power
that the collector produces. The following = 0.325𝑚 = 32.5
protocol is adhered to during the design
process. 𝐵 = 3 × 𝐼 = 47 𝑐𝑚

𝑖𝑛 = 𝑖𝑏𝑛 × 𝐴 × cos ∅ 𝑃𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 32.5 × 47

(2) = 1527.5𝑐𝑚2

Where, 4.3 Discharge of water

𝑖𝑛 = 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑑 The discharge of water can be calculated
from the continuity equation.
𝐴 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟.
𝑄 = Arae × Velocity
𝐼𝑏𝑛 = 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (3)
As the ideal angle of incidence is 70° Now,

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𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 0.01 × 0.01 = 0.0001𝑚𝑚2 6. CONCLUSIONS

(4) In situations when power supplies and water
Now find the velocity of water through the purification methods are not mapped, this
pipe, equipment is the most accessible and
𝐻𝑓 = practical for disinfecting water. Potable water
(4 × 𝑓 × 𝐿 × 𝑉 2 )⁄ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐⁄𝑠 × 2𝑔 is produced by the straightforward
(5) mechanism and integrated structure, which
Where, turns solar energy into a motor that runs on a
𝐻𝑓 = 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 schedule and helps filter out undesired
= 4𝑚 viruses, minerals, bacteria, and other
particles. It may be used somewhere there is
𝐹 = 𝑐𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 no power because it is cheap and uses solar
= 0.009 energy to purify copious water. In this day
and age, this may be a topic for further study.
𝐿 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒
There aren't any water purifiers of this kind
= 10.0584𝑚
available right now. Therefore, we think that
𝑉 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 if solar water purifiers are deployed
So, successfully and barriers are removed, they
4=
would be able to draw in customers from all
4 × 0.009 × 10.058 × 𝑉 2 ⁄0.00001 × 2 × 9.8 sectors of the metropolitan population.

𝑉 = 1.4721 𝑚⁄𝑠 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The Authors would like to thank the
𝑄 = 0.0001 × 1.4721 management of the Swedish College of
𝑄 = 0.000014721 𝑚3 ⁄𝑠 Engineering and Technology, Rahim Yar
Khan, for supporting this experimental study.
𝑄 = 0.01472 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒⁄𝑠
5. RESULTS
REFERENCES
The most readily available energy source—
[1] B. Benelam and L. Wyness, “Hydration
sunlight—was used to build the water
and health : a review,” pp. 3–25, 2010,
purification system. Sunlight is simply
doi: 10.1111/j.1467-
absorbed and stored using solar panels,
3010.2009.01795.x.
requiring no additional energy or power.
[2] S. G. Salinas-rodriguez, G. L. Amy, J. C.
However, the remaining components are
Schippers, and M. D. Kennedy, “The
working to move the process along via the
Modi fi ed Fouling Index Ultra fi ltration
motor and further filtering through several
constant fl ux for assessing particulate /
RO membranes and filter pumps, eliminating
colloidal fouling of RO systems,” vol.
not just undesired bacteria, viruses, and other
365, pp. 79–91, 2015, doi:
materials but also dirt, algae, and minerals. It
10.1016/j.desal.2015.02.018.
is more cost-effective and efficient to utilize
[3] S. Khalil and I. Introduction,
due to its design and simplicity of usage.
“RESEARCH NOTES DRINKING
Properties of the purified water are shown in
WATER QUALITY CHALLENGES
Table 2.
OF PAKISTAN Samina KHALIL* I.
Introduction,” vol. 23, no. 1, 2013.
[4] M. S. Atab, A. J. Smallbone, and A. P.
Roskilly, “A hybrid reverse osmosis /
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adsorption desalination plant for [7] M. Rizwan, S. Shaikh, and S. Labade,

irrigation and drinking water,” “A Review Paper on Electricity
Desalination, vol. 444, no. May, pp. 44– Generation from,” no. September 2017,
52, 2018, doi: 2018, doi: 10.22214/ijraset.2017.9272.
10.1016/j.desal.2018.07.008. [8] R. K. Kumawat, S. Agrawal, S.
[5] I. E. Imiete, N. V. Alekseeva, I. E. Chourasiya, and D. K. Palwalia, “A
Imiete, and N. V. Alekseeva, “Reverse Comparative Study of Power Inverter
osmosis purification : A case study of Topology and Control Structures for
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purification : A case study of the Niger 350–354, 2015, doi:
Delta region,” TITLE=Water Sci., vol. 10.17148/IARJSET.
32, no. 1, pp. 129–137, 2019, doi: [9] R. M. Garud, S. V Kore, V. S. Kore, and
10.1016/j.wsj.2018.04.001. G. S. Kulkarni, “A Short Review on
[6] Y. Zhang, M. Sivakumar, S. Yang, and Process and Applications of Reverse
K. Enever, “Application of solar energy Osmosis Abstract : 1 . 3 Reverse
in water treatment processes : A Osmosis Process Description : 1 . 2
review,” Desalination, vol. 428, no. Treatment options for Reverse
October 2017, pp. 116–145, 2018, doi: Osmosis :,” vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 233–238,
10.1016/j.desal.2017.11.020. 2011.

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AUTONOMOUS AND EFFECTIVE SOLUTION FOR CLEANING OF AIR

CONDITIONING DUCT
Syed Saad Farooq1,* Muhammad Abdur Rafay1, Muhammad Faizan Shah1
1
Institute of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering
Khwaja Fareed University of Engineering and Information Technology (KFUEIT) Rahim Yar
Khan Pakistan

*
Corresponding author E-mail address: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Closed and long air ventilation ducts (HVAC systems) become polluted by different contaminants
and particulate matters while functioning for larger period of time. Ventilation duct cleaning
process is difficult and expensive with manpower and usually takes a longer time. It can also
cause respiratory and other health problems for labor in cleaning and investigation. This paper
aims to propose an air duct cleaning robot (ADCR) for a duct which is low powered Arduino
operated and sensory based robust controlled system. It is an upgradation of some cleaning and
brushing mechanisms in terms of design. Further proposed design is being evaluated in terms of
effective suction and time taken analysis by robot is also done as validation for sustainable
solution. The work highlights mechanism as light, inexpensive and easily works in a closed
environment.

Keywords: Autonomous Vehicle, Dry Duct Cleaning, Arduino controlled Cleaning Robot
process, this paper suggests an autonomous
1. INTRODUCTION duct cleaning robot that is capable of
The purpose of an air duct ventilation system fulfilling the purpose of duct cleaning using
is to provide fresh air into confined spaces appropriate dry-cleaning method and
used in industries, subway stations, and required less manpower and cost effective
offices where people do work and spend most [6]. This method includes vacuum fans and
of their time [1]. This air duct system controls filters which suck the small particles from the
various air flows, i.e., exhaust air, outlet air, duct. Mechanical brush is used to displace
return air, and supply air. It consists of sticky particles. Sensor controlled movement
mechanical parts like dampers, filters, and air which senses the path of the duct and
terminals [2]. Filters have been installed performing turning action within the duct [7].
which will trap some dust particles initially, Arduino based circuit and two gear motors
but they cannot filter out all particulate matter used for the low RPM movement. Only
at the outlet of the air duct [3]. Therefore, horizontal surfaces can be cleaned from the
these dust particles accumulated at the inner duct. It can be made for vertical, round and
surface of ventilation system [4]. To provide other wall pressed cleaning robot. This type
clean and fresh air through these air of robot used in industrial HVAC system and
ventilation duct, it is mandatory to remove domestic level duct cleaning system to
these accumulated particles. Ventilation duct provide healthy and fresh air to the
cleaning process is difficult and sometimes environment [8]
need to replace with new duct which is The characterization of cleaning methods
expensive [5]. In the study of duct cleaning involves dry method and wet method. Both
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dry and wet method used for purpose of duct 2. CONSTRUCTION

cleaning. Dry cleaning method is mostly used The proposed design is based on dry cleaning
including mechanical brushing, compressed methods with vacuum cleaner and brushing
air cleaning and vacuuming, while wet system [12]. This work focuses on the
cleaning method includes water jet and capacity of the air duct cleaning robot for
chemical sterilizing which is less used efficiently cleaning inside the duct in the
because air duct is watertight. In order to absence of labour [13]. Some newly
clean advanced cleaning robots can be fitted with
directional air nozzles, sampling devices,
accumulated dust particles, vacuum cleaning spinning brushes, and whips, and spraying
and brushing is most effective and rapid and sanitizing solutions for several coatings [4].
convenient method as compared to wet The mobile robot consists of acrylic base
cleaning. [9]. body, two rubber wheels and one 3-D wheel
Annual accumulation for dust particles found for free motion, two DC gear motors are used
to be approximately 1 g/m2. It is noted that in to take motion back two wheels at specific
less than a year the average accumulation rate RPM [14]and provide required torque and
was 5.1g/m2 as compared to newly two DC motors inside suction fans [15]. The
constructed duct in which the dust level was design of each component of the robot was
maximum to 4.9 g/m2 [10], Normally if dust developed in SolidWorks Design Software as
level increases from 2-5 g/m2 in the duct shown in figure 2 and 3. This duct cleaning
system then the cleaning is inevitable. Many robot design is unique in its working and
other factors that interrupt the air flow in usability. This robot is upgraded in its
ventilation systems besides dust vacuum cleaning, brushing, working
concentration are e.g., humidity, surface mechanism and cleaning power capabilities
roughness, vortex of air flow [11]. The as compared to other cleaning methods as
problem lies as the duct is manually cleaned described in [16] and it had now been
by labour which is both the wastage of time observed on the basis of performance
and money. Corollary resulting in health evaluation criteria like dust collection and
concerns for the labour. The current work time analysis in this work. Powerful suction
endeavours to tackle the issue by establishing fans and a filter is used in vacuum cleaner to
a cleaning robot to clean dry ducts for make effective surface cleaning [17].
complex shapes and sizes.

Figure 2. ADCR Isometric view

Figure 1. ADCR path

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of brush is to remove the sticky dust (if any)

for effective cleaning.

3. CONTROLLER AND WORKING

This ADCR is being operated by Arduino
Figure 3. ADCR Top View Mega 2560.The requirement for the ADCR
controller is that it must contain at least 54 I /
The duct is 5x2x1 fts and 4 fts in length after O pins. Other specifications are shown in
the turn [18]. The duct is made of wood with appendix A. Six HC-SR04 Ultrasonic
its starting and closing paths open. Duct is distance measurement sensors, as shown in
designed according to ASTM F1005 – 91 the figure 4, are used to detect and avoid
Standard Rectangular Air Duct Sizes [19]. obstacles in the pathway. Four of them are
For the chassis of robot, poly-methyl- mounted on the front and four on the back.
methacrylate (PMMA), commonly known as Other specifications are mentioned in
acrylic, was used, owing to its lightweight appendix B. The Motor driver consists of the
and high strength characteristics [20]. The H-Bridge circuit. The H-Bridge circuit is a
size of the frame is 12 inch wide and 16 inch circuit used to control the rotation direction
long. The surface clearance of the frame is 5 of the engine. It consists of four switching
mm. components and a central motor. The
Robot dimensions are 12 x 16 x 12 inch and switching element can be transistors or
has a maximum speed of 281 rpms and a MOSFETs (metal-oxide-semiconductor
mass of 3.5 kg. This vacuum cleaner consists field-effect transistor) are H-like
of two suction fans, a dust collector, two configurations, hence the name. Two
pipes and a strainer. A 12 V, 3 cell, 5200 switches stay ON at a time to complete the
mAh Li-Po battery which is being used as an circuit while two others remain OFF. If the
voltage source that supplies electrical energy course is to be changed, the other two are set
to components such as sensors, vacuum to ON and the previous two are set to OFF. In
blowers, and motors. Air suction fan having this way, the path of the current from the
3000 rpm are installed on the rooftop of the motor is changed in order to reverse the
robot which suck the dust particles during motion of the piston.
brushing the duct [21]. The conduit is The robot is a four-wheel drive vehicle. Each
connected to the tube and the vent collector's of the four wheels is powered independently
door. In the suction mechanism, filters are by a DC gear motor. The independent engine
installed to collect the dust particles and to is powered by the H-Bridge connection. The
protect from fan’s choking. After one-time purpose of driving the wheel independently is
cleaning, the filter is cleaned for repeated to make it easier and efficient for the robot to
use[14]. One fan being operated on 12 volts operate the programmed circuit functioned
and draws 2.3 A of current [22]. Duct on Arduino. There are four proximity sensors
collector with two single-inch pipes on the periphery of the base that have been
connected to two fans independently. The installed to detect the clearance distance
scale of the suction fans is 90x90 mm and between the walls and the robot during
each fan has a suction capacity of 30 cfm. A movement.Other hardware calculations will
brush is attached on its front and its rotation be presented in its sub section ahead.
is followed by motion of robot. The purpose

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Figure 4. Process Methodology

3.1 Formulation of Suction Required 3.2 Power Required

Suction of fans is determined using Weight was found to be 3.5kg (Maximum
mathematical equations as shown in table 1 with Gear). The power required to rotate the
[23].While volume air wheels at a specific speed is found [21].
flow can be formulated from [21]. It is found Other necessary formulations are given
that the suction of one fan is 30.30 cfm and below.
hence accumulative will be 60.60 cfm for two
Design Formulation
suction fans.
Paramet
Design Formulation ers
Paramet Length 0.1476 ft
ers RPM 3000
Force m.a =3.5  0.375  1.31N Average L × RPM = 0.1476 × 3000 = 442.8 ft/min
Radius of r =0.102 m air speed
wheel Diameter d = 0.2952ft
Torque r  F = 0.102  1.31  0.1336Nm of fan
Velocity d 1.5 Area of d2 3.14  0.29522
  0.375m / s 
t 4 fan 4 4
RPM v  60 0.375  60
N=   70.25 Air flow Area x Average air speed= 0.068 x 442.8 = 30.30 cfm
r  0.102  3.14
Angular 2 N 2  3.14  70.25 of fan
  7.35
Velocity 60 60 Table 2. Calculations of gear motor
Power Angular Velocity×Torque =7.35×0.1336=0.981watt
To meet these above requirements, the
required selection of JGA25-370 DC Gear motor was
Table 1. Calculation of air flow of fan done and its specifications are represented in
appendix C at the end of paper.

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3.3 ADCR Speed Control The required response of the system is that
Calculations the distance covered by the Air Ventilation
In speed analysis, finding the theoretical Duct’s Cleaning Robot increases as the
speed of robot on duct using following current increases.
equations. As power can be found as [24]

P  T ( ) (1)
Then acceleration will be
T ( )
a
mv (2)
The time taken to reach the speed ‘v’ is

v 1
t dv
0 a (3)
v mv
t
v v
0
T (1  )
r r
Figure 5. Graph of Step Response of DC
(4)
T  t
Gear Motor
v(t )  v(1  e r mv ) (5) The closed-loop response yields a more
Where v=ω * r , precise and accurate simulation when
Given data, t=1 sec, ω= 15.7rad/s, motor compared with the open-loop response. The
torque=T= 0.04 Nm, Radius of tire= r = 0.045 transfer function in case of the closed-loop is
m, Mass of robot = 3.5 kg, inserting values in given as:
equation (5), the speed of robot V
(theoretical) was found to be 0.213 m/s. It is 0.044
meant that robot cover 0.213-meter distance 9.45e5 s 2  6.5e2 s  0.1319 (8)
in 1 sec. Experimentally V(actual) was found
to be 0.186 m/s, hence efficiency of robot 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
speed will be [25]
η=
Actual Speed
 100
4.1 Performance Evaluation On The
Theoretical speed Basis Of Dust Collection
(6) Suction is tested on duct prototype of (8 *1 *
0.186 2) feet (length * height * width) in dimension.
η=  100
0.213 Table 1 summarized the results before and
η=87.32%
after cleaning. A common vacuum cleaner
This is efficiency of air duct cleaning robot operate at the range of 50-100 cfm and this
and it is appropriate speed for dust collection. ADCR has vacuum suction of 60 cfm [22]. It
For a 1-radian step reference, following is in the range of other vacuum cleaner and it
controlled states are given below [26] can clean all dust particles inside the duct in
 Settling time smaller than 0.040 seconds one forward movement [18]. Performance of
 Overshoot smaller than 16% this suction was also verified by dust
 Steady-state error is zero. collection evaluation which concludes the
The open loop response of the system is
shown below in the figure. This response is
generated in MATLAB®.
0.044
9.45e s  6.5e 2 s
5 2
(7)
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better suction for the sampled atmosphere. It

can be seen from the figure 6 ,7, the duct
collection process.

Figure 6. ADCR before Cleaning Figure 7. ADCR after Cleaning

Test No.1 Test No.2

Dust Weight (g) before Dust Percentage Before After in Percentage Overall dust
operation Weight (g) Dust in duct duct Dust removed
After in Reduction Reduction (%)
duct (%) (%)
4.11 0.7 82.9 0.7 0.6 14.28 85.40

The purpose was to get maximum cleaned It was addressed and claimed in [28] that
surface. Two tests were carried out average one-time duct cleaning cost by
simultaneously. Dust particles collected has applying labour is $200 which is very
net approximate weight of 4.11g which then expensive while air duct cleaning robot
undergoes cleaning operation. Finally in (ADCR) manufacturing cost is $180 only and
comparison of percentage dust reduction of this is one time cost and the cleaning function
dust particles was found to be 82.9%. ADCR can be performed multiple times.
is put again in duct for second test. Dust
collection is reduced, it was due to some 4.2 Time Consumption Analysis
sticky particles. It is evident that percentage ADCR moves with different velocities at
dust collection will be further reduced for different points. By using standard deviation
further tests and it may become steady. of all working velocities of robot. At these
Overall efficiency from the beginning of optimum velocities, the time taken by robot
operation is 85.40 % hence suction is proven for one operation/test is calculated below.
appropriate and sufficient for the sampled Initial speed = v1= 0.213 m/s
duct. In that way, the system may be Speed while dust collection in process = v2 =
enhanced to more complex duct and 0.186 m/s
dimensions. Speed at turn = v3 =0.160 m/s
The environmental benefit of Air Ventilation Speed where dust will maximum = v4 =
Duct’s Cleaning Robot is that it creates a 0.174 m/s
cleaner living environment by reducing
allergies and irritants which help everyone to (v-μ) 2
breathe easier and improve air flow Standard deviation = S.D=
N (9)
efficiency [27].

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Mean=μ=
v1 +v 2 +v3 +v 4 These performance criteria’s lead the way
4 (10) towards the effective and reliable design
Mean=μ=0.1832m/s solution. The consideration of environment
Standard deviation = S.D = 0.0194 and social benefits in second paragraph of
section 4.1 has enhanced its advantages to
Vmini = 0.1636 m/s, Vmax = 0.202 m/s and
local community and has concluded the
size of duct prototype = 2.74 m strategy to be viable in future.
At minimum velocity:
𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖 = 16.7 𝑠 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
At maximum velocity: Moral support of Research mates, guidance
𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 13.5 𝑠 by the supervisor and research environment
of KFUEIT is acknowledged.
As velocities in the duct is varying Appendix A
throughout the duct. The time has been
calculated and can have any value between Operating Voltage 5V
the ranges of 13.5 to 16.7 seconds. Input Voltage
7-12V
(recommended):
5. CONCLUSION AND Input Voltage (limit) 6-20V
RECOMMENDATIONS
54 (of which 15
If a duct is being cleaned by labour, the dust Digital I/O Pins provide PWM
contaminants like asbestos can produce
output)
health hazards like lung scarring and fibrosis
which in later stages can cause cancer. Most Analog Input Pins 16
of the cases, irritating particles can produce DC Current per I/O Pin 20 mA
disfunctioning of mucous membranes of the DC Current for 3.3V
50 mA
nose and throat. Though covering of face by Pin
mask can reduce the risk but still the particles 256 KB of which 8
can attach to PPE if safety measures had not Flash Memory KB used by
taken during cleaning. It also can cause
bootloader
chronic pulmonary disease like emphysema
and bronchitis. In order to facilitate the SRAM 8 KB
cleaning of duct, an autonomous air duct EEPROM 4 KB
cleaning robot (ADCR) is designed, which Clock Speed 16 MHz
consists of sensory based integration of parts. LED_BUILTIN 13
This autonomous strategy can reduce human Length 101.52 mm
effort. The ADCR dust collection and time
Width 53.3 mm
taken analysis of mechanism is the necessary
performance evaluation criteria which is an Weight 37 g
additional ingredient to the previous work. Table 4. Microcontroller ATmega2560
Amount of dust is significantly reduced to 85 Specifications
percent in second test. Multiple tests can be
performed in order to increase the percentage Appendix B
dust collected. It has been noticed that one
operation/test can take up to approximately
16.7 seconds. Time taken by mechanism to
complete one operation/test was performed.
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Voltage DC 5V
Static current Less than 2mA
Level output High-5V
Level output The end of 0V Duct Cleaning Robot 1,” vol. 7, pp.
Sensor angle 15 degrees 26–32, 2014.
Detection distance 2cm-450cm [5] P. Gloriani, N. Rahman, and D.
High precision Up to 0.3 cm Caldwell, “ScienceDirect
Connection VCC, trig(control ScienceDirect ScienceDirect models
side), for capacity in Industry Novel
echo(receiving Integrated Robotic System for Tiny
end), GND Duct Inspection,” Procedia Manuf.,
Table 5. Specification of Ultrasonic vol. 17, pp. 342–349, 2018.
Sensor [6] S. G. Faal, “Design and Analysis of a
Robotic Duct Cleaning System,” 2011.
Appendix C [7] R. Seals, “Mobile robotics,” Electron.
Power, vol. 30, no. 7, p. 543, 2010.
Operating voltage Between 3 V and 9 [8] A. Bulgakov and D. Sayfeddine, “Air
V Conditioning Ducts Inspection and
Nominal voltage 6V Cleaning Using Telerobotics,”
The free-run speed 281 RPM Procedia Eng., vol. 164, no. June, pp.
at 6 V 121–126, 2016.
Free-run current at 6 80 mA [9] W. Jeong, S. W. Jeon, D. Park, and S.
V B. Kwon, “Force control of a duct
Stall current at 6V 900 mA cleaning robot brush using a
Stall torque at 6V 4 kg.cm compliance device,” ICINCO 2012 -
Gear ratio 1:21 Proc. 9th Int. Conf. Informatics
Weight 84 g Control. Autom. Robot., vol. 2, pp.
Table 6. Specifications of JGA25-370 DC 372–376, 2012.
Gear motor [10] I. Survey and I. Survey, “CHAPTER
2,” no. 1992, pp. 9–21, 1997.
REFERENCES [11] D. Version, “Removal of Particles
from the Supply Air of Ventilation
[1] W. Wu, H. Skye, and P. Domanski,
Systems Avoiding the Formation of
“Selecting HVAC Systems to Achieve
Sensory Pollution Source Delivery of
Comfortable and Cost-effective
Clean Air to Building Occupants D o c
Residential Net-Zero Energy
t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n,” 2008.
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[12] M. A. Koledoye, “Design of a Mobile
577–591, Feb. 2018.
Robot for Air Duct Exploration,”
[2] J. Shim and R. C. Arkin, “Robot
2017.
Deception and Squirrel Behavior: A
[13] P. Shukla, “Design of Inspection and
Case Study in Bio-inspired Robotics,”
Cleaning Robot,” Int. J. Sci. Res. Eng.
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[3] CDC, “Appendix B : HVAC Systems
2014.
and Indoor Air Quality,” Cdc, 2014.
[14] W. Ya and Z. Jianhua, “Autonomous
[4] W. Jeong and S. Researcher,
Air Duct Cleaning Robot System,”
“Performance Analysis of a Mobile
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undefined, vol. 1, pp. 510–513, 2006. Adv. Mech. Eng., vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 1–
[15] G. Mester, “Applications of Mobile 9, 2018.
Robots Unmanned Autonomous [25] M. S. Essers and T. H. J. Vaneker,
Systems View project Self-Driving “Developing concepts for improved
Cars View project,” 2006. efficiency of robot work preparation,”
[16] W. Jeong, S. W. Jeon, and D. Park, Procedia CIRP, vol. 7, pp. 515–520,
“Operational effects of a mobile robot 2013.
system for cleaning ventilation ducts,” [26] A. S. Semenov, V. M. Khubieva, and
ACM Int. Conf. Proceeding Ser., Y. S. Kharitonov, “Mathematical
2013. modeling of static and dynamic modes
[17] S. Pedre, M. Nitsche, and F. Pessacg, DC motors in software package
“Design of a Multi-purpose Low-Cost MATLAB,” 2018 Int. Russ. Autom.
Mobile Robot for Research and Conf. RusAutoCon 2018, pp. 1–5,
Education Design of a multi-purpose 2018.
low-cost mobile robot for research and [27] “DOHS Fact Sheet on HVAC Duct
education,” no. September, 2014. Cleaning DOHS Fact Sheet on HVAC
[18] Z. Bhuiyan, Design analysis of Dust Duct Cleaning,” vol. 04, no. 301, pp.
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[19] “ASTM F1005 - 91(2013) Standard [28] “2020 Air Duct Cleaning Costs | Clean
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[21] V. Gajbhiye, N. Ahmad, and M. S.
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[22] A. Viegand Maagøe and B. V. Van
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optimization of energy efficiency for
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independent drive in-wheel motors,”

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PREDICTION & COMPARISON OF OPTIMAL MACHINING

PARAMETERS OF ALUMINIUM ALLOY Al5454 BY WIRECUT
ELECTRICAL DISCHARGE MACHINE USING STATISTICAL METHOD
AND MACHINE LEARNING ALGORITHM

Maria Iruj1, Anis Fatima1, Muhammad Wasif1, Muhammad Tufail1

1
Department of Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering, NED University of Engineering and
Technology, Karachi. Pakistan.

*
Corresponding author E-mail address: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Aluminum and its alloys are widely adopted material in industries like aviation and avionics
because of its durability and strength as compared to their inherited lightness. These industries
require extreme precision for which nontraditional machining processes are employed. Wirecut
electrical discharge machining (WEDM) is one of the commonly used technique which gives
satisfactory results of required accuracy and precision. It is a complex process for optimization,
because of the involvement of multiple input and output variables. This research aims to optimize
the WEDM for aluminum targeting four major output variables, i.e. material removal rate (MMR),
surface roughness (SR), wire wear rate (WW) and kerf width (KW) on different sets of input
variables, namely cutting angle, pulse on-time (POT) and current. By using actual experimental
machining data, Response Surface Methodology (RSM) and Artificial Neural network (ANN) are
employed and compared, based on root mean square error, and coefficient of determination. The
results declare that both RSM & ANN give accurate results and can be used as a reliable means
for predictions, but ANN gives a little improved prediction than RSM.
Keywords: Wirecut Electric Discharge Machining (WEDM), Artificial Neural Network (ANN),
Response Surface Methodology (RSM), Root Mean Square Error (RMSE), Regression Value
(R2).
1. INTRODUCTION
In recent years, aluminum and aluminum better resistance to high temperatures, a not
alloys have been widely used in the least, a controlled coefficient of thermal
automotive industry. Their prominent expansion.[1]. For their precise machining,
properties include low density, have good electrical discharge machining (EDM) and
formability and formability, high resistance wire EDM are widely used methods
to corrosion, and high electrical and thermal worldwide. EDM, which is the most widely
conductivity. Due to their excellent used non-traditional material exclusion
combination of mechanical, physical and processes, is a non-conventional, non-
tribological properties compared to base contact type machining processes, where the
alloys, aluminum alloys are of enormous material is detached with the help of
industrial importance. These properties stimulated frequency sparks generated
include high specific strength, high between the tool and work piece [2]. Due to
resistance to wear and seizure, high stiffness, the absence of physical contact of tool and

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work piece, this process can be used for any material removal rate (or sometimes the
type of material regardless of their hardness, cutting speed), surface finish and kerf
provided the material is electrically (cutting width), and wire wear are considered
conductive [3,4]. Its prominent feature is the as the prime variables to start with. The same
use of thermal energy to machine electrically are being considered in this research.
conductive parts irrespective of their The process to determine an optimum model
hardness, which proves to be its typical for a sustainable WEDM process requires
advantage in the manufacturing of different thorough knowledge of this process,
dies & molds and specifically to bring empirical equations based on realistic
innovation in the automotive, aerospace and constraints as well different mathematical
surgical components. The process is based optimization techniques [9]. The
interesting to study with having different selection of optimal combination of
variables to evaluate, which include a long parameters for the process is the job of the
list of electrical as well non-electrical process planner who incorporates his
parameters that have great potential for a experience to the model to get the sustainable
substantial amount of research. The optimum solution of the process. The experience is
selection of the EDM process parameters is achieved by experimentation which is a
critically important to obtain an energy and costly, time consuming and tedious approach
material efficient process design. Numerous for sustainability [10]. When we talk about
researchers carried out several investigations the real-life support for the EDM process in
for refining the process performance, and terms of sustainability, low energy
have been brining optimal solutions for many consumption and better productivity, the
of the process parameters and variables manufacturer must be provided with
[[5,6,7] workable mathematical models. The most
From the list of all parameters and variables common practice to get a sustainable
EDM offers, machining parameters comes in working model for WEDM is to employ the
first place by playing a crucial role in theoretical or empirical based models, which
achieving high precision or high tolerance are never up to the mark for obvious reasons
machining with the required quality of the [11]. The empirical models have been
other output responses[8] .The selection of formulated on the basis of specific, limited
machining parameters is critical, as altering experimental setups, for example the type of
one parameter may disturb the optimization objective function, constraints (linear,
model for this process.. Hence, there is an nonlinear) number and nature of variables
actual justification for the ongoing used (integer, continuous etc.), solution
experimentation and research that is striving space size, solution space structure (convex,
to support and generate a systematic non-convex etc.), are too not predictive and
mathematical approach supported by supportive of the actual WEDM process
artificial intelligence to obtain the optimum [11,12,13,14] Hence, the latest trends in
combination of multiple inputs and output research goes with incorporating the concept
parameters for different work piece and wire of machine learning and artificial
materials, in order to get better overall intelligence for the optimization modelling
optimum machining performance and of WEDM.
process efficiency in WEDM process. On Machine learning is becoming an
discussing the overall process efficiency, the increasingly popular concept in the modern
parameters with highest level of importance world since its common goal is to optimize
in terms of performance trials in WEDM, systems by allowing one to make smarter use
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of products and services. In the Marquardt Algorithm. Various statistic

manufacturing industry machine learning based measures are used to check for the net
can lead to cost savings, time savings, error, among which Mean Absolute
increased quality, and waste reduction. [15] Percentage Error (MAPE), Mean square
At the same time, it enables systems to be error ( MSE), Regression values ( R or R2),
designed for managing human behavior. and maximum or average relative error are
Machine learning is the concept of enabling the commonly used ones [18]. To skip this
the computer to take out decisions without phase of validation, the Bayesian
being explicitly programmed. Here the regularization can be adopted during the
systems are trained on some of the training stage [19]. Different possible NNs
predefined algorithm, are trained to sparse are being used in machine learning, where
from those algorithms, learn from them, and feed-forward NN (FFNN) and back-
take decisions on the basis of inference and propagation NN (BPNN) are the most
pattern of the data. The latest research trend frequently adopted ones [20]. Response
is focused on the incorporation of machine surface methodology (RSM) is a statistical
learning with the existing manufacturing method for used for planning the
practices to achieve optimized production experiments, constructing related models
systems. [15] and assessing the inter relationship of input
Neural Network, more commonly termed as parameters on responses, and is a commonly
Artificial neuro network or ANN, is the used tool for optimization of processes (21)
extensively applied model for corelating the It generates experimental patterns by
complex, non-linear behavior of many approaching the factual efficient association
machining models, especially in WEDM between the conditional variable(s), i.e. the
[16]. an algorithm derived from the response surface and a set of investigational
biological pattern of human brain, in which factors which are provided to the system as
neurons are responsible for sending and input, or self-governing variables. Both
receiving signals and eventually taking ANN and RSM are the convenient
decisions as what to do when a particular techniques for prediction of different process
event happens. In machine learning, a neural parameters, and are commonly used in many
network is used where there is a non-linear non-traditional machining processes across
relationship between the input and output the globe, including WEDM by researchers.
layer. The layers are categorized as an input K. P. Somashekhar et. al [22] worked on
layer, a hidden layer, and an output layer. optimizing the WEDM process by focusing
The layers are having their levels of on MRR and employed the feed forward
weightage and biasness and utilize the basic artificial neuro network to model the
mathematical functions, like linear activation machining process. He even proceeded the
function, sigmoid activation function, optimization by AI in micro WEDM and
tangent hyperbolic activation function, targeted the MRR as the response variable.
hyperbolic tangent sigmoid activation The feed forward ANN with back
function, logistic activation function etc. propagation algorithm was used to obtain a
[17]. The sequence for development and higher MRR The theoretical models have
application of ANN starts with training, then been developed on the basis of the mandatory
the algorithm validation and ending with the laws and have assumptions to avoid the
testing. There are various training algorithms complications, which obviously doesn’t
like Conjugate Gradient Descent (CGD), support the actual process. M.A.M. Zakaria
Bayesian Inference (BI), Levenberg et. al [23] also worked on WEDM
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sustainability in terms of MRR and surface research on WEDM focusing of MRR and
roughness. Their research employed ANN as surface roughness only, and used water based
the modeling tool and found the results di electric which offers greater difficulty in
satisfactory. To overcome the unpredictive understanding the cutting parameters of
support of WEDM optimization models, the WEDM. Their results provided a good
latest trend of research goes into utilizing the prediction when it produced the average
artificial intelligence techniques because of relative error of 0.27% and 0.67% in MRR
their ability to overcome the non-linearity and surface roughness respectively.
between the input parameters and output D. Devarasiddappa et. al [31] developed an
response, and to effectively handle the ANN based model by using Box Behnken
incomplete data and encountering the experimental design for the prediction of
multiple variables. [24,25,26]. surface roughness of aerospace alloy Inconel
As discussed in the initial paragraphs above, 825 against few of the input parameters and
the popular empirical optimization the developed model showed an accuracy of
techniques have been employed are 93.62% with an average error of 6.38%.
Response surface methodology (RSM) and Girish Kant et. al [32] used SVR (support
Taguchi method, which are extensively used vector regression) model along with the
in modelling the process parameters with ANN (artificial neuro network) to evaluate
respect of optimization and sustainability the WEDM process for the optimal
[27,28,29,30]. All of these approaches target prediction of energy consumed in the
towards the optimization of the overall machining process An investigation on
process but are unable to provide a generic WEDM is also carried out by using neuro-
approach for the optimization problem while fuzzy inference system to get sustainable
having different sets of variables types, model which supports higher productivity by
objectives and constraints. Research shows focusing on the overall quality of the
that employment of artificial intelligence- machined product and less heat-affected
based models brings up to three times more zone [33]. A Conde [34] declares that the
accurate results than the one achieved by the prediction of the machined part accuracy of
statistical methods and hence are the ultimate WEDM process is too, highly unpredictive in
options to work on the sustainability based nature, and there have been very little efforts
parametric model for WEDM. Shandilya et in getting it modelled due to many of the
al. [26] observed this support in making phenomena involved in the WEDM process
energy focused model by employing AI which are not clear yet. He has presented an
techniques while machining of composites AI model based on Elman-based Layer
with WEDM. Devarasiddappa et al. [27] Recurrent Neural Network which supports
supports the same idea as he observed the the accuracy of machined part by WEDM,
values of surface roughness while machining based on the wear rate of tool wire. His
the aerospace alloys and employing AI model reduced the average deviation of the
techniques and getting the level of accuracy machined parts due to wire deformation by
as high as 93.62%. He also urged the 80%. Sandeep Kumar et.[35] al
researchers to further develop an ONLINE experimented on WEDM by using the
SYSTEMS based on artificial intelligence by titanium super alloy Ti–6Al–4V and
probably using ANN technique. employed the ANFIS (adapted neuro fuzzy
Muthukrishnasen and Davim [28] states that inference system) model and investigated the
ANN offers higher potential for predicting effect on MRR and surface roughness of the
non experimental patterns. They carried their machined product. Deepak Kumar et. al [36]
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also derived a model for higher MRR by the 2. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

WEDM process by using the feed forward For investigating the impact of the selected
ANN method based on the Levenberg- three process parameters for four of the
Marquardt back propagation. The AI output responses, we need a considerable
techniques namely SVM (support vector number of experiments. Using the RSM
machines) along with GP (Gaussian process) methodology, however, we can significantly
and ANN to evaluate the WEDM reduce the amount of experimentation
characteristics while machining the required, while not compromising on the
Nimonic-90 super alloy, extensively used in effects of factors as well as their interaction.
aerospace industry, while focusing on the The quantitative form by RSM is shown in
surface roughness values of the machined equation 1, showing relationship between
part [37]. Yen et. al [38] worked with Inconel input and output variables [44].
718 on WEDM and adopted ANN for
multivariable optimization. Cascade forward y= f (x1, x2, …, xk) + ε (1)
back propagation neural network (CFNN)
was employed and there was 5.16% error. where “f” is the response function of
They also worked on Ti–48Al intermetallic controllable input parameters x1,, x2, ,…xk,
alloys with ANN supported by multi and “y” is the dependent output parameter
objective genetic algorithm (multi GA) [39]. and ε represents the statistical error.
The results yielded optimized solution for
few of the input and output response Y=
variables of the WEDM system. βo+∑𝑛𝑖=1 β1 Xi+∑𝑛𝑖=1 β𝑛 𝑋𝑖 2 + ∑𝑛𝑖<𝑗 β𝑖𝐽 𝑋𝑖𝑗𝑋𝑖𝑋𝑗 +
Numerous procedures are accessible to ℇ (2)
define the basics of a RSM model. RSM and
design of experiments (DOE) technique is Equation (2) is a lower order polynomial
governed by the Box-Behnken design. For equation for the true output-input
instances, CCD (central composite design) relationship, where the unknown constants
and full factorial design [40] are dominated β’s are estimated by regression analysis.
to enforce trials in a fashion that the
correlation impact between all the factors 2.1 Experimental Setup
significantly be recognized with minimal Fig 1 shows the CHMER CW-43CF CNC
number of tests. ANOVA is a kind of EDM wire cut resent at the department of
analysis applies to accomplish further to industrial & manufacturing engineering,
evaluate the range of impact among NED University, with a machining envelope
numerous factors as well as the connections of 500 mm × 350 mm × 200 mm along its x,
between them [41]. There is Grey rational y and z axis. The values of kerf width were
analysis (GRA) or weighted GRA which calculated through microscopic photography
identifies the multiple responses and the inter and the MM 500-T MTI corporation
relationship between them, where GR microscope was used having an attached
coefficients (or weight factors) are defined digital camera DCM 310. Four different
for multiple factors [42]. Further, the RSM distances, that were 3,5,7 and 10mm, were
model is confirmed by the ANOVA analysis marked to capture the snapshots of the work
[43] and the determined variation between piece. Two readings were taken at each
the tested outcomes and the RSM model is distance and the average of the two was taken
noted. as the final reading.
ConturoMatic T2 Surface roughness meter
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was used for the measurement of surface Where Δm is the change in mass of the
roughness (Ra). It has a range of measuring Al5454 work piece, ρ is its density, and Tm
up to 250 mm × 320 mm of workpiece with a is the machining time for the same. The
resolution of 0.033 µm. Surface roughness experimental design matrix is shown in table
was measured on each slot of workpiece at 1.
three different places,10%, 50% and 100% of
the height of work piece, for incorporating
the studying the varying thickness impact.
The mean of average surface roughness
measured with the mentioned criteria was
used as the final reading.
Wire wear (WW) was calculated by
subtracting the weight of wire after the
WEDM cutting from the initial wire weight
(measured before machining). An electronic
physical balance with the least count of
0.0001 was used for this measurement.
The metal removal rate was found out by
employing the equation number 3.
MRR=Δm/ρ⋅Tm (3)

Figure 1.

Material Angle Current POT SR MRR WW KW SR(mm) MRR(msec/mm3) WW(mg) KW(mm)

Aluminum 30 5 20 0.0245 16.8255 0.0732 0.430000 0.0265 17.0127 0.0732 0.4425
Aluminum 30 5 20 0.0285 17.1999 0.0732 0.455000
Aluminum 45 5 20 0.0215 12.9876 0.0742 0.407500 0.0275 13.1399 0.0827 0.4100
Aluminum 45 5 20 0.0335 13.2922 0.0912 0.412500
Aluminum 60 5 20 0.0325 8.7959 0.1483 0.362500 0.0308 9.0130 0.1221 0.3863
Aluminum 60 5 20 0.0290 9.2300 0.0958 0.410000
Aluminum 30 10 20 0.0395 27.5929 0.0703 0.565000 0.0368 25.9529 0.0768 0.5650
Aluminum 30 10 20 0.0340 24.3128 0.0834 0.565000
Aluminum 45 10 20 0.0530 18.1123 0.0872 0.382500 0.0525 18.0898 0.0910 0.3838
Aluminum 45 10 20 0.0520 18.0672 0.0947 0.385000
Aluminum 60 10 20 0.0555 15.4982 0.1566 0.387500 0.0478 16.1988 0.0817 0.4050
Aluminum 60 10 20 0.0400 16.8994 0.0067 0.422500
Aluminum 30 5 40 0.0250 19.4838 0.0900 0.430000 0.0188 14.9529 0.0898 0.4463
Aluminum 30 5 40 0.0125 10.4220 0.0897 0.462500
Aluminum 45 5 40 0.0180 9.7765 0.1115 0.340000 0.0245 9.7179 0.1183 0.3539
Aluminum 45 5 40 0.0310 9.6593 0.1250 0.367700
Aluminum 60 5 40 0.0375 7.0178 0.0667 0.347500 0.0365 7.4243 0.0555 0.3850
Aluminum 60 5 40 0.0355 7.8307 0.0444 0.422500
Aluminum 30 10 40 0.0330 22.9988 0.0693 0.562500 0.0290 23.4521 0.0719 0.5525
Aluminum 30 10 40 0.0250 23.9054 0.0745 0.542500

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Aluminum 45 10 40 0.0630 15.3509 0.1127 0.280000 0.0608 16.7091 0.1259 0.2988

Aluminum 45 10 40 0.0585 18.0672 0.1391 0.317500
Aluminum 60 10 40 0.0548 10.5454 0.1258 0.412500 0.0439 11.0519 0.1074 0.3938
Aluminum 60 10 40 0.0330 11.5584 0.0890 0.375000
Table 1.

3. RESULT artificial neural network (ANN), is trained, using

3.1 Response Surface Methodology the Neural Network Toolbox of MATLAB. This
Modeling Results is the most effective feed forward network, with
MINITAB software is used for RSM respect to the training precision. [44] Figure 2
shows the used ANN pattern, which consists of
modeling. The predicted response equations
an input layer of three neutrons representing
for MRR, SR, WW and KW are listed angle, current and POT, one hidden layer of 20
respectively as Equations no. 4,5,6, & 7. neutrons, and an output layer of four neutrons
representing the MRR, SR. KW and WW.
MRR = 23.3 - 0.314 Angle + 1.34 Current - 0.134
POT (4)

SR = - 0.0061 + 0.000399 Angle + 0.00354

Current - 0.000070 POT (5)

WW = 0.0571 + 0.000457 Angle + 0.00044

Current + 0.000346 POT (6)

KW = 0.579 - 0.00364 Angle + 0.00583 Current

- 0.00135 POT (7)

3.2 Artificial Neural Networks

Modeling Results Figure 2
In this study, Levenberg-Marquardt (LM)
training method, a multilayer feed-forward

.
Material Angle Current POT SR MRR WW KW SR(mm) MRR(msec/mm3) WW(mg) KW(mm)
Aluminum 30 5 20 0.0245 16.8255 0.0732 0.430000 0.0265 17.0127 0.0732 0.4425
Aluminum 30 5 20 0.0285 17.1999 0.0732 0.455000
Aluminum 45 5 20 0.0215 12.9876 0.0742 0.407500 0.0275 13.1399 0.0827 0.4100
Aluminum 45 5 20 0.0335 13.2922 0.0912 0.412500
Aluminum 60 5 20 0.0325 8.7959 0.1483 0.362500 0.0308 9.0130 0.1221 0.3863
Aluminum 60 5 20 0.0290 9.2300 0.0958 0.410000
Aluminum 30 10 20 0.0395 27.5929 0.0703 0.565000 0.0368 25.9529 0.0768 0.5650
Aluminum 30 10 20 0.0340 24.3128 0.0834 0.565000
Aluminum 45 10 20 0.0530 18.1123 0.0872 0.382500 0.0525 18.0898 0.0910 0.3838
Aluminum 45 10 20 0.0520 18.0672 0.0947 0.385000
Aluminum 60 10 20 0.0555 15.4982 0.1566 0.387500 0.0478 16.1988 0.0817 0.4050
Aluminum 60 10 20 0.0400 16.8994 0.0067 0.422500
Aluminum 30 5 40 0.0250 19.4838 0.0900 0.430000 0.0188 14.9529 0.0898 0.4463
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Aluminum 30 5 40 0.0125 10.4220 0.0897 0.462500

Aluminum 45 5 40 0.0180 9.7765 0.1115 0.340000 0.0245 9.7179 0.1183 0.3539
Aluminum 45 5 40 0.0310 9.6593 0.1250 0.367700
Aluminum 60 5 40 0.0375 7.0178 0.0667 0.347500 0.0365 7.4243 0.0555 0.3850
Aluminum 60 5 40 0.0355 7.8307 0.0444 0.422500
Aluminum 30 10 40 0.0330 22.9988 0.0693 0.562500 0.0290 23.4521 0.0719 0.5525
Aluminum 30 10 40 0.0250 23.9054 0.0745 0.542500
Aluminum 45 10 40 0.0630 15.3509 0.1127 0.280000 0.0608 16.7091 0.1259 0.2988
Aluminum 45 10 40 0.0585 18.0672 0.1391 0.317500
Aluminum 60 10 40 0.0548 10.5454 0.1258 0.412500 0.0439 11.0519 0.1074 0.3938
Aluminum 60 10 40 0.0330 11.5584 0.0890 0.375000
Table 2. Experimental Data Input to the ANN
Material Angle Current POT SR MRR WW KW
Aluminum 65 5 20 0.044527 13.15432 0.123374 0.353404
Aluminum 65 5 20 0.044527 13.15432 0.123374 0.353404
Aluminum 70 5 20 0.052071 16.80477 0.125314 0.322816
Aluminum 70 5 20 0.052071 16.80477 0.125314 0.322816
Aluminum 80 5 20 0.056926 22.4186 0.141862 0.308377
Aluminum 80 5 20 0.056926 22.4186 0.141862 0.308377
Aluminum 65 10 20 0.035456 15.12925 0.070847 0.397208
Aluminum 65 10 20 0.035456 15.12925 0.070847 0.397208
Aluminum 70 10 20 0.016 13.86752 0.064242 0.360217
Aluminum 70 10 20 0.016 13.86752 0.064242 0.360217
Aluminum 80 10 20 0.002683 9.990425 0.081416 0.369295
Aluminum 80 10 20 0.002683 9.990425 0.081416 0.369295
Aluminum 65 5 40 0.046396 5.189628 0.067924 0.449992
Aluminum 65 5 40 0.046396 5.189628 0.067924 0.449992
Aluminum 70 5 40 0.05317 3.769608 0.075708 0.489158
Aluminum 70 5 40 0.05317 3.769608 0.075708 0.489158
Aluminum 80 5 40 0.044492 0.378173 0.071855 0.481392
Aluminum 80 5 40 0.044492 0.378173 0.071855 0.481392
Aluminum 65 10 40 0.056883 12.00963 0.088767 0.34934
Aluminum 65 10 40 0.056883 12.00963 0.088767 0.34934
Aluminum 70 10 40 0.06709 14.74477 0.062524 0.298594
Aluminum 70 10 40 0.06709 14.74477 0.062524 0.298594
Aluminum 80 10 40 0.086439 21.23889 0.048611 0.267259
Aluminum 80 10 40 0.086439 21.23889 0.048611 0.267259
Table 3. Values predicted by ANN Model

3.3 Comparison of the performance of parameters. The equations for these are listed
RSM and ANN modeling below as equations 8 and 9 respectively.
The results of RSM and ANN are compared
by calculating the coefficients of ∑𝑛 (𝑦𝑖−𝑦0𝑖)2
R2 = 1- ∑𝑛𝑖=1(𝑦0𝑖−𝑦𝑚)2 (8)
determination (R2) and the Root Mean 𝑖=1

Square Error (RMSE) for the four output

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1
RMSE =𝑛 ∑𝑛𝑖=1(𝑦𝑖 − 𝑦𝑎𝑖)2 (9)
General Linear Model: KW versus
Angle, Current, POT
where “n” is the total no. of experiments, Factor Type Levels Values
Angle fixed 3 30, 45, 60
“yi” is the value predicted from the trained Current fixed 2 5, 10
ANN model, “yai” is the actual value POT fixed 2 20, 40

provided to the system as training data, and Analysis of Variance for KW, using Adjusted SS for Tests
“ym” is the mean of the actual values Source DF Seq SS Adj SS Adj MS F P
obtained through the experimentation. Angle
Current
2
1
0.086515
0.005098
0.086515
0.005098
0.043258
0.005098
21.39
2.52
0.000
0.129
POT 1 0.004396 0.004396 0.004396 2.17 0.157
Error 19 0.038432 0.038432 0.002023
3.4 Results of ANOVA Total 23 0.134441

General Linear Model: SR versus

S = 0.0449748 R-Sq = 71.41% R-Sq(adj) = 65.40%
Angle, Current, POT
Factor Type Levels Values
Angle fixed 3 30, 45, 60
Current fixed 2 5, 10 3.5 Regression Analysis
POT fixed 2 20, 40
SR versus Angle, Current, POT
The regression equation is
Analysis of Variance for SR, using Adjusted SS for Tests SR = - 0.0061 + 0.000399 Angle + 0.00354 Current -
0.000070 POT
Source DF Seq SS Adj SS Adj MS F P
Angle 2 0.0008796 0.0008796 0.0004398 5.95 0.010
Current 1 0.0018780 0.0018780 0.0018780 25.39 0.000
POT 1 0.0000116 0.0000116 0.0000116 0.16 0.696 Predictor Coef SE Coef T P
Error 19 0.0014053 0.0014053 0.0000740 Constant -0.00615 0.01076 -0.57 0.574
Total 23 0.0041745 Angle 0.0003992 0.0001542 2.59 0.018
Current 0.0035383 0.0007553 4.68 0.000
POT -0.0000696 0.0001888 -0.37 0.716
S = 0.00860022 R-Sq = 66.34% R-Sq(adj) = 59.25%

S = 0.00925025 R-Sq = 59.0% R-Sq(adj) = 52.9%

General Linear Model: MRR versus
Angle, Current, POT Analysis of Variance
Factor Type Levels Values
Angle fixed 3 30, 45, 60 Source DF SS MS F P
Regression 3 0.00246319 0.00082106 9.60 0.000
Current fixed 2 5, 10 Residual Error 20 0.00171134 0.00008557
POT fixed 2 20, 40 Total 23 0.00417454

Analysis of Variance for MRR, using Adjusted SS for Source DF Seq SS

Tests Angle 1 0.00057360
Current 1 0.00187797
Source DF Seq SS Adj SS Adj MS F P POT 1 0.00001162
Angle 2 362.91 362.91 181.45 45.92 0.000 Unusual Observations
Current 1 269.26 269.26 269.26 68.14 0.000
POT 1 43.20 43.20 43.20 10.93 0.004 Obs Angle SR Fit SE Fit Residual St Resid
Error 19 75.08 75.08 3.95 21 45.0 0.06300 0.04441 0.00327 0.01859 2.15R
24 60.0 0.03300 0.05040 0.00401 -0.01740 -2.09R
Total 23 750.44
R denotes an observation with a large standardized
S = 1.98787 R-Sq = 90.00% R-Sq(adj) = 87.89% residual.

General Linear Model: WW versus MRR versus Angle, Current, POT

Angle, Current, POT The regression equation is
MRR = 23.3 - 0.314 Angle + 1.34 Current - 0.134 POT
Factor Type Levels Values
Angle fixed 3 30, 45, 60
Current fixed 2 5, 10
POT fixed 2 20, 40 Predictor Coef SE Coef T P
Constant 23.333 2.371 9.84 0.000
Angle -0.31402 0.03395 -9.25 0.000
Analysis of Variance for WW, using Adjusted SS for Tests Current 1.3398 0.1663 8.06 0.000
POT -0.13416 0.04158 -3.23 0.004
Source DF Seq SS Adj SS Adj MS F P
Angle 2 0.002811 0.002811 0.001405 1.21 0.321
Current 1 0.000028 0.000028 0.000028 0.02 0.877 S = 2.03710 R-Sq = 88.9% R-Sq(adj) = 87.3%
POT 1 0.000287 0.000287 0.000287 0.25 0.625
Error 19 0.022106 0.022106 0.001163
Total 23 0.025232
Analysis of Variance

S = 0.0341098 R-Sq = 12.39% R-Sq(adj) = 0.00% Source DF SS MS F P

Regression 3 667.45 222.48 53.61 0.000

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Residual Error 20 83.00 4.15

Total 23 750.44 KW.

Source DF Seq SS Versus Fits

Angle 1 355.00 (response is SR)
Current 1 269.26 0.02
POT 1 43.20

0.01
Unusual Observations

Residual
Obs Angle MRR Fit SE Fit Residual St Resid
0.00
13 30.0 19.484 15.246 0.882 4.238 2.31R
14 30.0 10.422 15.246 0.882 -4.824 -2.63R

R denotes an observation with a large standardized -0.01

residual.

-0.02
WW versus Angle, Current, POT 0.020 0.025 0.030 0.035 0.040 0.045 0.050 0.055
The regression equation is Fitted Value

WW = 0.0571 + 0.000457 Angle + 0.00044 Current +

0.000346 POT
Figure 3.
Predictor Coef SE Coef T P
Constant 0.05714 0.04045 1.41 0.173
Angle 0.0004573 0.0005793 0.79 0.439 Versus Fits
Current 0.000435 0.002838 0.15 0.880 (response is MRR)
POT 0.0003456 0.0007095 0.49 0.631 5.0

S = 0.0347593 R-Sq = 4.2% R-Sq(adj) = 0.0%

2.5
Residual

Analysis of Variance
0.0
Source DF SS MS F P
Regression 3 0.001068 0.000356 0.29 0.829
Residual Error 20 0.024164 0.001208 -2.5
Total 23 0.025232

-5.0
Source DF Seq SS 5 10 15 20 25
Angle 1 0.000753 Fitted Value
Current 1 0.000028
POT 1 0.000287

Unusual Observations
Figure 4.
Obs Angle WW Fit SE Fit Residual St Resid
12 60.0 0.00670 0.09584 0.01505 -0.08914 -2.85R
Versus Fits
R denotes an observation with a large standardized (response is WW)
residual.
KW versus Angle, Current, POT 0.050
The regression equation is
KW = 0.579 - 0.00364 Angle + 0.00583 Current - 0.025
0.00135 POT
0.000
Residual

Predictor Coef SE Coef T P

-0.025
Constant 0.57902 0.07238 8.00 0.000

-0.050
3.6 Residual Plots
-0.075
The residual plots are crucial to evaluate the
quality of the model fit in the given data, -0.100
0.080 0.085 0.090 0.095 0.100 0.105
particularly for diagnosing any model’s Fitted Value

assumptions and checking for the model’s

biases & errors. For our model, residual plots
Figure 5.
are shared below as figure 3 for SR, figure 4
for MRR, figure 5 for WW and figure 6 for
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Versus Fits
2007 - sutlib2.sut.ac.th
(response is KW) [2] Chaudhari, R., Vora, J. J., Mani Prabu,
0.10
S. S., Palani, I. A., Patel, V. K., Parikh,
0.05
D. M., & de Lacalle, L. N. L. (2019).
Multi-response optimization of
0.00 WEDM process parameters for
Residual

machining of superelastic nitinol

-0.05 shape-memory alloy using a heat-
transfer search
-0.10
algorithm. Materials, 12(8),
1277. [Google Scholar]
-0.15
0.350 0.375 0.400 0.425 0.450 0.475 0.500 [3] Kumar, P., & Parkash, R. (2016).
Fitted Value
Experimental investigation and
optimization of EDM process
Figure 6. parameters for machining of aluminum
boron carbide (Al–B4C)
The residual plots for our four selected composite. Machining Science and
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spread of the points in all the plots is roughly EDM parameters on surface integrity,
constant across the X-axis. This is a sign of MRR and TWR in machining of Ti–
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STOCHASTIC RESOURCE CONSTRAINT PROJECT SCHEDULING

PROBLEM USING REINFORCEMENT LEARNING

Arooj Zahra1, * and Dr. Saif Ullah1

1
Department of Industrial Engineering, UET University of Engineering &
Technology, Taxila, Pakistan
*
Corresponding author E-mail address: [email protected] (Arooj Zahra Author)

ABSTRACT

The Resource-Constrained Project Scheduling Problem (RCPSP) has gained widespread

recognition as a tough study issue. Researchers are paying more attention to stochastic RCPSPs
(SRCPSPs) as a result of the dynamic character of real-world situations. It is NP hard problem.
This is due to the fact that SRCPSPs are more realistic. The success of many projects such as
automated conveyor system and firefighting robots is contingent on the availability of a shared
pool of limited resources. In addition to limitations imposed by available resources, there are also
limitations imposed by the order in which operations must be completed within each system. This
study suggested a hybrid genetic algorithm and set up a model for optimizing project schedules in
multiple modes and with limited resources for these systems. To get around the problems caused
by the big solution space, speed up the convergence, and learn more about search quality, changes
were made to the suggested algorithm. The network map data test and the real test project show
that the hybrid evolutionary algorithm along with genetic algorithm improves the time efficiency
and duration of project in machine for up to 94% and in real time scenario it reduces to 10 days.
This study proposed a solution approach for scheduling project activities in an environment with
multiple projects, limited resources, and iterative processes. We adopt and benchmark a genetic
algorithm that has been published in the literature, and as a result, we are able to obtain an
improvement of 17% in the median processing times when compared to the approach that is
currently being utilized to address the problem. There is a 33 % decrease in the standard deviation
of processing times. We demonstrate that these algorithms give rapid convergence to a solution
that is optimal in every respect. The evaluation of proposed genetic and hybrid evolutionary
algorithms is based on the evaluation parameters like fitness function, iterations, and execution
times of algorithm. Furthermore, we provide an optimal solution by using genetic algorithms along
with hybrid evolutionary algorithm for the best results to run these models.
Keywords: Project scheduling, resource constraints, optimization, planning, genetic algorithm,
hybrid evolutionary algorithm, metaheuristic approach

1. INTRODUCTION of each task, approximating their lengths, and

In mechanical engineering, project allocating resources effectively. Projects
scheduling is developing an organized plan related to mechanical engineering cover a
that outlines the steps, deadlines, and broad spectrum of activities, such as creating
resource distribution required to finish a machinery, manufacturing procedures,
project on schedule. To guarantee on-time automobile systems, and more. In mechanical
completion, this procedure includes engineering, resource-constrained project
determining the beginning and ending dates scheduling deals with situations where there
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are insufficient amounts of materials, swiftly, with superior quality, and at reduced
machinery, or skilled labor. In order to ensure costs compared to their rivals. Mastery of
optimal usage without strain and to avoid project scheduling enables organizations to
delays, cost overruns, and conflicts, it is bolster their project management capabilities
imperative to balance resource allocation and maintain a leading position in the market.
with project demands. Overall, the motivation behind studying
Multi-mode project scheduling refers to a project scheduling for mechanical projects
project management technique where tasks lies in its potential to enhance project
can be executed in different modes or outcomes, mitigate risks, optimize resource
resource configurations. In a multi-mode utilization, and contribute to the success and
scheduling environment, each task can have competitiveness of organizations across
multiple options for how it can be performed, various industries. By honing project
depending on the availability of resources, scheduling skills, individuals and
skill levels, or other constraints. organizations can achieve heightened
For example, a task might be able to be efficiency, productivity, and profitability in
completed by one of several different teams, their projects and operations
each with its own set of resources and 1.2 Methods Used for Project
expertise. Multi-mode scheduling allows the Planning and Scheduling:
project manager to choose the best option Multi-mode project scheduling methods are
for each task based on factors such as cost, used when tasks in a project can be executed
time constraints, and resource availability. in multiple modes, each with different
resource requirements, durations, and costs.
This approach offers more flexibility in
Here's an overview of common methods used
managing projects, as it allows for
for multi-mode project scheduling:
adjustments to be made to resource allocation
as the project progresses. It can help optimize 1.1.1 Mathematical Programming:
resource utilization and minimize project Mathematical programming methods aim to
delays by allowing tasks to be completed formulate multi-mode project scheduling
using the most appropriate resources problems into mathematical models that can
available at any given time be solved optimally. Techniques like Integer
Furthermore, mastering scheduling projects Linear Programming (ILP) or Mixed-Integer
under resource constraints facilitates optimal Linear Programming (MILP) are commonly
allocation and utilization of resources, used. In these models, decision variables
preventing bottlenecks, overutilization, and represent task assignments, resource
conflicts. This enhances resource efficiency allocations, and mode selections. Constraints
and leads to cost savings for organizations. capture factors like resource capacities, task
Moreover, project scheduling techniques dependencies, and mode availability. The
offer valuable insights and decision support objective function is typically designed to
tools for project managers, empowering them minimize project duration, cost, or other
to make informed decisions regarding relevant criteria. These methods offer the
resource allocation, task prioritization, and advantage of finding the optimal solution, but
scheduling adjustments in response to they may face scalability issues with larger
evolving circumstances or unforeseen events. and more complex problem instances due to
Lastly, organizations proficient in effectively computational complexity.
scheduling and managing their projects gain
a competitive edge by delivering projects
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1.1.2 Heuristic Algorithms: 1.1.5Hybrid Methods:

Heuristic algorithms are often employed to Hybrid methods combine elements of
find near-optimal solutions within a different approaches to harness their
reasonable time frame. Genetic algorithms, strengths and mitigate their weaknesses. For
simulated annealing, tabu search, and particle instance, a hybrid algorithm may use
swarm optimization are among the mathematical programming to generate
commonly used heuristics. These algorithms initial solutions and then refine them using
iteratively explore the solution space, making metaheuristic search. By combining
locally optimal decisions and incorporating complementary methods, hybrid approaches
mechanisms for exploration and exploitation can achieve improved solution quality and
to converge towards satisfactory solutions. computational efficiency. They offer
While they may not guarantee optimality, versatility in handling various aspects of
heuristic algorithms are well-suited for multi-mode project scheduling problems,
tackling large-scale and complex scheduling allowing for tailored solutions to specific
problems efficiently problem instances.
Each of these methods has its nuances and
1.1.3 Metaheuristic Approaches:
trade-offs, and the choice of approach
Metaheuristic approaches are more advanced
depends on factors such as problem
techniques that combine multiple heuristic
characteristics, available computational
strategies to efficiently explore the solution
resources, and desired solution quality.
space and find high-quality solutions.
Experimentation, tuning, and hybridization
Examples include ant colony optimization,
of techniques are common strategies to
evolutionary algorithms, and iterated local
address the complexity of multi-mode project
search. These methods leverage different
scheduling effectively.
search mechanisms and diversification
strategies to balance exploration and 1.3 Problem Statement
exploitation effectively. Metaheuristic Solving the stochastic Resource-Constrained
algorithms are highly adaptable and can Project Scheduling Problem (RCPSP) is a
handle diverse optimization problems, major challenge in the field of mechanical
including multi-mode project scheduling, engineering projects. This difficulty results
with good performance and robustness. from having to coordinate schedules with
various modes of execution, resource
1.1.4 Constraint Programming:
constraints, and unforeseen circumstances.
Constraint programming (CP) offers an
To guarantee that projects are finished on
alternative approach to modelling and
schedule and within the allocated budget,
solving multi-mode project scheduling
effective project scheduling is essential.
problems. In CP, the problem is expressed as
However, depending on how certain or
a set of constraints that define relationships
unpredictable the project environment is,
and restrictions between variables. The
several scheduling strategies may be used.
solver systematically explores the search
Project managers usually resort to tried-and-
space, using techniques like constraint
true techniques like precise methods,
propagation, variable domain reduction, and
heuristic algorithms, and mathematical
backtracking to find feasible solutions that
optimization models when predictability is
satisfy all constraints. CP is particularly
paramount. These tools help create
useful for problems with complex constraints
timetables that adhere to predetermined
and combinatorial structures, offering
limitations and satisfy project objectives. On
flexibility and scalability.
the other hand, adaptive and flexible
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scheduling techniques are more common in 1. To conduct in depth literature review

contexts marked by uncertainty, where of resource constraint project
resource availability varies and unplanned scheduling problem in stochastic
occurrences frequently occur. environment.
2. To identify variables, objectives and
1.3 Scope of Study
constraints of the RCPSP.
This research study aims to thoroughly
3. To model the RCPSP with identified
explore and propose solutions for the
objectives and constraints.
challenges presented by the Stochastic
4. To propose a metaheuristic hybrid
Resource-Constrained Project Scheduling
algorithm method and apply it to
Problem (RCPSP). It involves a detailed
solve the developed model.
examination of the complexities involved in
5. To measure the performance of the
managing project schedules with multiple
proposed method with other methods
execution modes, resource constraints, and
in literature.
uncertainties. The primary focus is on
addressing the shortcomings of traditional 2. LITERATURE REVIEW
scheduling methods, which often struggle to
2.1 Introduction:
handle the dynamic and resource-constrained Project management is an activity that has
nature of RCPSP, resulting in suboptimal been carried out by humans for many
solutions and prolonged project durations. thousands of years throughout the course of
The research strives to pioneer the human history. Every one of those projects,
development of a Hybrid Algorithm, an whether it was the construction of the
innovative approach integrating heuristic or pyramids in Egypt over 4,500 years ago, the
metaheuristic methodologies with genetic Manhattan project that generated the first
algorithms. This hybrid strategy aims to atomic bomb, or the creation of a new
create a robust and adaptive solution for automobile, required a significant amount of
effectively addressing the distinctive project management. [1] This phrase is
challenges of RCPSP. The overarching goal defined as a process that involves
is to overcome the inefficiencies and management, timing, and allocation of
limitations of current methodologies, resources to achieve a certain well-defined
presenting a novel and efficient solution goal in an efficient manner. The literature
framework that significantly enhances defines this term as a process that involves
project scheduling within the RCPSP these elements. The work of project
context. This work aims to make a substantial scheduling is included in this management
contribution to the advancement of project project. Project scheduling is the process by
scheduling methodologies, offering practical which the activities included in the project
and efficient solutions adept at navigating the are arranged in the order in which they need
intricacies of multi-mode resource- to be completed and which resources are to
constrained projects, thereby facilitating
be used during the process.
improved project management outcomes. The work that is being done now addresses a
1.4 Aims and Objectives real-world scheduling challenge that was
This study aims to address the problem of experienced at a business called unless
Stochastic Resource Constraint project Software AG, [2] which is based in southern
scheduling problem using genetic algorithms Germany and specialized in the testing of
and hybrid evolutionary algorithms. software and hardware. One of their products
is geared toward the automated planning and

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carrying out of these kinds of examinations. research by demonstrating the importance of

These tests can verify either that the newly scenario-based modelling in handling
added features are functioning appropriately uncertain task durations and resource
or that the previously implemented features availabilities. Building upon this foundation,
have not been impacted by the most recent Van de Vander [4] explored the integration of
modifications to the system (regression renewable and non-renewable resources into
testing). Testing is not a simple activity that project scheduling models, further enriching
is carried out only once during the life cycle our understanding of resource-constrained
of the product; rather, it is a sophisticated scheduling.
process that is carried out continuously. In As research progressed, scholars delved into
addition, there is a fee associated with the developing more sophisticated optimization
testing. It invariably necessitates the techniques and algorithms to address the
utilization of a resource, specifically: This complexities of resource-constrained project
includes time on the central processing unit, scheduling. Notable among them is the work
sophisticated testing equipment, and human of Khodaparasti and Jolai [5] who introduced
resources. As a result of the fact that the hybrid metaheuristic algorithms combining
necessary resources come at a monetary genetic algorithms with simulated annealing.
expense, it is important that the testing be This approach aimed to leverage the
carried out as effectively as is humanly strengths of both techniques to find high-
possible. This helps save money by quality solutions efficiently. Additionally,
optimizing the use of resources and Chen et al. [6] proposed robust optimization
minimizes the amount of time needed to models that consider mode-dependent
complete a task. The existing method that is uncertainties and resource constraints,
used in the product that is made by except is ensuring project feasibility under uncertain
a straightforward heuristic that has some conditions.
space for development. This issue is dealt The 2010s witnessed further advancements in
with by first introducing the theoretical the field, with researchers exploring multi-
backdrop of scheduling under resource objective optimization frameworks to
limitations, and then continuing to introduce account for conflicting project objectives.
an improvement of the existing method that Tavakkoli-Moghaddam et al. [7] presented a
is benchmarked properly. This study multi-objective optimization perspective,
addresses the situation by introducing the which highlighted the need to balance
theoretical background of scheduling first. objectives such as project duration, cost, and
risk. Their work provided decision-makers
2.2 Resource Constraint Project
with valuable insights into the trade-offs
Scheduling:
involved in project scheduling decisions.
Research on uncertainty and resource
Furthermore, advancements in simulation-
constraints in project scheduling has
based optimization methods were made by Li
undergone significant advancements,
et al. [8] who introduced techniques
reflecting a growing recognition of the
integrating Monte Carlo simulation with
complexities involved in managing projects
genetic algorithms to generate robust
in dynamic and uncertain environments. The
schedules resilient to uncertainties
early 2000s witnessed pioneering work by
researchers such as Herroelen and Leus [3], 2.2.1 Multi-Resource Constraint Project
who introduced stochastic optimization Scheduling:
techniques for project scheduling. Their Research on the multi-mode stochastic
study laid the groundwork for subsequent project scheduling problem (MMSPSP) has
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seen significant advancements, reflecting a In recent years, advancements in MMSPSP

growing recognition of the complexities research have focused on integrating hybrid
involved in project scheduling under optimization algorithms and simulation-
uncertainty. In the early 2000s, pioneering based techniques to further enhance solution
work by Herroelen and Leus [3] laid the robustness and efficiency. For instance,
groundwork for stochastic optimization Wang et al. [12] proposed a hybrid
techniques in MMSPSP. Their study optimization algorithm that combined
introduced scenario-based modeling to genetic algorithms with particle swarm
handle uncertain task durations and resource optimization, aiming to improve solution
availabilities, offering insights into risk quality and convergence speed. Meanwhile,
management strategies in project scheduling. Li et al. [13] introduced a simulation-based
Following this, researchers in the mid- to optimization method for MMSPSP, which
late-2000s, such as (Willis,) [9] delved into integrated Monte Carlo simulation with a
simulation-based optimization methods for genetic algorithm to generate robust
MMSPSP. By employing Monte Carlo schedules resilient to uncertainties in task
simulation, they generated multiple scenarios durations and resource availabilities. These
to optimize project schedules under varying studies collectively reflect a growing
levels of risk, contributing to a more nuanced emphasis on developing effective
understanding of uncertainty in project optimization tools and methodologies for
scheduling. Additionally, this period managing uncertainties and optimizing
witnessed the emergence of hybrid project schedules in multi-mode stochastic
metaheuristic algorithms, exemplified by the environments, contributing to the
work of (Jolai,) [10] who combined genetic advancement of both theory and practice in
algorithms with simulated annealing to tackle project management. In 2023, Peng, J.L.,
the multi-mode and stochastic aspects of Liu, X., Peng, C. et al. [14] [1]led a
project scheduling simultaneously. pioneering research study focused on
As the field progressed into the 2010s, addressing challenges in Multi-Mode
researchers like chen et al [11] explored Resource-Constrained Project Scheduling
robust optimization models for MMSPSP, (MRCPSP). Dr. Garcia and her team
considering both mode-dependent proposed a hybrid optimization approach that
uncertainties and resource constraints integrated genetic algorithms with machine
through chance-constrained programming. learning techniques to optimize project
This approach aimed to ensure project schedules under resource constraints. The
feasibility under uncertain conditions by research leveraged historical project data and
incorporating probabilistic constraints into predictive analytics to enhance the accuracy
the optimization framework. Furthermore, of scheduling models and improve decision-
Tavakkoli-Moghaddam [8] introduced a making processes. By considering multiple
multi-objective optimization perspective to modes of task execution and resource
MMSPSP, emphasizing the importance of availability, the study sought to provide
balancing conflicting objectives such as decision-makers with robust and adaptable
project duration, cost, and risk. By employing scheduling solutions. Dr. Garcia's research in
a genetic algorithm, they identified Pareto- 2023 represents a significant advancement in
optimal solutions that represented trade-offs the field of MRCPSP, offering innovative
between these objectives, providing decision- methodologies and practical insights for
makers with a range of optimal solutions to optimizing project schedules in real-world
choose from based on their project priorities. scenarios.
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2.3 Solution Methods 2.3.2Heuristics

The selection of solution methods for project Heuristic methods are rule-based approaches
scheduling is critical, as it determines the that aim to find good solutions quickly,
effectiveness and efficiency of scheduling without guaranteeing optimality. While
strategies in meeting project objectives. heuristics may not always find the best
Various methods, including exact methods, solution, they are often effective for large-
heuristics, metaheuristics, and simulation scale problems where exact methods are
methods, offer distinct approaches to address impractical. Common heuristic methods
the complexities of project scheduling in both include:
certain and uncertain environments. Each Priority Rule Heuristics:
method brings its own set of advantages and Priority rule heuristics prioritize tasks based
limitations, making it essential for project on certain criteria, such as earliest start time,
managers to carefully evaluate and select the shortest duration, or highest resource
most appropriate methods based on the utilization. Examples include the Shortest
specific characteristics and requirements of Processing Time (SPT) rule and the Critical
their projects. By leveraging the capabilities Ratio (CR) rule.
of these solution methods effectively, project Neighbourhood Search:
managers can optimize scheduling processes, Neighbourhood search algorithms iteratively
mitigate risks, and improve overall project explore neighbouring solutions to improve
outcomes. the current solution. Examples include the
Simple Random Descent (SRD) algorithm
2.3.1 Exact Method
and the Tabu Search (TS) algorithm.
Exact methods for project scheduling aim to
find optimal solutions by exhaustively 2.3.3 Metaheuristic
exploring the entire solution space. These Metaheuristic methods are high-level
methods guarantee finding the best possible strategies for exploring the solution space
solution, but they can be computationally efficiently. Unlike exact methods,
intensive and may not be practical for large- metaheuristics do not guarantee optimality
scale problems. Common exact methods but are capable of finding good solutions in a
include: reasonable amount of time. Common
Integer Linear Programming (ILP): metaheuristic methods include:
ILP formulates project scheduling as a Genetic Algorithms (GA): GA mimics the
mathematical optimization problem, where process of natural selection by maintaining a
decision variables represent the start times of population of candidate solutions, applying
activities and constraints enforce task selection, crossover, and mutation operators
precedence and resource limitations. The to produce new offspring solutions, and
objective is to minimize project duration or iteratively improving the population over
cost subject to these constraints. generations.
Mixed Integer Linear Programming Simulated Annealing (SA): SA is inspired
by the physical process of annealing in
(MIP):
metallurgy, where a material is gradually
MIP extends ILP by allowing some decision cooled to minimize defects. SA iteratively
variables to take on non-integer values. This explores neighbouring solutions and accepts
flexibility enables more complex modeling of worse solutions with a certain probability,
scheduling problems, such as incorporating allowing it to escape local optima and
fractional resource allocations or alternative converge to a near-optimal solution.
modes of activity execution.
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and ES tailored for handling high- In the realm of project scheduling

dimensional, noisy, or non-linear optimization, metaheuristic approaches have
optimization problems. Differential emerged as powerful tools for tackling
Evolution (DE) and Evolution Strategies complex problems with large solution spaces
(ES): and numerous constraints. The body of
DE and ES are metaheuristic optimization related work showcases the effectiveness of
methods used in project scheduling. DE various metaheuristic methods in addressing
iteratively updates candidate solutions by the challenges of project scheduling.
combining information from multiple Metaheuristic methods, such as Genetic
individuals through mutation, crossover, and Algorithms (GA) and Simulated Annealing
selection. It balaError! Reference source (SA), have been extensively studied and
not found.Error! Reference source not applied to project scheduling optimization.
found.nces exploration and exploitation in These methods offer robust and efficient
the search space by adjusting control strategies for exploring the solution space
parameters. On the other hand, ES focuses and finding near-optimal solutions within
solely on mutation to explore the solution acceptable time frames. For instance, GA
space efficiently. It employs mutation mimics the process of natural selection by
strategies adapted to the problem's iteratively evolving a population of candidate
characteristics and selects individuals based solutions through selection, crossover, and
on fitness values. Both methods are effective mutation operations. Through successive
for optimizing project scheduling processes, generations, GA converges towards
with DE emphasizing a balance between promising solutions while maintaining
exploration and exploitation diversity within the population. Similarly, SA
is inspired by the physical process of
2.3.4 Simulation Method
annealing, where a material is gradually
Simulation methods involve modelling the
cooled to minimize defects. SA iteratively
project environment and simulating the
explores neighbouring solutions, accepting
execution of tasks to evaluate different
worse solutions with a certain probability to
scheduling strategies. These methods are
escape local optima and converge towards a
particularly useful for considering
near-optimal solution.
uncertainties and dynamic aspects of project
Moreover, recent research has extended the
scheduling. Common simulation methods
include: applicability of metaheuristic methods to
address specific challenges in project
Monte Carlo Simulation: Monte Carlo
scheduling, such as resource constraints,
Simulation generates multiple scenarios by
uncertainty, and dynamic environments.
sampling from probability distributions of
Metaheuristic algorithms have been adapted
uncertain parameters such as task durations
and customized to incorporate domain-
and resource availabilities. It then simulates
specific knowledge and problem constraints,
project execution under each scenario to
enhancing their effectiveness in real-world
assess the distribution of project outcomes.
project scheduling scenarios. For example,
Discrete Event Simulation: Discrete Event
hybrid metaheuristic approaches combine the
Simulation models the project as a series of
strengths of multiple algorithms, leveraging
discrete events, such as task starts,
their complementary nature to achieve
completions, and resource allocations. It
superior performance in complex scheduling
simulates the progression of the project over
time, allowing for detailed analysis of problems.
resource utilization and project dynamics.
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Furthermore, metaheuristic methods have buffers against uncertainties (Zahid, Agha, &
demonstrated flexibility and scalability in Schmidt,) [17] According to Chen, Liang,
handling various types of project scheduling and Padilla, [18] the purpose of reactive
problems, including single-project scheduling is to reschedule uncertainty-
scheduling, multi-project scheduling, and affected tasks in the event that the initial
portfolio optimization. By leveraging schedule becomes impossible to follow as a
metaheuristic algorithms, researchers and result of any interruptions. In order to solve
practitioners have been able to optimize complicated models while taking into
project schedules, minimize project duration, account uncertainty, several heuristic
allocate resources efficiently, and improve methods have been devised. A few of the
overall project performance. more recent ones are approximation dynamic
In summary, the body of related work programming (published by Li and Womer)
highlights the significant role of [16] a parallel schedule generation scheme),
metaheuristic approaches in advancing and a stochastic dynamic schedule generation
project scheduling optimization. These scheme (published by Bruni, Beraldi, and
methods offer flexible, scalable, and effective Guerriero) [19]
strategies for addressing the complexities of A meta-heuristic non-dominated sorting
project scheduling, paving the way for genetic algorithm was presented by
improved project management practices and Ghoddousi, Ansari, and Makui [20] as a
better project outcomes. Future research potential solution for SRCPSPs. In the
endeavours can continue to explore and meanwhile, Yan [21] created a simulation-
innovate upon metaheuristic algorithms to genetic approach for an SRCPSP that was
further enhance their capabilities and combined together. In contrast to heuristics,
applicability in the field of project which are considered to be methods that are
scheduling. built on issues, meta-heuristics do not include
any problems. Meta-heuristic approaches, as
2.4 Related Work
opposed to heuristic approaches, generally do
Here we have studied lot of paper related to
not take advantage of any specificity of the
our problem and make literature review on
problem. As a result, they explore the
them which support our idea logically. In
solution space in greater depth, and as a
SRCPSs, it is expected that the activities
result, they hopefully obtain a superior
associated with the project are unpredictable
(also known as stochastic), and in practice, solution (which sometimes coincides with the
global optimum) (Zahid et al.,) [21] There
they may follow certain distributions.
have been a number of different efforts on
According to Chakrabortty, Sarker, and
meta-heuristic algorithms done in the
Essam [18], while doing computations, these
SRCPSP arena. Review article written by
uncertainties are often quantified by making
Kolisch and Hartmann [22] has a
use of a selection of probability distribution
comprehensive discussion that may be
functions. These functions serve to transform
accessed there.
stochastic values to deterministic ones.
A group of asynchronous agents, known as
According to Davari and Demeulemeester
the A-Team, using an RL method to solve
[19], the most investigated approaches for
deterministic RCPSPs was the solution that
managing projects with unpredictable
was offered. While the RL approach was used
durations are the proactive and reactive
to control the replacement of one solution or
scheduling policies.
A proactive scheduling policy aims to schedule from the produced population, the
four meta-heuristic algorithms (i.e., tabu
establish a robust schedule by imposing
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search, local search, crossover, and path re- has been the subject of interest in a number
linking) were used to control the replacement of researches. Rogers (1996), McCulley and
of one solution or schedule. The performance Bloebaum [20], and Altus, Kroo, and Gage
of their suggested algorithm was not (1996) [21] are examples of early works. All
persuasively competitive, despite the fact that of these utilized, in essence, an SGA (with
their technique revealed a new path that only little customization of the various GA
might be used when tackling typical RCPSP operators), which enables DSM resequencing
problems. After that, similar tactics were put in line with user-defined goals. Later on R.
into action in order to solve multi-mode I. Whitfield [23] investigated the use of GA
RCPSPs (Jedrzejowicz & Ratajczak-Ropel, crossover and mutation operators for
[23] An RL technique for the solution of sequencing DSMs. They discovered that
SRCPSPs was initially presented by Choi, while earlier studies acknowledged the
Realff, and Lee [24] in the form of a Q efficacy of GAs in combinatorial issues, they
learning-based approach that they offered. did not utilize their full arsenal of
The Q-learning technique that they presented capabilities. There was either a lack of
allowed them get rid of unimportant accurate information regarding the setting of
transition rules, which were difficult to GA parameters or information regarding the
include in heuristics. However, their incentive behind the usage of various GA
suggested method was not tested against the operators, and when this information was
conventional RCPSP issues, nor was it used there, it was only based on incomplete
in conjunction with projects involving more experiments. Techniques like hybridization
extensive operations. and niching, which are critical improvements
Over the course of the past two decades, a in GAs, were not implemented. In addition,
wide variety of metaheuristic algorithms given that ''competent GAs'' had not yet been
have come into existence, and numerous deployed for DSM sequencing, an in-depth
metaheuristics, such as genetic algorithms examination was absolutely necessary.
(GA) and 40 A.A. Yassine and colleagues, The purpose of the DSM resequencing will
Computers and Industrial Engineering 107 determine whether or not a GA solution is
(2017) 39–56 [26] According to Geneau and optimal. In the context of activity ordering,
Potvin [27] particle swarm optimization, the goals can include one or more of the
sometimes known as PSO, is gaining a lot of following aspects: reducing the amount of
popularity. These algorithms have been iteration and feedback, increasing the amount
utilized in previous projects. In many of concurrent work, reducing both the
different engineering applications, including development lead-time and the cost of the
job shop and project work. Scheduling to project. Meier et al. (2007) [28] applied GAs
Crashworthiness and NVH Optimization, to a binary DSM model to establish an ideal
structural design optimization. On the other sequence for a set of design activities. They
hand, the use of GAs has become more found that DSM characteristics (such as size,
widespread throughout more frequently than sparseness, and sequencing objective) can
any other metaheuristic in the literature on cause significant issues for SGA designs. The
project scheduling approach; particularly authors of this study concluded that DSM
useful for DSM analysis (Kolisch and characteristics should be taken into
Hartmann, (Meier, Yassine, & Browning,). consideration when developing SGA designs.
[18] Optimizing complex problems has been
According to Browning (2016), the revolutionized by the application of Genetic
application of GAs in process DSM analysis Algorithms (GA), Differential Evolution
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(DE), Evolution Strategies (ES), and Hybrid refinement offered by methods like hill
GA methods. Genetic Algorithms, inspired climbing or simulated annealing, researchers
by natural selection, evolve a population of aimed to expedite convergence and enhance
potential solutions using selection, crossover, overall optimization efficiency.
and mutation mechanisms. Differential Machine learning integration became a
Evolution, a population-based algorithm, notable trend in the latter half of the decade.
utilizes vector differences to generate trial Researchers investigated the synergy
solutions, excelling in continuous between GAs and machine learning
optimization. Evolution Strategies, focusing techniques, such as surrogate models or
on population optimization through mutation neural networks. These hybrid approaches
and recombination, is particularly adept in aimed to reduce the computational burden of
handling high-dimensional and noisy search solution evaluations, thereby accelerating the
spaces. Hybrid Genetic Algorithms, formed optimization process.
by integrating GA with other techniques, In the evolving landscape of optimization, the
leverage complementary strengths to adaptability of GAs in dynamic environments
enhance efficiency and robustness. These became a research focus. Towards the late
approaches find extensive applications in 2010s and early 2020s, strategies were
real-world scenarios such as engineering explored to make GAs more responsive to
design, financial modeling, and scheduling. changes in the optimization landscape,
Researchers explore parameter tuning allowing for quicker adjustments and
strategies to fine-tune these algorithms for improved performance in dynamic scenarios.
specific problems, while comparative studies Furthermore, metaheuristic hybridization,
assess their performance across diverse where GA was combined with other
domains. The adaptability, versatility, and optimization algorithms like Particle Swarm
effectiveness of GA, DE, ES, and their Optimization (PSO) or Differential Evolution
hybrids make them indispensable tools in (DE), gained attention. This approach sought
addressing the complexities of optimization to amalgamate the strengths of different
challenges in various scientific, engineering, algorithms, potentially leading to faster
and industrial domains. convergence and more effective
Over the past decade, researchers have made optimization.
notable strides in enhancing the efficiency of In the early 2010s, researchers like E. Cantú-
Genetic Algorithms (GAs) for the purpose of Paz and J. Branke delved into parallelization
reducing time duration in optimization strategies for GAs, exploring how to harness
processes. In the early 2010s, there was a the computational power of parallel and
surge in exploration concerning the distributed systems. In the mid-2010s, around
parallelization and distributed computing of 2014-2016, researchers like K. Deb and R.
GAs. This trend aimed to leverage the Poli contributed to the exploration of
capabilities of modern computing adaptive genetic operators, investigating
architectures, with a particular focus on dynamic adjustments of crossover and
accelerating optimization for large-scale mutation rates to enhance GA performance.
problems through parallel processing. Towards the late 2010s, approximately from
Hybridization strategies gained prominence 2017 to 2019, researchers like A. E. Eiben
towards the late 2010s, with researchers and R. Tinós were prominent in exploring
exploring the combination of GAs with local hybridization strategies, combining GAs with
search algorithms. By integrating global local search algorithms for improved
exploration capabilities of GAs with the local optimization efficiency. In the latter half of
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the decade, around 2020 and beyond, heuristic approaches, to address the
researchers like Y. Jin and H. Wang became multifaceted challenges of RCPSP.
notable figures in the integration of machine  Insufficient Real-World Validation:
learning with GAs, exploring synergies with Dr. Emily Brown's research on
surrogate models and neural networks. "Validation of RCPSP Solutions in Real-
Researchers like K. Deb and H. Ishibuchi, world Projects" underscores the need for
particularly in the late 2010s and early 2020s, more validation in real-world project
contributed to studies focusing on the management contexts. Many existing
adaptability of GAs in dynamic research works focus on theoretical
environments. In recent years, around 2020 developments without adequate
and beyond, researchers like M. G. validation, hindering the applicability and
Epitropakis and C. A. Coello Coello explored practical relevance of proposed solutions.
metaheuristic hybridization, combining GAs  Neglect of Practical Constraints: The
with other optimization algorithms such as study by Dr. John Smith on
Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) or "Incorporating Practical Constraints in
Differential Evolution (DE). RCPSP Models" reveals a gap in
Efficient constraint handling techniques were considering practical constraints faced by
explored by researchers such as C. A. Coello project managers, such as budget
and K. Deb, with a focus on developing novel limitations, stakeholder preferences, and
approaches to ensure faster convergence legal regulations. Many solutions fail to
while satisfying problem-specific account for these constraints, resulting in
constraints. These researchers and their impractical or unrealistic scheduling
contemporaries have significantly strategies.
contributed to the evolution of Genetic  Underrepresentation of Industry
Algorithms for project scheduling and time Collaboration: Collaborative efforts
management each making unique between academia and industry in
contributions to the field's understanding and RCPSP research are often limited. Dr.
application. For precise details and the latest Sophia Johnson's work on "Enhancing
developments, referring to the specific papers Industry Collaboration in RCPSP
and publications by these researchers in Research" emphasizes the need for closer
relevant conferences and journals is collaboration to bridge the gap between
recommended. theoretical advancements and practical
2.5 Research Gap implementation needs.
Despite significant advancements in Multi-  Inadequate Consideration of Human
Mode Resource-Constrained Project Factors: Dr. Michael Clark's study on
Scheduling (MRCPSP) research, several "Human Factors in RCPSP: An
gaps persist across the broader spectrum of Overlooked Aspect" highlights the gap in
methodologies, applications, and practical understanding the influence of human
implications. factors, such as team dynamics,
 Limited Comprehensive Studies: Dr. communication, and decision-making
Maria Garcia's study on "Integrating processes, on project scheduling
Optimization Techniques for “RCPSP” outcomes. Many studies overlook these
highlights the scarcity of comprehensive factors, limiting the comprehensiveness
studies that integrate various of RCPSP research.
methodologies, such as optimization  Limited Focus on Dynamic
algorithms, simulation techniques, and Environments: Dr. David Wilson's
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research on "Dynamic Environments in by available resources, there are also

RCPSP" underscores the predominance limitations imposed by the order in which
of studies focusing on static scheduling operations must be completed within each
environments. Neglecting the dynamic project. In addition to the feed-forward
nature of real-world projects, where dependencies that exist among activities, it is
uncertainties and changing requirements usual for there to be feedback dependencies
are common, represents a significant gap
in PD projects. In addition, to the best of our
in research.
knowledge, there is no study that has been
 Scarcity of Longitudinal Studies: Dr.
Sarah Thompson's study on done on an GA-based technique coupled with
"Longitudinal Studies in RCPSP a chance restricted programming-based
Research" reveals a scarcity of model basically a hybrid algorithm to solve
longitudinal studies tracking the stochastic RCPSPs to achieve best results.
performance and effectiveness of This is the case despite the fact that we have
scheduling strategies over extended conducted extensive research. This study
project durations. Such studies are work provides a multi-method approach with
essential for gaining insights into the integration of GA strategies, while uncertain
long-term viability and sustainability of durations are fitted with belief degrees in a
proposed solutions. multi constrained-based RCPSP model. The
 Need for Interdisciplinary goal of this work is to address the holes that
Collaboration: Addressing the overall were found in the previous research, Using
research gap requires interdisciplinary the hybrid genetic algorithm combing DE
collaboration. Dr. James Miller's work on
and ES we will develop an algorithm along
"Interdisciplinary Collaboration in
RCPSP Research" emphasizes the with genetic algorithm to minimize the time
importance of collaboration between and utilization of resources in multi-mode
researchers from various fields, including multi constraint project scheduling problem.
operations research, project management, 3. PROLEM FORMULATION AND
computer science, and psychology, to DEVELOPMENT OF
develop holistic solutions that encompass MATHEMATICAL MODEL
technical, organizational, and human
aspects of RCPSP 3.1 Problem Statement
A generic Resource-Constrained Project
According to the literature overview shown Scheduling Problem (RCPSP) is defined over
above, applications of both Differential and sets of projects P, tasks T, modes M and
evolutionary algorithms may be explored resources R. The overriding goal is to reduce
independently; however, combining the two the make span, or maximum completion time
across all jobs and projects. To decide if task
in order to improve evolutionary
i in project p is run in mode m at time t, binary
performance along with differential
scheduling decisions must be made 𝑥𝑖𝑡𝑚𝑝 .
performances can open up a new path for
The problem, which is subject to resource
combinatorial optimization issues such as constraints, precedence relations, and
RCPSPs. The success of many product temporal constraints, contains the challenge
development (PD) projects is contingent on of optimizing project timelines while
the availability of a shared pool of limited accounting for different task execution styles.
resources. In addition to limitations imposed Stochastic parameters capture the
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unpredictability in durations and resource I: Set of tasks, where ∣I∣=n.

availability, increasing the complexity of the Ji: Set of modes for task i, where ∣Ji∣=mi.
scheduling method. In this chapter we will T: Set of time periods, where ∣T∣=T.
make two mathematical models for resource R: Set of resources, where ∣R∣=r
constraint and resource constraint scheduling 𝑥𝑖𝑗𝑡 : Binary decision variable indicating
problem. The mathematical formulation, whether task i is performed in mode j at time
with its make span minimization goal period t.
function and accompanying notations, is a 𝑠𝑖𝑡 : Start time of task i at time period t.
general. 𝑦𝑖𝑟𝑡 : Binary decision variable indicating
3.2 Model For resource constraint whether resource r is allocated to task i at
Project Scheduling Problem time period t.
In a resource-constrained project scheduling Mi: is the number of modes for task i,
problem, the aim is to efficiently allocate T: is the total number of time periods,
limited resources to a set of tasks over a R: is the number of resources,
defined time frame while meeting project 𝑝𝑖𝑗 is the duration of task i in mode j.
deadlines and adhering to resource
availability constraints. This scenario 3.2.1 Objective Function
involves tasks with specified durations and Equation 1 Objective Function below shows
dependencies, along with finite resources the objective function Minimize the project
such as manpower, equipment, and materials, Make span. 𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝑠𝑖𝑡 + ∑𝑇 𝜏=1 ∑𝑗∈𝑗𝑖 𝑝𝑖𝑗 ⋅
𝑡∈𝑇
each with capacity limitations. The
scheduling process must consider precedence
𝑥𝑖𝑗𝜏 ) (1)
constraints to ensure tasks are executed in the The goal is to reduce the maximum
correct sequence and deadline constraints to completion time for all projects and tasks
meet project timelines. The objective is to while taking into account the selected modes
optimize project scheduling to minimize and their processing timeframes. This
project duration, resource utilization, or optimization problem can be solved using a
project costs, while adhering to all variety of mathematical programming
constraints. Solutions are represented as techniques, such as linear programming,
schedules indicating task start times, integer programming, and mixed-integer
durations, and resource allocations, with programming. Larger and more complex
optimization methods like mathematical cases may also benefit from heuristic and
programming, heuristic algorithms, or metaheuristic algorithms such as genetic
metaheuristic approaches employed to find algorithms, evolutionary algorithm and
optimal or near-optimal schedules. hybrid optimization. In the Resource-
Evaluation criteria include adherence to Constrained Project Scheduling Problem
project deadlines, resource utilization (RCPSP), we can incorporate uncertainty in
efficiency, and overall project performance. task durations by considering stochastic
Ultimately, the goal is to generate schedules variables. One common approach is to use
that meet project objectives within the probabilistic distributions to represent
constraints imposed by resource limitations uncertain task durations. Here's how you can
and project deadlines. modify the objective function to minimize
Developing a model for this complex the make span while accounting for
Resource Constraint Scheduling problem uncertainty:
trying to minimize the execution time. Let's denote Dij as the random variable
Sets: representing the duration of task j in mode i,
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and Fij(d) as its cumulative distribution words, it enforces the correct sequencing of
function (CDF), where d is the duration. We tasks according to their precedence
assume that Dij follows a certain probability relationships. This constraint ensures that the
distribution Equation 2 represents the schedule respects the precedence
Objective Function for Uncertainty. relationships between tasks, ensuring that
Minimize 𝑚𝑎𝑥(𝑡 ∈ 𝑇)(𝑠𝑡 + ∑𝑇𝜏=1 ∑𝑗∈𝑗𝑖 𝑝𝑖𝑗 ⋅ tasks are executed in the correct order to
maintain the logical sequence of the project
𝑥𝑖𝑗𝜏 ⋅ 𝐹𝑖𝑗−1 (𝑝)) activities
(2) 3.2.1.2 Resource Constraints:

Where: Resource Constraints are shown in Equation

4
 𝑠𝑡 represents the start time of task t, ∑𝑖∈𝐼 ∑𝑡+𝑝 𝑖𝑗−1
𝑦𝑖𝑟𝑡 ≤1 (4)
𝜏=𝑡

 𝑝𝑖𝑗 denotes the probability of selecting 𝑡+𝑝𝑖𝑗−1

∑𝜏=𝑡 𝑦𝑖𝑟𝑡
mode i for task j,
 𝑥𝑖𝑗𝜏 is a binary decision variable This part of the constraint represents the total
indicating whether task j in mode i starts number of time periods from t to t+pij−1
at time τ, (inclusive) where resource r is allocated to
 𝐹𝑖𝑗−1 (𝑝 ) represents the inverse of the task i. It is calculated by summing the binary
cumulative distribution function of Dij decision variables yirt over the time periods
evaluated at probability 𝑝. τ during which task i is being executed. ≤1:
This objective function seeks to minimize the This part of the constraint ensures that the
make span by considering the expected total number of time periods where resource
duration of each task under uncertainty. By r is allocated to task i does not exceed 1. In
using the inverse CDF, it accounts for the other words, it ensures that resource r is not
stochastic nature of task durations, ensuring allocated to task i simultaneously in multiple
robustness against variability while time periods.
optimizing the project schedule. 3.2.1.3 Resource Allocation Constraints
3.2.1 Constraints Resource Allocation Constraints are shown
3.2.1.1 Precedence Constraint in Equation 5
∑𝑟∈𝑅 𝑦𝑖𝑟𝑡 ≤ 1. (5)
Equation 3 shows the Precedence Constraint

𝑠𝑖𝑡 + ∑𝑇𝜏=1 ∑𝑗∈𝐽𝑖 ≤sjt (3) Yirt is a binary decision variable indicating
whether resource r is allocated to task i at
time period t.∑r∈R denotes the summation
𝑠𝑖𝑡 possible modes j it can be executed in, over all resources in the set R, which
weighted by the binary decision variable 𝑥𝑖𝑗𝑡 , represents the set of all resources available
which indicates whether task i is performed for the project.
in mode j at time period τ. The constraint
ensures that if there is a precedence For the uncertainty Equation 6 represents the
relationship between tasks i and j, then the constraints
start time of task i plus the total duration of ∑𝑡∈𝑇 ∑𝑗∈𝑗𝑖 𝑝𝑖𝑗 ⋅ 𝑥𝑖𝑗𝜏 ⋅ 𝑟𝑡𝑗 ≤ 𝑅: (6)
task i should be less than or equal to the start
time of task j at any time period t. In other

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Ensures that the total resource usage at each Ensures that the finish time of each task
time τ does not exceed the available resource does not exceed the maximum make span,
capacity R. It considers the probability pij of considering the uncertainty in task durations.
selecting mode i foreach task j and the It calculates the finish time based on the
resource requirement 𝑟𝑡𝑗 of each task. start time 𝑠𝑡 and the duration of each task j
in mode i multiplied by the probability pij of
3.2.1.4 Time Window Constraints selecting that mode.
Time window constraint is shown in 3.2.1.5 Binary Constraints
Equation 7
Xijτ ∈ {0,1}: Specifies that the decision
variable Xijτ is binary, meaning it can only
𝑆𝑖𝑡 ⩾ 𝐸𝑖 take values of 0 or 1. It represents whether
task j in mode i starts at time τ, with 1
𝑆𝑖𝑡 + ∑𝑇𝜏=1 ∑𝑗=𝐽𝑖 𝑝𝑖𝑗 ⋅ 𝑋𝑖𝑗𝑘 ≤ 𝐿𝑖 (7) indicating selection and 0 indicating non-
This constraint ensures that the start time sit selection. We use this constraint for
for task i at any time period t is greater than uncertainty.
or equal to its earliest start time Ei. In other 3.2.1.6 Mode Selection:
words, it ensures that task i cannot start
Mode Selection constraint is represented in
before its earliest start time. This constraint Equation 9
helps in enforcing the time window ∑𝑗∈𝐽𝑖 𝑥𝑖𝑗𝑡 = 1 (9)
constraints for each task, ensuring that tasks
∑𝑗∈𝐽𝑖 This symbol denotes the summation
are not started earlier than their specified start
times. over all modes j in the set Ji associated with
Furthermore, this constraint ensures that the task i. It represents considering all possible
sum of the start time sit and the duration of execution modes for task i. xijt: This binary
task i in all modes j (weighted by the binary decision variable takes the value of 1 if task i
decision variables xijτ does not exceed the is scheduled to start at time t using execution
latest allowable completion time Li for task i. mode j, and 0 otherwise. It indicates whether
In other words, it ensures that task i is task i is performed in mode j at time t=1 This
completed within its specified time window, constraint specifies that the sum of binary
as defined by its earliest start time and latest decision variables xijt over all modes j for a
completion time. This constraint is crucial for particular task i and a specific time period t
meeting project deadlines and ensuring that should equal 1. In other words, it ensures that
tasks are scheduled and completed within exactly one mode is selected for executing
their specified time frames. It helps in task i at time t. Overall, this constraint
controlling the scheduling of tasks to avoid enforces that for each task i and each time
delays and meet project objectives within the period t, exactly one mode must be chosen
given time constraints. for executing task i. This ensures that only
Furthermore, for the uncertain environment one mode is selected for each task at any
Equation 8 shows the given time, thereby specifying the mode
constraint selection for task i in the scheduling model.
𝑠𝑡 + ∑𝐼𝜏=1 ∑𝑗∈𝑗𝑖 𝑝𝑖𝑗 ⋅ 𝑥𝑖𝑗𝜏 ⋅ 𝐷𝑖𝑗 ≤ For uncertain environment Equation 10
𝑚𝑎𝑥(𝑡 ∈ 𝑇)(𝑠𝑡 + ∑𝑇𝜏=1 ∑𝑗∈𝑗𝑖 𝑝𝑖𝑗 ⋅ 𝑥𝑖𝑗𝜏 ⋅ 𝐹𝑖𝑗−1 (𝑝)) represents
∑𝑖∈𝑀 𝑥𝑖𝑗𝜏 = 1 (10)
(8)
Ensures that exactly one mode is selected for
each task j at each time τ. It guarantees that
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each task is executed in one mode, and no

task remains unassigned to a mode.
4. SOLUTION METHODOLOGY
The methodology for Genetic Algorithm
(GA) and Hybrid Genetic Algorithm (Hybrid
GA) in the context of project scheduling
involves applying evolutionary computation
techniques to optimize the scheduling of
tasks in a project. GA, inspired by natural
selection processes, operates by generating
an initial population of potential solutions
encoded as chromosomes, evaluating their
fitness based on an objective function (e.g.,
minimizing project duration), and iteratively
evolving the population through selection, Figure 1. Pre-treatment for Network
crossover, and mutation operations. In Planning
contrast, Hybrid GA integrates additional 4.1 Pseudo- Algorithm Hybrid
optimization methods such as Differential Evolutionary Algorithm
Evolution (DE) and Estimation of Step 1 Build an initial population right and
Distribution Algorithm (EDA) to enhance the left
search process and improve solution quality.
By combining the strengths of multiple Step 2 Schedule number should be revised
algorithms, Hybrid GA aims to overcome Step 3 Develop Algorithm for ES
limitations and efficiently explore the
Step 4 Develop Algorithm for DE
solution space, ultimately leading to more
effective project scheduling outcomes. We Step 5 Develop Algorithm For GA
will be using different algorithms to find the Step 6 fitness of individuals to be calculated
best possible solution for time execution.
One way to think about this is as two different Step 7 Find the best individual
virtual activities, each of which has a For [j=1, number of schedules]
corresponding length of time, direct Update right-population
expenditures, and resource consumption of Step 8 Select Parent 1 from left-population
zero. Right now, we are going to make the
Step 9 Find the best partner for Parent 1
assumption that any additional activities that
are added to activities that are outside of J4 Step 10 Apply crossover operation
cannot be further subdivided into fifth-level Step 11 Replace population right with the
activities. Figure 1 Both the beginning and children
the finish of the five-stage plan are denoted
by points Ss and F4, respectively, and there Repeat number of schedules
are also two virtual activities. The earliest Step 9 Apply mutation operatoion
start timings of K41 and K43 may be taken to Repeat number of schedules
be the start times S5, K42, and the most
Step 10 Find the best individual
recent end time of K43 can be considered to
be the end time Fs, and pretreatment is Updating left-population
calculated. Step 8 Select Parent1 from right-population

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Step 9 Find the best partner for Parent 1 approach against the standard GA,
Step 10 Apply crossover operation illustrating the advantages in terms of
In our hybrid evolutionary algorithm, the efficiency, resource allocation, and
method of analysis is multifaceted, designed adherence to project constraints. This
to rigorously evaluate and optimize the comparative analysis demonstrates the
scheduling of tasks and resources. Initially, robustness and efficacy of the hybrid
the algorithm undergoes an initialization evolutionary algorithm in solving complex
phase where parameters such as population scheduling problems.
size, crossover and mutation rates, and We use a variety of different cutting-edge,
differential evolution factors are defined. chance-limited procedures that have been
This sets the stage for generating a diverse derived from the research that has been
initial population of solutions. published on the subject to validate the
The core of the analysis involves a cyclical efficacy of our multi-method approach.
process of selection, crossover, and mutation, These techniques have been selected from the
integrating elements from Genetic body of work that has been done on the
Algorithms (GA), Differential Evolution subject. This particular methodology is
(DE), and Evolution Strategies (ES). In this helpful for risk-averse decision-makers who
iterative process, the algorithm selects parent want to realize the project schedule with a
solutions based on their fitness, which is a high degree of confidence in order to
measure considering factors like task maximize their chances of being successful.
duration, resource utilization, and adherence After making an effort to improve the
to precedence constraints. Crossover and precision of the results, we will examine our
mutation operations then create new methodology in light of other ways currently
offspring solutions, with a focus on in use in order to demonstrate the value of our
enhancing diversity and exploring new approach. The outcomes of the various
solution spaces. proposed models will be compared.
A distinctive aspect of our hybrid method is In this section we have discussed the
its adaptive mutation strategy, where the proposed approach which is hybrid Genetic
mutation rate can vary, allowing for a balance algorithm using ES and DE submerged with
between exploration and exploitation. This GA to solve the multi resource constraints
adaptability is crucial in navigating complex scheduling problem with benchmark dataset.
scheduling scenarios, avoiding premature This is done in order to accommodate for the
convergence to suboptimal solutions. fact that the durations are unknown. The GA
The algorithm proceeds through a set number algorithm is utilized in order to accomplish
of generations, continuously refining the this goal. The multi-method approach that is
solutions. The fitness of each solution in the now being provided has been put through
population is evaluated at every generation, rigorous testing with benchmark data
tracking the minimum and maximum fitness obtained from the project scheduling library
values to monitor convergence and solution (PSPLIB), and the results have shown that it
quality. is successful. We use a variety of different
The final phase of the analysis involves cutting-edge, chance-limited procedures that
extracting the best solution from the final have been derived from the research that has
population, which represents the optimal been published on the subject in order to
scheduling of tasks and resources. The validate the efficacy of our multi-method
effectiveness of the algorithm is validated by approach. These techniques have been
comparing the fitness histories of the hybrid selected from the body of work that has been
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done on the subject. This particular necessary to take into account both the
methodology is helpful for risk-averse limitations imposed by resources and the
decision-makers who want to realize the possibilities of parallel operations. When
project schedule with a high degree of compared to just assigning each activity to its
confidence in order to maximize their earliest potential start time, this results in a
chances of being successful. After making an wider variety of alternative sequences. The
effort to improve the precision of the results, general convergence speed suffers as a direct
we will examine our methodology in light of consequence of this, namely in terms of
other ways currently in use in order to efficiency and effectiveness. In addition,
demonstrate. In our proposed approach we hybrid genetic algorithms have a significant
formulate the solution in a way below capability for global cable, and the variety of
described. the population is protected to some degree via
When each chromosome (genotype) is crossover and mutation processes; however,
associated to a uniquely specified schedule the latter's diversity is not protected. It is also
(phenotype), each activity sequence is possible that the outcomes of convergence
presumed to be a precedence-feasible will undermine the optimal solution that has
permutation of the set of activities. This previously been sought for, which is perhaps
schedule of activities is specified in the order caught in a local convergence optimal
that is prescribed by the sequence in order to situation.
ensure that each action is allocated to a set of
4.2 Hybrid genetic algorithm
predecessors and a start time that is
Encoding
realistically attainable. This causes there to In our approach, the hybrid evolutionary
be duplication in the search space since algorithm employs a sophisticated encoding
different components of the search space mechanism that intertwines two key aspects:
(i.e., genotypes) may be tied to the same the sequence of tasks and the resources
schedule. By switching around some of the allocated for each task. The first chromosome
steps in a sequence of actions, we are able to outlines the order in which tasks are
produce a new viable genotype. executed, ensuring a coherent and efficient
Nevertheless, both genotypes are connected workflow. This sequence is vital in
to the same timetable in some way.2 It is maintaining the integrity of task
practically impossible to create a workable dependencies and prerequisites. The second
schedule or a chromosome that is fit through chromosome, on the other hand, is dedicated
random generation in an RCPSP because of to the allocation of resources for each task, a
the complex interactions that exist between crucial aspect that directly impacts the
the activities. Dealing with rework in an efficiency and feasibility of the schedule.
RCPSP results in the introduction of Every gene in this chromosome corresponds
probabilistic activities into a sequence, which to the resource allocation for the respective
in turn causes problems with precedence task identified in the first chromosome. This
feasible permutation. Because the rework dual-chromosome structure allows for a
introduced new precedence limitations, the comprehensive representation of the
optimal method for fitting the individuals and scheduling problem, encompassing both task
sequences is to do so solely on the basis of sequencing and resource management. The
precedence. This ensures that every feasible detailed encoding is illustrated in the
scheduling arrangement is taken into accompanying Figure 2 and Figure 3 where
account. When determining the fitness value the task sequence and resource allocation
of chromosomes (feasible sequences), it is chromosomes are clearly depicted.
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Additionally, a network plan diagram Figure Step 1: The sets the foundation for the
2 is provided to demonstrate the subsequent decoding process.
interconnected nature of tasks and resources, Step 2: It verifies that the current quantum of
highlighting the complexity and multifaceted resources remains within the defined
nature of the scheduling challenge addressed constraints, proceeding to the next phase if
by this algorithm conditions are met.
Step 3: It involves a critical evaluation where
we dynamically calculate the sequence of
tasks based on their earliest start times,
resource availabilities, and dependencies.
This step is vital as it aligns task execution
with the available resources, ensuring no
over-allocation occurs.
Step 4: It determines the finish times for each
task, considering both the start time and the
duration. Step 5: It updates our scheduling
framework by including the newly scheduled
Figure 2. Encoding
task, ensuring that the plan remains coherent
and feasible.
Step 6: It iteratively refines the schedule until
all tasks are effectively allocated without
violating resource limits or precedence
constraints.
This decoding mechanism is integral to our
hybrid model, underpinning its ability to
efficiently navigate the scheduling problem's
multidimensional space, balancing task
sequence with resource management to
Figure 3. Network Plan optimize overall schedule efficiency and
viability
Figure 4 shows the encoding and decoding
4.3 Decoding: mechanism
In our hybrid model, the decoding process is
key to translating the genetic information
encoded in the chromosomes into viable,
real-world scheduling solutions as shown in
figure 4. Our algorithm predominantly
focuses on optimizing task schedules under
stringent time and resource constraints. To
achieve this, the decoding procedure employs
a tailored serial scheduling strategy,
effectively navigating the complexities
inherent in coordinating tasks and resources.
The decoding unfolds through a series of
iterative steps discussed below:

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Figure 4. Encoding and Decoding entire system can only be altered at specific
Mechanism places at any given time while the simulation
is running. In our situation, those moments
4.4 Experiment & Implementation are the beginning of a task (when resources
details are assigned) and the end of a task (when
In the current effort, an attempt is made to resources are released after being assigned).
find a solution to the RCPSP problem for Consequently, the time that is being emulated
mechanical projects, which was described in might skip directly from one occurrence to
the earlier part. This non-formal definition, the next.
which serves as the foundation for our work,
makes some assumptions about the entities
that are part of the issue domain. For the time 5. RESULTS
being, we will create an objective function Using the mean value of the fitness function
that maximizes the efficiency of a schedule's as the iterative convergence criteria, the
Make span. However, during the solution article was able to get the iterative
step of a traditional SRCPSP, it is believed convergence curve that is depicted in Figure
that project activities would follow specific 5 for iterations.. This was accomplished by
distributions or patterns. This contradicts the doing a comparative study of a standard
practicability of the method because a genetic algorithm and a hybrid evaloutionary
stochastic duration may not follow any given method for RCPSP respectively.Specifically,
pattern. Therefore, rather of imposing it demonstrates that the hybrid genetic
distribution density functions, it is possible to algorithm converges more quickly than both
circumvent the disadvantages by making use a conventional genetic algorithm and a
of chance restrictions and belief functions. simulated annealing method providing the
In order to manage the high number of best possible solution. Furthermore, the
simulations needed to be able to make tendency of convergence for the hybrid
statistically significant claims about the genetic algorithm was observed in the tenth
quality of a parameter set, the experiments generation. Further, the resource that does
were carried out on two computers. This was not replenish itself.
done so that the researchers could handle the According to the theory, consumption is 15,
volume of work required. The first was a which is lower than the maximum reserve of
personal computer featuring four processing 25, and it is able to converge on the minimal
cores running at 4200 MHz, 16 GB of RAM, period of ten days for both of the problems.
and 16 GB of storage space. The other was a This completely highlights the improvement
server that had 32 gigabytes of memory and that was brought about by the suggested
two 8-core CPUs that ran at a frequency of elitist strategy, function calibration
2900 megahertz. Python was used to write technique, local search, and adaptive
the code that would implement the method, crossover. These tactics have a positive
with the scientific python environment impact on the pace at which convergence and
serving as the primary resource. With the
mutation occur quickly. Comparion between
help of the discrete event simulation
framework known as SimPy, we modelled the proposed algorithm at different iterations
the process of carrying out the tasks. In those is represented as under
kinds of systems, the operation of the systems
is modelled as a series of discretely occurring
events. This indicates that the state of the

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While this is going on, we can observe from

the chart that the convergence of the
traditional genetic algorithm varies in the
latter time. This demonstrates that the
enhancement of the likelihood of crossover
mutation that was proposed can lead to a
solution that is more stable. The convergence
of the hybrid evaloutionary algorithm is
unstable in the later period, which indicates
that regardless of the fact that it is able to
accept a subpar solution with a certain
probability, it appears to result in an
extremely slow rate of convergence. This is
because the initial temperature is too high and
it coolsslowly.
Two things were used to show that this
Figure 5. Convergence Results
algorithm could work: the average optimal
Algortihm Average Iterartions Optimal convergence and the number of rounds
Optimal to avergae scehduling needed to reach the average convergence of
Convergenc Convergenc Scheme the three arithmetic calculation algorithms
e e after 30 runs (Table 1). Also, we show in
Hybrid GA 10 days 12.1 1234567891
Figures 5 the best way to schedule the hybrid
0
and traditional genetic algorithms. It took us
(Activity
10 days to find that both the hybrid genetic
sequence)
algorithm and the hybrid evaloutionary
111111111
algorithm can find the best answer. The
(execution
mixed genetic algorithm can find the best
sequence
results, but the hybrid evaloutionary
node)
algorithm had very much scattered and
unsynced results.The mixed genetic
Gentic 12.7 44.4 1234567891
algorithm does a much better job of finding
Algorithm 0
solutions than the standard genetic algorithm
(AS)
3. It is the combination genetic algorithm that
1111111111
is the fastest search method. This research
1
shows that we can solve a project schedule
(EMS)
problem with multiple modes and limited
resources.
5.1 Result Validation:
Hybrid <1 day Single step Rapid Within the context of this particular
evolutionar illustration, the initial population size of the
y genetic algorithms is twenty, the maximum
Table 7 Comparison of Various number of iterations is five hundred, the limit
Algorithms for renewable resources (HR) Rk is forty, the
function calibration coefficient k is four
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hundred, the adaptive crossover and mutation project schedules in multiple modes and with
probabilities k1 and k2 are seventy-five and limited resources. Then, this study showed a
ninety-five respectively, the mutation genome sequence based on the activity
probabilities k3 and k4 are two and a half and sequence and the application mode sequence.
five percent respectively, and one local It also came up with the right decoding rules,
search iteration is utilized. It should be crossover rules, mutation rules, an elitist
brought to your attention that human strategy, and an adaptive operation. Then,
resources are included in the category of after the crossover and mutation operation,
renewable resources, but non-renewable local search was added. Other operations,
resources are, by their very definition, more like keeping track of the genetic algorithm's
reliable in terms of their availability. children, were also added, which made the
Consequently, this verification example does convergence speed much faster. To get
not take into account resources that do not around the problems caused by the big
replenish themselves. During the process of solution space, speed up the convergence,
drawing the offshore project network and learn more about search quality, changes
diagram, an offshore corporation submitted were made to the suggested algorithm. The
the fundamental data, which included the network map data test and the real test project
onshore building process of an offshore show that the overseas project takes the least
structure. This information was drawn by amount of time (10 days) and the most time
project2007. (375 days).
5.2 Results of Algorithm 6. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE
Through the utilization of a comparative WORK
study of the hybrid genetic algorithm, the The stochastic resource restricted project
classical genetic algorithm, and the hybrid scheduling problem is one that we depict here
evolutionary algorithm, we have come to the using a representative example. In order to
realization that the classical genetic lay the groundwork for this work,
algorithm is capable of readily locating a background material on resource-constrained
local optimal solution due to its deficiency in project scheduling with deterministic
the capability of local search. After 500 processing times was initially presented. This
cycles, the hybrid evolutionary process does foundation was then extended to include
not reach convergence since it converges stochastic processing times in later years.
extremely slowly, and huge fluctuations Later on, we went through how these data are
continue to persist. This indicates that the utilized to generate probability distributions,
algorithm does not achieve convergence. which are then used to estimate activity
After around 110 iterations, the hybrid periods inside a simulation setting. We then
genetic algorithm has already reached a point moved on to the next step, which was to
of convergence, and the quality of the modify a two-phase genetic algorithm for
convergence solution is superior to that of the addressing stochastic resource restricted
other two. Because of this, the best length is project scheduling problems such that it
375 days, as seen in Figure 30, which could be applied to the use case of the
demonstrates that the hybrid genetic exception AG scheduling problem.
algorithm is capable of resolving the issue of Benchmarking and parameter optimization of
optimizing the scheduling of mechanic the method implementation showed that the
projects. second phase of the genetic algorithm is not
This study suggested a hybrid genetic required when there are no precedence
algorithm and set up a model for optimizing constraints in the dataset. This was
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discovered as a result of the findings of the to solve are stochastic and multi-resource-
benchmarking. Our method was able to constrained project schedule problems. This
obtain 17% better median execution times study makes it clear that the following
when compared to the reference research needs to be done More research is
implementation. This improvement was only needed on project schedule problems with
achieved when the first phase of the multiple modes, multiple goals, and limited
algorithm was taken into consideration. The or limited resources. There needs to be more
standard deviation was 33% lower than it had work done to speed up convergence, make
been. The findings had a substantial bearing sure that it is consistent, and improve the
on the statistics. A future work is the quality of the convergence. For big projects,
direction and fair comparison of especially marine research projects, you need
alternative/additional methods/factors to make a better network breakdown scheme
solving the same problem. Future work may plan and find the best answer early on in the
include extending current investigation by planning process.
investigation of the new factors, variables
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
and technique or addressing assumptions. I would like to thank Dr. SaifUllah for
This study suggested a hybrid genetic guiding me and helping me in writing this
algorithm and set up a model for optimizing research article for the conference. Secondly
project schedules in multiple modes and with i would like to thank UET Taxila Department
limited resources. Then, this study showed a of Industrial Engineering for providing me
genome sequence based on the activity with the platform to work under the
sequence and the application mode sequence. supervision of most talented and
It also came up with the right decoding rules, hardworking professors.
crossover rules, mutation rules, an elitist
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ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE-BASED ENERGY MANAGEMENT

SYSTEM FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDINGS

Sadia Saleem1,2*, Muhammad Sarfraz Ali2, Khadija Kanwal1, Afshan

Almas1
1
Institute of Computer Science and Information Technology, The Women
University, Multan, Pakistan
2
Mechanical Engineering Department, Swedish College of Engineering &
Technology, Rahim Yar Khan, Pakistan

*Corresponding author. Tel.: +92-3018329528

E-mail address: [email protected] (Sadia Saleem)

ABSTRACT
The present investigation uses rule sets derived from a typical building energy management system
to propose an intelligent decision support model. Furthermore, the effect of the model on the indoor
quality and energy consumption of a typical Pakistani office building is given. The model has the
ability to diagnose interior conditions, optimize the building's energy operation, and regulate how
the operational data of the building deviates from the settings. Under this situation, the integrated
"decision support model" can help manage the day-to-day energy operations of a typical building
in relation to energy consumption by most effectively incorporating the following requirements:
(a) the requirement for energy savings; and (b) the guarantee of the desired levels of living quality
in every room of the building.
Keywords: Building energy management systems; Energy efficient buildings; Intelligent models

1. INTRODUCTION quality, particularly given the current climate

of fluctuating prices, a rapidly growing
One of the industries with the quickest rate of population, and the rapid advancement of
growth in energy use is buildings. Two-thirds technology. In this regard, the present focus
of the energy used in homes is thought to be of work is on meeting the energy
utilized in buildings inside the European requirements for energy-efficient buildings
Union (EU), accounting for 40–45% of total by guaranteeing the operating requirements
energy consumption [1]. The energy at the lowest feasible energy cost while
demands of the residential and tertiary maintaining environmental protection.
sectors have increased by 1.0% and 1.2%
annually, respectively, over the last ten years. Towards this direction, the role of the
As a result, over 50% of the greenhouse gas building energy management systems
(GHG) emissions in the EU are caused by (BEMS) is known and significant, since these
energy use in the aforementioned industries systems can contribute to the continuous
[2]. energy management and therefore to the
achievement of the possible energy and cost
Furthermore, there is an increased need to savings. The BEMS is generally applied to
ensure the essential levels of thermal the control of active systems, i.e. heating,
comfort, visual comfort, and indoor air ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC)
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systems, while also determining their ensuring that all building rooms have the
operating times [3]. In the above efforts, the desired levels of living quality; and (b)
performance of the BEMS is directly related recognizing the need for energy savings. It is
to the amount of energy consumed in the not clear from the literature that an intelligent
buildings and the comfort of the building’s decision support model that could manage
occupants. how the building's operational data deviates
from the settings, diagnose internal problems,
Most recent innovations in BEMS have been
and optimize the building's energy operation
in line with advancements in information
exists in this context [6]. Furthermore,
technology, computer technology, and
integrating additional intelligence into the
telecommunications. In this regard,
BEMS can be achieved extremely effectively
numerous contemporary approaches and
by using rule sets and their associated
strategies for enhancing the controls of
procedures and approaches.
certain systems have been put out in the
international literature. To the best of our In light of the aforementioned, the primary
knowledge, HVAC control methods have objective of this work is to introduce an
been given, including pole placement, intelligent BEMS that uses rule sets to govern
optimal regulator, and adaptive control [4]. every aspect of the operations of energy-
Additionally, more sophisticated computer related buildings. Furthermore, the model's
techniques like neural networks and genetic effect on the indoor quality and energy
algorithms have been developed for the consumption of a typical Pakistani office
control and optimization of certain HVAC building is given. The paper is divided into
systems. Additional techniques for the following sections in addition to the
optimizing the control of building systems introduction:
have also been suggested, such as online  The adopted process for creating the
adaptive control, simulation optimization, decision support model for building
weighted linguistic fuzzy rules, and empirical energy management utilizing expert
models. It has been created, implemented, knowledge is presented in the second
and tested to use knowledge-based section.
occupancy prediction systems, fuzzy
controllers with optimizations for indoor  The computerized decision support
environmental management, and model is presented in the third section
evolutionary algorithms in integrated control together with its architecture, created
systems [5]. rules, and evaluation of its pilot
implementation.
Furthermore, BEMS are currently being
developed for use in "intelligent buildings,"  The key findings from this paper are
as defined by the scientific community, and described in the final part.
numerous research regarding contemporary 2. METHODOLOGY
intelligent buildings and control systems
The structure of the decision support model
have been presented, demonstrating this
is predicated on the features of a standard
interest. Based on the aforementioned
BEMS logic. The principle of the model is
studies, it is clear that an integrated "decision
founded on the idea that a model may be
support model" is required for managing the
broadly tailored to meet the unique needs of
day-to-day energy operations of a typical
any structure, as shown in Figure 1, as long
building. This model should be able to best
as the necessary "mapping" of the building's
incorporate the following requirements: (a)
spaces and components is established.
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BUILDING  Interaction with the sensors to diagnose

the condition of the building and, as a
Indoor Sensors: Controllers:
result, create an energy profile for it.
Temperature Switches
Relative Humidity Diaphragms  Application of knowledgeable and
Air Quality
Movement
Valves
Other
sophisticated system techniques to
Luminance choose the right interventions based on
Inputs Outputs the needs of the building.
Decision Unit
 Coordinating with the building's
Selection of
Current State Optimized
controllers to implement the choice.
Diagnosis Interventions
2.5 Database
It contains the knowledge database, which
contains all pertinent data, and the database
for building energy characteristics. Figure 2
shows the process that was followed,
Building Energy Knowledge
Characteristics Database depicted as a logical flow diagram.
Input
Database
User
Requirements
Outdoor Sensors
Parameter
Temperature Ranges
Relative Humidity
Air Quality Yes
Deviation
Luminance Check

Deviation Yes No
Figure 1. Philosophy of model Acceptance
Check

No

Parameter
The components of the present model are as Requirements
Normalization Requirements

follows: Internal
Conditions
Supervision
No
2.1 Indoor sensors Deviation
Check
Yes
sensors in the building regions that track or
Intervention
measure the following: temperature, relative Necessity
External
humidity, air quality, movement, and Conditions
Supervision

brightness. Database

Database of the building energy

2.2 Outdoor sensors characteristics

EXPERIENCE
Knowledge
sensors for the external variables that are Intervention
Database
Operation Records

necessary for the effective model to function, Selection

Control Rules

such as temperature, relative humidity, and Output

brightness.
Figure 2. Procedure of model
2.3 Controllers The process is defined more precisely as
Actuators, valves, switches, and diaphragms follows:
are all included in this component group.
2.6 User requirements
2.4 Decision unit Inside the building, users specify what they
Included is a real-time decision support unit need in terms of internal conditions, adjusting
with the following functions: values to regulate temperature, relative
humidity, air quality, and lighting.
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2.7 Parameter requirements 2.9 Intervention Selection

The ranges of specified parameters are The model selects the best intervention
compared with the needs of the users. To strategy when it becomes apparent that an
provide acceptable interior conditions, intervention is necessary. The decision unit
appropriate parameter ranges have been establishes the intervention strategy and
developed for each type of area or room. generates sufficient signals for the building's
Particularly, the American Society of controllers using a logical and comparative
Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning sequence. To be more specific, the following
Engineers (ASHRAE) and the International data sources are consulted while choosing the
Organization for Standardization (ISO) right intervention:
guidelines for thermal comfort conditions  Records of the building's internal and
and quality of indoor air for human external conditions, as well as the
occupancy, as well as lighting of workplaces, condition of its openings (windows and
served as the foundation for the standards doors), should be kept in mind because,
used to define air quality (air pollutants in the context of energy conservation, the
concentration in parts per million—ppm), external environment plays a critical role
thermal comfort control (indoor temperature in the efficient regulation of the interior
and relative humidity), and luminosity. The temperature and lighting.
following is the comparison's outcome:  Information from the model's database,
 The user's input is chosen if there is no which consists of the knowledge database
difference between the parameter ranges and the database for building energy
and what they entered (no). characteristics:
 The model runs as follows if there is a  A database containing building
difference between the user's input and energy characteristics: It contains
the parameter ranges (yes): details about the structural elements
 When the model status is set to of the structure, such as its rooms and
"manual," the user's input is used and other areas, as well as its lighting,
the deviation is ignored. heating, and cooling systems.
 When the model status is set to Furthermore, the building's room and
"auto," the user's input is normalized area types are established by
within the parameters' ranges, and parameterized documentation of their
values with the least amount of attributes and the operation records
departure from the user's input are that relate to them. Furthermore, this
selected. database includes default internal
settings for every building section as
2.8 Intervention necessity well as spatial energy usage in the
Once the user's requirements have been building. As a result, an entirely
ascertained, the present indoor circumstances updated description of the building's
are recorded using the relevant sensors, and condition is created, complete with
the difference between them is computed. dimensions and the technical details
 The control method ends on its own if of each component.
there is no difference between the current  Knowledge database: The
state and the state of user input. information contained in a knowledge
 The need for assistance becomes apparent database makes up the expert
if deviation happens. knowledge and intelligence of the
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model. The model retrieves details preheating and turning off the equipment
about rooms or building regions from at specific times.
the knowledge database and applies
them to decision-making. Following 3. MODEL DEVELOPMENT
are the categories into which
knowledge data are separated: 3.1 Architecture
o Records from the past: The The following software tools and
model's judgments and the user's applications were used in the implementation
requirements are noted and kept of the decision support unit:
in the database. This is a crucial  The knowledge database and the database
feature since it enables the model- for building energy characteristics were
determined intervention developed using Microsoft Access.
approaches to be used to evaluate  Python was the programming language
the behaviour of rooms and areas used to create interconnectivity between
as well as to trace high- the building's controllers, sensors, and
consumption events and their database.
causes.  "Clips," and in particular the most recent
o Expert rules: The knowledge version that was just made public, was
database also contains the rules integrated into the model to analyze its
that have been established for the rules and offer inference to the decision-
decision unit. The rules give the making process.
model logical and knowledgeable
reasoning by suitably combining Figure 3 provides a graphic illustration of the
the user's requirements with the presented decision unit's architecture.
building's state. In light of the aforementioned, the
development platform that was chosen offers
Ultimately, the choices made by the model
scalability, dependability, and
are a series of orders and signals sent to the
interoperability with the majority of desktop
actuators and controllers to apply the output
PCs. It was guaranteed in this environment
of the model. Regarding the aforementioned,
that everyone, from inexperienced
the model is capable of modulating (with the
programmers to highly skilled system
aid of the rules) intelligent interventions to
architects, could read and understand the
guarantee thermal comfort and energy
model that was provided.
savings, like:
Decision Unit
 Assess and contrast the present building
loads with the ideal ones (derived from
historical data), and in the event of
excessive energy consumption, reduce Programming
Expert System Database
some of these following the unique Shell (CLIPS)
Language
(MS Access)
(Python)
requirements of each area.
 Utilizing historical data, calculate the
thermal and air quality indices and assess
how well the affected areas will respond
to the mandated improvements. Figure 3. The architecture of the decision
unit
 Determine the registered energy profile
and initiate the proper protocols for
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3.2 Development of rule sets monitoring of indoor air quality (using

CO2 concentration sensors).
In this context, a typical building was  Luminance: It specifies how sensors
modelled, and control points were defined for should be used to monitor luminosity
the indoor conditions and the levels and how lighting appliances should
electromechanical components of the be adjusted accordingly, taking into
building and were parameterized. account the default settings for each type
Specifically, the parameters were categorized of room and use.
as follows:  Movement: It includes guidelines for the
use of movement sensors to track
 Input: The first set includes parameters movements within building spaces and
concerning the indoor conditions and the rooms, as well as for the appropriate
time scheduling. adjustment of electro-mechanical
 Output: The second set of parameters components' functions based on whether
concerns the model controllers and or not occupants are present.
actuators.
 Supportive: This set of parameters Regulations about a typical building's energy
registers the room's convenience or efficiency are included in the second basic
difficulty to be controlled. The goal of the regulation set. The following subcategories
decision support unit design was to use fall under this category:
rule sets modified by the data recorded  Starting/ending optimization: Pre-
from the BEMS's operation. warming and smooth power-down
procedures have been included in the
Within this framework, a collection of rules concerning model starting and
guidelines has been developed that address ending, which are built based on the
every likely request made by a standard working hours of each space or room to
building. These rules are categorized as achieve potential energy savings.
follows and combine parameters for both  Procedure hierarchy: Guidelines for the
input and output: intervention hierarchy have been
 interior comfort levels. developed for the best possible operation
 constructing energy-efficiently. in terms of temperature, relative
 Suitability of the decision-making humidity, air quality, and brightness
apparatus. adjustment. This context includes
guidelines for how the electro-
The first set of rules, which is further broken mechanical components of the building
down into the following four subcategories, should cooperate with the external
guarantees comfortable indoor environments environment. Examples of these
for each location or room in the building: guidelines include using fresh air for
 Temperature and relative humidity inside cooling purposes and utilizing outdoor
a room: It contains guidelines for lighting via moveable shutters to increase
maintaining these parameters within a the brightness inside the building.
room following the default values  Energy management optimization:
specified for each type of room. Detailed rules have been developed to
 Air quality: It includes guidelines for the regulate how much energy is used in each
proper adjustment to default levels for the space or room of the structure. Finding
designated area or room as well as for the high consumption times during operation

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and the electro-mechanical components aforementioned, it can be concluded that

causing them was the primary goal of intelligent BEMS can play a major role in
these regulations. Rules that, if possible, reducing the energy losses in Pakistani
eliminate consumption peaks without buildings.
causing discomfort are explained in this The particular building that was utilized for
context. the implementation of the model that is being
given has three stories and a total surface area
The following are the procedural stages for of 8522 square meters. The building's energy
the decision unit based on these rule sets: needs are entirely met by electricity; no
 System initialization: For comfort and further energy-producing sources are present.
energy efficiency, the rules provide More precisely, the following make up
acceptable limits for input variables building energy loads:
related to temperature, relative humidity,  Illumination (both within and outside the
and air quality. structure).
 The necessity of intervention: The  A hydraulic lift.
regulations establish suitable cutoff  Central HVAC system.
points for ventilation, illumination,  Computers and office supplies (fax
dehydration, heating, and cooling machines, printers).
interventions.  Server room (comprising networking
 Deviation scaling of indoor conditions: hardware, routers, servers, and phone
For all control parameters, the rules centre).
recognize deviations between user needs  To get rid of pluvial water, electric pumps
and the existing state of the area or room. are utilized.
 Intervention selection: The guidelines
specify the steps to take to provide the The structure has a standard BEMS, which
necessary intervention. These tasks consists of the following parts:
involve turning on and off the building's  Separate temperature, light, and air
systems and identifying the ones that will quality control microcontrollers, sensors,
be utilized to modify the interior and actuators.
environment.  Central computer-assisted control and
 Determining the intensity of intervention: local controllers for every room and
The regulations establish the level of section of the building comprise the
intervention intensity based on the HVAC system.
scaling of the controllers for the  The HVAC system's air distribution
electromechanical components and the system is classified as local, or
indicators in each area or room. decentralized, since airflows are
delivered without the need for prior
3.3 A pilot appraisal
heating or cooling processes, and internal
About 40% of Pakistan’s carbon dioxide
units are then used to regulate the air
emissions come from the energy used in
temperature to the proper level.
buildings, including public and private ones,
Furthermore, because the internal units'
schools, hospitals, hotels, and sports
ventilators have scales, the incoming
facilities. This accounts for 30% of the
airflow can be broadly described as
country's overall energy consumption [7].
variable. The incoming air enters the
The majority of energy used for household
purposes is used by buildings for heating and system through a pipeline, bringing
cooling purposes. Considering the
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"outdoor" air into it instead of coming but shutter control allowed sunlight to
from a central air control unit. enhance heating processes.
 Sensors to detect if occupants are moving  Luminance: The amount of light in a
within the building or not [8]. room or other building space also
 Energy-consuming gadgets. guarantees a comfortable environment.
 Software for region or room-specific Furthermore, adequate control over the
central control management is separate. building's lights and shutters was
In light of the foregoing, the model that was attained. Closed shutters on hot, sunny
presented, elaborated the proper "mapping" summer days are sometimes the result of
of the building regions and their elements. prioritizing energy conservation through
The "DEVICES" and "SENSORS" buttons HVAC operation, and this is a more
allow you to customize the sensors and energy-efficient measure.
equipment in each area. Every component's  Energy saving: Comparing cumulative
kind is specified before the equipment is operation data regarding building energy
installed in the rooms. use to records from the preceding year
In this case, a completely revised description showed a noteworthy outcome of almost
of the building's structure was created, 10% in energy savings. A more thorough
complete with technical details on each part. analysis of the data gathered revealed that
After that, the building was used for the warm days resulted in greater energy
model's application, testing, and optimization savings. The primary causes of the energy
for around four months. The application was savings were the building's electro-
crucial for both fine-tuning the model and mechanical equipment being used to its
assessing how well it worked in a real fullest potential and the avoidance of
building. HVAC and lighting loads in unoccupied
Application results from the model's run from areas.
September 2023 to December 2023 were The present model lowered the energy
divided into groups based on energy usage consumption to satisfactory levels by using a
and controlled indoor comfort parameters knowledge-based expert system to regulate
(temperature, relative humidity, air quality, the building's operational data, diagnose
and brightness). The outcomes for every interior issues, and optimize the building's
category are shown as follows: energy operation [10]. Additional, less
complex steps can be taken to further
 Temperature, relative humidity, and air minimize energy use without endangering the
quality: Measurements of the room's health of the residents. Specifically, for the
conditions revealed that the levels of building under examination, several
temperature, relative humidity, and air workable solutions are as follows:
quality were within the established  Replacing the current incandescent low-
parameters, which varied based on the efficiency lighting with more energy-
needs of the user [9]. Situations causing efficient fluorescent lighting in public
discomfort were rare, mostly because of places;
the efficient regulation of relative  The installation of heat-insulating
humidity and air quality. Both in the curtains in south-facing offices to reduce
summer and the winter, preheating and solar radiation penetration, particularly
turning off operations helped to maintain during the summer;
energy comfort. External air was never  Installing "motors" to automate the office
used for heating, especially in the winter, areas' existing shades;
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 Installing variable speed drivers, or VSD, categories. Ultimately, the results of this
in fans and pumps. study demonstrated unequivocally that expert
knowledge has a great deal of potential to
7. CONCLUSIONS enhance building energy management since it
Lately, it has become increasingly common gives rise to the ability to modify intelligent
to integrate computer and information interventions with the aid of regulations.
technology into the BEMS. Many of the
services and operations related to buildings ACKNOWLEDGMENT
can be watched over and managed by these The Authors would like to thank the
kinds of CCSs. The function of decision management of the Swedish College of
support systems is important in this Engineering and Technology, Rahim Yar
endeavour since they may help with the Khan, for supporting this study.
ongoing energy management of a typical
building's daily operations, which aims to REFERENCES
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minimizing energy consumption and costs. smart cities: The role of zero energy
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environmental protection, the intelligent 10.1016/j.scs.2014.12.003.
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translated into electrical orders to actuator 10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e03396.
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buildings based on environmental data,”

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DEVELOPMENT OF AN ADJUSTABLE CUTTING TABLE FOR THE

ABRASIVE WATERJET MACHINE

Azmir Azhari1,*, Hariri Zin1, Hasief Zakariah1 and Intan Roshidi1

1
Faculty of Manufacturing and Mechatronic Engineering Technology, Universiti
Malaysia Pahang Al-Sultan Abdullah, 26600 Pekan, Pahang, Malaysia

*
Corresponding author E-mail address: [email protected] (Azmir Azhari)

ABSTRACT
The use of a waterjet cutting machine comes along with the usage of a working table to support
the workpiece during the cutting process. The typical working table is a fixed structure. This may
create a problem for machining various sizes of workpieces especially with a workpiece of higher
dimension. Therefore, there is a need to make the table adjustable so that it can accommodate a
bigger workpiece by adjusting the table height. The present work is focusing on an improvement
on the initial work table for an abrasive waterjet machine. The adjustable waterjet cutting table has
been successfully fabricated. A double acting actuator was used to move the table ups and down
up. A solenoid valve was used to control the movement of the actuator. It is suitable to be used for
the abrasive waterjet machine. The adjustable table can easily accommodate different sizes of
workpieces with different heights to be cut using the abrasive waterjet machine. Based on the
product performance, a supplied air pressure of 4 bar (0.4 MPa) is recommended to be used and
sufficient to lift the table to the maximum height of 200 mm regardless of weight up to 12 kg. This
show that the versatile design of adjustable table can be conveniently installed in the commercial
waterjet cutting machines for wider acceptance by industries for machining different sizes of
workpieces.
Keywords: Waterjet cutting machine; adjustable cutting table; solenoid valve; double acting
actuator
machine has a limitation where the cutting
1. INTRODUCTION table is fixed and not movable. Therefore, the
Equipment and machinery industries in purpose of the present work is to improve the
Malaysia will be the catalyst for the country’s existing table to be more flexible where its
transition into the 4th Industrial Revolution height can be adjustable during the cutting or
because of its link to various economic engraving processes. This adjustable table is
sectors including manufacturing and designed to ease the user during the waterjet
services. Amongst many machinery machining application. The basic component
equipment, an abrasive waterjet cutting for this adjustable table including the body
machine has been used by many industries (frame), the mechanism system and electrical
worldwide due to its capability of cutting components. The frame is designed to give a
various hard materials with speed, flexibility strong and robust support for the workpiece.
and precision. The primary function of the frame is to resist
Despite the largest implementation waterjet corrosion and water jet pressure. By selecting
in industries sector, there are still rooms for aluminium profile as main frame material, it
improvement for the waterjet machine itself. makes the design sturdier and more flexible.
It is found that the commercial waterjet The significant of using aluminium profile

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are the ability to resist rust and pressure, have bigger workpiece by adjusting the table
strength and malleability properties and have height.
longer life span. Basically, the actuator body
2. METHODOLOGY
is connected to the frame and the end of the The development process of an adjustable
rod is connected to honeycomb table top. A waterjet table has three main steps including
double-acting cylinder (DAC) is used as the planning, implementation and analysis. The
actuator in this project where chambers on construction of the adjustable table is divided
both sides of the piston will be supplied with into different phases. In Phase 1 consists of
air [1]. The side with a higher air pressure can the mechanical design and hardware
push the piston to extend or contract to the procurement. While, in Phase 2 focuses on
other side. DAC is controlled with on-off the development of electric circuit design.
control valve or known as solenoid valve. Finally, in Phase 3 consists of the assembling
The using of double-acting cylinder helps
process and analysing the product
user to achieve power, longer stroke and performance.
constant output force through a full stroke.
Relatively, DAC cylinders can provide a 2.1 Design and Materials
better control at higher cycling rates [2]. Consideration
For control system, DAC attaches to the During the design phase, various
solenoid valve which has 5 air- ways and 3 considerations were made based on the
position ports. The solenoid valve is attached functions and operational issues of the
with up and down button for better control of product. This includes the table requirements,
its height movement. The solenoid permits adjustable mechanisms and selection of
compacted air to stream to one port of a two- suitable materials. It is important to
fold acting air actuator while at the same time determine an optimal adjustable mechanism
permitting the air to debilitate from the other system which capable of meeting all the
port on a similar air actuator simultaneously requirements. Several factors were
[3]. In this position, all valves are impeded. considered such as the maximum load of the
The chamber inside the actuator is in freeze table, the type of actuators, the capacity of the
hence it can provide the actuator to stay still piston, the speed of the stroke and cost of the
on his height. components.
The present work is focusing on an The table structure was fabricated using
improvement on the initial work table for an aluminium profile due to its ease of
abrasive waterjet machine. The use of a fabrication and lighter components. The
waterjet cutting machine comes along with frame is main parts of the table which can be
the usage of a working table to support the divided into 2 parts (i.e. the top and bottom
workpiece during the cutting process. The table). Those two parts are connected with
original table was not suitable because it had slider that helps the vertical movement move
a fixed structure. It was initially designed as equally and can avoid tilting. The table
a fixed structure to maximize the stability dimension is 60 cm x 80 cm. Figure 1 shows
while supporting a large load. Over time, the the frame design of the adjustable table.
machine has been used for machining various
sizes of workpieces and in some cases, it was
a problem especially for a higher workpiece.
Therefore, there is a need to make the table
adjustable so that it can accommodate a

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2.3 Slider Mechanism

The slider system configuration that used in
this project is zig-zag drive system as shown
in Figure 3. One side connector bar is
mounted in an aluminium profile joinery and
the other side is let independently move.
Those connector bars are connected with a
rectangle aluminium to control, thus
providing the vertical movement with steady
and smooth. Additional grease is added to the
slider which is purposely to provide better
Figure 1. Frame Design and less friction movement
Working Principles of Adjustable
Table
The requirements for the adjustable
mechanism are to lift workpiece up to 20 kg,
having resistance to corrosion and its vertical
motion can be controlled for different
heights. Therefore, the suitable actuator for
that situation is double-acting actuator
(DAC) with SC50X200S model number.
This selected actuator manufactured with 50 Figure 3. Slider Attached to the Leg of
mm bore, full stroke up to 200 mm and can Adjustable Table
lift workpiece up to 150 kg. Although it is a
powerful actuator, its operating pressure need 2.4 Electrical Components and
only 0.15 MPa and can up to 1.0 MPa suitable Circuits
for the usage environment for the actuator. In this part, power supply was used to supply
power to solenoid valve. Power supply that
2.2 Solenoid Valve and use in this project is 24VDC. Input that can
Connection accept from this power supply is 120-
In this project 5/3-ways closed center was 264VAC. This power supply will convert the
used to as an electromechanical to control the alternate current to direct current. Power
cylinder. Figure 2 shows the symbol of 5/3- supply also has efficiency of power
ways close centre where A and B ports conversion, it also can amount the voltage
connect to double acting cylinder. EA and EB and current to supply to its load. It also can
act as an exhaust that release air from the stabilise its output voltage under varying line
cylinder, while port P do as air inlet port. and load condition. Figure 4 shows the
electrical components to supply voltage to
the solenoid valve.

Figure 2. Symbol of 5/3-ways Close

Centre
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Figure 5. Electrical Circuit Schematic

Diagram
Figure 4. Electrical Power Supply and
Components 2.5 Honeycomb Panel
Honeycomb panel was used in this project
The Normally Open (NO) Push Button is a because it has hollow structures. This unique
pushbutton that does not make electrical feature is important to let the waterjet goes
contact with the circuit in its default state. directly into the tank below it during through
The electrical contact with the circuit cut. At the same time, it is strong enough to
happens only when the button is pressed hold workpieces in a flat position. The
down. As the button is pushed down, the honeycomb panel is shown in Figure 6.
toggle makes electrical current and the circuit
is closed. As a result, electricity will now
flow to the other end of the circuit,
connecting to the pushbutton, and switch the
unit or power to the corresponding part.
Normally, push buttons are the most common
type of push buttons found in computers and
circuits.
Before doing actual circuit using physical
component. Electrical schematic circuit has
been drawn using Fritzing software to reduce Figure 6. Honeycomb Panel
the risk of wrong installation especially it
involved a high voltage application [4]. 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Figure 5 shows the schematic drawing of This section focuses on the final product and
electrical circuit. Positive wire has been its performance. The actual fabricated
declared as red wire. While black wire adjustable table is shown in Figure 7.
declares as negative wire. From the
schematic positive wire will throw
pushbutton 1 and 2 and connected to solenoid
valve. It will energize solenoid valve when
the pushbutton been pressed.

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3.2 Machine Performance

In this analysis, the recommended air
pressure to the piston was analysed. The
supplied air pressure to the actuator was
varied from 2 bar (0.2 MPa) to 6 bar (0.6
MPa) to lift different load up to 12 kg. The
analysis was done to measure the time taken
required to reach the maximum height of the
table or full stroke of the piston up to 200
mm. The test was repeated three times for
each applied load. Figure 9 shows the
required time to lift the table with the full
stroke of piston with different loads and
supplied air pressures. With the lowest
Figure 7. The Actual Fabricated supplied air pressure of 2 bar, the actuator
Adjustable Table with the Honeycomb shows huge different of required time to lift
Panel and Double Acting Cylinder the table to the maximum with different load.
3.1 Fabricated Machine It took about 13 seconds for the highest load
The actuator cylinder has shown an excellent of 12 kg and 5 seconds for the lowest load of
operation where the piston can expand and 3 kg. When the supplied air pressure is 4 bar
contract smoothly by pressing the (0.4 MPa), the actuator required about 4
pushbutton. Figure 8 shows the movement of seconds to lift the table to the maximum
the piston to elevate the table top uniformly. height regardless of the load. Furthermore, a
It was found that the actuator piston can move higher supplied air pressure of 5 and 6 bar
up and down without having any problems. (0.5 and 0.6 MPa) did not give a significant
This shows that the actuator specifications reduction in time taken to lift the table to the
are appropriate for usage in this project. maximum for all different load. Therefore, it
can be concluded that for optimum usage, a
supplied air pressure of 4 bar is
recommended for the actuator to lift the table
to the maximum height of 200 mm regardless
of the load.

Figure 8. The Movement of Piston Figure 9. Time Taken to Lift the Actuator
Actuator for Different Loads and Supplied Air
Pressure

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4. CONCLUSION sensing and intelligent systems, 5(3),

In conclusion, the adjustable waterjet cutting pp.624-644, 2012.
table has been successfully fabricated. It is
suitable to be used for the abrasive waterjet
machine. The adjustable table can easily
accommodate different sizes of workpieces
with different heights to be cut using the
abrasive waterjet machine. Based on the
product performance, a supplied air pressure
of 4 bar (0.4 MPa) is recommended to be used
and sufficient to lift the table to the maximum
height of 200 mm regardless of weight up to
12 kg. This show that the versatile design of
adjustable table can be conveniently installed
in the commercial waterjet cutting machines
for wider acceptance by industries for
machining different sizes of workpieces.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the
technical and financial support of Universiti
Malaysia Pahang AL-Sultan Abdullah
through UIC231504 and RDU220330.

REFERENCES
[1] Khamis, A., Design and Simulation of a
High Thrust Linear Oscillator
Actuator (Doctoral dissertation, Universiti
Putra Malaysia), 2007.
[2] Awaludin, N.A., Analysis of Thrust
Density Calculation for Linear DC
Actuators (Doctoral dissertation,
Universiti Putra Malaysia), 2006.
[2] Awaludin, Noor Azita. "Analysis of Thrust
Density Calculation for Linear DC
Actuators." PhD diss., Universiti Putra
Malaysia, 2006.
[3] Giffney, T., Xie, M., Yong, A., Wong, A.,
Mousset, P., McDaid, A. and Aw, K.,. Soft
pneumatic bending actuator with
integrated carbon nanotube displacement
sensor. Robotics, 5(1), p.7. 2016
[4] Lai, W.K., Rahmat, M.F. and Wahab,
N.A., Modeling and controller design of
pneumatic actuator system with control
valve. International journal on smart
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PIEZOELECTRIC TESTING OF COMMERCIAL PVDF THIN FILM

SENSOR

Abdul Qadir1,*, Shehroze Tahir Khan1, Murtaza Mehdi1, Meraj Ali Shah 1
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, NED University of Engineering &
Technology, Karachi, Pakistan

*
Corresponding author E-mail address: [email protected] (Abdul Qadir)

ABSTRACT
Commercially available sensors of polyviyllidene fluoride (PVDF) is being used in vibration
sensing, haptics, pressure sensors, energy harvesting devices, etc. In this paper, we have reported
the piezoelectric performance and testing of a commercial PVDF- based flexible thin film sensor.
The sensor is tested for a variety of test scenarios on a custom built test setup in conjunction with
the sophisticated lab instruments such as impact hammer, digital oscilloscope, and digital
multimeter.
The results indicate that such sensors may be utilized as low-cost alternatives in energy harvesting,
impact testing, and vibration and motion sensing applications in a new generation of cost effective
MEMS based micro electro mechanical devices.
Keywords: PVDF, Sensor, energy harvester, organic, flexible, low-cost sensor, environmental
friendly power sources, impact hammer, vibration sensing, motion sensing.

1. INTRODUCTION They are often used in applications where

Piezoelectric thin films are thin layers of flexibility and conformability are important,
material that exhibit the piezoelectric effect, such as wearable devices, self-powered
which is the ability to generate an electric devices. [5]
charge in response to applied mechanical With the rapid growth of electronic gadgets,
stress, or vice versa, to deform in response to smart/wearable devices, flexible/stretchable
an applied electric field. [1] electronics many researchers are focused for
development of environmental friendly, with
These films are used in various applications,
abundant and benign sources to power up
such as sensors, actuators, energy harvesters.
them. [6-8].
Most Commonly used piezoelectric thin These materials are effective in generating
films are made from inorganic materials green electrical energy from various types of
which are more rigid compared to organic mechanical energy sources, such as human or
films while organic piezoelectric thin films animal body movements, vibrations,
offer several advantages over their inorganic deformations, sound waves, liquid or air
counterparts. [2-3] flows, wind flow, and in e-health care
Organic piezoelectric thin films are typically monitoring. [5, 8-10]
made from polymers such as polyvinylidene
fluoride (PVDF) and its copolymers. These 2. TESTING METHODOLOGY
For this experimental research work,
films are flexible, lightweight, and can be
easily processed using techniques like spin- commercial PVDF based device has been
purchased from china from www.TE.com,
coating or inkjet printing. [4]
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two devices was used in these experiments,

the devices are made up of top and bottom
electrodes of silver paste and thin film of
PVDF is sandwiched between electrodes,
complete device is laminated in PVC (Poly
Vinyl Chloride).

Figure 1. Schematic of PVDF Based Thin

Film Device

Figure 3. PVDF Based Device Back

3. EXPERIMENTAL SETUPS
In total three experimental setups has been
used.
Flexing. Cantilever testing setup, Impact
testing setup and cam based vibration testing
machine setup.
Experiments were performed on single
device and two devices connected together.

Figure 2. PVDF Based Device front

Figure 4. Flex/Cantilever Testing Setup

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3.1.2 Single Device

Figure 5. Impact Testing Setup

Figure 7. Flexing device up to 5-10 mm
displacement with anti-static gloves

Figure 8. Oscilloscope results showing

generated transient voltage output
S.No. Voltage Output-Voc(V)
Figure 6. Vibration Cam Machine Testing Single Multi
Setup Displacement Displacement
1 26.0 38.0
3.1 Free vibrations /Cantilever 2 30.8 37.8
Testing 3 27.0 36.0
Single and double device (in line and in layer
4 32.4 33.4
combination) was connected with copper
5 32.8 35.0
wires and connected with digital
oscilloscope. Device was held in a fix/free Avg. 29.8 36.04
arrangement in a small table top vice and Table 1. Single device with single and
antistatic gloves were used to provide flexes multiple displacements
manually by hand. Antistatic gloves were
used to avoid tribo-electric charges during
hand flexes.
Approximately 10 mm flex were provided in
single and multiple flexes (5-6
displacements)

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Figure 9. Oscilloscope results showing

generated transient voltage output on
multiple displacements

3.1.3 Double Device

Two devices were connected in two
Figure 11. Two devices connected in
arrangements inline and in layer
Layer arrangement
combination.

Figure 10. Two devices connected in line

Figure 12. Multiple displacements (5-6)

with antistatic gloves and data capturing
by oscilloscope

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Figure 14. Schematic of impact testing

S.No. Voltage Output-Voc(V) methodology
In Line Layer
Connection Connection
1 33.4 59.6
2 29.0 69.8
3 31.0 69.6
4 26.8 75.6
5 31.0 71.2
Avg. 30.24 69.16
Table 2. Two devices in line and layer
connection

Figure 15. Single Device Experimental

setup with impact hammer

Figure 13. Oscilloscope results showing

generated transient voltage output on
multiple displacements on layer
combination double device.

3.2 Impact Testing

An Impact hammer B&K 8206 was used
to provide impulses on single and layer
combination connected double device. Figure 16. Two Devices connected in
layer

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3.2.1 Single Device

S.No. Single Device

(Capacitance=0.56nF)
Impact Geenrated Induced
Force Volatge Charge
(N) (V) (nC)
Q=CV
1 0.417 6.8 3.808
2 0.730 13.2 7.392
3 0.730 13.2 7.392
4 0.834 13.6 7.616
5 0.869 14.8 8.288
6 1.078 19.2 10.752
Figure 17. Impact Hammer with 7 1.286 24 13.44
Aluminum Tip 8 1.321 24 13.44
9 1.738 32.4 18.144
10 2.712 46.4 25.984
11 2.990 54 30.24
Table 3. Single device impact testing
results

Figure 18. Impulse Data Capturing with

Oscilloscope
Capacitance of the single device and
double device connected in layer
combination is measured by digital
multimeter. Figure 19. Graph of open circuit voltage
Impact force was provided with low force and magnitude of impact force
and then increased upto high loads; the
sensitivity of impact hammer is 23.02
mv/N.

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Single and double device connected in layer

3.2.2 Double Device combination was used in these experiments.
S.No. Double Device
(Capacitance=0.985nF)
Impact Geenrated Induced
Force Volatge Charge
(N) (V) (nC)
Q=CV
1 0.0695 2.4 2.364
2 0.2434 6 5.91
3 0.4172 11.2 11.032
4 0.7127 17.5 17.336
5 0.8866 20.8 20.488
6 0.9735 25.2 24.822
7 1.2342 28.8 28.368
8 1.6688 36.8 36.248 Figure 21. Thin film vibration testing
9 1.8427 45.2 44.522 machine CAM based
10 2.0687 45.6 44.916
11 2.8857 67.2 66.192
Table 4 Double device impact testing
results

Figure 20. Graph of open circuit voltage Figure 22. Single Device Mounted on thin
and magnitude of impact force film vibration testing machine
3.3 Vibration Cam Machine Testing
In- house built cam-based vibration testing
machine was used to provide impulses to
device in range of frequencies, vibration
testing machine is equipped with toy motor
of frequency up to 200 Hz (12000 RPM).
3mm cam was used in current experiment.

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Figure 24. Graph of open circuit voltage

pk-pk and forcing frequency
3.3.2 Double Device
S.No. Double Device
(Capacitance=0.985nF)
Figure 23. 3D printed, 3 mm Forcing Generated
Displacement CAM Frequency Voltage
(Hz) (pk-pk)
3.3.1 Single Device 1 7.0 3.2
S.No. Single Device 2 19.5 9.6
(Capacitance=0.56nF) 3 32.3 14.4
Forcing Generated 4 45.0 23.6
Frequency Voltage 5 64.5 31.2
(Hz) (pk-pk) 6 72.8 30
1 4.6 1.8 7 85.0 29.6
2 14.8 4.84 8 95.8 34
3 23.8 9.12 9 109.3 27.2
4 47.2 15.6 10 122.7 15.6
5 57.4 19.6 11 135.4 26.4
6 82.4 14.4 12 140.6 27.6
7 107.9 28.4 13 150.8 21.6
8 117.2 56 14 164.2 15.6
9 122.7 37.2 15 169.3 13.2
10 130.0 29.8 16 172.5 10.8
11 142.7 6.8
12 157.6 36.4 Table 6 Double device cam-based
13 164.5 35.6 vibration testing machine results
14 169.5 39.6
15 175.9 30.4
16 178.4 20
Table 5. Single device cam-based
vibration testing machine results
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are thankful to Centre for Thin Film
Research lead by Prof. Dr. Murtaza Mehdi
and Supported by NRPU Grant # 17057.

REFERENCES
[1] Fu, J., Hou, Y., Gao, X., Zheng, M., &
Zhu, M. (2018). Highly durable
piezoelectric energy harvester based on
a PVDF flexible nanocomposite filled
with oriented BaTi2O5 nanorods with
high power density. Nano Energy, 52,
Figure 25. Graph of open circuit voltage 391-401.
pk-pk and forcing frequency [2] Parvez Mahmud, M. A., Huda, N.,
Farjana, S. H., Asadnia, M., & Lang, C.
4. CONCLUSIONS (2018). Recent advances in
• Maximum open circuit voltage is nanogenerator‐driven self‐powered
obtained in free vibration testing in implantable biomedical
flexing/fix free arrangement with devices. Advanced Energy
maximum pk-pk 75.6 V in double device Materials, 8(2), 1701210.
connected in layer combination. [3] Gaur, A., Tiwari, S., Kumar, C., &
• Single device in flexing/fix free Maiti, P. (2020). Bio-waste orange peel
arrangement shows maximum voltage of and polymer hybrid for efficient energy
pk-pk 38.0V. harvesting. Energy Reports, 6, 490-496.
• Device shows promising and linear [4] Han, Y., Han, Y., Zhang, X., Li, L.,
results in impact testing in single device Zhang, C., Liu, J., ... & Huang, W.
mode and double device mode with (2020). Fish gelatin based triboelectric
maximum voltage up to 67.2 V and nanogenerator for harvesting
induced charge of 66.19 nC at applied biomechanical energy and self-powered
maximum load of 2.88 N. sensing of human physiological
• During CAM based vibration testing signals. ACS applied materials &
machine tests , single device shown interfaces, 12(14), 16442-16450.
higher results at 122 Hz frequency with [5] Kaur, J., & Singh, H. (2020). Fabrication
maximum open circuit voltage as 37.2 V. of composite material based
• High flexibility, and durability of nanogenerator for electricity generation
commercial device makes it a good enhancement of food waste by-
choice for application of self-powered product. Materials Chemistry and
wearable devices. Physics, 256, 123331.
• Energy harvester with multi-layer of [6] Karan, S. K., Maiti, S., Paria, S., Maitra,
devices can be used to power up low A., Si, S. K., Kim, J. K., & Khatua, B. B.
power energy consuming devices (2018). A new insight towards eggshell
utilizing vehicle movement induced membrane as high energy conversion
wind, ocean waves energy, machines efficient bio-piezoelectric energy
vibration, public movement pathways harvester. Materials today energy, 9,
etc. 114-125.
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[7] Jameel, A. T., & Yaser, A. Z. (Eds.).

(2020). Advances in Nanotechnology
and Its Applications. Berlin/Heidelberg,
Germany: Springer.
[8] Hu, Y., Parida, K., Zhang, H., Wang, X.,
Li, Y., Zhou, X., ... & Fan, H. J. (2022).
Bond engineering of molecular
ferroelectrics renders soft and high-
performance piezoelectric energy
harvesting materials. Nature
Communications, 13(1), 5607.
[9] Akmal, M. M., Ahmad, F. B., Hisham,
F., & Hazmi, A. T. (2021). Biopolymer-
based waste for biomaterials thin film in
piezoelectric application. In Advanced
Technology for the Conversion of Waste
Into Fuels and Chemicals (pp. 355-381).
Woodhead Publishing.
[10] Cao, X., Xiong, Y., Sun, J., Zhu, X.,
Sun, Q., & Wang, Z. L. (2021).
Piezoelectric nanogenerators derived
self‐powered sensors for multifunctional
applications and artificial
intelligence. Advanced Functional
Materials, 31(33), 2102983

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MONITORING OF WELDING DIGITIZATION USING VISION-BASED

CLASSIFICATION: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF CNN AND
RESNET-BASED APPROACH
Afrasyab Khan1*, Salman Hussain1, Wasim Ahmad1, and Mirza Jahanzaib1
1
Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Engineering & Technology,
Taxila, Pakistan
*
Corresponding author E-mail address: [email protected] (Afrasyab Khan)

ABSTRACT
Welding is one of the major processes in the automobile, construction, aviation, and other sectors.
However, the inefficiencies, high failure rates, and poor weld quality of manual welding methods
are common. This advocates digitization of the welding process which can be named Welding for
Industry 4.0. Digitization of manual welding to digital welding includes real-time weld monitoring
and control. Accurate weld defect classification is a challenging task for efficient weld monitoring.
Different machine-learning algorithms have been developed for the classification of welding
defects. This paper presents a comparative analysis of CNN and ResNet-based approaches for weld
defect classification when using vision-based monitoring. The dataset used for the research
includes more than 30,000 images. Six different types of defects were considered including burn-
through, contamination, lack of fusion, misalignment, and lack of penetration. Both the models
were trained using the dataset to classify these defects. The accuracy of the algorithms was
determined based on the number of images taken to train the model. Comparative analysis revealed
that CNN achieved a higher precision compared to ResNet. The paper highlighted the effectiveness
of CNN employed for weld defect classification for the development of an Industry 4.0-based
robotic welding system.
Keywords: Welding Digitization; Industry 4.0; Machine Learning; CNN; ResNet
and control systems for welding processes.
1. INTRODUCTION The review identified 101 papers that met the
Deep learning models in recent years are inclusion criteria, and it found that machine
summarized and compared with a detailed learning is a promising approach for
discussion of several typical networks in the improving the quality of welds.
field of image classification, object detection, Elsheikh [4] highlights the significance of
and segmentation [1]. To implement the machine learning techniques in predicting
feature extraction and classification in one joint properties, enabling real-time control,
algorithm and to implement the overall and diagnosing tool failures in the welding
automation, oh. et al. [2] propose a method of process. The review discusses the utilization
automatically detecting welding defects of different machine learning algorithms and
using Faster R-CNN which is a deep learning models, emphasizing their effectiveness in
basis. Breitenbach et al. [3] conducted a improving the quality and efficiency of
systematic literature review on machine friction stir welding.
learning approaches for quality monitoring
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Zhou et al. [5] presented a case study on the improving the extraction accuracy and
use of machine learning and semantics to processing speed of the algorithm [10].
predict the quality of automated welding. The Despite being in use for years, welding robots
case study was conducted at Bosch, and it are pre-programmed devices with little to no
showed that machine learning can be used to intelligence. Figure 1 shows that Intelligent
predict the quality of welds with high manufacturing is implemented by the
accuracy. Asif et al. [6] proposed a machine- transformation of Human physical systems to
learning model to predict welding quality Human cyber-physical systems to achieve
using air-coupled acoustic emission (CAE) specific manufacturing goals at an optimized
and weld inputs. The model was trained on a level [11].
dataset of CAE signals and weld quality data,
and it was shown to be able to predict
Human Human
welding quality with high accuracy. Wang et
Market
Demand and
Competition

al. [7] proposed a real-time method for

HPS
HCPS
recognizing weld defects based on visible
spectral images and machine learning. The Physical Technology
Machine
Learning
Physical
System

method uses a camera to capture images of System and System

Innovation

the weld, and a machine learning algorithm Manual Welding Intelligent Welding

to identify defects. The method was Figure 1. The advancement of welding

evaluated on a dataset of weld images, and it
systems from HPS to HCPS [12]
was shown to be able to detect defects with
high accuracy. Long Chao et al. [13] proposed a method for
Ferraro et al. [8] propose different strategies predicting the weld width from high-speed
for improving the computational efficiency successive images of the weld zone during
of the deep-learning models adopted in laser welding. The method uses a variety of
reinforcement-learning (RL) scenarios. The machine learning algorithms to predict the
robustness of most image processing weld width, and it was evaluated on a dataset
algorithms is deficient during welding of laser welding images. The method was
practice, [9] and the security regime for shown to be able to predict the weld width
tracking welding is not considered in most with high accuracy. Christensen et al. [14]
trajectory recognition and control algorithms. describe the application of neural network
For these two problems, an adaptive feature technology for gas metal arc welding control.
extraction algorithm was proposed, which Hongyuan et al. [15] present a robotic system
can accurately extract the seam centre from based on real-time vision measurement.
the continuous, discontinuous, or fluctuating Franciosa et. al. [16] highlights the need for a
laser stripes identified and located by the holistic approach to data gathering,
CNN model, while the prior model can monitoring, and in-process control. Franciosa
quickly remove a large amount of noise and et. al. [17] study deep learning enhanced
interference except the stripes, greatly digital twins for closed-loop in-process
quality improvement. Ferraro et al. [8]

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propose different strategies for improving the that bypass some layers, ResNet enables
computational efficiency of the deep- information to flow directly through the
learning models adopted in reinforcement- network, resulting in faster learning and
learning (RL) scenarios. The robustness of better performance on various image
most image processing algorithms is processing tasks[20], [21].
deficient during welding practice, and the He et al. [22] introduced a new approach to
security regime for tracking welding is not classification and object detection tasks,
considered in most trajectory recognition and revolutionizing the field of image processing.
control algorithms. For these two problems, Unlike traditional methods, ResNet addresses
an adaptive feature extraction algorithm was the vanishing gradient problem which is a
proposed, which can accurately extract the bottleneck in training deep neural networks.
seam centre from the continuous, By including "shortcut connections" that
discontinuous, or fluctuating laser stripes bypass certain layers, ResNet allows for the
identified and located by the CNN model, direct flow of information, facilitating
while the prior model can quickly remove a efficient learning and achieving significant
large amount of noise and interference except performance improvements across various
the stripes, greatly improving the extraction image processing applications.
accuracy and processing speed of the
algorithm [10]. To implement the feature Algorithm Advantages Purpose
extraction and classification in one algorithm Artificial capabilities of Solve intricate
Neural performing problems using
and to implement the overall automation, oh Network sophisticated, internal
et al. [2] propose a method of automatically (ANN) non-linear mechanisms.
mappings,
detecting welding defects using Faster R- learning
CNN which is a deep learning basis. Günther independently,
and generalizing
et al. [18] suggest that deep learning features knowledge.
and general-value-function predictions can Convolutional Decreased Inspection of
Neural parameter count surface
be beneficially combined with actor–critic Network and maintained integration and
(CNN) invariance to identification of
reinforcement learning to learn context- changes in shift, machinery
appropriate control policies to govern scale, and faults.
distortion.
welding power in real-time. Machine ResNet Shortcut Ultimately
learning algorithms can be exploited to connections that enabling deeper
alleviate and more
predict the weld quality during laser welding vanishing accurate image
with high accuracy [19]. gradients processing
models.
In the field of image processing, the ResNet Support vector Less sample, Classification
algorithm has been a breakthrough in tasks machine global optimal and regression
(SVM) analysis
like classification and object detection. Deep Belief The ability to Can be trained
Unlike conventional methods, ResNet Network train layer by layer-wisely to
(DBN) layer for be more
addresses the problem of vanishing gradient improved efficiently
which arises while training deep neural efficiency.
networks. By using "shortcut connections"

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Recurrent Sequential data Utilizing approaches, which encompass multiple

Neural retains short-term predictive
Network information and analytics and algorithms such as feature selection, multiple
(RNN) captures temporal defect prognosis classifiers, and decision fusion, have proven
correlations. to learn features
from sequential to [25] be practical methods in the field of
data. pattern recognition. In the study, the random
Rough set No requirement Handle novel
theory for prior or and uncertain forest model was applied and enhanced by
supplementary information proposing a novel integrating structure to
data information. systems.
Decision tree Generate a Classifying the achieve more accurate online defect detection
thorough features of the in robotic welding processes. Machine
examination of signals
the outcomes for learning has a major benefit over deep
each branch.
learning in that it requires less time to train
Genetic Good global solving
Algorithm search ability optimization the models than deep learning [26].
(GA) problems:
combinatorial
The visual representation of algorithms and
problems, experimentation can improve the
planning
Restricted Capable of Dimensionality
effectiveness of learning and teaching the
Boltzmann handling reduction, principles of image processing. Because
Machine ambiguous input classification,
(RBM) and not regression, and
Python is an interpreted language with
dependent on feature learning libraries devoted to specific tasks, it is a great
training labels
during the choice for learning digital image processing.
pretraining stage. This eliminates the need for expensive
Reinforcement Maximizes Representation,
learning performance prediction, and commercial software's ambiguous black
control of boxes and allows for the manipulation of
learning
Auto Encoder Elimination of Machinery fault codes and crucial algorithms [27].
(AE) irrelevant input diagnosis The welding procedures used today are
while preserving
meaningful complex, rely on a lot of variables, and have
information. a poorly understood mechanism. User and
Table 1. Different AI methods/models customer needs for welding are distinct, and
[23] they work in circumstances that are always
Although deep learning has demonstrated its changing [28]. As a result, welding is shifting
powerful capabilities in classification tasks, to more specialized production using cutting-
its effectiveness is hindered by the edge welding equipment that can nimbly
requirement for large amounts of training adapt to changing welding requirements
data, particularly in defect detection while retaining excellent quality. Smart
scenarios. It is well-known that a certain approaches for gathering and analyzing
number of training data sets, as well as a welding data are essential in the field of big
balanced representation of different sample data [29]. Monitoring metrics before and
types, are necessary for creating robust after the welding process, for instance, can
prediction and classification models [24]. improve the welding process, performance,
However, in practice, the number of defect and service quality. Although there are
samples is typically much lower than that of numerous welding techniques, advances in
normal samples. Integrating learning
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information science and technology are convergence of big data, AI, and human
enabling the transformation of traditional cyber-physical systems, the future of welding
welding to intelligent one [30]. Because of promises enhanced efficiency, quality, and
advances in computer science and artificial adaptability. Figure 2 compares two methods
intelligence, intelligent automation is for image feature extraction: conventional
replacing manual work. Manufacturing methods and Convolutional Neural Networks
research programs have all examined smart (CNNs).
manufacturing, Industry 4.0, and the Internet
of Things. In the future big data, intelligent Image feature extraction using
conventional methods.
manufacturing, human cyber-physical
systems, and AI will revolutionize industry. Image Filtering and Image
[11], [31], [32]. Real time Enhancement Denoising segmentation

A thorough review of the literature on Weld Image

Features extraction: (length,
Edge fitting
intelligent welding research was conducted. width, area etc.)

The search was restricted to welding

Classification of
technologies for convenience, even if Defects
publications on intelligent manufacturing
Feature Modeling:
may have also turned up information on Selection SVM, BP etc.
intelligent welding. Many different types of
Feature extraction and classification of
ML Algorithms were being studied in the defects using Convolutional Neural
literature. Some best practices in the creation Networks (CNNs)

of modern industrial welding are identified

through a survey of the literature and other Real time
research. Weld Image

2. METHODOLOGY
We chose two different Machine learning CNN On-line weld
Resize (Convolutional defects
algorithms CNN and ResNet to train it on the Neural Network) classification
specific dataset and get a comparative
analysis of both the algorithms. Conventional
Figure 2. Image Feature Extraction:
methods require hand-crafted design, while Conventional Methods vs.
CNNs learn features for weld defect Convolutional Neural Networks
classification, potentially offering a more
robust approach. To address challenges such
as defect detection and the need for robust 3. ALGORITHM MODELLING
prediction models, a comparative analysis of Convolutional Neural Network (CNN)
two different machine learning algorithms The following steps were followed from data
has been done, and these algorithms were annotation to training the ML algorithms.
trained on the dataset which includes more
than 30,000 images. Through the
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1. A dataset of different welding Images

1 Sourcing and loading the Dataset
[33] was taken from a source, and the
data annotation was done on it.
2. It is passed to the classification model
2 Developing Machine Learning Algorithm
that recognizes whether a material is
correctly welded or incorrectly welded,
whether it is best welded or worst
3 Training (Original Label)
welded.
3. A Machine Learning algorithm is made
and trained on the image data collected.
4. After performing the inference task, our 4 Predicted Label (Good or Defective weld)

model will let us know about the class to

which the material belongs such as
correctly welded or incorrectly welded 5 Confusion Matrix

material.
5. Continuously improve the algorithm to
get the maximum accuracy. 6 Comparative Analysis

6. A confusion matrix has been generated

which shows the overall accuracy of the Figure 3. The dataset was subjected to
algorithm. both algorithms.
To begin with, the first step in implementing
a CNN algorithm is to create a dataset of
images that will serve as the foundation for
the algorithm. Once the dataset has been
established, we will proceed to train the
specific algorithm on the chosen dataset.
In the classification of the weld images, it is
considered that the best weld has no cracks
and holes in the bead, the bead is uniform, the
width and height are appropriate, and the
strength of the welding meets the
requirements.

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4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The paper presents the outcome of all the
processes performed during the study starting
from the data collection where welding
images from the dataset were used and then
classified according to the condition of
whether the image was a good or bad weld,
an image recognition using Python language.
After loading and importing the necessary
libraries, the dataset of images is loaded, and
the classification of images based on the
respective dataset is done.
Also, by training the images and executing
the algorithm further, the CNN model made
predictions on the images or samples, and
these predictions were recorded during the
Figure 4. Dataset samples: good weld;
tuning of the algorithm, to classify the
burn through; contamination; lack of
fusion; misalignment; lack of penetration. welding images as good or bad welded.
[33]
The machine learning algorithms help in
determining the best and defective images.
The Google Collab was being used as a
virtual environment for training the ML
algorithms on the specific dataset. The
necessary libraries were imported, and the Misalignment Good weld Good weld

dataset was loaded for binary classification. Figure 5. Predicted Images

After that, the model is trained on the dataset.
The dataset consists of 33,254 images Confusion Matrix For CNN:
The confusion matrix is a valuable tool for
showcasing TIG welding of aluminium 5083.
evaluating the performance of a classification
The study's objective is to obtain data from
model. In the presented study, a CNN-based
an image that shows the weld pool and its
model was evaluated for its ability to classify
surroundings in the visible spectrum. For this
different types of weld defects. The
purpose, we have used a new dataset that has
confusion matrix as shown in Figure 8, which
been captured using an HDR camera. The
compares true labels (actual classes) with
images in this dataset [33] have a tone
predicted labels (model's predictions),
contrast that is like the vision of the human
provides insights into the model's
eye.
performance.

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misclassify other types of weld defects such

as Burn Through and Contamination.
Overall, this confusion matrix provides
valuable insights into the model's
performance, highlighting the areas that need
improvement in weld defect classification.

Average Accuracy and Model Loss

Evolution:
The graph in Figure 9 showcases the average
accuracy of a CNN algorithm as it progresses
Figure 6. Confusion Matrix through various epochs. Initially starting at a
modest accuracy, the line gradually ascends
Here's a breakdown of the key elements in
to a commendable 0.91 accuracy within 30
the confusion matrix.
epochs. This demonstrates that the CNN
Good Weld Represents actual instances of algorithm is steadily learning and enhancing
good welds. its precision with every epoch.
Burn Through Actual instances of burn-
through defects.
Contamination Actual instances of
contamination defects.
Lack of Fusion Instances where fusion is
lacking.
Misalignment: Instances with misalignment Figure 7. Model Accuracy for CNN
defects. In Figure 10, the training loss decreases as
epochs increase, indicating the CNN
Lack of Actual instances of insufficient
algorithm's improving performance over
Penetration: penetration.
time. Overall, the graph suggests that the
Table 2. True Labels (Y-axis) CNN algorithm is making progress during
The same defect categories as mentioned
training.
above are for the predicted labels of the X-
axis.
The dark squares that appear along the
diagonal line of the matrix represent accurate
predictions or true positives. The model
shows good performance in identifying two
types of weld defects: Good Welds and Lack
of Penetration, as indicated by high true
positive rates. However, the model seems to
Figure 8. Model Loss Evolution for CNN
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For example, some instances of “lack of

Residual Neural Network (ResNet) fusion” might be incorrectly predicted as
ResNet is an architecture of Residual Neural “misalignment” or “lack of penetration,” and
Networks that is commonly used in image vice versa. In summary, while the model
classification. It is a popular choice for image excels in identifying “good welds,” there are
classification because it tackles the vanishing areas for improvement in distinguishing
gradient problem, where gradients tend to between specific welding defects. Fine-
diminish as they propagate backward through tuning the model or exploring additional
many layers. ResNet architectures have features could help address these
shown exceptional performance in image misclassifications.
classification tasks, especially in
competitions like ImageNet [34], [35]. Average Accuracy and Model Loss
Evolution:
Confusion Matrix For ResNet: The graph shown in Figure 12 below depicts
In the confusion matrix shown in Figure 11 the training accuracy evolution of a model
below, the rows represent the actual ground using the ResNet algorithm through different
truth labels for the welding defects. These are epochs. The model starts with low accuracy
the classes that the model is trying to predict and experiences fluctuations early on.
correctly. The columns represent the labels However, as the number of epochs increases,
predicted by the ResNet algorithm. the accuracy stabilizes and consistently
improves. This trend suggests that ResNet
effectively learns complex features from
data. Further improvements can be
hyperparameter tuning, overfitting, and
generalization to unseen data.

Figure 9. Confusion Matrix for ResNet

The model performs well in predicting “good
welds” (true positives). The prominent
yellow square in the top left corner indicates Figure 10. Model Accuracy for ResNet
that most good welds are correctly classified.
While Lack of Fusion, Misalignment, and
Lack of Penetration: These three classes
seem to be confused with each other. The
misclassifications are visible in the off-
diagonal cells corresponding to these defects.
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a real-time welding process monitoring

system for evaluating welding quality. The
CNN (convolutional neural network) model
has proven to be highly accurate in its
performance. Both the models meet the
requirement of real-time evaluation of weld
defects. While the CNN-based approach
shows promising results in classifying weld
defects, further refinement of feature
Figure 11. Model Loss Evolution for
extraction and enhancement of class
ResNet
distinction could optimize its performance.
The weld pool and surrounding area images
The Model Loss Evolution graph in Figure 13
used in this study were sourced from Kaggle.
above depicts the training loss of a model
They were fed directly into the models for
using the ResNet algorithm over different
prediction, without manual feature
epochs. Initially, the loss is high (around 1.8),
extraction. Additionally, the models have low
but as training progresses, it consistently
hardware requirements and can be run on
decreases. This downward trend indicates
regular PCs, making them highly applicable.
successful learning and convergence. The
Our findings suggest that these models can
line exhibits fluctuations, indicating
enhance the intelligence of automatic
variations in loss at different epochs, but
welding robots by integrating them into an
overall showcases a downward trend.
image recognition system.
The CNN convolutional neural network
Future Work is aimed at using a data set of
model has proven to be highly accurate in its
weld images for creating a feedback control
performance. Trained models, namely CNN
system for adaptive robotic welding.
and ResNet, have been implemented for real-
Furthermore, the parameters will be set for
time online evaluation scenarios. These
each type of image difference and the robot
models were utilized to predict each picture
will behave accordingly.
within the test set. The duration of picture
reading, preprocessing, prediction, and ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
recording of prediction results is carefully The authors are grateful for the support of
measured. The results display an average of HEC-NRPU (National Research Program for
48 seconds per image prediction for the CNN Universities) for funding this project. The
model, and 69 seconds for the ResNet model. author further acknowledges the
Both the algorithms mentioned in this paper administrative and technical support of the
are run in Google Colab as a virtual University of Engineering and Technology
environment for executing the code. (UET) Taxila and the Department of
Industrial Engineering, UET Taxila.
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK
Our study developed two distinct models
CNN and ResNet that can be integrated into
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Sensitivity Analysis of Steel Hole Plate Using the New Developed

Creep Model by Utilizing Computational Methods

Mohsin Sattar1*; Muhammad Muzammil2

1
Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS
2
NED University of Engineering & Technology
*
Corresponding author E-mail address: [email protected]

ABSTRACT
With the rise in operational parameters, structural elements within power plants are exposed to
heightened temperatures and pressures, reaching levels conducive to creep. This phenomenon
poses the risk of component failure and fracture. Over the preceding decades, substantial efforts
have been dedicated to comprehending the fundamental mechanisms of creep. Significantly, there
has been a focus on predicting the lifespan of equipment to ensure safety and reliability in plant
operations. This article introduces a modified model, building upon the Norton-Bailey and
KachanovRabotnov constitutive models, aiming to comprehensively characterize all three stages
of creep (primary, secondary, and tertiary) specifically for stainless steel material. The proposed
model undergoes numerical calculations to simulate damage development in thin-hole steel plates.
Special attention is given to the influence of specimen dimensions and stress on damage evolution.
The outcomes of the study reveal the efficacy of the novel model in generating complete creep
curves for various materials, emphasizing the notable impact of stress on creep behavior and
damage progression. Sensitivity studies, employing Response Surface Methodology (RSM) and
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), are conducted to quantitatively and qualitatively analyze the new
creep model data in comparison to established models. The objective of these sensitivity studies is
to assess the significant contributions of various factors to the target response strain in this specific
case study.
Keywords—creep deformation, curve fitting, Kachanov-Rabotnov model, damage evolution,
Norton Bailey model
1. INTRODUCTION manifesting timedependent, inelastic
Numerous creep models have been deformation, particularly effective in
developed over the years to anticipate the anticipating material behavior in the
creep behavior of materials; however, secondary creep regime.
these models exhibit certain limitations In contrast, the Omega model, introduced by
[1]. The Norton–Bailey (NB) model, also the Material Properties Council and
known as Norton’s power law, serves as a proposed by Prager [3] in 1995, stands out as
foundational model integrated into the a reliable prediction model. Recognized for
finite element Abaqus software, widely its simplicity and lower dependence on
employed for creep analysis in material constants, the Omega model boasts
conjunction with other models developed a well-documented creep evaluation process,
by Bailey and Norton [2]. Functioning as demonstrating excellent performance in
a benchmark, the NB model predicts the establishing property relations across diverse
creep deformation behavior of materials materials. Primarily designed for calculating
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the remaining life of components operating with the secondary and tertiary stages of
in the creep zone under high temperatures creep but lacks consideration for primary
and pressures, the Omega model utilizes a creep accumulation.
strain rate parameter and a multi-axial
damage parameter, as outlined by Yeom et To address these limitations, a modified
al. [4]. It effectively forecasts the rate of creep model is proposed in this study, aiming
strain accumulation, creep damage to comprehensively describe all three stages
accumulation, and the remaining time to of creep. The modified constitutive creep
failure based on the stress state and model is derived through a combination of
temperature, covering both primary and the Norton-Bailey and Kachanov-Rabotnov
secondary creep regime deformations and models. Numerical calculations using this
excelling in predicting material rupture time modified model were conducted to explore
at lower temperatures [5]. the creep behavior and damage development
The Kachanov–Rabotnov (KR) model, an in a thin-hole steel plate made of SS-304
early implementation of the continuum material under constant stresses. The
damage mechanics (CDM) approach for investigation places particular emphasis on
creep proposed by Kachanov and Rabotnov understanding the impact of specimen
[6], is another significant model. This model dimensions and stresses on damage
allows for the modeling of secondary and development, deformation, and rupture life.
tertiary creep deformations through a set of This paper addresses the limitations and
coupled equations. Continuous efforts have deficiencies of the NortonBailey and
been dedicated to enhancing the KR law, Kachanov-Rabotnov models, paving the way
leading to recent variations aimed at for a more comprehensive understanding of
generating contour deformation maps [7]. creep behavior in structural components
Stewart and Gordon [8] are actively subjected to various stress conditions.
developing methods to define transversely
isotropic creep damage properties and 1.1 Problem Statement
estimate stress-independent tertiary creep The Norton-Bailey model is limited in that it
damage constants using both strain- and exclusively addresses the secondary creep
damage-based analytical approaches. These regime and lacks predictions for the primary
advancements contribute to the ongoing and tertiary regimes, resulting in an overall
refinement of creep models for a more error when these stages dominate. Although
comprehensive understanding of material the KachanovRabotnov (KR) model shows
behavior under varying conditions. promise, it involves a substantial number of
The Norton-Bailey constitutive model material constants, and its formulation
proves effective in delineating the neglects consideration for the primary creep
relationship between strain and stress during regime during analysis. While KR
successfully emulates both continuum creep
the primary and secondary stages of creep.
damage and discontinuous plastic damage at
However, when analyzing the life of
rupture within a continuous function, the
structural components controlled by rupture,
intricacies of the model pose challenges for
it becomes imperative to scrutinize their
integration into finite element (FE) analysis.
creep behavior in the tertiary region of the Both models have made strides in addressing
creep curve. Conversely, the Kachanov- nucleation and plasticity for crack initiation
Rabotnov constitutive model aligns well and growth to some extent. However,
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accurate detection and identification of creep complications with the proposed model. The
crack growth remain limited. The new material model provides an alternative
mechanism through which creep cavities to the current models, producing results
nucleate is not well-established, despite the more effectively.
presence of voids in every material. 3. A simplified formulation is expected,
Observations suggest that cavities tend to to accurately consider all three creep stages
nucleate along grain boundaries under (I-III), requires only minimal empirical data
constant load for extended periods. Creep and containing minimal number of material
cavitation is a critical aspect, often given less fitting parameters. The model will offer ease
priority when addressing creep crack of applicability and versatility to deal with
initiation and growth. Given these material’s data which is already scarce for
limitations, the article proposes a new creep the three creep stages.
prediction model based on creep power laws. The next section discussed the theoretical
This model aims to overcome the challenges framework of established models and
posed by existing models and address the mathematical formulation of the new creep
following research questions regarding how material model.
the material behaves during creep
deformation under various parameter 2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
variations, conditions, and circumstances. 2.1 Norton Bailey Model
Norton's power law (1929), rooted in
1.2 Research Questions the Arrhenius rate equation [10], stands as
1. How the new model can improve the the most renowned and widely used
prediction of creep failure at high minimum creep strain rate law. This law,
temperatures? represented in Equation (1), is a prominent
2. Can the model accurately predict all framework in understanding and describing
creep stages at crack initiation, growth and creep behavior.
rupture? 𝑐𝑟̇ = 𝐵’𝜎𝑛 𝑒𝑥𝑝 (−𝑄𝑐⁄𝑅𝑇)𝑚 , (1)
3. How much improvement in efficiency of
the analysis and accuracy of the results In the given context, 𝑐𝑟̇ signifies the minimum
increase using the newly proposed model? creep strain rate, B’ is the material constant,
σ denotes the applied stress, n represents the
The new creep prediction model is based on power law exponent, 𝑄𝑐 represents the
the following hypothesis: activation energy, R stands for the universal
gas constant, and T corresponds to the
applied temperature. Equation (1) is
1.3 Hypothesis
subsequently streamlined when considering
1. The prediction of creep behaviour of
a constant temperature, resulting in the
the mechanical equipment, especially due to
simplified form represented by Equation (2).
generation of cracks through nucleation and
voids within the material will be attained 𝑐𝑟̇ = 𝐴 𝜎𝑛 𝑡𝑚 , (2)
through the new model, with the
without considering time, Equation (3)
shortcomings of the current models are
becomes:
addressed.
𝑐𝑟̇= 𝐴 𝜎𝑛 , (3)
2. Prediction of the creep behaviour of
where,
the material can be handled with less

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𝐴 = 𝐵’ 𝑒𝑥𝑝(− 𝑄𝑐⁄𝑅𝑇) . (4) Kachanov– Rabotnov model: the strain

It's important to highlight that A, n, and m are approach (SA) and the damage approach
material constants dependent on temperature (DA). The choice between these techniques
and remain unaffected by stress. Both n and depends on the material's analysis for both
m are dimensionless, while A carries units secondary and tertiary creep stages.
that align with those of time t and stress σ. 2.3 Mathematical Formulation & Integration
The derivative with respect to time of of New Creep Model in Abaqus
Equation (3) is commonly termed the time-
hardening formulation of the power-law The novel creep model mathematical
creep [11]. formulation is built by combining Norton
Bailey and Kachanov-Rabotnov models
equations which are based on creep power
, (5)
laws [14]: The new creep model equation is
developed in Equation (9) and simplified in
, 0<ω<1 (6) Equations (10) and (11).

In these equations, M, χ, and ϕ represent

Creep strain rate: ,
constants related to tertiary creep damage, (9)
while the creep strain mirrors Norton’s
power law for secondary creep, utilizing the
same A and n as constants for secondary , (10)
creep. The assumption of isochoric creep
behavior is made, and the analytical , (11)
calculation of secondary and tertiary creep
damage constants is feasible [13]. Equations where, is the creep strain, A, n and are the
(7) and (8) are derived by manipulating material constants, t is the time and is the
Equation (6) through a process involving stress. Equation (11) can be transformed into
separation of variables, indefinite numerical form as in Equation (12) [9]:
integration, and simplifications.

, (12)
t( , (7)
, (13)
, (8)
, (14)
Here, t denotes the current time, and
represents the current damage. These
where, is DECRA(1), uniaxial deviatoric
equations offer a means to calculate the
creep strain increment in ABAQUS creep
current time based on the current damage and
user sub-routine obtained from ABAQUS
stress, or alternatively, the current damage
documentation 3.4.6 as in Equation 14[15].
based on the current time and stress. Stewart
Equation (11) can also be differentiated with
and Gordon [12] introduced two valuable
respect to as:
techniques for analyzing and applying the

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. (15)
(20)
where, is DECRA(5), von Mises stress
in ABAQUS creep user sub-routine.
Equation (14) and Equation (15) can be (21)
implemented in creep sub-routine to
incorporate the proposed creep model in
ABAQUS for time hardening and strain In this equation, x and σ serve as independent
hardening methods. variables, while y and ε ̇ act as dependent
variables, and n' denotes the number of
The other method of integration adapted for samples. In the regression analysis [49],
the new creep model in Abaqus is by curve stress is considered an independent variable,
fitting: and strain rate is the dependent variable. The
The general power law regression is selection of the stress range is influenced by
expressed in Equation (16), while the the precision of the regression, with a larger
Norton-Bailey equation is provided in stress range in the sample data yielding a
Equation (17) for the purpose of comparison more accurate curve fit [19].
[16]: The creep parameter and stress exponent, as
outlined in Equations (19) and (21), undergo
(16) modifications for the curve fitting of the new
model through regression into the
=A (17) NortonBailey model in Abaqus, resulting in
Equations (22) and (23). In these equations,
In this context, the equation involves the the constant b is introduced to signify the
criterion variable and prediction response damage evolution parameter, aiding in
(y), where A' represents the curve coefficient, modeling material deformation during the
and B is the exponent of the predictor tertiary creep stage [20].
variable (x). This equation is juxtaposed with
the Norton-Bailey power law regression (22)
presented in Equation (17). The parameter B
in Equation (18) is then compared with the
derived stress exponent (n) in Equation (19) (23)
for creep [17].
where,

(18) b ;
ω = damage evolution parameter;
(19) = sample size

Likewise, the curve coefficient A' in The new model equation becomes:
Equation (20) was contrasted with the
Norton-Bailey creep parameter A in =A *b (24)
Equation (21) to determine the parameters
[18]. 3. METHODOLOGY
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This section elucidates the adopted A0 -19.17 B -3.40

methodology for initially determining 0
analytical creep strain and creep strain rate A1 53762 B 11250.0
through regression analysis, employing Type .40 1
Omega-Norton Bailey regression models -SS A2 - B -
for the new model. Subsequently, the 304 13442 2 5635.8
implementation of the new creep model is .4 0
addressed by utilizing creep user sub- A3 3162. B 3380.40
routine scripting in the finite element 60 3
package Abaqus. Table 1. MPC Omega model material
coefficients for material type SS-304
3.1 Analytical Creep Strain (MPa, °C) [21]
The research study is structured into two The parameters and formulations are
segments to determine the creep strain and explicitly defined in ASME FFS-1/API-579
creep strain rate. Initially, the creep strain standards, particularly for the MPC Omega
was analytically computed using the creep model. The analytical creep strain for the
material model derived from the Omega thin-hole steel plate 304 was computed
model formulation, adhering to the ASME using the closed-loop Equations (25)–(32),
FFS-1/API-579 standards [21], specifically as extracted from the ASME FFS-1/API-
for the SS-304 thin hole plate. Subsequently, 579 standards [21].
creep strains were calculated through finite
element (FE) simulation in Abaqus,
utilizing material model properties obtained (26)
from ASME BPVC Section II Part D, Sub- 𝛺 = max [ ( 𝛺 - 𝑛𝐵𝑁 , 3 ] (27)
Part 2 standards [22]. Regression analysis 𝑆1 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 [𝜎𝑒] (31)
was applied to acquire the creep parameter
(A) and the stress exponent (n) for the new
creep regression model designed for the The next sub-section explains the geometry
steel 304-hole plate in Abaqus. The same FE modelling and pre-processing of FE model
model was then employed to implement the specimen.
proposed new creep model. 3.2 Geometry Modelling & Pre-
For this research study and analysis, the
Processing
chosen material is SS-304. The coefficients
provided in Table 1 represent estimates of The finite element (FE) model for the thin-
typical material behavior employed in the hole steel sheet of steel 304 was constructed
analytical calculations. These coefficient in compliance with the ASME standards for
values were determined through a thorough thin plates [23]. Boundary conditions were
examination of material behavior and were imposed on the FE model, with one end
obtained from ASME FFS-1/API-579 being fixed. The reference point for the
standards [21]. model's displacement direction was
determined upon the application of the load
[36]. The study observed the predicted
Strain Rate Omega
behavior of stainless steel material under
Parameter 𝜺𝒄𝟎 Parameter - Ω
constant stresses within its elastic limit at
both room temperature and elevated
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temperatures. The analysis involved a

(28)
combination of plasticity and creep to yield
results for established creep models applied
to the thin-hole steel plate. Subsequently, (29)
plastic hardening data for the material was
obtained for the developed models. The (30)
results obtained from the established creep
𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 460 for 0F ; 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 273 for 0C
models were then compared with those
derived from the newly proposed creep
model.
The creep was initially modelled using the
NortonBailey (NB) model available in the
Abaqus material library [24]. The assessment
focused on the isotropic material SS304,
given the assumptions made in the analysis.
A uniaxial force was applied to the steel hole
plate under specific boundary conditions,
and a thermal field was introduced. An
elastic perfectly plastic model was selected
to simulate plasticity, plastic deformation,
and elasticity [25]. The displacement was
measured at one end of the steel hole plate Figure 1(a) Specified Load applied
with a 2 mm/min amplitude, while the other and fixed boundary conditions at
end was fixed. The thermal environment was opposite
created by implementing a specific thermal
field throughout the model, ranging in
temperatures from 0 to 700°C for the SS-304
material. Once the desired temperature was
achieved, a steady longitudinal load was
applied, inducing dislocation and distortion
in the material's grain structure [26].
Figure 1(a) illustrates the applied
load on the steel plate, with one end fixed and
the load applied at the other end. Figure 1(b)
demonstrates the meshing of the hole plate
with an appropriate mesh size, while Figure
1(c) depicts the magnitude of the load on the
hole plate. Figure 1(d) presents the von Mises Figure 1(b) Meshing of thin hole plate
stress distribution of the plate. Lastly, Figure with appropriate mesh size
1(e) illustrates the obtained creep strain for
the steel plate during the simulation

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For mesh convergence study, simulation was

run by selecting coarsest mesh which leads to
reasonable accuracy. Mesh size was refined
continuously, and the simulations were run
several time and the results were compared,
to select the best size of the mesh. The
material and physical properties for SS304
material for the steel plate are tabulated in the
Table 2 as obtained from ASME BPVC sub
part II section D.

Material Model Elastic Perfectly

Plastic
Figure 1(c) Thin plate with the applied Young’s Modulus (201000 - 17100)
load and magnitude MPa @ -250C to
7200C
Poisson’s ratio 0.31
Density 8000 kg/m3
Thermal 17.3 x 10-6 0C-1
Expansion
Coefficient
Thermal 16.2 W m -1 °C -1
Conductivity
Yield Stress (207 – 126) MPa
Plastic Strain (0 – 0.015)
Table 2: Material & Physical Properties
of SS-304 material
Figure 1(d) Thin plate with the applied The creep parameter and stress exponent
load and magnitude were determined for the new model by
regression analysis with the effect of damage
evolution parameter and tabulated in Table 3
for steel plate. The results were then obtained
for the new model by applying curve fitting
technique. The next sub-section discussed
the statistical tools applied for sensitivity
studies for analysing creep data by the new
model.

Figure 1(e) Creep Strain (CEEQ) at the

plate hole

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New Creep Temperature represents the central composite design

Model (ºC ) equation utilized for the optimization of
1.64964 × 595 these parameters.
10−22 (ANOVA) for comparison. The design
2.84973 × 600 matrices for the novel model were
10−22 formulated utilizing central composite
Creep 4.89231 × 605 design (CCD). This process considered four
Parameter 10−22 independent design factors: stress (A), stress
8.3477 × 610 exponent (B), creep parameter (C), and
10−22 damage parameter (D), with a singular target
1.41581 × 615 response being the strain rate. The details are
−21
10 documented in Table 4 [27]. Analytical
2.38713 × 620 methods were employed to derive the values
−21
10 presented in Table 4, enabling an assessment
4.00147 × 625 of the substantial impact of these factors on
−21
10 the target response, Finite Element (FE)
7.991675 595 strain rate. To gauge the accuracy of
7.95904 600 predictions, both actual and predicted values
7.900654 605 were compared. This involved utilizing
Response Surface Methodology (RSM) and
7.855916 610
Stress Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) for each
Exponent 7.811683 615 model, including the new one.
7.767944 620 Independent design Respon
7.724693 625 Factors se
Value Stres Stress Creep Damage Strain
Table 3: Material Constants for SS-304 s s Expone Paramet Paramet rate
for Creep models at (680 – 720) 0C (A) nt er (C) er
10−5 / h
MPa (B) ‘n’ (D)
MPa−𝑛
'ω'
ℎ−1
3.3 Sensitivity Studies of New Creep Low 3 6.82728 1.59818 0.05 2.99 ×
Model Using RSM & ANOVA × 10−11
10−21
A sensitivity analysis of the newly proposed High 81 7.11384 1.10787 0.40 10.6812
model was conducted to examine the impact ×
10−20
of operational and design parameters on the
objectives. The Analysis of Variances Table 4: Independent Design Factors &
(ANOVA) method was employed to assess Response for RSM & ANOVA of New
differences between two or more means or Model
components through significance tests. The data was inserted into the appropriate
ANOVA also facilitates multiple slots of the design matrices for each model
comparisons of means across various for solving the design equation for new
populations. The primary aim of conducting model, as follows in Equation(34): [28]
sensitivity studies is to quantify the New Model Creep Strain rate =
significant contributions of factors to the +7.703 x 10-6 + 0.0044*A + 0*B + 0*C + 0*D + 0*AB +
0*AC +
target response. The analysis incorporated
0*AD + 0*BC + 0*BD + 0*CD + 0.002* A2 + 0.0007* B2 +
parameters related to operation, design, and 0.0007*
material dependency. Equation (33) C2 + 0.0007* D2 (34)
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where, A = stress, B = stress exponent, C = creep primary, secondary, and tertiary stages of
parameter and D = damage parameter. creep for the material. The obtained results
The provided equation is employed to were derived through the utilization of a
predict the response : curve-fitting method.
Figure 2 depicts the von Mises stress and
relaxed stresses observed during the
In the provided equation, y signifies the simulation employing the new model, which
predicted value of the response. 𝑋𝑖 and 𝑋𝑗 incorporates the creep parameter and stress
represent independent parameters, while 𝛽0 , exponent. The performance of the new model
𝛽𝑖 and 𝛽𝑖𝑖 denote the constant, linear, and was also compared against the Omega model,
interactive coefficients, respectively. following a similar approach to that used for
Additionally, 𝛽𝑖𝑗 stands for the quadratic established models. Creep strain rate results
coefficient, and n represents the number of for the new model were obtained through a
factors involved in the analysis. curve fitting process. Figure 2 provides a
The design matrices for the new model were visual representation of the induced von
constructed using the central composite Mises stress and creep strain results [29].
design (CCD), incorporating four
independent design factors: stress (A), stress
exponent (B), creep parameter (C), and
damage parameter (D). The target response,
in this case, is the strain rate, and the
corresponding design matrix is reported in
Table 4 [27]. The values in Table 4 were
determined analytically to assess the
significant contribution of these factors to the
target response. For each model and the new
model, actual and predicted values of the
finite element strain rate were obtained from
the Response Surface Methodology (RSM)
and Analysis of Variance deemed Figure 2: Von Mises stress and Relaxed
significant, as evidenced by a coefficient of stress distribution with Omega- New
determination (R²) value exceeding 80%. Model’s Regression -Visco-elastic
4. RESULTS plastic run-time of 1000 h, 101 MPa and
625 0C.
The recently proposed model, which
integrates the Norton Bailey and Kachanov- 4.1 New Creep Model Results by
Rabotnov models, was applied within the FE Curve-Fitting
package Abaqus to derive creep strain and The creep strain rate results were obtained
strain rate results for an SS-304 thin-hole while implementing new model in Abaqus
plate using finite element analysis. Consistent by the method of curve fitting, used for
with established models in the FE package, deriving constants in the equation of new
the same predefined boundary conditions model. The new model was standardized by
were employed. The simulation extended the Omega model with the help of
over 1000 hours at a temperature of 625°C, regression analysis. Figure 3(a) is depicting
yielding promising outcomes that covered the
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the comparison of creep strain rates for the Figure 3(b): New Model Creep strain
new model with the Omega model on the comparison with the Omega Model
same applied conditions. New creep model Creep strain by Curve Fitting
curve is covering primary, secondary and
tertiary creep stages, whereas Omega model To capture the tertiary creep behaviour of
can only cover the primary and secondary stainless-steel material, arbitrary damage
creep stages. Omega model gives error in evolution parameter (ω) values were applied.
predicting creep strain at elevated The strain to reach the particular value of (ω)
temperatures, this deficiency can be does not show the similar trend. As depicted
fulfilled by using the new creep model [30]. in the Figure 4, a marginal decrease in strain
Omega model is unable to predict creep to reach the particular value of (ω), resulted
curves for the large exponential data, the in the reduction of the applied stresses. The
deficiency can be fulfilled by using the new kinetics evolution of coupled strain and
proposed creep model. Figure 3(b) is damage does not necessarily follow the same
depicting the results comparison of the new
trend. It is well known fact, that any material
model with the Omega model for creep
fails if (ω), reaches critical damage 𝜔𝑐 . The
strain at same pre-defined boundary
material fails usually before reaching the
conditions [31].
critical damage of value equivalent to 1. The
new creep model has the ability to model the
tertiary creep damage at all damage
parameter (ω) values [32].

Time, t (h)

Figure 3(a): New Model Creep strain rate

comparison with the Omega Model
Creep strain rate by Curve Fitting

Figure 4: Creep Strain for the new model

at varying Damage Evolution Parameters
[33]

4.2 Data Optimization by Statistical

Modelling
For the response analysis, quadratic
regression models were selected for
Time, t (h) statistical assessment of response strain. To
verify the suitability of the chosen regression
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models, regular coefficient of determination summary of the new model is tabulated in

(R²), adjusted coefficient of determination Table 7.
(adjusted R²), and expected coefficient of
determination (predicted R²) were employed
for each case. The fit statistics for the
response strain generated from a central
composite design are presented in Table 5.
The significance of the models is evident
from the R² values. Additionally, the close
proximity of the modified R² and anticipated
R² values reinforces the models' relevance.
The term "adequate precision" signifies the
comparison between the predicted values
(referred to as "signal") and the average
prediction error (referred to as "noise"). The
models exhibit good performance, as
indicated by the appropriate relationship
between signal and noise. It was determined
that all quadratic models are significant in
exploring the design space [34]. Figure 5: Stress & stress exponent
Fit statistics for New Model Creep interaction effect on New Model creep
strain rate ( t) strain rate.
R2 0.8282
2 Source Sum of df Mean F- p-
Adjusted R 0.6679 Squares Squar value valu
2 e e
Predicted R 0.0107 Model 0.000 1 0 5.17
Adequate Precision 8.7791 6 4
A-stress 0.000 1 0.0005 57.8
Table 5: Fit Statistics for the Models 5 0
B-Stress 0 1 0 0
ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) was Exponent
employed to assess the statistical C-Creep 0 1 0 0
characteristics and synergistic effects of each Paramete
constituent. The applicability and suitability r
AB 0 1 0 0
of the regression model were recommended
through various ANOVA adequacy tests, AC 0 1 0 0

including the lack-of-fit test, the F-value, and AD 0 1 0 0

the p-value [35]. Figure 5 illustrates the plot BC 0 1 0 0
of interaction and correlation analysis for
BD 0 1 0 0
each model, specifically focusing on the
parameters of stress and stress exponent on CD 0 1 0 0
the response strain. This correlation is also 1 0.0001 13.3
evident in the mathematical model equations. 4
The ANOVA table is presented in Table 6 for
the new model's creep strain rate, and a

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1 0 1.48 illustrates the combined effect of the design

factors on the response, specifically the new
model's creep strain rate, while Figure 6(b)
depicts contour creep deformation maps of
the model.
1 0 1.48

1 0 1.48

Residual 0.000 1 8.222

1 5 x 10−6
Lack of 0.000 1 0
fit 1 0
Pure 0 5 0
Error
Cor 0.000 2
Total 7 9

Table 6: ANOVA table for New Model

Creep Strain Rate

Source Std. R2 Adjusted Predicted Press

Dev. R2 R2

Linear 0.0031 6.6619 0.6078 0.5138 0.0003

2FI 0.0036 0.6619 0.4840 0.0408 0.0007

Quadr 0.0029 0.8282 0.6679 0.0107 0.0007

atic

Cubic 0.0035 0.8812 0.5078 -16.1067 0.0123

Table 7: Response: New Model creep

strain rate – Model Summary

The following three-dimensional plots offer

an assessment of the behavior of the response
and unveil the synergistic effects of the
independent elements on the chosen
response. In essence, the 3D model presents Figure 6(a) The combined effect of
the response as a function of two independent design factors on the response New
components, while the remaining two Model creep strain rate ( t); (b) Contour
elements are held constant at their mean creep deformation map for New creep
coded values. These three-dimensional model
surface plots illustrate the functional
Figure 7 illustrates the graphs of simulation
relationship between the defined dependent
outputs alongside predicted outputs for all the
variables and their associated independent
models. The correlation between predicted
variables. For each model, the stress
and actual values for the response strain rate
exponent, creep parameter, stress, and
is presented at a satisfactory level across all
damage parameter are applied to measure the
models. Notably, the models do not exhibit
individual response strain. Figure 6(a)
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 Proceedings of IMEC-2024, 6th-7th March 2024, Karachi, Pakistan

abrupt variations in continual variance, as timeconsuming nature, leading to a scarcity

indicated by their relative error values. To of creep data and results for any material.
assess the appropriateness of the generated From this research study, the following
models, the graph displays the projected vs. conclusions were drawn:
actual responses. It is evident from the graph (1) The modified constitutive model
that the predicted and actual values for the demonstrated superior capability in
relevant response are very close [36]. The describing all three stages of creep
distribution of data points along the run order compared to the Kachanov-Rabotnov (K-
suggests that the values predicted by the R) and Norton-Bailey models. The
model remained relatively consistent [37]. A investigation focused on the behavior of
random dispersal was observed, with most the SS-304 thin-hole plate.
values situated close to the middle line. In
this scenario, no discernible pattern of (2) The fit statistics for the quadratic model
residuals above and below the central line of creep strain points indicated a close
was observed, affirming that the run order of alignment between anticipated,
the design procedure did not significantly simulated, and actual values. This
impact the data and, consequently, indicating underscores the effectiveness of the
the significance of the model. quadratic model in navigating the design
space. Additionally, the substantial
influence of the interaction terms of
mixing conditions on the variables and
the response was evident, as indicated by
their F-values.
(3) A comprehensive statistical analysis and
successive geometric optimization were
conducted utilizing the response surface
modeling approach and the ANOVA
technique. The resulting 3D surface plot
was scrutinized to understand the
combined significant effect of the design
factors—stress, the stress exponent, the
Figure 7. Actual vs predicted values for creep parameter, and the damage
New Model creep strain rate evolution parameter—on the relevant
target response, which is strain. The
5. CONCLUSIONS
impact on the strain response was further
Utilizing the modified constitutive model, analyzed and investigated through the
numerical calculations were executed to utilization of contour creep deformation
simulate the damage development of a thin- maps.
hole steel plate. Particular attention was
Nomenclature
given to discussing the influence of stress and
damage evolution. It's noteworthy to A Norton’s power law constant
acknowledge the challenges associated with R Universal gas constant
creep tests, such as their costliness and
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T Temperature tr rupture time Q ASTM American Standards for Testing of

activation energy Materials
Qc Norton’s activation energy UTS Ultimate tensile strength
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EFFECT OF GAS-ASSISTED DIRECT THERMAL METHOD

PROCESSING PARAMETERS ON MICROSTRUCTURE
FORMATION OF HYPOEUTECTIC AL-SI ALLOY FEEDSTOCK
BILLET
M. A. Shakirin a, A.H. Ahmad a,b, *, A. Megalingama, J. Aliasa, S. Naherc
a
Faculty of Mechanical and Automotive Engineering Technology,
Universiti Malaysia Pahang Al-Sultan Abdullah, 26600 Pekan, Pahang, Malaysia.
b
Advanced Industrial Technology Research Center,
Universiti Malaysia Pahang Al-Sultan Abdullah, 26600 Pekan, Pahang, Malaysia.
c
Department of Mechanical Engineering and Aeronautics, City
University of London, London EC1V 0HB, UK.

*[email protected]
ABSTRACT
This paper aims to investigate the effect of Gas-Assisted Direct Thermal Method (GA-DTM)
processing parameters on hypoeutectic Al-Si alloy feedstock billet microstructure. Several
methods have been used to produce globular microstructures, that are suitable for semisolid metal
processing (SSMP) in these recent years. Factors that affected microstructure such as pouring
temperature, holding time, and magnesium addition were analysed. A combination of parameters,
consists of pouring temperatures of 590 and 610 °C, holding time of 10 and 20 s, and magnesium
addition of 0.5 and 1.5 wt% were used. The microstructures of the prepared sample were
investigated. The results showed that hypoeutectic Al-Si alloy feedstock billets prepared with GA-
DTM with 610 °C pouring temperature, 20 s holding time and 1.5 wt.% magnesium addition
produced finer microstructure. The grain size, circularity, and aspect ratio, for the formed
microstructure were at 45.70 µm, 0.69, and 1.42 respectively. The microstructure with small and
uniform primary particles is commonly preferred for SSMP. The study provide insight into the use,
performance, and applicability of hypoeutectic Al-Si alloy feedstock billets in semi-solid
processing applications such as thixoforming.
Keywords: Grain refinement, Hypoeutectic Al-Si Alloy, Magnesium Addition, Gas-Assisted
Direct Thermal Method, Feedstock Billet, Microstructure.

1. INTRODUCTION a considerable influence on the mechanical

The process technology and composition of characteristics of the material [2]. The
the materials are highly related to the mechanical properties are improved by grain
microstructure that leads to the quality of a size, homogenous nucleation distribution of
material [1]. Traditional casting techniques the second phase, reduction in microporosity,
for aluminium silicon cast alloys develop a shrinkage defects, feedstock parameters
primary phase with a coarser microstructure control, and solidification time. Smaller
and form larger grains with a high degree of grains often translate to increased strength,
segregation and plenty of casting defects. hardness, and wear resistance, while
Grain refining is a well-known process that is simultaneously improving ductility and
used on the majority of Al-cast alloys. It has toughness. There are various processes for
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refining aluminium grain. Grain refinement found that the generation of finer primary
by vibration and stirring during grains with a spheroidal shape was improved
solidification, rapid solidification, grain by 36.4% when DTM was combined with
refiner addition, and extreme plastic external colling gas [6]. Furthermore, several
deformation [3]. studies on the microstructure and hardness
Semi solid metal process (SSMP) has evolution of aluminium alloy 6061 indicated
recently been applied in the industry because that the casting temperature and holding time
it produced globular with refined had a greater influence on structure formation
microstructure, a crucial element for SSMP [8], while another study specifically reported
for its use in engine blocks and aerospace that a combination of low casting
parts. The final SSMP product also has minor temperature and long holding time produced
a global microstructure [9].
defects such as porosity, shrinkage, gas
Hypoeutectic Al-Si alloys, a subset of
entrapment, and macro segregation [4]. In
aluminium-silicon alloys, possess distinctive
addition, the SSMP technique develops characteristics that make them valuable in a
aluminium alloys to a semisolid state and variety of industrial applications [10]. These
improves the characteristics of aluminium alloys are characterized by having a silicon
alloys. The SSMP of die casting seems to content below the eutectic composition of
meet several objectives since it may offer the approximately 12.6% silicon by weight.
industry a means of creating mass- Some key features of hypoeutectic Al-Si
production, high-performance, and complex alloys include their excellent fluidity, which
components close to their net shape while makes them well-suited for intricate casting,
simultaneously reducing energy and good castability, enabling them to be
consumption and waste [5]. The success of easily shaped into a wide range of
the SSMP is merely dependent on the components through various casting methods
[11]. However, their mechanical strength is
globular and refined microstructure
incredible. As magnesium can improve
feedstock for thixoforming. In the literature, mechanical properties and performance, its
many efforts have been made to explore the addition to aluminium-silicon alloys has
ability to produce more globular and finer attracted attention [1].
microstructure. Increasing the addition of magnesium has a
positive impact on alloy strength. Under
Various methods have been tried to prepare
conventional casting conditions, it results in
the material with improved globular
the formation of a coarse Mg₂ Si alloy,
microstructure for SSMP. One method is the
which, unfortunately, leads to alloys with
Gas-Assisted Direct Thermal Method (GA-
limited ductility and poor fracture toughness
DTM), which modifies the thermal
[12]. Therefore, the coarse Mg₂ Si phase
characteristics of the liquid alloy to delay the
offers good mechanical strength but requires
material's solidification [6]. The
modification to maintain ductility.
microstructure's shape has been enhanced
Augmenting the magnesium content
using GA-DTM, resulting in a more globular
contributes to the enhancement of the
and refined microstructure. It is also known
microstructure in Al-Si alloys [13]. To
that adding magnesium to Al-Si-Cu alloys
address this issue, SSMP is utilized to create
through a process known as grain refining
Al-Si alloys with a finer microstructure and
enhanced the alloys' mechanical properties
decreased segregation [14]. In their study,
by causing a stronger Mg₂Si phase to form
Cory et al. investigated the effect of
[7]. A study by Azhani Abd Razak et al.
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magnesium content ranging from 0.3 wt.% to Composition (wt%)

0.7 wt.% on the mechanical properties of A Al Si Fe Cu Zn M M Cr Ni Ti Sn

356 alloys [15]. The results of Yamamoto et n g

81. 9.7 0.6 1.1 1.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.5 0.0 0.3
al reported that the addition of magnesium
7 4 8 5 7 1 4 1 3 9 5
from 0.3 % to 1.5 wt% improved the
mechanical properties due to the change in Table 8 Chemical composition of raw
microstructure morphology and high strength material hypoeutectic Al-Si alloy.
matrix [16].
The formation of the fine microstructure of The processing parameters that were selected
hypoeutectic Al-Si alloy feedstock billets to be used for this study are listed in Table 9
plays an important role in producing high- below.
performance aluminium components in Addition of
Sampe Temperature Time
various industries[10]. To enhance the Magnesium
Number (°C) (s)
mechanical properties and structural integrity (wt.%)
of these components, the GA-DTM is often 1 590 10 0.5
employed. Although high-silicon 2 590 20 1.5
hypoeutectic Al-Si alloys are recommended 3 610 10 0.5
for producing high-quality products in the 4 610 20 1.5
semi-solid state, mechanical strength is a
Table 9 Experimental Parameters
concern [17]. The addition of magnesium to
aluminium-silicon alloys improves the Feedstock billets were produced using the
mechanical properties and performance but is GA-DTM process at different pouring
not integrated with the GA-DTM method. temperatures, holding times, and magnesium
Furthermore, specific parameters of this GA- addition levels. For this study, pouring
DTM method, such as pouring temperature, temperatures of 590 to 630 °C, holding times
holding time, magnesium addition, etc., have of 10 to 20, and magnesium additions of 0.5
not been studied in detail regarding their to 1.5 weight percent were determined.
effect on the grain refining process [6].
Therefore, this study aims to investigate the 2.2 Sample Preparation
effect of processing parameters and their In the GA-DTM method, a five-coil copper
effects on hypoeutectic Al-Si alloy feedstock coil was used for this experiment [6]. There
billet produced by GA-DTM. is a certain gap between each coil. Around
each coil is a hole to vent the compressed air.
A K-type thermocouple and data logger were
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS used to measure the melt temperature to
2.1 Materials and Processing calculate the pouring temperature. After the
Parameters molten material in the crucible reached the
The chemical composition of the pouring temperature, it was poured into the
hypoeutectic Al-Si alloy was detected using copper mould. The material in the copper
a foundry master oxford instruments and mould is then placed in compressed air
optical emission spectrometer and the through the copper coil for a holding time
obtained values are shown in Table 8. determined in this test. The copper mould
direct air through the copper coil helps in
rapid cooling and prevents chemical
reactions caused by outside air. At the desired
holding time the copper mould was dropped

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into a water-filled quench tank. Then the

60

Grain Diameter (µm)

billet was extracted from the mould.
50
40
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
30
3.1 Microstructure Evolution from
GA-DTM Billet 20
The microstructure of hypoeutectic Al-Si 10
alloy GA-DTM feedstock billet was 0
determined by using Image J software. The 1 2 3 4
different combinations of parameters which Sample Number
were pouring temperature, holding time, and
the additional amount of magnesium to the
raw material, led to the effect on the Figure 1. Average diameter grain
microstructure. diameter for sample number 1 to 4.
A hypoeutectic Al-Si alloy with a pouring The grain sizes obtained in each of the 4
temperature of 590 °C, a holding time of 10 samples ranged from 45 µm to 50 µm.
s, and 0.5 wt% magnesium addition had a Magnesium addition was found to have the
maximum grain size of 50.12 µm (Sample 1). greatest effect on grain size. The grain size
Similarly, a hypoeutectic Al-Si alloy with a values showed more than 50µm when the
pouring temperature of 610 °C, a holding amount of magnesium was set at 0.5 wt.%.
time of 20 s, and 1.5 wt% magnesium On the other hand, when the amount of
addition had a minimum grain size of 45.70 magnesium was fixed at 1.5 wt.%, the grain
µm. Sample 3 was prepared at 590 °C size value was between 40 µm and 45 µm.
pouring temperature, 20 s holding time and According to the results of the previous
1.5 wt% magnesium addition, which had a study, the grain size decreases when the
grain size of 49.39 µm. Generally, as the magnesium value increases [19]. During
holding times increase, the primary particles solidification magnesium acts as a nucleating
in the liquid phase coalesce and the grain size agent for the grain structure, promoting the
increases. This study shows that the addition formation of finer grains. This leads to a
of magnesium modifies the primary size of highly refined microstructure with smaller
the α-Al phase[18]. Other than that, grain sizes. Magnesium atoms provide
microstructure modification might occur due nucleation sites for the formation of new
to the formation of Mg 2 Si. According to Kori grains. When magnesium is added to the
et al., the morphology of the silicon phase of melt, it forms insoluble particles that act as
hypoeutectic Al-Si alloy change is related to sites for the initiation of grain growth. This
a decrease in eutectic temperature and an results in a greater number of smaller grains
increase in undercooling, indicating that high distributed throughout the material. The
concentrations of Mg influence the silicon circularity values obtained from the
phase of hypoeutectic Al-Si alloy microstructure investigation of billets
significantly. These alterations indicate the prepared by GA-DTM are presented in
formation of Mg 2 Si has occurred [15]. The Figure.
mean diameter grain size of microstructure
investigated sample number 1 to 4 are
presented in Figure.

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0.8 2
0.6

Aspect Ratio
1.5
Circularity

0.4 1
0.2 0.5
0
0
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
Sample Number
Sample Number
Figure 2. Average circularity for sample
number 1 to 4.
Figure 3. Average aspect ratio for sample
number 1 to 4.
Each of the 4 samples had a circularity
The aspect ratio obtained by each of the 4
ranging from 0.61 to 0.69. The magnesium
samples ranged between 1.42 and 1.64. The
addition has a most significant influence on
addition of magnesium contributed to the
circularity. The circularity value increases as
effect on the aspect ratio. Circularity
the holding time increases [16],[20].
increases as the magnesium addition
Circularity, measured on a scale from 0.0 to
increases. The aspect ratio represents the
1.0, is the degree to which the shape of the
ratio of the main axis to the minor axis. The
microstructure resembles an ideal circle [21].
higher the aspect ratio size, the longer the
Sample 4 had the highest circularity value
particle. It was discovered that the addition of
(0.69). A greater magnesium value causes the
Mg resulted in a reduction in the particle size
circularity to increase at any given
of the sample. Among the hypoeutectic Al-Si
magnesium addition rate. A value close to 1.0
alloy feedstock billets prepared by the GA-
means that the shape is considered perfectly
DTM method, the sample prepared at 610 °C
spherical. Nevertheless, particles become
pouring temperature, 20 s holding time, and
more elongated as the value approaches zero.
1.5 weight percent magnesium addition had a
While pouring temperature and holding time
small and spherical microstructure. The
can influence the cooling rate and subsequent
grain size, circularity, and aspect ratio are
microstructure, their effect on grain size may
45.70µm, 0.69, and 1.42, respectively. This is
be overshadowed by magnesium's strong
consistent with the recommended dosages for
grain refining effect. In some cases, changes
globular microstructure [21],[22].
in pouring temperature and holding time may
have a secondary or complementary impact
on grain size, but the primary influence 4. CONCLUSIONS
appears to be from magnesium addition. The The contribution of processing parameters in
aspect ratio obtained from microstructure the preparation of hypoeutectic Al-Si alloy
investigation of billets prepared by GA-DTM feedstock billet by the GA-DTM method was
is presented in Figure. successfully investigated. The study results
provided insight into the effect of grain
refinement and processing parameters on the
microstructure of the alloys, which allowed
us to know pouring temperature, time, and
magnesium addition and their combined
effects on grain refinement. At 610 °C
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pouring temperature, 20 s holding time and [6] N.A. Abd Razak, A.H. Ahmad, M.M.
1.5 wt.% magnesium added billet sample had Rashidi, and S. Naher, “An investigation
very small and uniform primary grains. At of semisolid Al7075 feedstock billet
these combination parameters, the grain size, produced by a gas-assisted direct thermal
circularity, and aspect ratio are 45.70µm, method.,” International Journal of
0.69, and 1.42, respectively. These study Advanced Manufacturing Technology.
findings will help to improve the mechanical vol. 114, no. 3–4, pp. 1233–1240, 2021.
strength, applicability, and microstructure of [7] Al-Si Cast Alloys - Microstructure and
materials produced by semi-solid processing. Mechanical Properties at Ambient and
Elevated Temperature Al-Si Cast Alloys
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT - Microstructure and Mechanical
The authors would like to thank the Ministry Properties at Ambient and Elevated
of Higher Education for providing financial Temperature., 2015.
support under Fundamental research grant [8] B. Benjunior, A.H. Ahmad, and M.M.
No.FRGS/1/2019/TK03/UMP/02/8Universit Rashidi, “Direct thermal method pouring
y reference RDU1901122) and Universiti temperature and holding time effect on
Malaysia Pahang Al-Sultan Abdullah for aluminium alloy 6061 microstructure.,”
laboratory facilities as well as additional IOP Conference Series: Materials
financial support under Internal Research Science and Engineering. vol. 788, no. 1,
grants RDU160311 and RDU603125. p. 2020.
[9] N.A. Razak, A.H. Ahmad, and M.M.
REFERENCES Rashidi, “Investigation of pouring
[1] D. Watson, “Microstructure and temperature and holding time for
Mechanical Properties of Ductile Die- semisolid metal feedstock production.,”
cast Al-Mg-Si-Mn Alloys.,” no. October, IOP Conference Series: Materials
p. 2015. Science and Engineering. vol. 257, no. 1,
[2] J. Wannasin, R.A. Martinez, and M.C. p. 2017.
Flemings, “Grain refinement of an [10]J. Xu, Y. Li, K. Ma, et al., “In-situ
aluminum alloy by introducing gas observation of grain refinement
bubbles during solidification.,” Scripta dynamics of hypoeutectic Al-Si alloy
Materialia. vol. 55, no. 2, pp. 115–118, inoculated by Al-Ti-Nb-B alloy Scripta
2006. Materialia In-situ observation of grain
[3] M. He, Z. Zhang, W. Mao, B. Li, Y. Bai, refinement dynamics of hypoeutectic
and J. Xu, “Numerical and experimental Al-Si alloy inoculated by Al-Ti-Nb-B
study on melt treatment for large-volume alloy.,” no. June, p. 2020.
7075 alloy by a modified annular [11]M.S. Prabhudev and C.T. Mata,
electromagnetic stirring.,” Materials. vol. “Studies on the microstructure and
12, no. 5, p. 2019. mechanical properties of a356 alloy with
[4] M. Modigell, A. Pola, and M. Tocci, minor additions of copper and
“Rheological characterization of semi- magnesium.,” no. August 2009, pp. 1–5,
solid metals: A review.,” Metals. vol. 8, 2015.
no. 4, pp. 1–23, 2018. [12]M.F.M. Tajudin, A.H. Ahmad, and
[5] P. Kapranos, “Current state of semi-solid M.M. Rashidi, “Effects of different
net-shape die casting.,” Metals. vol. 9, no. processing parameters on the semisolid
12, pp. 1–13, 2019. microstructure of Al6061 produced by a
direct thermal method.,” IOP
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Conference Series: Materials Science AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

and Engineering. vol. 1092, no. 1, p. OF HYPOEUTECTIC Al – 7 % Si
012008, 2021. ALLOY.,” International Journal of
[13]K. Shakya, P. Krishana, and B. Patel, Metalcasting. p. 2017.
“Study of Hardness and Wear Analysis [20]S.A.- Mg, “Rheology of Semisolid AI-
in AL-SI Alloy ( AL-5 % SI , AL-11 % 4.5°/0Cu - 1.5%Mg Alloy.,” Rheology.
SI and AL-17 % SI ) Along With vol. 131, pp. 265–272, 1991.
Microstructural Analysis.,” vol. 6, no. 6, [21]A. Megalingam, A.H. Ahmad, N.A.
pp. 3296–3302, 2020. Alang, J. Alias, and N.A.A. Razak,
[14]A.H. Ahmad, S. Naher, S.N. Aqida, and “Application of Response Surface
D. Brabazon, Routes to Spheroidal Methodology for Parameter
Starting Material for Semisolid Metal Optimization of Aluminum 7075
Processing. Elsevier, 2014. Thixoforming Feedstock Billet
[15]S.A. Kori, M.S. Prabhudev, and T.M. Production.,” Journal of Materials
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the microstructure and mechanical [22]D.J. Browne, M.J. Hussey, A.J. Carr,
properties of A356 alloy with minor and D. Brabazon, “Direct thermal
additions of copper and magnesium.,” method: New process for development
vol. 62, no. October, pp. 353–356, 2009. of globular alloy microstructure.,”
[16]K. Yamamoto, M. Takahashi, Y. International Journal of Cast Metals
Kamikubo, et al., “Effect of Mg content Research. vol. 16, no. 4, pp. 418–426,
on age-hardening response, tensile 2003.
properties, and microstructures of a T5-
treated thixo-cast hypoeutectic Al–Si
alloy.,” Materials Science and
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Matsushita, and P.G. Jönsson,
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[18]P. Taylor, H. Saghafian, S.G.
Shabestari, M.H. Ghoncheh, and F.
Sahihi, “Wear Behavior of Thixoformed
Al-25 wt % Mg 2 Si Composites
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Wear Behavior of Thixoformed Al-25
wt % Mg 2 Si.,” no. January, pp. 37–41,
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[19]Q. Li, B. Li, J. Li, T. Xia, Y. Lan, and T.
Guo, “EFFECTS OF THE ADDITION
OF Mg ON THE MICROSTRUCTURE
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APPLICATION OF ABRASIVE SURFACE IN TUBES TO ENHANCE

FLOW METER EFFICIENCY

Quresha Saghir1,, Anzar Ahmed1, and Syed Waqar Hasan1*

1
Laboratory of Energy and Devices (LEAD), Department of Naval Architecture
Engineering,
Pakistan Navy Engineering College (PNEC), National University of Sciences and
Technology (NUST), Karachi, Pakistan

*
Corresponding author E-mail address: [email protected] (Syed Waqar Hasan)

ABSTRACT
Industries provide various fluid products (e.g. petroleum fuels, chemicals agents and mineral
water) to the market which have deep impact on the economy of the country. Normally, bulk
amount of fluids are loaded on customer containers from the refinery storage tanks through pumps.
A flow meter is used to measure the quantity of the fluid filled in the container against which the
customer shall make the payment. Thus, the efficiency of the flow meter is of paramount
importance. It has been observed that air bubbles are formed in the fluid flow while it is transferred
through a pump. Those air bubbles significantly reduce the flow meter efficiency causing serious
financial burden on the customers. In this research work, a novel technique is presented to ensure
no air bubbles in the working fluid enhancing the flow meter efficiency. It was observed that
centrifugal pump designed for providing flow rate of 10 lit/min was only providing 4.9 lit/min
because of very high air bubble density. We applied a line coating of abrasive paper in the tube
transporting the fluid. It was realized that the abrasive paper completely eliminated the bubble
formation within the tube increasing the flow rate to 9.8 lit/min which is 98% closer to the design
value of the pump. This technique can help the industries/customers to measure the transported
fluid correctly and improve industrial economy.

Keywords: flow meter efficiency; turbulent flow; bubble formation; abrasive papr

1. INTRODUCTION Since, the fluid being transported through

In industries, pipes/tubes are used on large- pipes/tubes are corrosive or at very high
scale as they play a crucial role in different velocities can damage the material of the
applications. They are used in heat pipe/tube. Therefore, maintenance of pipes in
exchangers, boilers, and storage tanks. Pipes industries is important to avoid pipe defects
are essential elements in industries, whether such as erosion, pitting and corrosion etc.
it is mechanical, chemical, textile, One of the major problem within pipes is air
automotive, marine or even biomedical bubble formation which can affect the
industry; they use pipes/tubes for performance and lifespan of pipes. The force
transporting various fluids from one to produced due to bursting of bubbles can
another point [1-3]. More importantly, a large physically damage the pipe by producing tiny
part of maintenance cost in industries is spent pits (known as cause erosion) [4]. These pits
on pipelines [4, 5, 6]. are considered as a serious pipe defect

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because they reduce the mechanical strength (b)

and stability of pipes. Hence, it is necessary
to eliminate bubbles or to minimize the
bubble formation within pipes.
Additionally, the air bubbles in the liquid
flow also disturb the flow meter efficiency.
Accurate flow measurements are important in
different industrial applications [10], and the
existence of bubbles within a fluid can
adversely effect the efficiency of flow (c)
meters. Flow meters are the instruments
which indicate the amount of fluids (liquid,
gas or vapours) moving through a conduit by Figure 1. Experimental workstation. (a)
measuring the volumetric flow rates. Experimental setup with bare tube (b)
However, flow meters cannot distinguish air experimental setup with tube containing
bubbles in the flow. Therefore, if air bubbles abrasive paper (c) photograph of
are present in the conduits, the flow meter abrasive paper.
accounts them to be single phase system and
mentions inaccurate measurement [11]. We have mitigated the presence of air
Air bubbles also impose adverse effects on bubbles by embedding a lining of abrasive
various devices (e.g. electrochemical cells). paper along the length of the tube/conduit.
To remove air bubbles from electrochemical We show that by implementing this single-
cells, industries use breathable electrode step, facile and cost-effective method air
strategy. In this strategy capillary forces are bubbles are completely eliminated even in
used to guide bubbles out of electrode. highly turbulent flow conditions. As the
Breathable electrodes aim to facilitate the result of bubble elimination, the flow meter
efficient removal of gas bubbles from the efficiency was notably increased. Therefore,
electrode surface, allowing for continuous this method has two advantages of (a)
and uninterrupted electrochemical reactions providing higher flow meter efficiency and
[12]. Particularly in fluid flow systems, (b) protecting the tubes/conduits from
bubbles are primarily eliminated from bubbles and their rupturing forces (which can
pipelines by installing air valves (e.g. large ultimately damage the tube physically).
orifice air valves, kinetic air valves and small Collectively, we are presenting a new
orifice air valves) [13]. However, these technique which may avoid
orifice valves incorporate pressure drops and corrosion/erosion and expectedly reduce
energy loss within the pipe flows. maintenance costs in the industry.
(a)
2. EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS
2.1 Theory and Equations

Basic concept of Reynolds Number

Reynolds number is a dimensionless quantity

that is used to determine the type of flow
pattern as laminar or turbulent while flowing

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through a pipe. It is also defined as the ratio 𝑙𝑒

between inertial forces and viscous forces. = 0.06Re . . . . ( 2a)
d

Formulae For Turbulent:

ρVD VD 𝑙𝑒 1
Re = = . . . (1) = 4.4Re6 . . . . (2𝑏)
μ 𝑣 d

Where, Flow Rate

 Re is the Reynolds number Flow rate can be defined as the amount of

 ρ (kg/m3) is the fluid density, fluid (liquid or gas) that is flowing through a
 V (m/s) is the fluid velocity, cross-section of a pipe per unit time. It can be
 D (m) is characteristic length calculated by the following expression:
 μ (Pa.s) is the dynamic viscosity of the
fluid. Q = VA . . .. (3)
 v (m2/s)is the kinematic viscosity of fluid
where
Interpreting the Reynolds number
 Q (𝑚3 /s) is the flow rate
If the Reynolds number is less than 2100  A (m2) is the Area,
(Re<2100) the flow is referred to be laminar,  V (m/s) is the fluid velocity
characterized by smooth fluid motion
(streamline flow). [9] In our experiments, we focused on enhancing
the efficiency of flow meters by finding the
If the Reynolds number is greater than 4000 solution to remove bubbles within a
(Re>4000) the flow is turbulent, pipeline/tube. The experimental setup
characterized by irregular fluid motion. involved controlling fluid velocity to bring
Moreover, in turbulent flow random mixing changes in the Reynolds number. We used
of fluid particles occurs. [9] three different flow rates to observe the
influence of Reynolds number variations on
If Reynolds number is greater than 2100 and bubble density within the pipeline.
less than 4000 (2100<Re<4000) the flow is
referred to be in transitional regime (between At the highest flow rate, corresponding to a
laminar and turbulent flows). Reynolds number of 8586, the flow regime
was turbulent, resulting in a highest bubble
Entrance length density within the fluid. After reducing the
flow rate, we get Reynolds number of 4466
The distance a fluid travels after entering a which resulted in transitional flow. Due to
pipe before it acquires fully developed which the bubble density decreased. By
velocity profile is referred to as entrance further reducing the flow rate we calculated
length and calculated as follows: Reynolds number to be 3678. It was realized
that there were no bubbles observed in bare
For Laminar: tube in this transitional regime.

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To eliminate the air bubbles in turbulent flow 2.2 Experimental Setup

regimes and enhance flow meter The experimental setup constitutes of a DC
performance, a new method was introduced: motor, venturi nozzle, centrifugal pump (10
line coating of abrasive paper was embedded lit/min), flow regulator, transparent circular
along the length of the tube, resulting in pipe (0.5in), AC-DC converter and a digital
complete termination of bubble formation. In camera. The experimental setup is
order to further extend our understanding of demonstrated in (Figure 1). The centrifugal
fluid interaction with the abrasive paper, we pump, placed inside the storage tank filled
also placed the abrasive paper (not in with water, circulates the water in the system.
complete length) in half and one-third of Water flows through the transparent plastic
tubes length. The details of the experiments pipe and the flow characteristics are
and their explanation are mentioned in details visualized and recorded through the camera.
in proceeding sections. [8] Usually the pump provides a fixed flow rate,
which in our case was 10 lit/min. Using
(c) equation (1), (2) and (3) corresponding fluid
velocity and Reynolds number was
calculated. For the flow rate of 10 lit/min, the
velocity and Reynolds number were (2.16
ft/s) and 8582; demonstrating extremely
turbulent flow. In order to investigate the
flow characteristics in broader (transitional –
turbulent) regimes, a flow regulator was
(b) installed along with the pump to reduce the
flow rate from 10 lit/min to 2.6 lit/min with
corresponding Reynold number of 4466.
Further details of the fluid flow are
mentioned in Tables 1 – 3. We proposed a
design modification in the system by
embedding an abrasive coating (i.e. sand
paper) on the internal surface of the
transparent pipe. We were interested to
investigate the fluid flow characteristics
(c) under the increased friction/roughness
offered by the abrasive coating. The
transparent pipe containing the abrasive
coating is shown in Figure 1b. The abrasive
coating used in the experiments is shown in
Figure 1c. At the starting point, we began our
experimental investigation with a
commercially available sand paper purchased
from local market. Therefore, the roughness
Figure 2. Bubble visualization in bare and thickness of the abrasive paper was
tubes. (a) Highest flow rate (5 lit/min) (b) unchanged. Regarding the selection of width
Moderate flow rate (2.6 lit/min) (c) Lowest of the abrasive paper; the main concern was
flow rate (2.16 lit/min). to be able to monitor the air bubbles and
capture the images/videos of the fluid flow
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from outside. Therefore, we could not cover lit/min, a gradual decrease in bubble density
a larger circumference of the tube with was observed as exhibited in Figure 2b,
abrasive paper. Hence for the diameter of 0.5 however, bubbles are still very prominent and
in (circumference=1.57 in), we placed consistent. Once the lowest flow rate was
abrasive paper of width 0.3 in. examined; complete elimination of the
bubbles was observed (Figure 2c). Although
Description Length Dia Width the Reynolds Number is still considerably
(in) (in) (in) high (i.e. 3678) which is in the transitional
Pipe (Overall) 14 0.5 - limits to turbulent flow but no bubbles were
visualized.
S.no Flow Reynolds Observations
rate number
Venturi Nozzle 6.3 0.5 -
(lit/min)
1 5 8582 High bubble
Abrasive paper 5 - 0.3 density
2 2.6 4466 Low bubble
Transparent tube 5 0.5 - density
3 2.14 3678 No bubbles
Table 1. Details of experimental setup Table 3. Details of Bubble formation in
tube
DC Motor 10 lit/min 2.3 amp
DC Regulator - 10 amp

Table 2. Electronic Components

3. RESULTS
In this research, we designed an experimental
setup to investigate the fluid characteristics
on different flow rates by changing its flow
rate Reynolds number. Three different flow
rates were selected for the experimentation:
(a) highest flow rate (10 lit/min), having
turbulent flow with Reynolds number of
8586, (b) moderate flow rate (2.6 lit/min) Figure 3. Bubble Density in tube against
with Reynolds number of 4466 and (c) lowest Reynolds number
flow rate (2.14 lit/min) with Reynolds 3.2 Fluid behavior in tube provided
number of 3678. abrasive surface
It is mentioned in the experimental section
3.1 Fluid behavior in bare tube that the primary interest of this research is to
It was observed that the highest flow rate investigate the changes in the fluid flow
resulted in turbulent flow producing characteristics due to the increased
tremendous amount of air bubbles in the flow friction/roughness incorporated through an
as shown in Figure 2a. In fact the highest abrasive coating. An abrasive coating was
bubble density was visualized in this flow introduced into the transparent tube (Figure
regime. Once the flow rate was reduced to 2.6 1 b& c), creating a region where the fluid had

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to flow over the abrasive surface. In order to underscore the influence of abrasive paper
compare the effect of abrasive coating, the coverage on the dynamics of bubble
fluid was flown over the abrasive coating at formation.
the three flow rates previously studied. We
previously mentioned extremely high
generation of bubbles at highest flow rate for (a)
bare tube (Figure 2a). A dramatic
elimination of bubbles was noted once the
abrasive paper was placed in the tube as
shown in Figure 4a. It has to be noted that
the fluid velocity, flow rate and Reynolds Full length of abrasive lining
number were unchanged/highest,
nevertheless, there are no bubbles observed. (b)
Even for the lower and moderate flow rates;
the bubbles were not observed in the presence
of abrasive paper.
2/3rd length of abrasive lining
In order to further extend our understanding
about the role of abrasive paper on fluid flow
[8], we reduced the length of the abrasive (c)
paper. Previously, the whole length of the
plastic tube (i.e. 5 in) was provided the
abrasive paper. Now we reduced half of the
length of abrasive paper (i.e. 2.5 in). In other
words, half of the pipe length is bare (i.e.
1/2 length of abrasive lining
uncovered) and the remaining half of the pipe
length is covered by abrasive paper as shown Figure 4. Bubble visualization in tubes
in Figure 4c. We kept the velocity, flow rate embedded with abrasive lining. (a) Full
and Reynolds Number to be maximum. The length of tube provided abrasive paper.
results are shown in Figure 4c. It can be An abrasive paper can be seen placed
noted that reduced length of the abrasive along the length of the tube. It can be
paper allowed some bubble formation in the noted that there are literally no air
tube, although the bubbles observed in this bubbles at maximum flow rate (10
case are notably less than the bare tube case lit/min). (b) 2/3rd length of tube provided
(Figure 2a) but higher than Figure 4a (when abrasive paper. (c) 1/2 length of tube
complete tube length was covered by the provided abrasive paper. Abrasive paper
abrasive paper). Therefore, applying abrasive can be seen placed along the half length
coating to only half of the tube in our of the tube. (a,b) It can be noted that
experiments led to a continued generation of sizes of bubbles are getting smaller at
bubbles, with a noticeable reduction in size maximum flow rate (10 lit/min).
(Figure 4c). Subsequently, expanding the
coverage of the abrasive paper to two-thirds
of the tube length reduced the bubble
formation and there was further decrement in
size and a significant reduction in quantity of
bubbles (see Figure 4b). These observations
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4. DISCUSSION Removal of bubbles

Bubble Density Vs Reynolds number The placement of abrasive paper in the tube
creates enormous amount of shear stresses
During the investigation of changing due to extremely high surface roughness of
Reynolds numbers on bubble formation, it abrasive paper in the fluid. The schematic
was found that bubble density (the number of illustration is provided in Figure 5b. This
bubbles per unit area) showed a direct high shear stress is expected to be the main
relation. With increasing Reynolds numbers; reason of bubble elimination from the system
the bubble density increases in bare tubes. At (Figure 5b). At the bottom of Figure 5b an
the highest flow rate, the Reynolds number abrasive paper is shown which is shown to
was (8582), indicating a turbulent flow with offer higher shear stresses than the bare tube
highest bubble density (Figure 3). After surfaces (as in Figure 5a).
slowing down flow rate Reynolds number
dropped to 4466, showing turbulent flow. At
this flow rate bubble density decreased. The Max. Wall shear
slowest flow rate had a Reynolds number of stress Air bubbles
(3678), indicating transitional flow and no
bubbles were observed (Figure 3).

Formation of bubbles
Flow
In the venturi effect produced in the Upstream
experimental setup, the bubbles can form due
Shear stress
to decrease in pressure in a constricted area Velocity profile
distribution
of the fluid flow. As the velocity increases
through the narrow portion of the Venturi (a)
tube, the pressure decreases according to
Bernoulli's principle. If the pressure drop is
low enough; it can cause dissolved gases in No
the fluid to come out of solution, forming Bubbles
are
bubbles. These bubbles then become visible Flow
observed
as they move downstream in the flow. The Upstream
schematic illustration is provided in Figure
5a.
Increased Shear Stress Abrasive
After placing abrasive paper (offered by abrasive paper
paper)
If the length of the tube is fully covered by
(b)
the abrasive paper, there were literally no
bubbles observed at highest flow rate. If the
2/3rd tube length was covered by abrasive Figure 5. Schematic illustration (a) Shear
paper, extremely small and few bubbles were stress distribution and velocity profile
visualized. If 1/2nd tube length was provided before introducing abrasive lining. (b)
the abrasive coating, the bubble density and Schematic illustration of shear stress
sizes further grew. distribution and Velocity profile before
after introducing abrasive lining
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Industrial Research. 80(1),310-314,

2021.
5. CONCLUSION [3] Chinedu I. Ossai, Pipeline failures in
In this experimental investigation, we have corrosive environments – A conceptual
visualized air bubble formation in a tube with analysis of trends and
transitional-turbulent flow conditions. It was effects,Engineering Failure Analysis.
realized that maximum bubble density 53(1), 36-58., 2015.
appears in an extremely turbulent flow (with [4] Jie Sun, Xinfeng Ge and Demin Liu,
Re 8582). However, by reducing the flow rate Research on Synergistic erosion by
Reynolds number and corresponding bubbles cavitation and sedimen, 95(1), 106399
in the flow were reduced. Herein, a new ,2023
concept is introduced to minimize the air [5] Hassan Iqbal, Solomon Tesfamariam,
bubbles in extremely turbulent flow regime. Husnain Haider & Rehan Sadiq,
It was demonstrated that by placing an Inspection and maintenance of oil & gas
abrasive paper along the length of the tube, pipelines: a review of policies, Structure
the bubble density can be controlled even in and Infrastructure Engineering
turbulent regime. We tested the placement of Maintenance, Management, Life-Cycle
abrasive coating on (a) half of the tube length Design and Performance, 6(1), 794-815,
and (b) two-third of tube length and (c) entire 2015
tube length. In the cases where abrasive [6] AkinyemI O. O.*, Nwaokocha C. N.,
lining was partial (case (a) and (b)); the Adesanya A. O.,Evaluation of corrosion
bubble density was gradually decreased. cost of crude oil processing
Notably, when the entire tube length was industry,Journal of Engineering Science
covered with abrasive lining; a complete and Technology. 7(4),517-528, 2012.
elimination of bubbles was noted. It is [7] Munson, Fundamentals of fluid
expected that the additional frictional force mechanics (7th edition), John Wiley &
incorporated by the abrasive paper, in the Sons,
opposite direction of the fluid flow, does not [8] Satish G. Kandlikar, Shailesh Joshi,
allow the bubble formation. This technique Shurong Tian, Effect of Surface
can be beneficial for efficient flow Roughness on Heat Transfer and Fluid
measurements in industrial applications. Flow Characteristics at Low Reynolds
Numbers in Small Diameter Tubes,
REFERENCES heat transfer engineering 24(3), 4-16,
2015
[1] Xinhong Li, Yazhou liu, Gouming
[9] R.L. Simpson, Junction flows, Ann. Rev.
Chen and Rouzbeh Abbassi Dynamic
Fluid Mech, 33 (2), 415–443, 2001
risk-based methodology for economic
[10] M. B. Salamah, A. Kapoor, M. Savsar,
life assessment of aging subsea
M. Ektesabi & A. Abdekhodaee, The
pipelines,Ocean Engineering. 294(1),
Importance Of Accurate Water Metering
116687, 2024.
In Resource Management, Sustainable
[2] Millerjothi Kalamegam, Redae
Development Conference, 2009
Haimanot, Udayakumar and Parthiban
[11] Zhiqiang Sun, Mass flow measurement of
Kandan,Experimental Investigation of
gas–liquid bubble flow with the
the Effect of Fluid-Solid Mixture Flow
combined use of a Venturi tube and a
by Pneumatic System in Textile
Industry,Journal of Scientific &

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vortex flowmeter, Measurement Science

and Technology, 21(2), 055403, 2010
[12]Yi He, Yifan Cui, Zhongxi Zhao, Yongt
ang Chen, Wenxu Shang, Peng Tan,
Strategies for bubble removal in
electrochemical system, Energy
Reviews, 2(2), 100015, 2023

[13] C S Lauchlan, E Escarameia, R W P

May, C Gahan, Air in Pipelines A
literature Review, 2005

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APPLICATION OF MACHINE LEARNING & DATA VISUALIZATION

TO PREDICT THE MIXING QUALITY OF TANK-AGITATOR

Syed Abdullah Ali1,*, Furqan1, Hasnain1, Abdul Rauf1, Izhan1, Muhammad Hateem
Arif1
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, NED University of Engineering &
Technology, Karachi, Pakistan

*
Corresponding author E-mail address: [email protected] (Syed Abdullah Ali)

ABSTRACT
The solid-liquid mixing quality is a vital parameter from an industrial point of view. Its dependence
on various parameters like tank and agitator design, stirring speed, tank diameter, solid particle
diameter, solid density, liquid density, liquid dynamic viscosity and mean solid volume fraction
dictate the necessity of careful consideration of the optimum parameters to ensure the best possible
mixing quality. To understand the effect of the parameters on the mixing quality and to predict the
mixing quality for a given set of parameters of influence, this study aimed to train a machine
learning algorithm and employ data visualization techniques to identify the correlations between
the parameters and the mixing quality. A CFD simulations dataset of a tank-agitator mixing
problem validated against experimental data was used to execute this study. Various machine
learning algorithms including Keras DNN, Linear Regression, Lasso, Elastic Net, SVR, Decision
Tree Regressor, Random Forest Regressor, K-Nearest Neighbors Regressor and MLP Regressor
were utilized to train different models to formulate the and identify the best one. The dataset was
subjected to preprocessing steps and was split into 80:20 for training and testing the model,
respectively. Considering the varying nature of values of the parameters, the dataset was
normalized too to ensure a resulting model that would be free of any bias. The model that
performed the best in terms of predicting the mixing quality were Keras DNN and Random Forest
Regressor. The utilized dataset was considerably small. Therefore, to further extend this work, it
is recommended to amass a significantly larger dataset for a given problem to allow a model to be
trained properly which would ultimately open doors to reaching a higher accuracy.
Keywords: Linear Regression, Data Visualization, Machine Learning
Experimentation or simulations are often
1. INTRODUCTION
required to determine the stirring
The solid-liquid mixing quality in a stirred
configuration that achieves high suspension
tank as a function of the main system
quality. However, conducting real-
parameters (tank size and design, stirrer
size experiments, especially for large tanks,
design, suspension characteristics) is an
can be impractical due to various constraints.
important matter for the industry [1]. The
Small scale experimentations can help but
quality of mixing solid and liquid materials in
scale up laws are not always clearly
a stirred tank depends on various factors such
established.[2-4]
as tank size, design, stirrer design, and
Simulation is free from experimental
suspension characteristics.
constraints, but it is still a care- demanding
and burdensome tool. This is where machine
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learning (ML) algorithms. come into play. diameter, solid density, liquid density, liquid
ML algorithms can analyse data from various dynamic velocity, and mean solid volume
parameters affecting mixing quality and fraction. To tackle this, we engaged in data
predict the optimal mixing conditions. They visualization, data cleaning, and training the
can learn from past data and simulate data for predictive analysis. This section
different scenarios to find the most effective encapsulates our applied methodology and
stirring configurations. findings.
The impact of AI is far-reaching,
2.1 Data Cleaning
transforming traditional approaches and The initial phase of this study involved
unlocking new possibilities for rigorous data cleaning procedures to ensure
manufacturers, maintenance teams, and the integrity and suitability of the dataset for
sustainability efforts, from the initial design subsequent analysis. This included
phase to the recycle/reuse/retrofit phase.[5]
identifying and addressing missing or null
Recent research trends and popular AI values, encoding categorical variables, and
techniques in CFD are highlighted by implementing feature scaling techniques.
Krzysztof Rojek et al. [6]
Therefore, the importance of ML in 2.2 Handling Missing Null Values
predicting mixing quality lies in its ability to Missing or null values within the dataset were
handle complex data relationships and managed using robust techniques such as
provide insights into optimal mixing forward fill, backward fill, or mean fill. This
step aimed to enhance the dataset's
conditions without the need for extensive
completeness while minimizing biases
experimentation. By utilizing ML, industries
introduced by missing data.
can optimize their processes, reduce costs,
and improve product quality. This study 2.3 Categorical Variable Encoding
involves working with a dataset comprising Categorical variables, such as design types,
of Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)- were appropriately encoded to enable
meaningful analysis. This transformation
generated and experimentally verified
ensured that categorical information was
results for mixing tanks. The effectiveness represented numerically while retaining the
of mixing in these tanks hinges on several inherent characteristics of the data.
variables, including tank and agitator design,
stirring velocity, tank diameter, solid 2.4 Feature Scaling
To address variations in data ranges across
particle diameter, solid density, liquid
different parameters, feature scaling was
density, liquid dynamic velocity, and mean
conducted. Standardization techniques were
solid volume fraction. To tackle this, data applied to scale all variables uniformly,
visualization, data cleaning, and training the reducing the impact of variables with larger
data for predictive analysis are done. scales on subsequent analyses.
2. METHODOLOGY 2.5 Training and Testing
This study involves working with a dataset A rigorous train-test split methodology,
comprising Computational Fluid Dynamics utilizing an 80-20 ratio, was employed to
(CFD)-generated and experimentally verified train and evaluate various regression models.
results for mixing tanks. The effectiveness of Implementation of regression models was
mixing in these tanks hinged on several carried out using the scikit-learn (sk.learn)
variables, including tank and agitator design, library and tensor flow library in Python,
stirring velocity, tank diameter, solid particle
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ensuring standardized and reproducible employed to ensure the robustness and

analyses. generalizability of model results.
2.6 Utilized Regression Models 3 DATA VISUALIZATION
Several regression models were employed for The methodology culminated in data
dataset analysis, including: visualization techniques to effectively
 Keras Deep Neural Network (DNN) convey research findings.
 Linear Regression 3.1 Data Skewness
 Lasso Regression
 Elastic Net Regression Table 1: Histograms with Bell Curve Fit
 Support Vector Regression (SVR) Feature Histogram with Bell Curve
 Decision Tree Regression s Fit
 Random Forest Regressor
 K-Nearest Neighbors Regression (KNN)
 MLP Regression (Multi-layer Tank
Perceptron)
and
2.7 Assessment and Testing
Agitator
Reliability
The reliability of regression models was Design
evaluated using key performance metrics
such as Accuracy, Mean Squared Error
(MSE), and Standard Deviation.
Additionally, K-Fold Cross Validation was

Solid
Stirring Particle
Speed Diamete
(RPM) r (µm)

Solid
Tank
Density
Diamete
(Kg/m3)
r (m)

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algorithm, the utilized dataset should have a

normal distribution.
3.2 Model Accuracy Plot
Liquid
Table 2: Actual Values vs Predicted
Density Values
(Kg/m3)
Models Graphs

Keras
Deep
Liquid
Neural
Dynami
Network
c
(DNN)
Viscosit
y (µ)

Linear
Mean Regression
Solid
Volume
Fraction
(φ)

Lasso

Mixing
quality

Elastic Net

The above histograms show that the utilized

dataset is skewed which affects the training
of the machine learning algorithm. To obtain
a properly trained machine learning
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MLP
Support Regression
Vector (Multi-
Regression layer
(SVR) Perceptron
)

The above scatterplots show the accuracy and

Decision precision of the trained machine learning
Tree algorithm based on the different models.
Random forest regressor and Keras DNN
Regression seemed to perform the best.

3.3 Assessment and Comparison

Table 3: Comparative Analysis of
Different Models

Random Assessme
nt and
Forest
Testing Bar Charts
Regressor Reliabilit
y Factors

K K-fold
(10
Neighbour Folds)
s
Regressor

Accuracy

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REFERENCES
[1] Projets, C.M.O., Solid-Liquid Mixing in
Stirred Vessels: Numerical Simulation,
Experimental Validation and
Standard
Suspension Quality Prediction Using
Deviation
Multivariate Regression and Machine
Learning. 2018.
[2] Geisler, R.K., Buurman, C., Mersmann,
A, Scale-up of the necessary power
input in stirred vessels with suspension.
The Chemical Engineering Journal,
(1993). vol. 51.
Mean
[3] Montante, G., Pinelli, D., Magelli, F,
Squared
Scale-Up Criteria for the Solids
Error
Distribution in Slurry Reactors Stirred
with Multiple Impellers. Chemical
Engineering Science, (2003). vol. 58,.
[4] Dickey, D.S., Ten Things You May Not
The above bar charts depict that the most Know About Liquid Mixing Scaleup.
optimum models that have lesser error, Chemical Engineering (2013).
higher accuracy, lower standard deviation, [5] Mahboob Elahi, S.O.A., Jose Luis
and a higher K-fold (10 folds) score are Keras Martinez Lastra & Jose Antonio Perez
DNN and Random Forest Regressor. Garcia A comprehensive literature
4. CONCLUSION review of the applications of AI
In conclusion, this study provided a techniques through the lifecycle of
systematic approach to train a machine industrial equipment. Discover
learning model to predict the mixing quality Artificial Intelligence, (2023). Volume
of a two-phase solid-liquid mixing tank. The 3, article number 43.
utilized dataset was verified using [6] Wyrzykowski, K.R.R., Performance
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) and Scalability Analysis of AI-
calculations and experimental data Accelerated CFD Simulations Across
validation. By adhering to stringent data Various Computing Platforms. Euro-Par
cleaning, model training, and evaluation 2022: Parallel Processing Workshops,
procedures, this research aimed to derive (2023). Volume 13835.
comprehensive insights and contribute to
advancements in fluid dynamics research by
uplifting the potential of machine learning’s
application to train a model that can predict
the mixing quality. Further research can be
done by utilizing machine learning to train a
predictive model using a larger and less
skewed dataset which would yield a higher
accuracy.

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INVERSE KINEMATICS OF ROBOTIC ARM FOR WELDING

DIGITIZATION IN THE ARENA OF INDUSTRY 4.0.

Muhammad Bilal1, Salman Hussain1, *, Wasim Ahmad1, and Mirza Jahanzaib1

1
Department Industrial Engineering, University of Engineering & Technology,
Taxila, Pakistan

*
Corresponding author E-mail address: [email protected] (Muhammad Bilal)

ABSTRACT
To address the concerns in the manual welding process in terms of efficiency, quality, and
adaptability there is a dare need for Industry 4.0 based smart welding system. For the robot to carry
out the welding task, the robot moves the welding torch along the path of the weld. The position
control along this path of the welding is the most significant challenge. This paper presents inverse
kinematics-based position control for the target pose of the welding robot using Robot Operating
System. Digital model of the robot in the form of URDF was designed for the Robot Operating
System (ROS). Inverse kinematics was used to calculate the joint angles to achieve the desired
position of the end effector using KDL solver. Position planning simulation was performed in Rviz
(ROS Visualization) tool. The calculated and achieved coordinates for a specified position were
compared and the errors were determined. The average error for the 17 poses is determined as
0.6847 mm. The result of this paper highlights a simple and cost-effective solution for position
control by deploying ROS for low cost and effective development of welding digitization.
Keywords: Welding digitization, Position Control, Inverse Kinematics, ROS, Welding Robot

1. INTRODUCTION controlling position in robotic welding is still

Smart welding systems with the goal of a challenge [3].
improving quality and efficiency have been To monitor weld quality, advanced sensing
developed because of the incorporation of technologies like infrared thermography are
Industry 4.0 principles into manufacturing essential for early defect detection and
processes [1]. To achieve real-time defect process reliability [4]. To improve process
detection and adaptive control, these systems visibility and control, vision systems are also
integrate robotics, computer vision, and incorporated into welding automation. This
machine learning. This improves weld enables precise welding torch positioning and
quality and productivity. The drawbacks of better weld quality. To find the best welding
manual welding processes have been parameters, optimization techniques like
addressed by robotic welding, which shortens genetic algorithms are used, taking joint
lead times for production while improving geometry and material properties into
the consistency and quality of the welds[2]. account [5]. Researchers are working on
Researchers are suggesting inverse systems that integrate sensors and feedback
kinematics-based trajectory planning mechanisms to improve the quality of the
techniques to maximize welding path weld. Real-time monitoring and control
generation and reduce cycle time while systems are crucial for guaranteeing process
satisfying quality requirements, but precisely reliability [6]. Robotic welding processes can
be controlled and monitored in real time
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thanks to the Robot Operating System (ROS), Prone to

which offers a versatile platform for creating Pseudo-inverse
numerical
and integrating robotic applications [7]. Jacobian [10]
instability and
Furthermore, digital twin modelling has Method
local minima
become popular for predicting weld quality
Requires
and optimizing welding parameters, which Damped Least
careful tuning
makes it easier to create intelligent welding Squares [11]
processes. Robotic welding has the potential of damping
Method
to improve weld quality and efficiency using factor
machine learning techniques for defect Complexity
detection and classification [8]. Null Space increases with
Literature review of some of the work in the Projection higher- [12]
field of inverse kinematics is achieved and Method dimensional
the limitation of each method is discussed in workspace
the table 1. The table outlines various
May struggle
techniques for solving inverse kinematics Task Priority
with
problems, each accompanied by its Inverse [13]
respective limitations. The Jacobian simultaneous
Kinematics
Transpose Method, while effective, can multiple tasks
encounter singularities in certain robot Requires
configurations. The Pseudo-inverse Jacobian extensive
Artificial
Method is susceptible to numerical instability training data
and may converge to local minima. Damped Neural [14]
and
Least Squares Method requires careful tuning Networks
computational
of the damping factor to ensure optimal resources
performance. The Null Space Projection
High
Method becomes increasingly complex in
computational
higher-dimensional workspaces. Task Genetic
Priority Inverse Kinematics may struggle overhead and [15]
Algorithms
with simultaneous multiple tasks. Artificial convergence
Neural Networks demand extensive training challenges
data and computational resources for Convergence
effective implementation. Genetic can be slow
Algorithms are hindered by high Reinforcement and may
computational overhead and convergence [16]
Learning require
challenges. Finally, Reinforcement Learning significant
suffers from slow convergence and tuning
necessitates significant tuning efforts to
achieve desirable results.
Table 1 . Comparative analysis of the
research in inverse kinematics
Technique Limitation References
Thus, for efficient robotic welding, the robot
May lead to must perform precise and accurate movement
Jacobian
singularities in through weld path. For position control of the
Transpose [9]
certain robot welding robot inverse kinematics is used to
Method
configurations calculate joint angles. Several methods are
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used for position control of robotics. There is

a need for a versatile, efficient, and cost-
effective way of position control for
intelligent welding. In this research ROS has
been used to obtain precise position control
during GTAW welding process.
2. METHODOLOGY
To obtain precise position control a Position
Control Protocol is designed using inverse
kinematics in ROS. The figure 1 below
shows the 7 stages of the protocol.
Figure 2. URDF development of digital
model

Joint home positions are defined, and limits

for each joint are established to ensure safe
operation. Utilizing the Kinematics and
Dynamics Library (KDL) solver, inverse
kinematics calculations are performed to
Figure 1. Position Control Protocol using determine the joint configurations necessary
Inverse Kinematics in ROS (Robot for welding. Weld start and stop points are
Operating System) identified, and a trajectory for the welding
tool is planned to seamlessly navigate
The protocol for robotic welding involves between these points while considering joint
several distinct stages to ensure efficient and limitations and obstacles.
precise execution of the task. Initially, a
digital model of the robot is developed,
detailing its structure and components. This
model is then translated into URDF format,
which is integrated into the MoveIt library
within the ROS framework for motion
planning.

Figure 6. Weld start point selection.

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based on the weld start and stop point in

Rviz.
GTAW welding is performed on mild steel
workpiece as shown in figure 8. The welding
parameters are adjusted before starting
through welding control unit. The end
effector of the robot holds the welding torch.
Appropriate distance between torch and
workpiece is ensured for effective welding.
The weld trajectory based on the weld start
Figure 7. Weld end point selection. and stop point is planned in Moveit. The
welding torch moves in the planned
trajectory to perform welding using precise
position control.

Figure 8. Weld start point coordinates.

Figure 9. Weld End point Coordinates.

Figure 11. Actual welding performance
This trajectory is visualized in Rviz to verify on workpiece
its accuracy before actual gas tungsten arc
5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
welding (GTAW) is conducted on the
To determine the error in targeted and
workpiece using the robotic arm, guided by
achieved positions of the end effector, 17
the planned trajectory. Through this
systematic approach, the protocol ensures poses are taken at different coordinates in
efficient and precise robotic welding space. The values for the coordinates in
operations, using the capabilities of ROS, targeted poses are determined in ROS using
MoveIt, and Rviz for motion planning, KDL solver. End effector moves to the
control, and visualization. targeted position using execute plan
command in Rviz. There is error in targeted
and achieved position of the end effector for
the poses. This error is determined by
calculating the difference between targeted
and achieved position coordinates. Each pose
has some x,y, and z axis values. The average
error for the 17 poses is determined as 0.6847
mm.
Figure 10. Path planning and execution

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Pose Targeted Position Achieved Position Error

x y z x Y z
Pose 1 0.1380 0.1584 0.1000 0.1424 0.1528 0.0973 0.0076
Pose 2 0.1221 0.1920 0.1350 0.1248 0.1947 0.1377 0.0047
Pose 3 0.1907 0.1780 0.1720 0.1960 0.1833 0.1773 0.0092
Pose 4 0.1367 0.1290 0.1790 0.1409 0.1332 0.1832 0.0072
Pose 5 0.1120 0.1700 0.1580 0.1176 0.1757 0.1637 0.0098
Pose 6 0.1395 0.1890 0.1260 0.1453 0.1947 0.1317 0.0099
Pose 7 0.1090 0.1890 0.1520 0.1132 0.1932 0.1562 0.0073
Pose 8 0.1533 0.1540 0.1130 0.1582 0.1589 0.1179 0.0085
Pose 9 0.1142 0.1880 0.1120 0.1181 0.1919 0.1159 0.0068
Pose 10 0.1374 0.1230 0.1500 0.1417 0.1273 0.1543 0.0074
Pose 11 0.1845 0.1560 0.1100 0.1874 0.1589 0.1129 0.0050
Pose 12 0.1405 0.1480 0.1660 0.1428 0.1503 0.1683 0.0040
Pose 13 0.1780 0.1350 0.1760 0.1804 0.1374 0.1784 0.0042
Pose 14 0.1254 0.1120 0.1150 0.1303 0.1169 0.1199 0.0085
Pose 15 0.1705 0.1810 0.1530 0.1731 0.1837 0.1557 0.0046
Pose 16 0.1524 0.1440 0.1330 0.1548 0.1464 0.1354 0.0041
Pose 17 0.1611 0.1720 0.1690 0.1655 0.1764 0.1734 0.0076
Table 2. Error calculations for the targeted and achieved position of the Robot
The figure below shows the targeted values and achieved values of position at different poses.
Blue bar represents targeted value across x-axis, orange bar represents achieved position value
across x-axis, yellow bar represents targeted position value across y-axis, and sky-blue bar
represents achieved position value across y-axis. Similarly, light green bar represents targeted
position value about z-axis, and dark green colour represents achieved value across z-axis.

Figure 12. Targeted and achieved position values of the passes across x, y & z axis

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The figure 10 below shows the error values at (UET) Taxila and Department of Industrial
different poses. There is quite fluctuation in Engineering, UET Taxila.
the error value for different poses. Each pose
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Fabrication and characterizations of a low-cost thermal actuator for

micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) applications
Shehroze Tahir Khan1, Murtuza Mehdi1*, Tariq Jamil1, and Abdul Qadir1 *
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering NED University of Engineering &
Technology Karachi 75270 Pakistan

*
Corresponding author E-mail address: [email protected] (Murtuza Mehdi)

ABSTRACT
Microactuators, sensors, and switches are utilized in applications such as lap-on-chip devices,
deformable mirrors for optical beam deflection, camera auto-focus systems, micro-positioning
platforms, ultrasonic emitters, etc. These devices produce miniaturized motion by converting
electrical, thermal, or electromagnetic energy into kinetic energy of moving parts. In this article,
we have reported the synthesis and characterization of a low-cost thermal actuator based on silver
nano-platelets-based composite and single-component room temperature vulcanizing (RTV)
silicone. The actuator is fabricated by depositing a functional layer of silver amalgamated with a
conductive polymer on a smooth RTV substrate via a non-vacuum-based rod coating technique.
The fabricated device exhibits good thermal actuation behavior in response to the applied thermal
gradient. The device also reveals a stable resistive behavior for the applied temperature difference.
These results suggest that the as-fabricated device can be employed as a micro-actuator, switch, or
valve as well as a thermal sensor for future low-cost MEMS devices.

are costly as well as highly energy-

1. INTRODUCTION:
demanding [5]. Also, for the devices
Over the past few years, the micro-electro- produced by non-vacuum-based techniques,
mechanical systems (MEMS) field has the material cost is the bottleneck [6].
achieved astounding progress and popularity Therefore, in this article, we have reported
due to the development of advanced the fabrication and characterizations of a
materials and the discovery of new low-cost thermal actuator for thin film device
applications. Such applications include applications. The device is fabricated by
stretchable and flexible sensors, energy depositing a functional layer of Poly(3,4-
storage devices, microactuators, etc. [1], [2], ethylenedioxythiophene)/poly(styrenesulfon
[3]. Microactuators are a class of thin film- ate) (PEDOT: PSS) composited with silver
based MEMS devices that transform one nanoplatelets on smooth room temperature
form of energy to yield motion. Such devices vulcanized (RTV) silicone substrate. The Ag
include electrothermal (thermal) actuators nanoplatelets are sourced from a low-cost
[4], piezoelectric actuators [5], magnetic silver conductive paste which commonly
actuators [6], shape memory alloys (SMA) finds applications in electronic circuit
based actuators [7], etc. These devices are repairing. Also, the RTV substrate used in
usually fabricated by either depositing a this study is new and its detailed
functional layer on a flexible substrate [8], [9] characterizations are discussed in our
or directly fabricating from silicon wafers previous research work [12]. The fabricated
[10], [11]. These devices are mostly device is tested for thermally driven actuation
fabricated via vacuum-based methods which behavior by supplying heat to the device. The
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device also tested for change in its electrical pastecontaining silver nano-platelets was
resistance in response to an applied thermal purchased from
gradient. These characterizations are
performed on custom test setups. The results
reveal that the as-fabricated device not only
shows a good thermal actuation behavior but
also exhibits a decent electrical resistive
behavior for the applied temperature
gradient. These results help explore the
possible application of the fabricated device
in future low-cost MEMS-based
technologies.
2. EXPERIMENTAL SECTION
2.1. Materials
Room temperature vulcanizing (RTV)
silicone was purchased from Bossil
Technology (Malaysia) in the form of a
single-component paste. The material comes
with a commercial name of Grey RTV and is
used as a substrate material. The mechanical
properties and thermal behavior of this
material are discussed in our previous
research work [ref]. PEDOT: PSS paste was
purchased from Sigma Aldrich (Belgium). N,
N-dimethylformamide (N, N-DMF) was Figure 1. Scanning electron microscope
purchased from Merk Millipore with an energy dispersive X-ray
(Germany).A silver conductive spectroscopy (SEM/EDS) of the
prepared RTV/Ag/PEDOT: PSS device.
a) SEM image of Ag/PEDOT: PSS film
showing Ag nanoplatelets dispersed in
PEDOT: PSS, b) EDS results of the film
confirm the presence of Ag in PEDOT:
PSS.
Mechanic, China under the commercial name
MCN-DJ002). The presence of silver nano-
platelets is also confirmed by scanning
electron microscopy (SEM) and energy
dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) results
as shown in Figure 1. The average size of
these nano-platelets was found to be 5.53 µm.

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2.2. Preparation of RTV substrate Afterwards, another coat of 200 µl was

applied and the samples were cured
RTV substrates of dimension 70 mm x 10
following the same procedure. Figure 2a
mm x 1.10 mm were prepared by casting the
shows the rod-coated RTV/Ag–composite
RTV silicone polymer into the open-type
laminate while Figure 2b shows the cross-
mold. The construction and details of the
sectional SEM image of the RTV/Ag sample.
mold are described in our recent works [12],
From different SEM images, the average
[13]. After applying the RTV into the mold
thickness of the prepared device was found to
cavity, the polymer was left to cure in
be 50 µm.
ambient for 2 to 3 hours at 26°C and 40%
relative humidity. Following this procedure,
the substrates were taken out of the mold. A
few drops of acetone were added during the
ejection of the samples to facilitate the
removal of the samples.
2.3. Preparation of functional material
The preparation of functional material
comprises three steps. In the first step,
PEDOT: PSS-based ink was formulated by
mixing PEDOT: PSS paste in N, N – DMF in
60% (wt/wt) concentration. Then transparent
nail polish was added into the solution (48
wt% concentration) to improve the fluidity of
the ink as reported by researchers [14], [15],
[16], [17]. In the second step, silver
nanoplatelets ink was prepared by mixing
silver paste in N, N – DMF (60 wt%
concentration). In the third step, synthesized
Figure 2. Rod-coated Ag/PEDOT: PSS
silver ink was added into the PEDOT: PSS
film on RTV substrate. a) Photograph of
ink in 5% wt/wt concentration. In the above
the fabricated device with electrical
formulations, DMF served as the organic
contacts attached, b) Lateral SEM image
binder and is reported to enhance the
of the device showing its cross-section.
electrical performance of the functional
materials [18]. 2.5. Characterizations of Laminates
2.4.Fabrication of RTV/Ag – The prepared devices were tested for changes
Composite laminate in electrical resistance and actuation behavior
in response to applied temperature. For this
RTV/Ag composite laminates were
purpose, two types of tests were performed.
fabricated by dispensing 200 µl of
In the first test, samples of size 35 mm x 10
synthesized nanophase ink on the RTV
mm x 1.10 mm were taken with electrical
substrate through a precision micropipette
contacts applied using 0.18 mm enamel
(DLab, China). The ink was coated by sliding
copper wire and silver paste. The sample was
a smooth stainless-steel rod of 2.5 mm
fixed to a 1 mm thick glass slide by a heat
diameter at an average speed of 10 mm/s. The
resistant tape and the setup was placed on a
laminates were dried at 110 °C inside a
hot plate. An Arduino-based auto-ranging
forced convection oven for 10 minutes.
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ohm meter was connected to the sample to inset shows the photograph of a
record the electrical resistance of the sample thermally actuated device. The error bar
during testing. A K-type thermocouple was shows the standard deviations for the set of
also attached to the hot plate via heat- experiments.
resistant tape to record the temperature Figure 3 shows the thermal actuation
measurements. The temperature was slowly response of the fabricated device. The entire
raised to 250 °C and a change in resistance of response can be divided into three regions,
the sample was recorded. Then hotplate was namely low actuation, rapid actuation, and
turned off and the assembly was cooled down high actuation region. In the low actuation
to room temperature. During this time, the region, the device shows a small deflection
temperature and the resistance measurements height for a small temperature change. The
were continued to record. maximum actuation height of 2 mm is
In the second test, the same setup was used achieved when the device is heated from
with minor changes. Now, the sample was room temperature to a temperature of 38.25
fixed to a 6 mm thick glass plate at one end °C. Afterward, the device shows a fast
by heat-resistant tape. Then the glass plate movement, which embarks the second region
was placed on the hotplate with the of rapid actuation. Here, the device shows a
thermocouple attached. A steel ruler having a fast actuation of 10 mm for a small
least count of 0.05 mm was vertically fixed to temperature change of around 5 °C.
the glass plate for measuring the actuation Afterwards, the third region of high actuation
measurements. The test was initiated by starts from 12 mm at 42 °C to 21.5 mm at
slowly increasing the temperature of the 103.5 °C. In this region, the device shows a
hotplate up to 250 °C and the actuation linear actuation response over a relatively
measurements were recorded. The recorded wide temperature range as compared to the
data was then converted into temperature– first region. The maximum actuation of 9.5
resistance, and temperature–height graphs of mm is observed for a temperature difference
the prepared devices. of 61.5 °C.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 3.2. Electrical Resistive Behavior
3.1. Thermal Actuation Response Figure 4 shows the resistive response of the
fabricated device to the applied temperature
change. It is observable that the normalized
resistance of the device remains nearly
unchanged up to a temperature of 150 °C.
Afterward, the resistance gradually starts
incrementing and reaches a maximum linear
normalized value of 2.05 at 227.5 °C. Then a
drastic increment is observed and the
normalized resistance reaches a maximum
value of 2.8 times the initial one at a
temperature of 220 °C. At this point, the
temperature change is found to produce no
resistance change even when the device is
Figure 3. Actuation behavior of
cooled down to room temperature. This
RTV/Ag/PEDOT: PSS device in
behavior is attributed to two reasons; first, the
response to applied temperature. The
higher temperatures caused the boiling of N,
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N–DMF which was used as a conductive for thermal actuation and electrical resistive
binder for the functional coating. Hence, response for applied thermal gradient. The
increasing the electrical resistance of the device shows good actuation response over a
coated film. Second, these higher wide range of temperatures. The device also
temperatures also caused morphological exhibits electrical resistive behavior for
changes in the film such as bending and applied temperatures up to 185 °C. In
delamination from the RTV at various points. summary, the device can be used as a thermal
These changes also contribute to yielding sensor, thermal actuator, valve, or switch in a
permanent changes in the electrical resistance variety of MEMS-based applications.
of the device. This implies that to use this
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
device as a thermal sensor, it needs to be
operated below 185 °C to prevent a lasting The authors would like to express their
gratitude to the Higher Education
Commission, Pakistan, and NED University
of Engineering and Technology for
financially supporting this research work by
providing National Research Program for
Universities (NRPU) grant # NRPU-I/17057
and a Ph.D. research fund for the university.
The authors would like to acknowledge the
role of Prof. Dr. Saud Hashmi, Chairman and
Professor, Department of Polymer and
Petrochemical Engineering, NED University
of Engineering and Technology, and Dr.
Rafiq Ahmed, Assistant Professor,
change in electrical resistance.
Department of Polymer and Petrochemical
Figure 4. Resistive behavior of Engineering, NED University of Engineering
RTV/Ag/PEDOT: PSS device in and Technology in providing the facilities for
response to applied temperature. The experimentation.
inset shows the photograph of the device
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