UNIT 1- Importance of computer networks, broadcast and point to point networks, Local area networks and Wide

area networks , ISO-OSI reference model, TCP/IP model , interfaces and services, Protocol data unit, connection
oriented and connectionless services, service primitives, Binding Protocol Address- ARP & RARP, packet format,
Encapsulation.

Data Communication: When we communicate, we are sharing information. This sharing can be local or remote.
Between individuals, local communication usually occurs face to face, while remote communication takes place
over distance.

Components:
A data communications system has five components.

1. Message. The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of information include
text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
2. Sender. The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer, workstation, telephone
handset, video camera, and so on.
3. Receiver. The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer, workstation, telephone
handset, television, and so on.
4. Transmission medium. The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message travels from sender
to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable,
and radio waves
5. Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an agreement between the
communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be connected but not communicating, just as a
person speaking French cannot be understood by a person who speaks only Japanese.
Data Representation:

Information today comes in different forms such as text, numbers, images, audio, and video.
Text:
In data communications, text is represented as a bit pattern, a sequence of bits (Os or Is). Different sets of
bit patterns have been designed to represent text symbols. Each set is called a code, and the process of
representing symbols is called coding.

Images:
Images are also represented by bit patterns. In its simplest form, an image is composed of a matrix of
pixels (picture elements), where each pixel is a small dot. The size of the pixel depends on the resolution. For
example, an image can be divided into 1000 pixels or 10,000 pixels

Audio
: Audio refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound or music. Audio is by nature different from text, numbers,
or images. It is continuous, not discrete. Even when we use a microphone to change voice or music to an electric
signal, we create a continuous signal.
Video:
Video refers to the recording or broadcasting of a picture or movie. Video can either be produced as a continuous
entity (e.g., by a TV camera), or it can be a combination of images, each a discrete entity, arranged to convey the
idea of motion. Again we can change video to a digital or an analog signal.

Data Flow
Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex as shown in Figure

Simplex:

In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one of the two devices
on a link can transmit; the other can only receive (see Figure a). Keyboards and traditional monitors are
examples of simplex devices
Half-Duplex:
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time. When one
device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa the half-duplex mode is like a one-lane road with
traffic allowed in both directions.

Full-Duplex:
In full-duplex both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously (see Figure c). The full-duplex mode
is like a two way street with traffic flowing in both directions at the same time. In full-duplex mode,

NETWORKS
A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by communication links. A node can be a
computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the
network.
Distributed Processing
Most networks use distributed processing, in which a task is divided among multiple computers. Instead of one
single large machine being responsible for all aspects of a process, separate computers (usually a personal
computer or workstation) handle a subset.
Network Criteria
A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most important of these are performance,
reliability, and security.
Performance:
Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time and response time. Transit time is the
amount of time required for a message to travel from one device to another. Response time is the elapsed time
between an inquiry and a response. The performance of a network depends on a number of factors, including the
number of users, the type of transmission medium, the capabilities of the connected hardware, and the efficiency
of the software. Performance is often evaluated by two networking metrics: throughput and delay.

Reliability:
In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured by the frequency of failure, the time it
takes a link to recover from a failure, and the network's robustness in a catastrophe.
Security:
Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access, protecting data from damage
and development, and implementing policies and procedures for recovery from breaches and data losses.

Physical Structures:
Type of Connection
A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a communications pathway that
transfers data from one device to another. There are two possible types of connections: point-to-point and
multipoint.
Point-to-Point
A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices. The entire capacity of the link
is reserved for transmission between those two devices.
Multipoint
A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in which more than two specific devices share a
single link. In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared.
Physical Topology
The term physical topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out physically. The topology of a
network is the geometric representation of the relationship of all the links and linking devices (usually called
nodes) to one another. There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus, and ring

Mesh: In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other device.
Advantages:
1. The use of dedicated links guarantees that each connection can carry its own data load, thus eliminating
the traffic
2. A mesh topology is robust. If one link becomes unusable, it does not incapacitate the entire system.
3. Third, there is the advantage of privacy or security.
Disadvantages:
1. Disadvantage of a mesh are related to the amount of cabling
2. The hardware required to connect each link (I/O ports and cable) can be prohibitively expensive.
For these reasons a mesh topology is usually implemented in a limited fashion, for example, as a backbone
connecting the main computers of a hybrid network that can include several other topologies.
Star Topology:
In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central controller, usually
called a hub. The devices are not directly linked to one another.

A star topology is less expensive than a mesh topology

Other advantages include robustness. If one link fails, only that link is affected.

One big disadvantage of a star topology is the dependency of the whole topology on one single point, the hub. If
the hub goes down, the whole system is dead.

Bus Topology:
The preceding examples all describe point-to-point connections. A bus topology, on the other hand, is
multipoint. One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in a network
Advantages of a bus topology include ease of installation.
A bus uses less cabling than mesh or star topologies.

Disadvantages include difficult reconnection and fault isolation

Ring Topology In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with only the two
devices on either side of it.

A ring is relatively easy to install and reconfigure. Each device is linked to only its immediate neighbors (either
physically or logically). To add or delete a device requires changing only two connections. The only constraints

are media and traffic considerations (maximum ring length and number of devices). Problem and its location.
Unidirectional traffic can be a disadvantage.
 Tree

A computer network
It allows for the sharing of resources such as printers, files, and data storage, as well as the ability to
communicate with other computers and access the internet.

Computer networking
It refers to the practice of connecting computers and other digital devices together to share resources and
exchange information.
It involves the use of hardware and software technologies that enable communication between computers and
other devices, whether they are located in the same physical location or are geographically dispersed.

Categories of Networks
Local Area Networks:
 Local area networks, generally called LANs, are privately-owned networks within a single building or
campus of up to a few kilometer’s in size.
 They are widely used to connect personal computers and workstations in company offices and factories to
share resources (e.g., printers) and exchange information.
 LANs are distinguished from other kinds of networks by three characteristics:
(1) Their size,
(2) Their transmission technology.
(3) Their topology.
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):
A metropolitan area network, or MAN, covers a city. The best-known example of a MAN is the cable television
network available in many cities.
This system grew from earlier community antenna systems used in areas with poor over-the-air television
reception. In these early systems, a large antenna was placed on top of a nearby hill and signal was then piped to
the subscribers' houses. At first, these were locally-designed, ad hoc systems.
 Fig.2: Metropolitan area network based on cable TV.

Wide Area Network (WAN).

A wide area network, or WAN, spans a large geographical area, often a country or continent. It contains a
collection of machines intended for running user (i.e., application) programs.
These machines are called as hosts. The hosts are connected by a communication subnet, or just subnet for
short.

THE INTERNET

The Internet is a global network of billions of computers and other electronic devices. With the Internet, it's
possible to access almost any information, communicate with anyone else in the world, and do muchmore.

You can do all of this by connecting a computer to the Internet, which is also called going online. When someone
says a computer is online, it's just another way of saying it's connected to the Internet.

Importance of computer networks

 Provides best way of business communication.

 Streamline communication.

 Cost-effective resource sharing.

 Improving storage efficiency and volume.

 Cut costs on software.

 Cut costs on hardware.

 Utilizes Centralized Database.

 Increase in efficiency.
 Optimize convenience and flexibility.
 Allows File sharing.
 sharing of peripherals and internet access.
 Network gaming.
 Voice over IP (VoIP).
 Media Center Server.
 Centralize network administration, meaning less IT support.
 Flexibility.
 Allowing information sharing.
 Supporting distributed processing.
 User communication.
 Overcoming geographic separation.

The transmission
It is that sending a signal from one location to another. Transmission technologies refer to the physical
layer protocol such as modulation, demodulation, line coding, error control etc. The transmission technology
can be categorized broadly into two types:
Point-to-point networks
Broadcast Networks

Broadcast Networks

Transmitting data from one source host to all other hosts present in the same or other network is called
broadcast. It is called a one to all transmission.
 Types of broadcast
Broadcast is classified into two types, which are as follows –
IP Addressing –

Classes of IP address:

Class A: 0–127

Class B: 128–191

Class C: 192–223

Class D: 224–239: Broadcasting and research

(This IP series is not available for WAN or LAN)

Class E:240–255: This series is only for R&D and military

(This IP series is not available for WAN or LAN)

Limited Broadcast
Transmitting data from one source host to all other hosts present in the same network is called a limited
broadcast. Given below is the diagram of limited broadcast −
 In Limited Broad casting if the destination address is 255.255.255.255 then the packet will be sent to all
the hosts in the network.
Limited Broadcast address of any network=255.255.255.255 = 11111111.11111111.11111111.11111111
For example: If the source IP address is 12.23.2.5 sending data to all other hosts present in the same
network, then the destination address is 255.255.255.255.
Direct Broadcast
Transmitting data from source host to all other hosts present in different networks then it is called as direct
broadcast. Given below is the diagram of direct broadcast −

In direct broadcast Host ID bits are all set to 1, Network ID is the IP address where all destination hosts
are present.
For example: Source IP address is 12.34.5.6 sending data to all other nodes present at different network
having IP address 24.0.0.0
Therefore source address= 12.34.5.6
Destination address= 24.255.255.255.

Protocols:
In networking, a protocol is a set of rules for formatting and processing data. Network protocols are like a
common language for computers.
The computers within a network may use vastly different software and hardware; however, the use of
protocols enables them to communicate with each other regardless. communication to occur, the entities must
agree on a protocol.
Syntax: Syntax refers to the structure or the format of the data that gets exchanged between the devices.
Syntax of the message includes the type of data, composition of the message, and sequencing of the message.
 Semantics: Semantics defines data transmitted between devices. It provides rules and norms for
understanding message or data element values and actions.
Timing: Timing refers to the synchronization and coordination between devices while transferring the
data. Timing ensures at what time data should be sent and how fast data can be sent.
The OSI Reference Model:

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is an abstract representation of how the Internet works. It contains
7 layers, with each layer representing a different category of networking functions.

1. A layer should be created where a different abstraction is needed.

2. Each layer should perform a well-defined function.
3. The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the information flow across the interfaces.
The Physical Layer

The physical layer is concerned with transmitting raw bits over a communication channel. The design issues
have to do with making sure that when one side sends a 1 bit, it is received by the other side as a 1 bit, not as a 0
bit.
The Data Link Layer:
 In this sender break up the input data into data frames
 If the service is reliable, the receiver confirms correct receipt of each frame by sending back an
 acknowledgement frame.
 Traffic regulation mechanism

The Network Layer:

 The network layer controls the operation of the subnet.
 It determining how packets are routed from source to destination.
The Transport Layer:
 The basic function of the transport layer is to accept data from above, split it up into smaller units if
needed, pass these to the network layer, and ensure that the pieces all arrive correctly at the other end.
 The transport layer is a true end-to-end layer.

The Session Layer:

 dialog control (keeping track of whose turn it is to transmit),
 Token management
 Synchronization

The Presentation Layer:

 The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information transmitted.
 To make it possible for computers with different data representations to communicate.
The Application Layer:
The application layer contains a variety of protocols that are commonly needed by users. One widely-used
application protocol is HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), which is the basis for the World Wide Web. When
a browser wants a Web page, it sends the name of the page it wants to the server using HTTP.
 The TCP/IP Reference Model
o The TCP/IP model consists of five layers: the application layer, transport layer, network layer, data link layer
and physical layer.
o TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, and each of them provides specific
functionality.

Here, hierarchical means that each upper-layer protocol is supported by two or more lower-level protocols.
Network Access Layer
o A network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model.

o A network layer is the combination of the Physical layer and Data Link layer defined in the OSI reference
model.
o It defines how the data should be sent physically through the network.

o This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data between two devices on the same network.

o The protocols used by this layer are Ethernet, token ring etc

Internet Layer
o An internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model.

o An internet layer is also known as the network layer.

o The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets from any network, and they arrive at the
destination irrespective of the route they take.

Following are the protocols used in this layer are:

IP Protocol: IP protocol is used in this layer, and it is the most significant part of the entire TCP/IP suite.

Following are the responsibilities of this protocol:

o IP Addressing: This protocol implements logical host addresses known as IP addresses. The IP addresses
are used by the internet and higher layers to identify the device and to provide internetwork routing.
o Host-to-host communication: It determines the path through which the data is to be transmitted.
o Data Encapsulation and Formatting: An IP protocol accepts the data from the transport layer protocol. An
IP protocol ensures that the data is sent and received securely, it encapsulates the data into a message known
as IP datagram.
 o Fragmentation and Reassembly: The limit imposed on the size of the IP datagram by data link layer
protocol is known as Maximum Transmission unit (MTU). If the size of IP datagram is greater than the MTU
unit, then the IP protocol splits the datagram into smaller units so that they can travel over the local network.
Fragmentation can be done by the sender or intermediate router. At the receiver side, all the fragments are
reassembled to form an original message.
o Routing: When IP datagram is sent over the same local network such as LAN, MAN, WAN, it is known as
direct delivery. When source and destination are on the distant network, then the IP datagram is sent
indirectly. This can be accomplished by routing the IP datagram through various devices such as routers.

ARP Protocol

o ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol.

o ARP is a network layer protocol used to find the physical address from the IP address.
o The two terms are mainly associated with the ARP Protocol:
o ARP request: When a sender wants to know the device's physical address, it broadcasts the ARP
request to the network.
o ARP reply: Every device attached to the network will accept the ARP request and process the request,
but only recipient recognize the IP address and sends back its physical address in the form of ARP
reply. The recipient adds the physical address both to its cache memory and to the datagram header

ICMP Protocol

o ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol.

o It is a mechanism used by the hosts or routers to send notifications regarding datagram problems back to the
sender.

Transport Layer
 The transport layer is responsible for the reliability, flow control, and correction of data which is being sent over
the network.

The two protocols used in the transport layer are User Datagram protocol and Transmission control protocol.

o User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

o It provides connectionless service and end-to-end delivery of transmission.

o It is an unreliable protocol as it discovers the errors but not specify the error.

o User Datagram Protocol discovers the error, and ICMP protocol reports the error to the sender that user
datagram has been damaged.

o Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

o It provides a full transport layer services to applications.

o It creates a virtual circuit between the sender and receiver, and it is active for the duration of the
transmission.
o TCP is a reliable protocol as it detects the error and retransmits the damaged frames.

Application Layer
o An application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model.

o It is responsible for handling high-level protocols, issues of representation.

o This layer allows the user to interact with the application.

o When one application layer protocol wants to communicate with another application layer, it forwards its
data to the transport layer.

Following are the main protocols used in the application layer:

 o HTTP: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. This protocol allows us to access the data over the
world wide web.
o SNMP: SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It is a framework used for managing the
devices on the internet by using the TCP/IP protocol suite.
o SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. The TCP/IP protocol that supports the e-mail is
known as a Simple mail transfer protocol. This protocol is used to send the data to another e-mail address.
o DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System. An IP address is used to identify the connection of a host to the
internet uniquely. But, people prefer to use the names instead of addresses. Therefore, the system that maps
the name to the address is known as Domain Name System.
o TELNET: It is an abbreviation for Terminal Network. It establishes the connection between the local
computer and remote computer in such a way that the local terminal appears to be a terminal at the remote
system.
o FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. FTP is a standard internet protocol used for transmitting the files
from one computer to another computer.

Connection oriented and connectionless services

Connection Oriented Services Connectionless Services−
It can generate an end to end connection between the It can transfer the data packets between senders to the
senders to the receiver before sending the data over receiver without creating any connection.
the same or multiple networks.
It generates a virtual path between the sender and the It does not make any virtual connection or path between
receiver. the sender and the receiver.
It needed a higher bandwidth to transmit the data It requires low bandwidth to share the data packets.
packets.
 There is no congestion as it supports an end-to-end There can be congestion due to not providing an end-to-
connection between sender and receiver during data end connection between the source and receiver to
transmission. transmit data packets.
It is a more dependable connection service because it It is not a dependent connection service because it does
assures data packets transfer from one end to the not ensure the share of data packets from one end to
other end with a connection. another for supporting a connection.

Transmission Media in Computer Networks?

A transmission medium is a physical path between the transmitter and the receiver i.e. it is the channel through
which data is sent from one device to another. Transmission Media is broadly classified into the following types:
1. Guided Media
Guided Media is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media. Signals being transmitted are directed
and confined in a narrow pathway by using physical links.
Features:
 High Speed
 Secure
 Used for comparatively shorter distances
There are 3 major types of Guided Media:
 Twisted Pair Cable
It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires wound about each other. Generally, several such pairs are
bundled together in a protective sheath. They are the most widely used Transmission Media. Twisted Pair is of two
types:
 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):UTP consists of two insulated copper wires twisted around one another. This
type of cable has the ability to block interference and does not depend on a physical shield for this purpose. It is
used for telephonic applications.

Advantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair

 Least expensive
 Easy to install
 High-speed capacity
Disadvantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair
 Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP
 Short distance transmission due to attenuation

Shielded Twisted Pair

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) cable consists of a special jacket (a copper braid
covering or a foil shield) to block external interference. It is used in fast-data-rate Ethernet and in voice and data
channels of telephone lines.
Advantages of Shielded Twisted Pair
 Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP
 Eliminates crosstalk
 Comparatively faster
Disadvantages of Shielded Twisted Pair
 Comparatively difficult to install and manufacture
 More expensive
 Bulky

Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable has an outer plastic covering containing an insulation layer made of PVC or Teflon and 2 parallel
conductors each having a separate insulated protection cover. The coaxial cable transmits information in two
modes: Cable TVs and analog television networks widely use Coaxial cables.
Advantages of Coaxial Cable
 Coaxial cables has high bandwidth .
 It is easy to install.
 Coaxial cables are more reliable and durable.
 Less affected by noise or cross-talk or electromagnetic inference.
 Coaxial cables support multiple channels
Disadvantages of Coaxial Cable
 Coaxial cables are expensive.
 The coaxial cable must be grounded in order to prevent any crosstalk.
 As a Coaxial cable has multiple layers it is very bulky.
 There is a chance of breaking the coaxial cable and attaching a “t-joint” by hackers, this compromises the
security of the data.
Optical Fiber Cable
Optical Fibre Cable uses the concept total internal reflection of light through a core made up of glass. The core is
surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering called the coating. It is used for the transmission of large
volumes of data.
Advantages of Optical Fibre Cable
 Increased capacity and bandwidth
 Lightweight
 Less signal attenuation
 Immunity to electromagnetic interference
 Resistance to corrosive materials
Disadvantages of Optical Fibre Cable
 Difficult to install and maintain
 High cost
Applications of Optical Fibre Cable
 Medical Purpose: Used in several types of medical instruments.
 Defence Purpose: Used in transmission of data in aerospace.
 For Communication: This is largely used in formation of internet cables.
 Industrial Purpose: Used for lighting purposes and safety measures in designing the interior and exterior of
automobiles.

All circuits use a sequence of components to send signals to achieve a particular outcome.Transmission lines
are an effective way to increase board performance. In PCB designs, two types of transmission lines are
commonly used: microstrips and striplines.
2. Unguided Media
It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded transmission media . No physical medium is required for the
transmission of electromagnetic signals.
Features of Unguided Media
 The signal is broadcasted through air
 Less Secure
 Used for larger distances
There are 3 types of Signals transmitted through unguided media:
Radio Waves
Radio waves are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings. The sending and receiving antennas need
not be aligned. Frequency Range:3KHz – 1GHz. AM and FM radios and cordless phones use Radio waves for
transmission.

Radiowave

Microwaves
It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need to be properly aligned with each other.
The distance covered by the signal is directly proportional to the height of the antenna. Frequency Range:1GHz –
300GHz. Micro waves are majorly used for mobile phone communication and television distribution.

Infrared
Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication. They cannot penetrate through obstacles. This
prevents interference between systems. Frequency Range:300GHz – 400THz. It is used in TV remotes, wireless
mouse, keyboard, printer, etc.
Difference Between Radio Waves, Micro Waves, and Infrared Waves
Basis Radiowave Microwave Infrared wave

These are
These are omni-directional in These are unidirectional in
unidirectional in
nature. nature.
Direction nature.

At low frequency, they can At low frequency, they can

They cannot penetrate
penetrate through solid objects penetrate through solid objects
through any solid
and walls but high frequency they and walls. at high frequency,
object and walls.
Penetration bounce off the obstacle. they cannot penetrate.

Frequency range: 3 KHz to Frequency range: 1 GHz to 300 Frequency range: 300
Frequency range 1GHz. GHz. GHz to 400 GHz.
Basis Radiowave Microwave Infrared wave

These offers high

These offers poor security. These offers medium security.
Security security.

Attenuation Attenuation is high. Attenuation is variable. Attenuation is low.

Some frequencies in the radio- Some frequencies in the There is no need of

Government waves require government microwaves require government government license to
License license to use these. license to use these. use these waves.

Setup and usage Cost is Usage Cost is very

Setup and usage Cost is high.
Usage Cost moderate. less.

These are not used in

These are used in long distance These are used in long distance
long distance
communication. communication.
Communication communication.

Network bandwidth
It is the maximum rate at which data transfer occurs across any particular path of the network. Bandwidth is
basically a measure of the amount of data that can be sent and received at any instance of time.
That simply means that the higher the bandwidth of a network, the larger the amount of data the network can be
sending to and from across its path. Be careful not to confuse bandwidth with closely related terms such as the data
rate and the throughput.
Bandwidth is something that deals with the measurement of capacity and not the speed of data transfer.
Units of Measurement
Bandwidth is usually measured in bits transferred per second through a path or link. The common units of
bandwidth we come across are as follows.
bps (Bits per second)
Mbps (Megabits per second)
Gbps (Gigabits per second)
Example: Here, a bandwidth of 10 bps for a channel, is just another way of saying that a maximum of 10 bits can
be transferred using that link for any given time. It has no relation with the transfer speed of the channel.
Multiplexing?
Multiplexing is a technique used to combine and send the multiple data streams over a single medium. The process
of combining the data streams is known as multiplexing and hardware used for multiplexing is known as a
multiplexer.

Multiplexing is achieved by using a device called Multiplexer (MUX) that combines n input lines to generate a
single output line. Multiplexing follows many-to-one, i.e., n input lines and one output line.

Demultiplexing is achieved by using a device called Demultiplexer (DEMUX) available at the receiving end.
DEMUX separates a signal into its component signals (one input and n outputs). Therefore, we can say that
demultiplexing follows the one-to-many approach.
Why Multiplexing?

o The transmission medium is used to send the signal from sender to receiver. The medium can only have one
signal at a time.
o If there are multiple signals to share one medium, then the medium must be divided in such a way that each
signal is given some portion of the available bandwidth. For example: If there are 10 signals and bandwidth
of medium is100 units, then the 10 unit is shared by each signal.
o When multiple signals share the common medium, there is a possibility of collision. Multiplexing concept is
used to avoid such collision.
o Transmission services are very expensive.

Concept of Multiplexing

o The 'n' input lines are transmitted through a multiplexer and multiplexer combines the signals to form a
composite signal.
o The composite signal is passed through a Demultiplexer and demultiplexer separates a signal to component
signals and transfers them to their respective destinations.
Advantages of Multiplexing:

o More than one signal can be sent over a single medium.

o The bandwidth of a medium can be utilized effectively.
Multiplexing Techniques
Multiplexing techniques can be classified as:

Frequency-division Multiplexing (FDM)

o It is an analog technique.
o Frequency Division Multiplexing is a technique in which the available bandwidth of a single transmission
medium is subdivided into several channels.

o In the above diagram, a single transmission medium is subdivided into several frequency channels, and each
frequency channel is given to different devices. Device 1 has a frequency channel of range from 1 to 5.
 o The input signals are translated into frequency bands by using modulation techniques, and they are combined
by a multiplexer to form a composite signal.
o The main aim of the FDM is to subdivide the available bandwidth into different frequency channels and
allocate them to different devices.
o Using the modulation technique, the input signals are transmitted into frequency bands and then combined to
form a composite signal.
o The carriers which are used for modulating the signals are known as sub-carriers. They are represented as
f1,f2..fn.
o FDM is mainly used in radio broadcasts and TV networks.

Advantages Of FDM:

o FDM is used for analog signals.

o FDM process is very simple and easy modulation.
o A Large number of signals can be sent through an FDM simultaneously.
o It does not require any synchronization between sender and receiver.

Disadvantages Of FDM:
 o FDM technique is used only when low-speed channels are required.
o It suffers the problem of crosstalk.
o A Large number of modulators are required.
o It requires a high bandwidth channel.

Applications Of FDM:

o FDM is commonly used in TV networks.

o It is used in FM and AM broadcasting. Each FM radio station has different frequencies, and they are
multiplexed to form a composite signal. The multiplexed signal is transmitted in the air.

Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

o Wavelength Division Multiplexing is same as FDM except that the optical signals are transmitted through the
fibre optic cable.
o WDM is used on fibre optics to increase the capacity of a single fibre.
o It is used to utilize the high data rate capability of fibre optic cable.
o It is an analog multiplexing technique.
o Optical signals from different source are combined to form a wider band of light with the help of multiplexer.
 o At the receiving end, demultiplexer separates the signals to transmit them to their respective destinations.
o Multiplexing and Demultiplexing can be achieved by using a prism.
o Prism can perform a role of multiplexer by combining the various optical signals to form a composite signal,
and the composite signal is transmitted through a fibre optical cable.
o Prism also performs a reverse operation, i.e., demultiplexing the signal.

Time Division Multiplexing

oIt is a digital technique.

o In Frequency Division Multiplexing Technique, all signals operate at the same time with different frequency,
but in case of Time Division Multiplexing technique, all signals operate at the same frequency with different
time.
o In Time Division Multiplexing technique, the total time available in the channel is distributed among
different users. Therefore, each user is allocated with different time interval known as a Time slot at which
data is to be transmitted by the sender.
o A user takes control of the channel for a fixed amount of time.
o In Time Division Multiplexing technique, data is not transmitted simultaneously rather the data is transmitted
one-by-one.
o In TDM, the signal is transmitted in the form of frames. Frames contain a cycle of time slots in which each
frame contains one or more slots dedicated to each user.
o It can be used to multiplex both digital and analog signals but mainly used to multiplex digital signals.

There are two types of TDM:

 o Synchronous TDM
o Asynchronous TDM

Synchronous TDM

o A Synchronous TDM is a technique in which time slot is preassigned to every device.

o In Synchronous TDM, each device is given some time slot irrespective of the fact that the device contains the
data or not.
o If the device does not have any data, then the slot will remain empty.
o In Synchronous TDM, signals are sent in the form of frames. Time slots are organized in the form of frames.
If a device does not have data for a particular time slot, then the empty slot will be transmitted.
o The most popular Synchronous TDM are T-1 multiplexing, ISDN multiplexing, and SONET multiplexing.
o If there are n devices, then there are n slots.

Concept Of Synchronous TDM

 In the above figure, the Synchronous TDM technique is implemented. Each device is allocated with some time
slot. The time slots are transmitted irrespective of whether the sender has data to send or not.

Disadvantages Of Synchronous TDM:

o The capacity of the channel is not fully utilized as the empty slots are also transmitted which is having no
data. In the above figure, the first frame is completely filled, but in the last two frames, some slots are empty.
Therefore, we can say that the capacity of the channel is not utilized efficiently.
o The speed of the transmission medium should be greater than the total speed of the input lines. An alternative
approach to the Synchronous TDM is Asynchronous Time Division Multiplexing.
Asynchronous TDM

o An asynchronous TDM is also known as Statistical TDM.

o An asynchronous TDM is a technique in which time slots are not fixed as in the case of Synchronous TDM.
Time slots are allocated to only those devices which have the data to send. Therefore, we can say that
Asynchronous Time Division multiplexor transmits only the data from active workstations.
o An asynchronous TDM technique dynamically allocates the time slots to the devices.
o In Asynchronous TDM, total speed of the input lines can be greater than the capacity of the channel.
 o Asynchronous Time Division multiplexor accepts the incoming data streams and creates a frame that
contains only data with no empty slots.
o In Asynchronous TDM, each slot contains an address part that identifies the source of the data.

o The difference between Asynchronous TDM and Synchronous TDM is that many slots in Synchronous TDM
are unutilized, but in Asynchronous TDM, slots are fully utilized. This leads to the smaller transmission time
and efficient utilization of the capacity of the channel.
o In Synchronous TDM, if there are n sending devices, then there are n time slots. In Asynchronous TDM, if
there are n sending devices, then there are m time slots where m is less than n (m<n).
o The number of slots in a frame depends on the statistical analysis of the number of input lines.

Concept Of Asynchronous TDM

In the above diagram, there are 4 devices, but only two devices are sending the data, i.e., A and C. Therefore, the
data of A and C are only transmitted through the transmission line.

Frame of above diagram can be represented as:

 The above figure shows that the data part contains the address to determine the source of the data.

What is a Network Switching?

A switch is a dedicated piece of computer hardware that facilitates the process of switching i.e., incoming data
packets and transferring them to their destination. A switch works at the Data Link layer of the OSI Model. A
switch primarily handles the incoming data packets from a source computer or network and decides the
appropriate port through which the data packets will reach their target computer or network.
A switch decides the port through which a data packet shall pass with the help of its destination MAC(Media
Access Control) Address. A switch does this effectively by maintaining a switching table, (also known as
forwarding table). A network switch is more efficient than a network Hub or repeater because it maintains a
switching table, which simplifies its task and reduces congestion on a network, which effectively improves the
performance of the network.
Types of Switching
There are three types of switching methods:
Let us now discuss them individually:
Message Switching: In message switching technique, the entire data block/message is forwarded across the
entire network thus, making it highly inefficient.
Circuit Switching: In this type of switching, a connection is established between the source and destination
beforehand. This connection receives the complete bandwidth of the network until the data is transferred
completely.This approach is better than message switching as it does not involve sending data to the entire
network, instead of its destination only.
Packet Switching: This technique requires the data to be broken down into smaller components, data frames,
or packets. These data frames are then transferred to their destinations according to the available resources in the
network
Datagram Packet Switching: In Datagram Packet switching, each data frame is taken as an individual entity
and thus, they are processed separately.
Virtual-Circuit Packet Switching: In Virtual-Circuit Packet switching, a logical connection between the source
and destination is made before transmitting any data. These logical connections are called virtual circuits.