ALL SAINTS’ COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY,

BHOPAL
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
BT104 – Basic Electrical & Electronics Engineering Lab

S.No. Name of Experiment Remarks

1. Verification of Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)

2.
Verification of Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

3. Verification of Superposition Theorem

4. Verification of Thevenin’s Theorem

5. To perform Ratio Test on Single Phase Transformer

6. To perform Polarity Test on Single Phase Transformer

To perform Open Circuit Test on a Single Phase
7. Transformer to determine The Parameters of The
Equivalent Circuit
To perform Short Circuit Test on a Single Phase
8. Transformer to determine The Parameters of The
Equivalent Circuit
9. To Study The Constructional Features of D.C. Machine

Submitted to: Submitted By:

Prof. Deependra Singh Name: __________________________

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EXPERIMENT NO. - 01

AIM: Verification of Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL).

INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED:
S. No. Name Range Qty
1. Regulated power supply 0 -30V 1
2. Rheostat 500 ohm; 1 amp 1
3. Rheostat 45 ohm; 5 amp 1
4. Ammeter 0-1 amp 2
5. Ammeter 0-2 amp 1
THEORY:
Kirch-hoff’s Current Law (KCL):
Kirchhoff’s current law states that the algebraic sum of the all branch currents
leaving a node is zero at all instants of time.

This law is a consequence of conservation of charge, which enters the node, must
leave the node since it cannot be stored there. Since the algebraic sum of the charge is zero.
So it’s time derivative should also be zero.

A node in a network is the point at which more than two branches are meeting
together.

Mathematically,
I1+I2 = I3+I4 OR Σ(I) = 0

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as per the fig.
2. Adjust the position of all the rheostats in the circuits so that each of these offers
maximum resistance in the beginning.
3. Switch on the dc supply.
4. Note down the readings of all the ammeters in the circuit.
5. Change the value of resistances in the branches to get different set of readings.
6. While taking the reading of all the ammeters for a particular setting of the rheostats,
observe that the sum of reading of ammeters A1 & A2 is equal to the reading of ammeter
of A.

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7. Switch off the dc supply.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

S. No. Applied voltage I I1 I2 I1+ I2

1.

2.

RESULT:
 Since the current entering the network I is equal to the summation of the current
leaving the network i.e. I1 + I2, therefore the Kirch-hoff’s Current Law is verified.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Make the connections carefully.

2. Observations should be noted down carefully.
3. All the connection should be tight.

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EXPERIMENT NO. - 02

AIM: Verification of Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL).

INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED:
S. No. Name Range Qty
1. Regulated power supply 0 -30V 1
2. Rheostat 500 ohm; 1 amp 1
3. Rheostat 15 ohm;5 amp 2
4. Voltmeter 0-30V 2

THEORY:
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL):
Kirchhoff’s voltage law state that the algebraic sum of the all branch voltage around
any closed lop a network is zero at all instants of time.

This law is a consequence of the law of conservation of energy, voltage being the
energy per unit charge. An increase in energy while going from one branch to another is
termed as a voltage rise while a decrease in energy is termed as a voltage drop.
Alternately, the Kirchhoff’s voltage law may be expressed in terms of drop & rise of
voltage as: Around any closed loop at any instant of time, the sum of voltage drop must be
equal to the sum of voltage rise.

Mathematically,
e.m.f. + IR = 0
V1 = I1R2 + I1R3
V1 = V2 + V3

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
1. Make the connection as per the circuit.
2. Adjust the resistance of the circuit to its maximum value.
3. Switch on the dc supply.
4. Take the reading of ammeter & volt meter V, V1, V2.
5. Repeat step - 4 for different set of readings.
6. Switch off the dc supply.

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OBSERVATION TABLE:

S. No. Applied voltage V V1 V2 V1+V2

1.

2.

RESULT:
 Since the algebraic sum of all voltages i.e. V1 & V2 around a closed loop is equal to
V. Thus Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law is verified.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Make the connections carefully.

2. Observations should be noted down carefully.
3. All the connection should be tight.

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EXPERIMENT NO. - 03

AIM: To Verify Superposition Theorem

INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED:

S. No. Instruments Range Quantity

1. Regulated Power Supply 0-30V 1
2. Ammeter (MC) 0-5A 1
3. Voltmeter (MC) 0-30V 2
4. Connecting Leads -- --

THEORY:
According to this theorem, if there are a number of e.m.f. acting simultaneously in any linear
bilateral network, then each e.m.f. acts independently of the other i.e. as if the other e.m.f.
did not exist .The value of current in any conductor is the sum of the current due to each e mf
similarly, voltage across any conductor is the algebraic sum of the voltages witch each e.m.f.
would have produced while acting singly. In other words, current in or voltage across any
conductor of the network is obtained by superposition the current and voltages due to each e
m f in the network.

Hence this theorem may be stated as follows:-

In a network of linear resistances containing more than one generator (or source of e.m.f. )
the current witch flows at any point is the sum of all the currents which would flow at that
point if each generator where considered separately any and all the other generators
replaced for the time being by resistances equal to their internal resistances.

PROCEDURE:
1. E1 & E2 both in circuit :
 Make connection as shown in circuit diagram with E1 & E2 in circuit.
 Make power on.
 Note the ammeter reading I1.

Note: - While measuring current I1 through resistance R1 the value of current should be taken as
positive if it flows from C to A & negative if it flows from A to C in steps 1, 2, & 3.

2. E1 in circuit :
 Now make connection as shown with E2 omitted.

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 Note current I’1 & its polarity (I’1 is positive if flows from C to A & negative if flows
from A to C.)

3. E2 in circuit :-
 Make connection as shown with E1 omitted.
 Note the current I”1 with polarity.

As per superposition theorem, I1= I’1 + I”1

Substitute the value in above equation & verify the result.

4. As R1 I1 = R1 I’1 + R1 I”1 i.e. voltage across resistance can also be obtained using
superposition theorem. With E1 & E2 in circuit (for step 1), make connection as shown in
circuit diagram.
5. Measure the voltage VCA across resistor R1 with E1 & E2 in circuit. The polarity of VCA
should be considered as positive if C is positive w.r.t. A, otherwise VCA is to be noted as
negative.
6. Measure the voltage V1 across R1 with E2 omitted. Note the reading with proper polarity.
7. Measure the voltage V2 across R1 with E1 omitted.
8. Tabulate the result.
9. As per superposition theorem VCA = V1 + V2, verify the result.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

S. No. I1 I’1 I”1 Total Remark

I’1 + I”1
1.

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CALCULATION:
Calculate the currents I’1 for step 2 & I”1 for step 3 using Ohm law & compare the values
with observed values.

E1
For Step 2: I’1 = =
R4  R1  R6  R2  R5  R7 

E2
For Step 3: I”1 = =
R2  R5  R7  R3  R1  R4  R6 

RESULT:
The Theorem has been verified within practical limitations.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Avoid any loose connections.
2. Use instruments of proper range.

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EXPERIMENT NO. – 04

AIM: To Verify Thevenin’s Theorem

INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED:

S. No. Instruments Range Qty

1. Regulated Power Supply 0-30V 1
2. Ammeter (MC) 0-5A 1
3. Voltmeter (MC) 0-30V 2
4. Connecting Leads -- --

THEORY:

Thevenin’s theorem is very useful in analyzing the voltages in a network. The theorem states
that:

“Any circuit having a number of voltage sources, resistances and open output
terminals can be replaced by a simple equivalent circuit consisting of a single voltage source
VTH in series with a resistance RTH, where the value of the voltage source is equal to the open
circuit voltage across output terminals and resistance is equal to the resistance seen into the
network across the output terminals”.

Let the network be represented by a block in figure consist of a complicated network,

containing some resistances and voltage sources.
According to thevenin’s theorem, the entire network can be replaced by a single source VTH
with a series resistance RTH, as shown in figure.

Thevenizing a circuit:
Consider the network as shown in figure A.

We want to find out the voltage VL across RL and its

current IL. Diagram A
To use Thevenin’s Theorem: Disconnect RL. The two open
ends then become terminals a & b.
Now we find the thevenin’s equivalent between a & b, i.e.
“open the part of the circuit to be analyzed and “thevenize”
the remaining of the circuit connected to the two terminals”.
Now aim is to find VTH across a, b and RTH.
After disconnecting RL, the circuit becomes as shown in
figure B. Diagram B
Now the voltage across R2 is same as open circuit voltage across a & b.
Therefore;

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V  R2
VTH  Vab  VR 2 
R1  R2 
This voltage is positive at terminal a.
Now to find RTH: disconnect RL & short circuit V. the circuit
becomes as shown in figure C.

The equivalent circuit thus becomes, as shown in figure D.

Diagram C
Now to find voltage VL across RL, connect RL at
terminals a-b. By using voltage Division formula the
remaining circuit can be solved.

VTH  RL
VL 
RTH  RL

VL
& IL  .
RL Diagram D

PROCEDURE:
Configure any circuit using resistances and voltage sources as shown in figure.

Aim is to calculate voltage across resistance R3 (across terminals a & b).

1. Make power ON to the circuit.
2. Measure voltage across resistance R3,
VR3 = ______ volts.
3. Using Thevenin’s Theorem calculate
voltage across terminals a & b as under.
a. Calculation of VTH.
Take out resistance R3.
Measure VTH across terminals a
& b.
VTH = _____ volts.

Theoretically,
E   R 2  R7 
VTH 
R1  R2  R7  R6  R4
Compare VTH measured with VTH
calculated (it should be same within
practical limitations).

b. Calculation of RTH:
Short circuit the Source “E” & take out R3 to calculate RTH, as shown in figure.

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R2  R7 R1  R4  R6 
RTH 
R2  R7  R1  R4  R6
Now using Thevenin’s Theorem,
Voltage across R3, VAB is,

VTH  R3
V AB  VR 3 
RTH  R3

Compare the voltage measured in step-2 with voltage VR3.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

S. No. VTH RTH

1.

2.

RESULT:

Both the values are comparable within practical limitation. Hence, Thevenin’s theorem is
verified.

PRECAUTIONS:
3. Avoid any loose connections.
4. Use instruments of proper range.

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EXPERIMENT NO. - 05

AIM: To perform the Ratio Test on 1-ΦTransformer

INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED:

S. No. Instruments Type Range Qty (nos.)

Primary -230v/50Hz
1. Transformer 1-Φ/1KVA 01
Sec. 0-115V-230V
2. Voltmeter MI 0-300 V 02

THEORY:
Transformer is a static device, which is use to transfer electric energy from one electric
circuit (primary) to another electric circuit (secondary) via magnetic circuit (core) at different
voltage & circuit levels. The two electric circuits i.e. primary winding and secondary winding
having different number of turns determines type of transformer; step-up and step-down

Ratio Test:
The induced e.m.f. per phase in primary and secondary windings of a transformer is given
by:

e.m.f. in primary, E1 = 4.44f ΦN1

e.m.f. in secondary. E2 = 4.44f ΦN2

We can define transformation ratio as:

E 2 V2 I 1
K  
E1 V1 I 2

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as per fig: 1 and set- up autotransformer to zero position.

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2. Switch on the 1-φ A.C. supply & adjust autotransformer until a suitable (below rated)
voltage.
3. Record the voltage V1 across the primary & V2 across secondary.
4. Vary the auto transformer & repeat step 3 , take at least 5 reading
5. Switch off the supply

OBSERVATION TABLE:

S. No. V1 V2 K=V2/V1
1.
2.

RESULT:
For Ratio Test: K=V2/V1

PRECAUTIONS:
5. Avoid any loose connections.
6. Use instruments of proper range.

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EXPERIMENT NO. - 06

AIM: To perform the Polarity Test on 1-ΦTransformer

INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED:

S. No. Instruments Type Range Qty (nos.)

Primary -230v/50Hz
1. Transformer 1-Φ/1KVA 01
Sec. 0-115V-230V
2. Voltmeter MI 0-300 V 02
3. Voltmeter MI 0-600V 01

THEORY:
This experiment is carried out check the polarity of transformer windings. This is use for
parallel connection of two transformers.
Transformer is a static device, which is use to transfer electric energy from one electric
circuit (primary) to another electric circuit (secondary) via magnetic circuit (core) at different
voltage & circuit levels. The two electric circuits i.e. primary winding and secondary winding
having different number of turns determines type of transformer; step-up and step-down

Polarity Test:
Each of terminals of primary as well as secondary winding of a transformer is alternatively
positive and negative with respect to each other. It is essential to know the relative polarities
at any instant of the primary and secondary terminal for making correct connections, if the
transformers are to be connected in parallel or to be used in 3-Φ ckt.

When viewed from the primary side the terminals are marked A1& A2. Now terminal A1 is
connected to one end of the secondary winding and a voltmeter is connected between A2 and
other end of the secondary winding.

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When voltmeter reads the difference (V1- V2), the transformer is said to possess a subtractive
polarity and when voltmeter reads (V1+V2), the transformer has additive polarity.
Subtractive polarity means, same polarity terminals are connected. Additive polarity means
alternative positive and negative terminals are connected.

PROCEDURE:
(Polarity test: Additive polarity)
1. Connect the circuit as per fig: 2 and set- up autotransformer to zero position.
2. Switch on the 1- φ A.C. supply & vary autotransformer step by step.
3. Record for each step the voltage V1, V2, and V3.
4. Take four to five readings.
5. Here V3 > V1 the polarity is additive i.e. ; (V1+V2)
6. Switch off the supply

(Polarity test: subtractive polarity)

1. Connect the circuit as per fig: 2.2 & set-up autotransformer to zero position
2. Switch on the 1- φ A.C. supply & vary autotransformer step by step
3. Record for each step the voltage V1, V2, and V3.
4. Take four to five readings.
5. Here V3 < V1 the polarity is additive i.e. ; (V1-V2)
6. Switch off the supply

OBSERVATION TABLE:

(a) Additive Polarity

S. No. V1 V2 V3= V1+V2
1.
2.

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(b Subtractive Polarity
S. No. V1 V2 V3=V1-V2
2.
3.

RESULT:
For additive polarity: V3= (V1+V2)
For subtractive polarity: V3= (V1-V2)

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Avoid any loose connections.
2. Use instruments of proper range.

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EXPERIMENT NO. - 07
AIM: - To Perform Open Circuit Test on a Single Phase Transformer to Determine The
Parameters Of The Equivalent Circuit.

INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED:

S. No. Instruments Range Qty.

1. Single Phase Variac 0-230 V 01
2. Wattmeter Dynamo Meter Type 2.5/5A; 150V/300V 01
3. Ammeter (MI) 0-5 A 01
4. Voltmeter (MI) 0-300V 01
5. Single Phase Transformer 1kVA 01

THEORY:-
Open Circuit Test
If one of the winding of a single-phase transformer is, kept open circuited and AC supply is given
to the other winding, the transformer takes a small current called the no load current, which is of the
order of 2 to 5% of the full load current. The no load current has two components, the magnetizing
component Im producing the flux in the transformer core and the working components Iw to supply
the iron core losses in the core. The small copper losses in the winding at this reduced current are
negligible. Thus, the power input to the transformer under this conditions equal iron losses taking
place in it.
If W0, V0 and I0 are the readings of the wattmeter, voltmeter and ammeter respectively during no
load when connected as per the diagram. The no load equivalent parameters are calculated as follows
cosΦ = W0
V0 I0
Iw = I0cosΦ
R0 = V0
I0

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-

PROCEDURE:-

1. The supply is switched on with variac as its min. position.

2. The voltage applied to the transformer is adjusted.

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3. Only one set of reading corresponding to the rated voltage is sufficient to calculate the
complete result.

OBSERVATION TABLE:-

S. No. V0 (volts) W0 (watts) I0 (ampere)

1.
2.

RESULT:-

Open Circuit Test has given the following result:

1. The Value of R0 = ____________
2. The Value of X0 = ____________

PRECAUTION:-

1. All the connection should be tight.

2. Do not touch any terminal without switching off power.
3. Note the reading carefully.

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EXPERIMENT NO. - 08
AIM: - To Perform Short Circuit Test on a Single Phase Transformer to Determine The
Parameters Of The Equivalent Circuit.

INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED:

S. No. Instruments Range Qty.

1. Single Phase Variac 0-230 V 01
2. Wattmeter Dynamo Meter Type 2.5/5A; 150V/300V 01
3. Ammeter (MI) 0-5 A 01
4. Voltmeter (MI) 0-150V 01
5. Single Phase Transformer 1kVA 01

THEORY:-
Short Circuit Test
In this test low voltage winding is short-circuited & experiment is performed at high voltage side
(usually 5-10% of normal primary voltage) allow voltage at correct frequency applied to the primary
is continuously increased until full load current is flowing in the primary seven secondary.
Since in this test applied voltage is small percentage of actual voltage. The mutual flux produced
is also a small percentage of actual value. Hence, core losses are very small. With the results, thus
wattmeter reading represents full load copper losses.

i.e. Zsc = Vsc

Isc
Rsc = W
Isc2
Where, W= rated ohmic losses; Vsc = rated voltage; Isc= rated current

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-

PROCEDURE:-

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1. Connect the circuit as given in the circuit diagram.
2. apply voltage Vsc with the help of variac which is required to rated current
3. Note the reading of wattmeter, voltmeter & ammeter.
4. Switch off the AC supply.

OBSERVATION TABLE:-

S. No. VSC (volts) ISC (ampere) WSC (watts)

1.

2.

RESULT:-

Short Circuit Test has given the following result:

1. The Value of Zsc = ____________
2. The Value of Rsc = ____________
3. The Value of Xsc = ____________
4. The Value of W = ____________

PRECAUTION:-

1. All the connection should be tight.

2. Do not touch any terminal without switching off power.
3. Note the reading carefully.

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EXPERIMENT NO. - 09

AIM:-To Study The Constructional Features of D.C. Machine.

INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED:

S. No. Instruments Specification Qty (nos.)

1. D.C. Machine Cut-Model 1

THEORY:

A D.C. machine is an electro-mechanical

energy conversion device. When it converts
mechanical power into D.C. electrical power,
it is known as a D.C. generator. On the other
hand, when it converts D.C. electrical power
into mechanical power it is known as a D.C.
motor.

The complete assembly of various parts in a

scattered form of D.C. machine is shown.

The essential parts of a D.C. machine are

described below:

1. Magnetic Frame or Yoke: The outer

cylindrical frame to which main poles and
inter-poles are fixed to the foundation is called the yoke. It serves two purposes:
a) It provides mechanical protection to the inner parts of the machine.
b) It provides a low reluctance path for the magnetic flux.

2. Pole-Core and Pole Shoes: The pole core and pole shoes are fixed to the magnetic frame
or yoke by bolts. They serve the following purposes:
a) They support the field or exciting coils.
b) They spread out the magnetic flux over the
armature periphery more uniformly.
c) Since pole shoes have larger cross-section, the
reluctance of magnetic path is reduced.
Usually, the pole core and pole shoes are made of
thin cast steel or wrought iron laminations which
are riveted together under hydraulic pressure as
shown in figure (b).

3. Field or Exciting Coils: Enameled copper wire is used for

the construction of field or exciting coils. The coils are
wound on the former [figure (c)] and then placed around
the pole core. When direct current is passed through the
field winding, it magnetizes the poles which produce the
required flux. The field coils of all the poles are connected
in series in such a way that when current flows through
them, the adjacent poles attain opposite polarity as shown

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in figure (d).

4. Armature Core: It is cylindrical in shape and

keyed to the rotating shaft. At the outer periphery
slots are cut as shown in fig., which
accommodate the armature winding. The
armature core serves the following purposes:
a) It houses the conductors in the slots.
b) It provides an easy path for magnetic flux.

Since armature is a rotating part of the machine,

reversal of flux takes place in the core, hence
hysteresis losses are produced. To minimize
these losses silicon steel material is used for its
construction. The rotating armature cuts across
the magnetic field which induces an e.m.f. in it.
The e.m.f. circulates eddy currents which results
in eddy current loss in it. To reduce these losses, armature core is laminated, in other words
we can say that about 0.3 to 0.5 mm thick stampings are used for its construction. Each
lamination or stamping is insulated from the other by varnish layer.

5. Armature winding: The insulated conductors housed

in the armature slots are suitably connected. This is
known as armature winding. The armature winding is
the heart of D.C. machine. It is a place where
conversion of power takes place i.e. in case of
generator, mechanical power is converted into
electrical power and in case of motor, electrical power
is converted into mechanical power. On the basis of
connections, there are two types of armature windings
named as (i) Lap Winding and (ii) Wave Winding.
a) Lap Winding: In lap winding, conductors are connected in such a way that number of
parallel paths is equal to the number of poles. Thus, if machine has P poles and Z
armature conductors, then there will be P parallel paths; each path will have Z/P
conductors in series. In this case, the number of brushes is equal to the number of
parallel paths. Out of which half the brushes are positive and remaining half are
negative
b) Wave Winding: In wave winding, the conductors are so connected that they are divided
into two parallel paths irrespective of the number of poles of the machine. Thus, if
machine has Z armature conductors, there will be only two parallel paths each having
Z/2 conductors in series. In this case, the number of brushes is equal to two i.e. number
of parallel paths.

6. Commutator: It is the most

important part of a D.C. machine
and serves the following
purposes:
a) It connects the rotating
armature conductors to the
stationary external circuit
through brushes.
b) It converts the alternating
current induced in the armature conductors into unidirectional current in the external

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load circuit in generator action, whereas, it converts the alternating torque into
unidirectional (continuous) torque produced in the armature in motor action.

The commutator is of cylindrical shape and is made up of wedge shaped hard drawn
copper segments. The segments are insulated from each other by a thin sheet of mica.
The segments are held together by means of two wedge shaped rings that fit into the V-
grooves cut into the segments. Each armature coil is connected through riser. The
sectional view of the commutator is shown.

7. Brushes: The brushes are pressed upon the commutator and form the connecting link
between the armature winding and the external circuit. They are usually made of high grade
carbon because carbon is conducting material and at the same time in powdered form
provides lubricating effect on the commutator surface. The brushes are held in particular
position around the commutator by brush holders.

8. End Housings: End housings are attached to the ends of the main frame and support
bearings. The front housing supports the bearing and the brush assemblies whereas the rear
housing usually supports the bearing only.

9. Bearings: The ball or roller bearings are fitted in the end housings. The function of the
bearings is to reduce friction between the rotating and stationary parts of the machine.
Mostly high carbon steel is used for the construction of bearings as it is very hard material.

10. Shaft: The shaft is made of mild steel with a maximum breaking strength. The shaft is used
to transfer mechanical power from or to the machine. The rotating parts like armature core,
commutator, cooling fans etc. are keyed to the shaft.

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