Three Manifold
Three Manifold
SHUMIN JIANG
July 2022
Contents
3 Heegaard splitting 15
3.1 3 dimensional Lens space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.2 Definition and examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
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Chapter 1
1.1 Introduction
Since all the surfaces(2-manifolds), both orientable and non-orientable, are classified. This project started
with basic construction of 3-manifolds from surfaces, in the hope that we can built a classification of 3-
manifolds based on the classification of surfaces. But by simply constructing using products of 2-manifolds
and 1-manifolds, or mapping torus of a 2-manifold are not going to represent all 3-manifolds. That’s how
chapter 3 provides a more efficient tool - Heegaard splitting.
Chapter 2 is an introduction to polyhedral manifolds. It starts with the famous Poincaré homology
sphere. The chapter includes the construction, homology groups and fundamental groups. We found out
that the computational method used on the homology sphere can be generalized to all other 3 dimensional
polyhedral manifolds, and it is connected to the classification of all compact 3-manifolds.
Chapter 3 explains how polyhedral manifolds are related to classification theory of compact 3-manifolds
through a process called ’Heegaard splitting’. It was first introduced by Poul Heegaard in 1898. The claim
was all compact 3-manifolds can be splited into two so called handlebodies. To get back to the original 3-
manifold, simply identify the boundaries of the handlebodies - compact surfaces, with homeomorphisms.[1]
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Example 4. The mapping torus of the one-holed torus is a 3-manifold constructed from a surface.
Example 5. 3-torus T3 := S 1 × S 1 × S 1 , is a triple product of three 1-manifolds. it’s fundamental group
is isomorphic to Z3 as shown later in chapter 2 with a different representation of the 3-torus. Its homology
groups are H0 ≃ H3 ≃ Z, H1 ≃ H2 ≃ Z3 .
1.3.1 Products
Figure 1.1: S 1 × S 1 Theorem 1. The Cartesian product with product topology of a n-manifold N
and a m-manifold M is a (m + n)-manifold M N .
Proof. • Prove for any point in MN, there exists an open neighbourhood homeomorphic to
Rm+n .
For a point x ∈ N and a point y ∈ M , there exist two open neighbourhoods Vx ≃ Rn ⊂ N and
Vy ≃ Rm ⊂ M , then (Vx , Vy ) is an open neighbourhood ≃ Rmn around point (x, y) in MN.
• Second countability follows from mapping torus claim 1, which is left as an exercise for the reader.
• The space is Hausdorff. Let (a,b), (c,d) be two distinct points in (m + n)-manifold called Z, which
means either a ̸= c or b ̸= d. a and c ∈ X, b and d ∈ Y , with X as the n-manifold, Y as the m-manifold.
Case 1
Without loss of generality, let a = c. Let U be open neighbourhood around a or c, Vb , Vd be disjoint
open neighbourhoods in Y, then U × Vb and U × Vd are disjoint.
Case 2
Let a ̸= c, Ua , Uc be disjoint open neighbourhoods in X, again Ua × Vb and Uc × Vd are disjoint.
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(a) Homeomorphic to Rn (b) Hausdorff
Figure 1.2
to Vx ×[0, ϵ) and f (Vx )×(1−ϵ, 1]. Hence Vx ×(t1 −ϵ, t1 +ϵ) is disjoint to Vx ×[0, ϵ)⊔f (Vx )×(1−ϵ, 1]/V1 ×{0} ∼
f (Vx ) × {1}.
Case 2: (See figure 1.2b in red)
Take two points x ̸= y ∈ X and their disjoint open neighbourhoods Vx and Vy , this is possible since X is
Hausdorff, then f (Vx ) and f (Vy ) are open in X. Because f (x) ̸= f (y), we can shrink the neighbourhood of
f (Vx ) and f (Vy ) such that they are disjoint, call it Ux and Uy . Then f −1 (Ux ) and f −1 (Uy ) is also open and
disjoint given they are the subsets of Vx and Vy . Perform the same quotient as before, f −1 (Ux ) × [0, ε) ∪
Ux × (δ, 1]/f −1 (Ux ) × {0} ∼ Ux × {1} and f −1 (Uy ) × [0, ε) ∪ Uy × (δ, 1]/f −1 (Uy ) × {0} ∼ Uy × {1} are
disjoint open neighbourhoods. Hence the mapping torus is Hausdorff.
Claim 2. If space X is second-countable and the equivalent relation is open then the quotient space X/ ∼ is
second-countable.
Second-countable can be proved by proving the equivalent relation is open, meaning the projection
map π : X × [0, 1] −→ X × [0, 1]/ ∼ is open.
Proof. For any point on the manifold, there exists an open neighbourhood homeomorphic to R3 :
Case 1: For any point ∈ (M1 \B13 ) ⊔ (M2 \B23 ), this is trivial.
Case 2: Take the point i1 (y) ∈ ∂B13 and i2 (y) ∈ ∂B23 such that i1 (y) = i2 (y). Take two open neighbour-
hoods ≃ R2 × [0, ∞) around point y: V1 ⊂ (M1 \B̊13 ) and V2 ⊂ (M2 \B̊23 ), such that i1 (V1 ) = i2 (V2 ). Then
V1 ⊔ V2 / ∼ is homeomorphic to R3 .
Hausdorff and second-countability is similar to that of mapping torus.
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1.3.4 Constructing 3-manifolds from surfaces
A natural question is, can we classify all 3-manifolds by building up on the classification of surfaces?
Definition 5. A surface is a 2-manifold.
Definition 6. A genus g surface is a surface homeomorphic to connected sum of g 1-tori for g ∈ Z+ . When
g = 0, the surface is defined to be homeomorphic to S 2 .
Theorem 4. Classification of orientable surfaces:
A compact, connected and orientable surface are homeomorphic a genus g surface for some g ⩾ 0.
Definition 7. A submanifold is a subset N ⊂ M , such that there exist an open neighbourhood Ux for any
point x ∈ M , and a homeomorphism ψ : Ux → V where V ∈ Rm . ψ(x) = 0, ψ(Ux ∩ N ) = 0m−n × Rn . n is
called the dimension of the submanifold. [3]
Definition 8. A subsurface is a 2 dimensional submanifold.
Proposition 1. Any sub-surface of an orientable surface is orientable.
Proof. Assume there is a subsurface Z ⊂ S, since Z is a submanifold, there exist charts (ϕZi , VZi ∩ Um ). For
all VZi ∩ VZj ∩ Um ̸= ∅, ϕZi ◦ ϕ−1
Zj : ϕZj (VZi ∩ VZj ∩ Um ) → ϕZi (VZi ∩ VZj ∩ Um ) is a orientation-preserving
map. See definition in the notes [3].
There is an easier definition of non-orientability for a specific type of manifolds.
Claim 3. For a manifold M in the form of M = Rn /Γ (where Γ is a group acting nicely on Rn ), if there
exists at least one element of Γ that doesn’t preserve the orientation of Rn , then M is not orientable.
Note that this is a necessary but not sufficient condition. Try example RP2 .
Example 6. Prove that the Möbius band defined as R2 /Γ, where Γ is defined as ⟨γ1 , γ2 ⟩, with
γ1 ((x,
y)) =
1 0
(x+1, 1−y), and γ2 ((x, y)) = (x, y+1) is non-orientable. This is because the det(Dγ1 ) = det = −1,
0 −1
which is negative. D stands for Jacobian.
something about non orientable, and refer to the paper about cutting polygons
Ways to construct 3-manifolds
• The mapping torus of any surfaces is a 3-manifold.
•The product of a surface and a 1-manifold is a 3-manifold.
f : T2 −→ T2
(x, y) 7−→ (x + y, y)
1 1
or a matrix representation of the homeomorphism is . Compute the homology groups of M T2 .
0 1
To solve the problem, we need to introduce Mayer-Vietoris Sequence first.
Definition 9. Mayer-Vietoris Sequence
Φ Ψ ∂
· · · → Hn (A ∩ B) −
→ Hn (A) ⊕ Hn (B) −
→ Hn (X) −
→ Hn−1 (A ∩ B)
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f∗ −g∗ ∗ i f∗ −g∗
· · · → Hn (X) −−−−→ Hn (Y ) −→ Hn (Z) → Hn−1 (X) −−−−→ Hn−1 (Y ) → · · ·
where f and g are maps from X to Y, and space Z is X × I ⊔ Y /(x, 0) ∼ f (x) and (x, 1) ∼ g(x). To
prove the sequence is a long exact sequence, see Allen Hatcher book P 151. (By doing a relative homology
(X × I, X × ∂I)).
Sol 1. The question is an example for the sequence above when g is an identity map, and f is the homeo-
morphism via a matrix.
f∗ −1∗ ∗ i f∗ −1∗
· · · → H1 (X) −−−−→ H1 (X) −→ H1 (M T2) → H0 (X) −−−−→ H0 (X) → · · ·
f∗ −1∗ ∗ i f∗ −1∗
···→ Z2 −−−−→ Z2 −→ H1 (M T2 ) −
→ Z −−−−→ Z → · · ·
A B C D
with names of the maps under the arrows. The image of D is trivial since for all [a] ∈ H0 (X), (f∗ −
1∗ )[a] = f∗ [a] − 1∗ [a] = [b] − [c]. Since the space X is connected, all the points are in the same class, the
image is trivial.
Similarly, f∗ − 1∗ acts on Z2 as matrix transformation acts on a 2×1 vector. The resulting
0 1
matrix is . The rank of the resulting matrix is 1, and the degree of the map is 1 (because it’s a
0 0
homeomorphism) so the image of A is Z.
Given the information that Im(A) = Z and Im(D) = 0 and by the first isomorphism theorem and the
exactness of the sequence, Z2 /Ker(A) = Im(A) = Ker(B), Z2 /Ker(B) = Z2 /Im(A) = Im(B) = Ker(C)
and so on. From here we can work out that H1 (M T2 ) = Z2 . All the equal signs stand for isomorphism.
Conclusion: H0 ≃ H3 ≃ Z, H1 ≃ H2 ≃ Z2 .
Definition 10. An action of group Γ on topological space X is said to be nice if for any point x ∈ X, there
exists an open neighbourhood Ux such that for all γ ∈ Γ that’s not the identity, γ · Ux ∩ Ux = ∅.
Proving R3 is the universal cover of M T2 .
Parametrise T2 with coodinates (x(mod 1) , y(mod 1) ) for x, y ∈ R. Let the map f1 : T2 × R → T2 × R/Γ1
with Γ1 generated by ⟨g⟩ such that g := (x(mod 1) , y(mod 1) , z) → ((x + y)(mod 1) , y(mod 1) , z + 1).
1. T2 × R/Γ1 ≃ M T2 by construction.
2. The action is nice and can be proved by taking open Bδ3 such that δ ≪ y(mod 1) /2. Hence f1 is a
covering map.
Definition 11. A topological space is said to be locally path-connected if for all x ∈ X and a neighbourhood
U, there exists a path-connected neighbourhood V ⊆ U which contains x.
Since the map is a projection map, and Γ1 acts nicely on path-connected and locally path-connected
space T2 × R, the map is a covering map. (Another theorem that I’m not going to prove here.) [4]
Let map f2 : R3 → T2 × R ≃ R3 /Γ2 and an action Γ2 := ⟨h1 , h2 ⟩ with generators h1 : (x, y, z) → (x + 1, y, z)
and h2 : (x, y, z) → (x, y + 1, z). The action is clearly nice by taking an open neighbourhood B 3 of radius
< 1/4 for any point ∈ T2 × R.
Definition 12. A topological space is said semi-locally simply connected if for every x ∈ X, there exist an
open neighbourhood U such that the homomorphism π1 (U, x) → π1 (X, x) induced by the inclusion is trivial.
In another word, the generators of π1 (U, x) is trivial if written in terms of generators of π1 (X, x).
Theorem 5. Let X be a topological space, if X is locally path-connected and semi-locally simply connected.
And let f1 : Y → X and f2 : Z → Y be two covering maps, then the composition f2 ◦ f1 is a covering map.
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This theorem will not be proved here, see the proof in this paper [5].
Statement 1. All topological manifolds are locally path-connected and semi-locally simply connected.
Proof. • Semi-locally simply connected
Let X be a n-manifold, and let the chart (homeomorphism) k : U → B n the map induced by the chart
: π1 (U, x) → π1 (B n , k(x)) is an isomorphism. Since π1 (B n , k(x)) is trivial, π1 (U, x) is also trivial.
• Locally path-connected
There exists an open V ⊆ U that V is homeomorphic to B n with map p. Since B n is path-connected,
that is for any two points x, y in B n , there exists a continuous map γ : [0, 1] → B n . p−1 ◦ γ is also continuous.
Hence X is locally path-connected.
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Chapter 2
The statement of Poincaré conjecture is initially made in 1904. Poincaré claimed in 1900 that the
homology group can tell 3-manifold apart from the 3-sphere, but then he found a counterexample to his
claim in 1904, which now is called the Poincaré homology sphere. It’s the first homology sphere discovered
in human history, which has the same homology groups as the 3-sphere, but non-trivial fundamental group.
This chapter introduces one of the construction of the Poincaré homology sphere and describes a method to
derive it’s fundamental group and extend the method further to other polyhedral manifolds. [6]
Statement 2. Statement of Poincaré conjecture:
Every compact, 3-manifold with trivial fundamental group is topologically equivalent to S 3 .
Figure 2.1
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Case 0: When the point is inside the dodecahedron, this is a trivial case.
Case 1: When the point is on one of the faces.
Assume x ∈ DF , F means the point is on the face. The open neighbourhood of x is homeomorphic
to A = [0, ∞] × R2 . Take x as the point which is equivalent to x in P and take the open neighbourhood
of x which is also homeomorphic to B = [0, ∞] × R2 . Construct a homeomorphic map f : R2 → R2 , and
A ⊔ B/0 × x ∼ 0 × f (x) for x ∈ R2 is homeomorphic to R3 .
Case 2: When the point is on an edge.
As shown in left figure 2.2, three edges of the pentagon are equivalent to each other, and for a point
x ∈ DE , the neighbourhood of x is homeomorphic to [0, ∞) × [0, ∞) × R and so is all the points that
are equivalent to x in P. See figure 2.2 second picture for the cross sections, by identifying (construct
homeomorphisms) 0 × [0, ∞) × R for each neighbourhood, it’s clear that the resulting space is homeomorphic
to R3 .
Case 3: When the point is one of the vertices.
The four tetrahedrons are cut from the dodecahedron in figure 2.3. From left to right in figure 2.4,
correspond to figure 2.3 first picture from top left cut, top right cut, bottom right, bottom left.
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Similar to case 2, it’s possible to consider the gluings of faces of tetrahedrons shown in figure 4 indicated
by the colour of edges, and show that it’s B 3 ≃ R3 .
Another clever way to prove it glues to B 3 , is to prove after gluing, the shaded green region becomes a
2-sphere. We know that the shaded region becomes a surface. To prove it’s a 2-sphere, we can use the fact
that the sphere has Euler-characteristic 2, and the triangles in green form a triangulation of the surface.
There are 6 edges (1-6), 4 vertices (A-D), and 4 faces. 4-6+4=2.
Exercise: Prove that with the boundary as the 2-sphere, it’s a 3-ball.
Proof. In case 3, taking the open neighbourhood of an open ball of radius ϵ for all ϵ, the boundary of the
neighbourhood is always homeomorphic to S 2 . By taking smaller and smaller ϵ, eventually the boundary
is a point. Hence by blow up the point, we can deduce the original space we bounded with a 2-sphere is a
3-ball.
• Hausdorff
• Second-countable
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The relations between the generators
Considering the trivial loops around each edge, they can be written as a linear combination of the three
generators.
Take the loop around the green generator for example. (follow the black loop and arrow in figure 2.6)
starting from face B, going one quarter and land on face C, which then reappears on face C ′ and going one
quarter again to face B. Reappearing on face B ′ , going faces C ′ , appears on face C, and ended up on face
B’, which is the same point as the starting point.
This complete cycle can be represented by B ∩ C −→ C ′ ∩ B −→ B ′ ∩ C ′ −→ C ∩ B ′ , which tells
you the location of the edges it’s going around. Question is can we write the cycle in forms of the three
generators. And yes! Deform the loop and you get bO → Oc → aO → Ob → dO → Oa → cO → Od, moving
bO to the end, and it’s B̃ C̃ B̃ −1 C̃ −1 , with left operation. The linear combination can be read off with the
representation of edges.
Conclusion: The fundamental group of T3 is ⟨Ã, B̃, C̃ | B̃ C̃ B̃ −1 C̃ −1 = B̃ ÃB̃ −1 Ã−1 = ÃC̃ Ã−1 C̃ −1 = 1⟩.
Red A ∩ B → B ′ ∩ E → E ′ ∩ A′ Ã−1 Ẽ B̃ = 1
Dark green A ∩ C → C ′ ∩ F → F ′ ∩ A′ Ã−1 F̃ C̃ = 1
Blue A ∩ D → D ′ ∩ B → B ′ ∩ A′ Ã−1 B̃ D̃ = 1
Orange A ∩ E → E ′ ∩ C → C ′ ∩ A′ Ã−1 C̃ Ẽ = 1
Brown A ∩ F → F ′ ∩ D → D ′ ∩ A′ Ã−1 D̃F̃ = 1
Purple F ∩ D′ → D ∩ E → E ′ ∩ F ′ F̃ −1 Ẽ D̃−1 = 1
Yellow E ∩ C ′ → C ∩ D → D′ ∩ E ′ Ẽ −1 D̃C̃ −1 = 1
Light green D ∩ B ′ → B ∩ C → C ′ ∩ D′ D̃−1 C̃ B̃ −1 = 1
Blue green B ∩ E′ → E ∩ F → F ′ ∩ B′ B̃ −1 F̃ Ẽ −1 = 1
Black B ∩ F → F ′ ∩ C → C ′ ∩ B′ B̃ −1 C̃ F̃ = 1
Conclusion: The fundamental group of the homology sphere is the six generators with the ten relations in
the table.
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Let X be a path-connected space, and let A, B be two open and path-connected subsets such that X = A∪B
and A∩B is also path-connected. Let x0 be a base point in A∩B, consider two injection maps iA : A∩B → A
and iB : A∩B → B. The two injections introduce two inclusion maps: i∗A : A∩B ,→ A and i∗B : A∩B ,→ B.
The fundamental group of X: π1 (X, x0 ) ≃ π1 (A, x0 ) ∗π1 (A∩B,x0 ) π1 (B, x0 ). ∗ is the amalgamated product.
The proof of Van Kampen theorem is left as an exercise for readers.
T3 :
Presentation of π1 (A, x0 ), π1 (B, x0 ) and π1 (A ∩ B, x0 ).
split T3 into two open path-connected subsets A and B, such
that A∩B is a path-connected space. After deformation retraction,
A and B are shown in figure 2.8. A is homeomorphic to a thick-
ened 1-skeleton of the cube with identifications on the 1-skeletons
inherited from T3 . B is homeomorphic to three solid tubes go-
ing through the centre with gluing indicated by the colour. The
fundamental groups of both A and B is isomorphic to the free group of generator 3. Figure 2.8
Let x0 be a base point in A ∩ B. π1 (A, x0 ) = ⟨a, b, c⟩ and π1 (B, x0 ) = ⟨d, e, f ⟩.
It needs some imagination to see A ∩ B is a genus 3 surface. (See figure 2.9.)
Hence π1 (A ∩ B, x0 ) = ⟨X1 , X2 , X3 , Y1 , Y2 , Y3 | [X1 , Y1 ] · [X2 , Y2 ] · [X3 , Y3 ] = 1⟩. (Note
that [α, β] = αβα−1 β −1 is called a commutator of α and β.)
Presentation of inclusion maps iA∗ and iB∗
i∗A (A ∩ B) is exactly the 1-skeleton of A. i∗B (A ∩ B) is the surface of B, shown
in figure 2.10.
iA∗ (X1 ) = a, iA∗ (X2 ) = b, iA∗ (X3 ) = c, iB∗ (X1 ) = d, iB∗ (X2 ) = e, iB∗ (X3 ) = f
iA∗ (Y1 ) = [a, b], iA∗ (Y2 ) = [b, c], iA∗ (Y3 ) = [a, c], iB∗ (Y1,2,3 ) = trivial
Figure 2.9 π1 (T3 ) ≃ ⟨a, b, c, d, e, f | ad−1 = be−1 = cf −1 = [a, b] = [a, c] = [b, c] = 1⟩
≃ ⟨a, b, c | [a, b] = [a, c] = [b, c] = 1⟩
Poincaré homology sphere:
Apply the same splitting of the space as with T3 .
π1 (A, x0 ) is a group with 6 generators:
• Generators represented by 3 loops around three adjacent pen-
tagons looping back to the same point.
• Generators represented by 3 loops starting from the base point,
end at one of the other points in the same vertex equivalent class.
π1 (B, x0 ) = ⟨X1 , X2 , X3 , X4 , X5 , X6 ⟩
π1 (A ∩ B, x0 ) = ⟨Y1 , · · ·, Y6 , Z1 , · · ·, Z6 | [Y1 , Z1 ] · · · [Y6 , Z6 ] = 1⟩. Figure 2.10: Inclusion
Presentation of inclusion maps
i∗A (Zi ) = loops around pentagons.
i∗A (Yi ) = loops from one face to the opposite face. (The started point and the end point are in the same
equivalent class.)
i∗B (Zi ) = 0, i∗B (Yi ) = Xi (See figure 2.11a)
By naming the ten different classes of edges and carefully place their orientation as shown in the figure
2.11b, it’s fundamental group is ⟨hceab, b−1 i−1 c−1 g −1 d, d−1 e−1 ijh−1 , f −1 ib, f −1 ed, f −1 c−1 h−1 , X1 , · · ·, X6 |
hceab = b−1 i−1 c−1 g −1 d = d−1 e−1 ijh−1 = a−1 gh−1 f −1 i = f b−1 jg −1 e−1 = j −1 a−1 df −1 c−1 = 1, X1 =
f −1 ed, X2 = f −1 c−1 h−1 , X6 = f −1 ib, X3 = b−1 a−1 d, X4 = d−1 gh−1 , X5 = hj −1 b⟩.
This devises a general method to
• Find a Heegaard splitting of all the polyhrdron manifolds with faces pairwise identified.
• Find a representation of the fundamental group from the Heegaard splitting.
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(a) A ∩ B of dodecahedron (b) Indexed dodecahedron
Figure 2.11
The second homology group can be derived from the first homology group, to do that, we need the
concept of cohomology.
Definition 13. Cohomology:
Theorem 7. Poincaré duality
Fundamental group
Similarly as before, the fundamental group is the six generators from the
six classes of faces with 6 relations coming from the 6 classes of edges.
⟨A, B, C, D, E, F | BC −1 E −1 F A−1 = A−1 CD−1 F −1 B = B −1 D−1 E Figure 2.12: Seifert-Weber space
−1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1
A F = A EF C D = A DE B C = D B E C F = 1⟩
Homology groups
The first homology group is Z35 . Don’t know how to prove that yet.
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Platonic solids Rotation 3-cells 2-cells 1-cells 0-cells Euler-Characteristic Manifold
Tetrahedron N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
Cube 0 1 3 3 1 0 Yes
1/4 1 3 4 2 0 Yes
Octahedron 1/6 1 4 4 1 0 Yes
3/6 Projective space
Dodecahedron 1/10 1 6 10 5 0 Yes
3/10 1 6 6 1 0 Yes
5/10 Projective space
Icosahedron 1/6 1 10 6 1 -4 No
3/6 Projective space
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Chapter 3
Heegaard splitting
15
Bibliography
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[2] Tu,L.W.(2010) An introduction to manifolds. Second edition. New York: Springer Science+Business
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[3] Ghazouani, S. Algebraic Topology, Imperial College London, Lecture given: Jan-Mar 2022
[4] Maxim, L.G. (2017) ’Week 8: Regular Covers as Group Actions’. Math 751: Introductory Topology I.
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[5] Ethan, J.(2008) Fundamental groups and covering spaces. Available at:
http://www.math.uchicago.edu/ may/VIGRE/VIGRE2008/REUPapers/Jerzak.pdf (Accessed: 29
September 2022).
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