ME 401
MEASUREMENTS AND DATA EVALUATION
10/25/2020 Assist. Prof. Dr. Hamed Tanabi 1
Measurement Systems
After studying this chapter, the reader will be able to
• understand the effect of hysteresis in measuring instruments
• appreciate the importance of linearity
• explain some basic definitions in measurements
• appreciate the significance of system response
• elucidate the different functional elements of generalized measurement systems
10/25/2020 Assist. Prof. Dr. Hamed Tanabi 2
Hysteresis in Measurement Systems
• When the value of the measured quantity remains the same irrespective of
whether the measurements have been obtained in an ascending or a
descending order, a system is said to be free from hysteresis.
• Many instruments do not reproduce the same reading due to the presence of
hysteresis.
• Slack motion in bearings and gears, storage of strain energy in the system,
bearing friction, residual charge in electrical components, etc., are some of
the reasons for the occurrence of hysteresis.
10/25/2020 Assist. Prof. Dr. Hamed Tanabi 3
Hysteresis in Measurement Systems
• If the width of the hysteresis band
formed is appreciably more, the
average of the two measurements
(obtained in both ascending and
descending orders) is used.
• The presence of some hysteresis
in measuring systems is normal
10/25/2020 Assist. Prof. Dr. Hamed Tanabi 4
The principle of reversal
• A method that is used to take out repeatable measuring instrument errors
from the measurement.
10/25/2020 Assist. Prof. Dr. Hamed Tanabi 5
Linearity in Measurement Systems
• A measuring instrument/system is
said to be linear if it uniformly
responds to incremental changes, that
is, the output value is equal to the
input value of the measured property
over a specified range.
10/25/2020 Assist. Prof. Dr. Hamed Tanabi 6
Linearity in Measurement Systems
• Linearity is defined as the maximum
deviation of the output of the measuring
system from a specified straight line applied
to a plot of data points on a curve of
measured (output) values versus the
measurand (input) values.
• In order to obtain accurate measurement
readings, a high degree of linearity should
be maintained in the instrument or efforts
have to be made to minimize linearity errors.
10/25/2020 Assist. Prof. Dr. Hamed Tanabi 7
Linearity in Measurement Systems
• Before making any interpretation or comparison of the linearity
specifications of the measuring instrument, it is necessary to define the
exact nature of the reference straight line adopted, as several lines can be
used as the reference of linearity. The most common lines are as follows:
10/25/2020 Assist. Prof. Dr. Hamed Tanabi 8
Example
• Considering the given data, determine the gage factor for a 120 ohm
strain gage
Δ𝑹 Strain (%)
𝑹𝟎
1.05 0.5
2.08 1
2.95 1.5
3.90 2
10/25/2020 Assist. Prof. Dr. Hamed Tanabi 9
Resolution of Measuring Instruments
• Resolution is the smallest change in a physical property that an
instrument can sense. For example, a weighing machine in a gymnasium
normally senses weight variations in kilograms, whereas a weighing
machine in a jewellery shop can detect weight in milligrams. Naturally,
the weighing machine in the jewellery shop has a superior resolution than
the one at the gymnasium.
10/25/2020 Assist. Prof. Dr. Hamed Tanabi 10
Threshold
• If the input to the instrument is gradually increased from zero, a
minimum value of that input is required to detect the output. This
minimum value of the input is defined as the threshold of the instrument.
The numerical value of the input to cause a change in the output is called
the threshold value of the instrument.
10/25/2020 Assist. Prof. Dr. Hamed Tanabi 11
Drift
• Drift can be defined as the variation caused in the output of an instrument, which is
not caused by any change in the input. Drift in a measuring instrument is mainly
caused by internal temperature variations and lack of component stability. A change in
the zero output of a measuring instrument caused by a change in the ambient
temperature is known as thermal zero shift.
• Thermal sensitivity is defined as the change in the sensitivity of a measuring
instrument because of temperature variations. These errors can be minimized by
maintaining a constant ambient temperature during the course of a measurement
and/or by frequently calibrating the measuring instrument as the ambient temperature
changes.
10/25/2020 Assist. Prof. Dr. Hamed Tanabi 12
Drift
10/25/2020 Assist. Prof. Dr. Hamed Tanabi 13
Zero Stability
• It is defined as the ability of an instrument to return to the zero reading
after the input signal or measurand comes back to the zero value and
other variations due to temperature, pressure, vibrations, magnetic effect,
etc., have been eliminated.
10/25/2020 Assist. Prof. Dr. Hamed Tanabi 14
Loading Effects
• Any measuring instrument generally consists of different elements that
are used for sensing, conditioning, or transmitting purposes. Ideally,
when such elements are introduced into the measuring system, there
should not be any distortion in the original signal. However, in practice,
whenever any such element is introduced into the system, some amount
of distortion occurs in the original signal, making an ideal measurement
impossible. The distortion may result in wave form distortion, phase
shift, and attenuation of the signal (reduction in magnitude).
10/25/2020 Assist. Prof. Dr. Hamed Tanabi 15
System Response
• The behaviour of the measuring system under the varying conditions of input with
respect to time is known as the dynamic response.
• The following are the dynamic characteristics of a measurement system:
• Speed of response
• Measuring lag
• Dynamic error: defined as the difference between the true value of a physical quantity
under consideration that changes with time and the value indicated by the measuring
system if no static error is assumed.
• Fidelity: It is defined as the degree to which a measurement system indicates the
changes in the measured quantity without any dynamic error.
10/25/2020 Assist. Prof. Dr. Hamed Tanabi 16
FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF
MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS
10/25/2020 Assist. Prof. Dr. Hamed Tanabi 17
PRIMARY DETECTOR–TRANSDUCER STAGE
• The main function of the primary detector–transducer stage is to sense
the input signal and transform it into its analogous signal, which can be
easily measured. The input signal is a physical quantity such as pressure,
temperature, velocity, heat, or intensity of light.
• The device used for detecting the input signal is known as a transducer or
sensor.
10/25/2020 Assist. Prof. Dr. Hamed Tanabi 18
PRIMARY DETECTOR–TRANSDUCER STAGE
• The transducer converts the sensed input signal into a detectable signal,
which may be electrical, mechanical, optical, thermal, etc. The generated
signal is further modified in the second stage.
• The transducer should have the ability to detect only the input quantity to
be measured and exclude all other signals.
10/25/2020 Assist. Prof. Dr. Hamed Tanabi 19
INTERMEDIATE MODIFYING STAGE
• In the intermediate modifying stage of a measurement system, the
transduced signal is modified and amplified appropriately with the help
of conditioning and processing devices before passing
• In order to obtain an output that is analogous to the input, the
characteristics of the input signals should be transformed with true
fidelity.
10/25/2020 Assist. Prof. Dr. Hamed Tanabi 20
OUTPUT OR TERMINATING STAGE
• The output or terminating stage of a measurement system presents the
value of the output that is analogous to the input value. The output value
is provided by either indicating or recording for subsequent evaluations
by human beings or a controller, or a combination of both. The indication
may be provided by a scale and pointer, digital display, or cathode ray
oscilloscope.
10/25/2020 Assist. Prof. Dr. Hamed Tanabi 21
FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS
10/25/2020 Assist. Prof. Dr. Hamed Tanabi 22
A QUICK OVERVIEW
10/25/2020 Assist. Prof. Dr. Hamed Tanabi 23
