ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to take this opportunity to express my special gratitude to my IT skill Professor Dr. Vivek
Kumar as well as our head of department who gave me the wonderful opportunity to do this IT project on
the topic "Functioning of Computers".

The opportunity to complete this project has helped me improve my research skill and I am very
grateful to them.

I would also like to thank my family and my friends for their constant support and encouragement during
this project, which I could not have completed without their help.

Saloni Jha

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 Table of Content

1. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THIS PROJECT........................................................5

2. INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................5
3. USES OF COMPUTERS.............................................................................................6
4. HISTORY OF COMPUTING......................................................................................8
5. GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS............................................................................8
 First Generation - 1940-1956: Vacuum Tubes..............................................................8
 Second Generation - 1956-1963: Transistors ................................................................8
 Third Generation - 1963-1971: Integrated Circuits........................................................8
 Fourth Generation - 1972-2010: Microprocessors...........................................................8
 Fifth Generation – 2010 - Present and Beyond: Artificial Intelligence...........................8
6. SOFTWARE AND HARDWARE...................................................................................9
7. DIFFERENT PARTS OF A COMPUTER AND THEIR USES.....................................9
8. INPUT DEVICES............................................................................................................9
 The keyboard (Pressing) .................................................................................................9
 The Mouse (Clicking and Dragging) ...............................................................................10
 The Scanner.......................................................................................................................10
9. OUTPUT DEVICES..........................................................................................................11
 The Monitor ......................................................................................................................11
 The Printer.........................................................................................................................11
 The Speaker.....................................................................................................................12.
10. TYPES OF COMPUTERS...............................................................................................12
11. ANATOMY OF COMPUTER SYSTEM.......................................................................14
12. COMPUTER HARDWARE ...........................................................................................16
13. THE CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)..............................................................18.
14. INPUT DEVICES ............................................................................................................20
15. OUTPUT DEVICES……………………………………………………………………..21
16. STORAGE DEVICES…………………………………………………………………..21
17. SYSTEM MEMORY........................................................................................................22
18. HARDWARE CONNECTIONS .....................................................................................24
19. COMPUTER SOFTWARE..............................................................................................25
20. SYSTEM SOFTWARE....................................................................................................26
21. OPERATING SYSTEM...................................................................................................27
 The function of the OS.....................................................................................................28
 Classification of OS.........................................................................................................28
 The Difference between Windows &Macs......................................................................28
22. UTILITY SOFTWARE..................................................................................................29

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23. APPLICATION SOFTWARE.......................................................................................30

Table of Content

24. CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS ACCORDING TO SIZE……………………...31

25. COMPUTER VIRUSES AND SECURITY.....................................................................35
26. COMPUTER VIRUSES....................................................................................................35
27. COMPUTER SECURITY..................................................................................................36
28. BASIC COMPUTER MAINTENANCE ..........................................................................36
29. MAINTENANCE..............................................................................................................37
30. PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE....................................................................................37
31. CORRECTIVE MAINTENANCE ..................................................................................38
32. WORKING WITH DESKTOP .......................................................................................39
33. WORKING WITH WINDOWS.......................................................................................40
34. CATEGORIES OF MENUS..............................................................................................41
35. MAIN AND CONTEXT-SENSITIVE MENUS...............................................................41
36. USING THE SYSTEM (BOOTING/SHUTTING DOWN) .............................................42
37. INTRODUCTION TO THE INTERNET..........................................................................43
38. COMPUTER NETWORK (NETWORKING AND INTERNETWORKING) ................44
39. TYPES OF NETWORKS ..................................................................................................45
 Local Area Networks (LANS)............................................................................................45
 Wide Area Networks (WANS)...........................................................................................46
 Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs)..........................................................................46
 Intranet: A Secure Internet-Like Network for Organizations.............................................47
 Extranet: A Secure Means for Sharing Information with Partners.......................................48
40. HISTORY OF THE INTERNET..........................................................................................48
41. WHY THE INTERNET?......................................................................................................5l
42. PROTOCOLS (RULES OF NETWORKING) .....................................................................52
43. THE WORLD WIDE WEB..................................................................................................53
44. FILE SHARING AND TOPIC SEARCHING....................................................................54
45. BROWSERS........................................................................................................................55
46. WEB SITE/WEB PAGE......................................................................................................55
47. SEARCH ENGINES...........................................................................................................57
48. DOWNLOADING..............................................................................................................58
49. CHAT OR INTERNET TELECONFERENCE....................................................................58
50. TELNET...............................................................................................................................59
51. DISADVANTAGES OF USING COMPUTER……………………………………………60
52. TYPING/KEYBOARDING..................................................................................................61
53. USING HELP AND SUPPORT KEYBOARD SHORTCUTS..............................................62
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54. FILE PROCESSING...............................................................................................................63
55. SIMPLE DISK MANAGEMENT.........................................................................................64
56. DOCUMENTS.......................................................................................................................65
Table of Content
57. FILE MANAGEMENT.......................................................................................................65
58. CONCLUSION..................................................................................................................66
59. REFERENCE.....................................................................................................................67

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 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THIS PROJECT

The aims and objectives of this course include the following:

1. to understand fundamentally the general scope of the computer system.

2. to interact effectively with the computer.
3. to know the uses of the basic components of the computer.
4. to manage the system to some extent before involving an expert.
5. 5. to know some basic things about the computer and the world.

INTRODUCTION

In the modern era, computers are an essential part of our everyday existence. That means computers are present
in almost every field, making our day-to-day tasks easier and faster. Nowadays, computers can be seen in
banks, shops, schools, hospitals, railways, and many more places, including our home. As they are such an
essential part of our lives, we must know about the basic computer introduction.

The straightforward meaning of a computer is a machine that can calculate. However, modern computers are
not just a calculating device anymore. They can perform a variety of tasks. In simple terms, a computer is a
programmable electronic machine used to store, retrieve, and process data.

According to the definition, "A computer is a programmable electronic device that takes data, perform
instructed arithmetic and logical operations, and gives the output."

Whatever is given to the computer as input is called 'data', while the output received after processing is called
'information'.

A computer is an electronic device that can process and store information. It can perform calculations,
manipulate data, and execute instructions to accomplish specific tasks. The basic components of a computer
include the central processing unit (CPU), memory (RAM), storage (hard drive or solid-state drive), input
devices (keyboard, mouse, etc.), output devices (monitor, printer, etc.), and various peripheral devices (such as
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USB drives or external hard drives). It is a programmable device and it executes tasks by running the
instructions stored in its memory. These tasks are executed based on predefined algorithms that process an
output.
The computer is a device that makes our work easy. The computer is a device that helps us to complete our
tasks easily and speedily. Computers don’t have a brain like human beings. We have to give them instructions
on what to do when a particular situation arises. We have to tell them everything from what to expect for data
(what type of data), how to process it (how to perform calculations) to where to store the data. We humans
understand language that is composed of words which further is composed of letters. But the computers don’t
understand our language or the words like “hello, good morning, discipline, etc.”. They only understand binary
language whose vocabulary contains only two letters or states or symbols i.e. 0 and 1, True and False, On and
Off.

USES OF COMPUTERS
Computers are a necessary component of our daily lives in the current day. This means that computers are used
in practically every industry, which facilitates and expedites our daily tasks. Today, computers are used in
various locations, including our homes, banks, stores, schools, hospitals, and railways. We must be aware of the
fundamentals of computers because they are such an integral part of our daily life.

Purpose of Computers:

In Schools

 To improve the environment for learning.

 To plan and create a schedule.
 To keep receipts and fee bills.
 To prepare notices and circulars, and exam results.
 To create test materials.

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In Banks

Computers are used in banks to store customer account information. Banks use technology to make payments
more efficient and successful. Computers make it much easier for bankers to keep track of and verify financial
records.

Offices
They are used to calculate things that would take too long to do by hand. This includes financial, economic,
technical, mathematical, and other aspects.

Hospitals

 Keep medical and patient data.

 Track patients.
 Research and studies.
 Data storage must be kept safe and secure.
 Surgical techniques.
 Technology update.

Training
Most companies use computers to provide training to their employees. Computer-based training helps
companies save their time, money, and increase productivity. Also, computer-based training can be used to train
employees for large distances in various locations. This will eliminate travel time and costs, making the training
process much more comfortable and smoother.

Safety and Security

Computers are capable of working together with different equipment, tools, and technologies. When it comes to
safety, computers are widely being used with the security camera. Almost every private and government
organizations are equipped with security cameras to monitor people and goods. Also, these cameras are helping
security intelligence agencies to identify terrorists or criminals in public places. Computers attached with a
fingerprint scanner and face-recognition technology have made it harder for fraudsters to use fake identities and
take government benefits using someone else's identity. Security systems have become so powerful with the
introduction of computer technology and the Internet.

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 HISTORY OF COMPUTERS
The term 'Computer' was first introduced in 1640 and referred to as 'one who calculates'. It was derived from the
Latin word 'computare', which meant 'to calculate'. In 1897, it was known as the 'calculating machine'. Later in
1945, the term 'computer' was introduced as 'programmable digital electronic computer, which is now called a
'computer'.

When the computers were introduced, they were large and could fill an entire room. Some computers were
operated using large-sized vacuum tubes. In 1833, Charles Babbage (known as the father of the computer)
invented an early calculator, which was named as the 'difference engine'. Later in 1837, he introduced the first
mechanical, general-purpose computer 'Analytical Engine'. Over time, computers became powerful in
performance and small in size. Personal computers gained massive popularity following the boom of the
Internet and the World Wide Web in the 1990s. In today’s time, advanced technologies like Artificial
Intelligence, quantum computing, and cloud technology are integrated to create much more sophisticated
technologies.

GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS

Generation Time Period Evolved Hardware Key Changes

First Large computers using vacuum tubes. Limited
1946 - 1956 Vacuum tubes
Generation processing speed and storage.
Second Transistors replaced vacuum tubes, making
1956 - 1963 Transistors
Generation computers smaller, faster, and more reliable.
Third Integrated Circuits (ICs) made computers even
1963 - 1971 Integrated circuits
Generation smaller, faster, and more affordable.
Fourth 1972 - 2010 Microprocessors Microprocessors enabled personal computers.
Generation The internet and networking became widely
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 used.
AI, cloud computing, and IoT advanced
Fifth 2010 - Present & AI hardware, neural
computing. Quantum computing promises
Generation Beyond networks
much higher power.

SOFTWARE AND HARDWARE

Software is a collection of instructions, data, or computer programs that are used to run machines and carry out
particular activities. It is the antithesis of hardware, which refers to a computer’s external components. A
device’s running programs, scripts, and applications are collectively referred to as “software” in this context.

In a computer system, the software is basically a set of instructions or commands that tell a computer what to
do. In other words, the software is a computer program that provides a set of instructions to execute a user’s
commands and tell the computer what to do. For example, like MS-Word, MS-Excel, PowerPoint, etc.

Hardware is a collective term used to describe any of the physical components of an analog or digital computer.
The term hardware distinguishes the tangible aspects of a computing device from software, which consists of
written, machine-readable instructions or programs that tell physical components what to do and when to
execute the instructions.

Hardware can be categorized as being either internal or external components. Generally, internal hardware
components are those necessary for the proper functioning of the computer, while external hardware
components are attached to the computer to add or enhance functionality

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 .

DIFFERENT PARTS OF A COMPUTER AND THEIR USES

Input Devices
Keyboard, Mouse, Microphone (Mic), Camera, Joystick and scanner are some Input devices of a computer.
These devices are designed to take inputs from the users. These input devices are connected to the computer.

KEYBOARD
A computer keyboard is an input device used to enter characters and functions into the computer system by
pressing buttons, or keys. It is the primary device used to enter text. A keyboard typically contains keys for
individual letters, numbers and special characters, as well as keys for specific functions. A keyboard is
connected to a computer system using a cable or a wireless connection.

USES:
 To type your text or code.
 To quickly navigate around your web browser.
 To copy & paste text or webpages.
 To click on something and it to switch between browser tabs or windows.
 To reset the system (use your option, delete all information on the computer and start over).

MOUSE

A computer mouse is a small movable device similar to a mouse. When you move the mouse, you are able to
see an arrow (cursor) movement on the monitor display. A mouse is usually kept on the left side of the
keyboard.

USES:

 The mouse is used for pointing and clicking on icons. To interact with the computer, we need some
pointers. Using the mouse, we can use the pointer and click on icons.

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  Mouse is also used in gaming. For gaming special mouses called Gaming Mouses have been introduced
which comes with additional buttons that are used for controls.
 Mouse is also used for scrolling and navigating through the webpages.
 Mouse is an important part of editing. For dragging, selection of objects, blurring of backgrounds etc
mouse plays a pivotal role.

SCANNER:
A scanner is a device that converts physical documents, images, or objects into digital files that can be viewed,
edited, and stored on a computer.

Uses:
 Document scanning: Scanning documents such as invoices, contracts, and reports for office use
 Graphic design and photography: Digitizing photographs, drawings, and other visual content
 Architecture and engineering: Scanning technical drawings and blueprints
 Research: Capturing key pages from books for school, college, or professional projects
 Sharing photos: Sending copies of photos to friends and family via the internet
 Security: Using X-ray scanners or body scanners to detect prohibited items or potential threats in high-
security areas

OUTPUT DEVICES
Monitor screen, Printer, Speakers, Headphones, Projector are the output devices. These are also connected to
the computer with the help of a wire or a wireless connection. These devices show/give the required
information.
MONITOR
A monitor is an output device that displays visual information generated by a computer or other devices.
USES:

 Visual Output: Displays the graphical user interface (GUI) of the operating system, applications,
and files, allowing users to interact with the computer.

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  Multimedia: Enables viewing of videos, images, and animations, making it essential for
entertainment, design, and media production.
 Gaming: Provides an immersive experience for video games, with features like high refresh rates
and resolution enhancing gameplay.
 Productivity: Facilitates multitasking by allowing users to view and work on multiple applications
simultaneously, often using multiple monitors for increased efficiency.
 Data Analysis: Displays complex data visualizations, charts, and graphs, which are crucial for tasks
in fields like finance, science, and engineering.

PRINTER
A printer is a device that accepts text and graphics output from a computer, and it transfers this information to
paper, sheets. Printers can print any information that has been passed to it, whether it be Text, Numbers or
Images. It depends on the type of printer that what quality or color the printed matter would be.
USES:
 It is used to print text, pictures, etc.
 It is used to prepare projects of children by printing pictures.
 It is used to print copies of important papers
 It is used to print book like textbook, story books, comics, etc.
 It is used to print so documents for businesses.

SPEAKER

Speakers are standard output devices used with computer systems that enable the listener to listen to a sound as
an outcome.

USES:

 Audio output: It produce sound from audio files, such as music, voice-overs, and sound effects.
 User experience: it enhances the user experience by providing clear, high-quality sound output.
 Alerts and notifications: internal speakers provide auditory feedback, alerts, and notifications, such as
startup chimes, error beeps, and system notification sounds.

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 TYPES OF COPMUTER
There are three major categories based on which computers can be classified. These are:

1. Based on Types
2. Based on Purpose
3. Based on Size

Based on Types:

Analogue computer

An analog or analogue computer is a computer which processes analogue data. It processes and represents data
using continuous signals such as voltage, current, or physical dimensions. The analogue computers were used
during 1950s–1960s. Analogue data is not discrete; it is continuous. Pressure, temperature, voltage, speed, and
weight are examples of such data. Analogue computers are most widely used in aircraft, ships, submarines, and
daily appliances like refrigerator, speedometer, etc. Now a day, analogue computers have replaced by digital
computers. However, analogue computers are still in use where continuous data processing or simulation of
physical systems is required.

Digital Computer

The digital computers are the type of computers that uses discrete data to perform computations. The most
common type of computers used today is digital computers. Personal computers, smartphones, servers and
supercomputers are some of the examples of digital computers.

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Hybrid Computer

The hybrid computer is a type of computer that combines the functionalities of both digital and analogue
computers. The primary aim of hybrid computer’s design is to do highly intricate computations. A hybrid
computer has the capability to address the computational needs of large-scale organizations by effectively
solving logical and technical computations, and also provides efficient processing of differential equations.

Based on Purpose:

 General Purpose – Based on General Purpose, there are these following functions which a device is
expected to perform:
a. Basic Input/Output functions
b. Calculations
c. Data Saving on a smaller scale
d. General performing activities
These may include basic calculators, laptops, desktop computers, mobile phones, etc., which can help people
with their basic necessary functions are included in the General Purpose computer type.

 Special Purpose – When a computer is designed specifically to perform a certain function, such type of
computers is known as Special Purpose computer. These types may include:

1. Thermometers to test temperature

2. Generators to manage electricity
3. Devices used for analyzing Climate Change
4. Large computers for IT Companies
5. Machines used at Manufacturing Units and the list goes on and on
The special-purpose computers are important for various Organizations and their applications are made in a way
that makes the work easy and efficient.

Based on Size

 Micro Computers – A relatively inexpensive and small computer comprising a microprocessor and a
Central Processing Unit (CPU) is called a Microcomputer. Such computers are made with minimal
circuitry mounting over a single circuit board. Examples include Desktop, Laptop, etc.
 Mini Computer – Developed in the mid-1960s, Mini computers are comparatively smaller than
mainframe computers. They were developed keeping in consideration human interaction, control
instrumentation and were cost-effective. For example Smartphones, iPads, etc.
 Mainframe Computer – Computers used by large Organizations to manage bulk data are called
Mainframe computers. Main functions of such type include managing customer statistics, census and
other heavy data in a single device. For example, the system used at Trading companies.

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  Super Computer – Computers used at Organizations dealing with Weather forecasting, Quantum
Mechanics, Climate research, etc., where high level of performance has to be justified are called Super
Computers.

ANATOMY OF COMPUTER SYSTEM

1. Input Unit

2. Processing Unit

3. Output Unit

Input unit:

Keyboard: The keyboard has a whole lot of keys on it. These keys are also called buttons. The keyboard allows
to enter information into the computer. It is similar to a typewriter but has some different keys that perform
special functions

Mouse: A pointing device - allows to select and manipulate objects see on the monitor. It has two or more
buttons on it. By moving the body of the mouse in the desired direction, we can move the cursor(pointer) on the
screen
Game Pad: It is a hand-held input device. It is used to play games. Buttons on the game pad allow a player to
control direction, speed and other screen actions

Processing Unit

Main function of processing unit is to process input and convert it into output

➤ Central Processing Unit (CPU) chip

➤ Power supply (SMPS)

➤ One or more Disk Drives

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➤ Mother board

➤ Fan and Speaker

A CPU has got three components

 Control Unit: It controls everything that happens inside the computer. It also controls the operation of all
other parts of the computer
 Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU): ALU performs all the arithmetic calculations like addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division etc.
 Memory: A computer can remember everything that feed into it. It also remembers the instructions that
were stored into it.

Output unit

The most common means of output are the computer screen and the printer

Monitor: The computer screen is also called Visual Display Unit (VDU). It is commonly known as monitor. It
is an output unit capable of showing still or moving images generated by a computer.

Printer
A printer is a device that takes the images, text and pictures created on the computer and puts them onto the
paper.

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 COMPUTER HARDWARE
Computer hardware is a collective term used to describe any of the physical components of an analog or digital
computer. The term hardware distinguishes the tangible aspects of a computing device from software, which
consists of written, machine-readable instructions or programs that tell physical components what to do and
when to execute the instructions.

Computer hardware can be categorized as being either internal or external components. Generally, internal
hardware components are those necessary for the proper functioning of the computer, while external hardware
components are attached to the computer to add or enhance functionality.

What are internal computer hardware components?

Internal components collectively process or store the instructions delivered by the program or operating system
(OS). These include the following:

 Motherboard. This is a printed circuit board that holds the central processing unit (CPU) and other
essential internal hardware and functions as the central hub that all other hardware components run through.
 CPU. The CPU is the brain of the computer that processes and executes digital instructions from various
programs; its clock speed determines the computer's performance and efficiency in processing data.
 RAM. RAM -- or dynamic RAM -- is temporary memory storage that makes information immediately
accessible to programs; RAM is volatile memory, so stored data is cleared when the computer powers off.
 Hard drive. Hard disk drives are physical storage devices that store both permanent and temporary data in
different formats, including programs, OSes, device files, photos, etc.
 Solid-state drive (SSD). SSDs are solid-state storage devices based on NAND flash memory technology;
SSDs are non-volatile, so they can safely store data even when the computer is powered down.
 Optical drive. Optical drives typically reside in an on-device drive bay; they enable the computer to read
and interact with nonmagnetic external media, such as compact disc read-only memory or digital video
discs.

This computer hardware chart below illustrates what typical internal computer hardware components look like.

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What are external hardware components?
External hardware components, also called peripheral components, are those items that are often externally
connected to the computer to control either input or output functions. These hardware devices are designed to
either provide instructions to the software (input) or render results from its execution (output).

Common input hardware components include the following:

 Mouse. A mouse is a hand-held pointing device that moves a cursor around a computer screen and enables
interaction with objects on the screen. It may be wired or wireless.
 Keyboard. A keyboard is an input device featuring a standard QWERTY keyset that enables users to input
text, numbers or special characters.
 Microphone. A microphone is a device that translates sound waves into electrical signals and supports
computer-based audio communications.
 Camera. A camera captures visual images and streams them to the computer or through a computer to a
network device.
 Touchpad. A touchpad is an input device, external or built into a laptop, used to control the pointer on a
display screen. It is typically an alternative to an external mouse.
 USB flash drive. A USB flash drive is an external, removable storage device that uses flash memory and
interfaces with a computer through a USB port.
 Memory card. A memory card is a type of portable external storage media, such as a CompactFlash card,
used to store media or data files.

THE CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT(CPU)

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CPU [Central Processing Unit]. It is the brain of the computer. It is the part that does most of the work in a
computer system. Just like how our brain controls our body and processes information, the CPU carries out
instructions from programs and performs calculations. It’s made up of smaller components that work together to
execute tasks, making it the heart of any computing device.
All types of data processing operations from simple arithmetic to complex tasks and all the important functions
of a computer are performed by the CPU. It helps input and output devices to communicate with each other and
perform their respective operations. It also stores data which is input, intermediate results in between
processing, and instructions. The CPU’s job is to make sure everything runs smoothly and efficiently.
A Central Processing Unit is the most important component of a computer system. A CPU is hardware that
performs data input/output, processing, and storage functions for a computer system. A CPU can be installed
into a CPU socket. These sockets are generally located on the motherboard. CPU can perform various data
processing operations. CPU can store data, instructions, programs, and intermediate results.

Different Parts of CPU

Now, the CPU consists of 3 major units, which are:

 Memory or Storage Unit
 Control Unit
 ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

Let us now look at the block diagram of the computer:

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Memory or Storage Unit

As the name suggests this unit can store instructions, data, and intermediate results. The memory unit is
responsible for transferring information to other units of the computer when needed. It is also known as an
internal storage unit or the main memory or the primary storage or Random Access Memory (RAM) as all these
are storage devices.
Its size affects speed, power, and performance. There are two types of memory in the computer, which are
primary memory and secondary memory.

Control Unit

As the name suggests, a control unit controls the operations of all parts of the computer but it does not carry out
any data processing operations. Executing already stored instructions, It instructs the computer by using the
electrical signals to instruct the computer system. It takes instructions from the memory unit and then decodes
the instructions after that it executes those instructions. So, it controls the functioning of the computer. Its main
task is to maintain the flow of information across the processor.

ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) is responsible for performing arithmetic and logical functions or operations. It
consists of two subsections, which are:
 Arithmetic Section: By arithmetic operations, we mean operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division, and all these operations and functions are performed by ALU. Also, all the
complex operations are done by making repetitive use of the mentioned operations by ALU.
 Logic Section: By Logical operations, we mean operations or functions like selecting, comparing,
matching, and merging the data, and all these are performed by ALU.

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Note: The CPU may contain more than one ALU and it can be used for maintaining timers that help run the
computer system.

INPUT DEVICES

Input devices are the parts of the computer that we interact with daily and are used to input data to the
computers. An input device is a hardware device that transfers data to a computer system and allows us to
control it.
The electromagnetic devices that accept data or a set of instructions from the outside world and then translate
that data into machine-readable and understandable form are known as input devices. Computer input devices
serve as an interface between the outside world and the computer for proper communication. When the users
enter data using various input devices, the data can be saved in computer memory for further processing and
preparation. Using the output devices, the intended and calculated results can be acquired when the processing
and handling are completed. An input device transmits data to a computer and allows you to communicate with
it and control it.
List of Input Devices
Keyboard: The keyboard is the main input device of the computer that is used most often. The keyboard is used
to perform all typing tasks on the computer. The keyboard has many types of keys for proper function.
Mouse: The mouse is also the main input device. With which the pointer on the computer screen is controlled.
That is why it is also called a pointing device. Mouse is used to open, close, drag and drop files, icons on a
computer. The use of the mouse has increased a lot with the introduction of GUI (Graphic User Interface).

Scanner: A scanner is used to scan documents and enter them into the computer in digital form. The scanned
document can be saved as an image on the computer. You can also edit the document if you want.
Light pen: This is a positioning input device which is used to do graphic design, text messaging, etc. on a touch
screen computer. You can draw very easily with the Light pen. Its pen-like shape makes it very easy to use.
BCR (Barcode Reader): This is an input device that is used to read the code hidden in the lines of the barcode.
A barcode is a vertical (permanent) line of black color, in which a lot of information is hidden: product name,
product price, product price, batch number, company name, etc.

OUTPUT DEVICES
Output Device Definition: A piece of equipment/hardware which gives out the result of the entered input, once
it is processed (i.e. converts data from machine language to a human-understandable language), is called an
output device. For example, printer, monitor, etc.

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List of Output Device

Monitor: Every computer will have a monitor that displays the screen of the computer. It looks similar to the
television screen. The monitor is a basic example of output device.
Printer: A device that accepts text and graphic output from a computer and transfers the information to paper is
called a printer. We have both black and white printers and color printers. To make it more familiar, our
textbooks are printed using printers.
Speakers: Speaker is one of the most common output devices. They are used to hear an audio or video file from
a computer. Few computer systems have inbuilt speakers.

STORAGE DEVICES
The storage unit is a part of the computer system which is employed to store the information and instructions to
be processed. A storage device is an integral part of the computer hardware which stores information/data to
process the result of any computational work. Without a storage device, a computer would not be able to run or
even boot up. Or in other words, we can say that a storage device is hardware that is used for storing, porting, or
extracting data files. It can also store information/data both temporarily and permanently.
Types of Computer Memory
1. Primary Memory
2. Secondary Memory
3. Tertiary Memory

 Primary Memory: It is also known as internal memory and main memory. This is a section of the CPU
that holds program instructions, input data, and intermediate results. It is generally smaller in size. RAM
(Random Access Memory) and ROM (Read Only Memory) are examples of primary storage.
 Secondary Memory: Secondary storage is a memory that is stored external to the computer. It is
mainly used for the permanent and long-term storage of programs and data. Hard Disks, CDs, DVDs,
Pen/Flash drives, SSD, etc., are examples of secondary storage.
 Tertiary Memory: Tertiary Memory is a type of Memory that is rarely used in personal computers and
due to this, tertiary memory is not considered to be an important one. Tertiary memory works
automatically without human intervention.

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List of Computer Storage Devices

Magnetic Storage Devices

A magnetic field is created when the device is attached to the computer and with the help of the two magnetic
polarities, the device is able to read the binary language and store the information

Optical Storage Devices

Such devices used lasers and lights to detect and store data. They are cheaper in comparison to USB drives and
can store more data.

Flash Memory Devices

These storage devices have now replaced both magnetic and optical storage devices. They are easy to use,
portable and easily available and accessible. They have become a cheaper and more convenient option to store
data.

Online Cloud Storage

The term Cloud computing is used to describe the data centers available for users over the Internet where they
can save their databases and files. This data can easily be accessed over the internet anytime and anywhere.

SYSTEM MEMORY
System memory is the computer's internal memory, also known as random access memory (RAM), that stores
data and instructions for a program to use while it's running:

RAM is faster than other storage devices, but it has limited storage and is lost when the power is cut off. Adding
memory is a cost-effective way to improve a computer's performance.

Computer Memory System

Computer Memory and Its Types
There are two main types of computer memory:

 Primary Memory
 Secondary Memory
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Primary Memory
The Primary Memory is the internal memory of the computer, also known as Volatile Memory. However, it is
lost as soon as the power of the device is cut off. Some features of Primary Memory are:

 It is also known as Volatile Memory or the Main Memory.

 It is lost once the power is cut off.
 It provides the main working space for all the computer functions and processes.

Some subtypes of Primary Memory are:

 RAM
 ROM

RAM
It stands for Random Access Memory. It is the internal memory of the CPU which stores most of the data and
the instructions for the processing of the data. Since it is the internal memory, it can only be viewed but not
modified by the user. RAM is lost once the power is cut off, and it also has limited storage. It, however, is faster
than any other storage device.

ROM
It stands for Read Only Memory. It is responsible for storing data permanently, which cannot be changed or
modified. The data stored in ROM is not rewritable as suggested by the name; it can only be read. ROM is also
a Non-Volatile Memory, which is not lost once the power is cut off.

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Secondary Memory

The memory that cannot be directly processed by the CPU is: Secondary Memory.
Secondary Memory is the physical device used for storing data permanently. Some examples of Secondary
Memory are:

 Hard Disk
 Flash Drive
 Compact Disc
 Floppy Disc
 Digital Versatile Disk (DVD)

HARDWARE CONNECTION

25
A hardware connection refers to the physical link between two or more devices, such as computers, peripherals,
or networking equipment. This connection enables the devices to communicate with each other and exchange
data.

Types of Hardware Connections:

1. Wired Connections: Use physical cables to connect devices, such as:

- Ethernet cables (RJ-45)

- USB cables (Type-A, Type-B, etc.)

- HDMI cables

- VGA cables

2. Wireless Connections: Use radio waves or infrared signals to connect devices, such as:
- Wi-Fi (802.11a/b/g/n/ac)

- Bluetooth

- Infrared (IR)

3. Internal Connections: Connect components within a device, such as:

- Motherboard connections (CPU, RAM, etc.)

- Hard drive connections (SATA, IDE, etc.)

- Power supply connections

Hardware Connection Speeds:

1. Ethernet: Up to 10 Gbps (gigabits per second)

2. Wi-Fi: Up to 1.9 Gbps (802.11ax)

3. USB: Up to 20 Gbps (USB 3.2)

4. HDMI: Up to 48 Gbps (HDMI 2.1)

COMPUTER SOFTWARE

26
Computer software refers to the programs, operating systems, and applications that run on computer hardware.
It is the set of instructions that tells the computer what to do and how to do it.

Computer Software serves as the backbone of all digital devices and systems. It is an integral part of modern
technology. Unlike hardware which comprises physical components, software is intangible and exists as a code
written in programming language.

Types of Computer Software:

1. System Software: Operating systems, device drivers, and utilities that manage computer hardware and
provide a platform for running applications.

2. Application Software: Programs that perform specific tasks, such as word processing, spreadsheet analysis,
and web browsing.

3. Programming Software: Tools and languages used to create, test, and debug software, such as compilers,
interpreters, and integrated development environments (IDEs).

4. Utility Software: Programs that perform maintenance and management tasks, such as disk formatting, virus
scanning, and backup and recovery.

SYSTEM SOFTWARE
System software refers to the low-level software that manages and controls a computer’s hardware and provides
basic services to higher-level software. There are two main types of software: systems software and application
software. Systems software includes the programs that are dedicated to managing the computer itself, such as
the operating system, file management utilities, and disk operating system (or DOS).

SSystem software is software that provides a platform for other software. Some examples can be operating
systems, antivirus software, disk formatting software, computer language translators, etc. These are commonly
prepared by computer manufacturers. This software consists of programs written in low-level languages, used to
interact with the hardware at a very basic level.

Types of System Software

It has two subtypes which are:

1. Operating System: It is the main program of a computer system. When the computer system ON it is
the first software that loads into the computer’s memory. Basically, it manages all the resources such as
computer memory, CPU, printer, hard disk, etc., and provides an interface to the user, which helps the
user to interact with the computer system. It also provides various services to other computer software.
Examples of operating systems are Linux, Apple macOS, Microsoft Windows, etc.

27
 2. Language Processor: As we know that system software converts the human-readable language into a
machine language and vice versa. So, the conversion is done by the language processor. It converts
programs written in high-level programming languages like Java, C, C++, Python, etc(known as source
code), into sets of instructions that are easily readable by machines (known as object code or machine
code).
3. Device Driver: A device driver is a program or software that controls a device and helps that device to
perform its functions. Every device like a printer, mouse, modem, etc. needs a driver to connect with the
computer system eternally. So, when you connect a new device with your computer system, first you
need to install the driver of that device so that your operating system knows how to control or manage
that device.

OPERATING SYSTEM
An Operating System is a System software that manages all the resources of the computing device.
 Acts as an interface between the software and different parts of the computer or the computer hardware.
 Manages the overall resources and operations of the computer.
 Controls and monitors the execution of all other programs that reside in the computer, which also
includes application programs and other system software of the computer.
 Examples of Operating Systems are Windows, Linux, macOS, Android, iOS, etc.

Functions of the Operating System

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 Resource Management: The operating system manages and allocates memory, CPU time, and other
hardware resources among the various programs and processes running on the computer.
 Process Management: The operating system is responsible for starting, stopping, and managing
processes and programs. It also controls the scheduling of processes and allocates resources to them.
 Memory Management: The operating system manages the computer’s primary memory and provides
mechanisms for optimizing memory usage.
 Security: The operating system provides a secure environment for the user, applications, and data by
implementing security policies and mechanisms such as access controls and encryption.
Types of Operating Systems
 Batch Operating System: A Batch Operating System is a type of operating system that does not
interact with the computer directly. There is an operator who takes similar jobs having the same
requirements and groups them into batches.
 Time-sharing Operating System: Time-sharing Operating System is a type of operating system that
allows many users to share computer resources (maximum utilization of the resources).
 Distributed Operating System: Distributed Operating System is a type of operating system that
manages a group of different computers and makes appear to be a single computer. These operating
systems are designed to operate on a network of computers. They allow multiple users to access shared
resources and communicate with each other over the network. Examples include Microsoft Windows
Server and various distributions of Linux designed for servers.
 Network Operating System: Network Operating System is a type of operating system that runs on a
server and provides the capability to manage data, users, groups, security, applications, and other
networking functions.
 Multiprocessing Operating System: Multiprocessor Operating Systems are used in operating systems
to boost the performance of multiple CPUs within a single computer system. Multiple CPUs are linked
together so that a job can be divided and executed more quickly.
 Single-User Operating Systems: Single-User Operating Systems are designed to support a single user
at a time. Examples include Microsoft Windows for personal computers and Apple macOS.
 Multi-User Operating Systems: Multi-User Operating Systems are designed to support multiple users

simultaneously. Examples include Linux and Unix.

Difference between Windows and Mac

S.N WINDOWS MAC

o.

1 It was developed by Microsoft Apple Incorporation is the company that created

Incorporation. it and owns it.

29
 2 It was launched in 1985. It was launched in 2001.

3 It is friendly with PCs of all companies. It is specifically designed for Apple Mac
computers.

4 The current regular version is Windows The Current regular version is mac 12.0.1
11. (Monterey).

5 We can use it for personal computers, We can use it for personal computers,
tablets and embedded systems. workstations and other embedded systems.

6 Here, the kernel type is a Hybrid with Here also, the kernel type is Hybrid.
modules.

UTILITY SOFTWARE
Utility software is a type of software that is designed to help users manage, maintain, and optimize their
computer systems. Utility software includes a wide range of tools and applications that perform specific tasks to
improve the performance, security, and functionality of a computer system.

Utility Software is a type of software which is used to analyze and maintain a computer. This software is
focused on how OS works on that basis it performs tasks to enable the smooth functioning of the computer. This
software may come with OS like windows defender and disk cleanup tools. Antivirus, backup software, file
manager, and disk compression tool all are utility software.

Types of Utility Software

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Antivirus

A virus is a malicious software that enters the system along with a host program. Moreover, it multiplies with
time and makes several copies which in turn slows down and corrupts the system. An antivirus is a utility
software that helps to keep the computer virus-free. Moreover, it notifies when any malicious file is detected
and removes such files. In addition, it scans any new device attached to the computer and discards any virus if
there. Moreover, it also scans the system from time to time for any threats and disposes of them.

File Management System

This utility software is used to manage files of the computer system. Since files are an important part of the
system as all the data is stored in the files. Therefore, this utility software helps to browse, search, arrange, find
information, and quickly preview the files of the system.

Compression Tools

An important part of a computer is storage space, it is very important to maintain this storage. Therefore, we use
certain utility software to compress big files and decrease their size, these are compression tools.The format of
the files changes while compressing and we cannot access or edit them directly. In addition, we can easily
decompress the file and get the original file back.

Disk Management Tools

This utility software is used to manage data on disks. Moreover, they perform functions like partitioning
devices, manage drives, etc. This utility software helps to free up the disk space. In addition, the files which are
no longer in use are removed from the disk.

APPLICATION SOFTWARE

The term “application software” refers to software that performs specific functions for a user. When a user
interacts directly with a piece of software, it is called application software. The sole purpose of application
software is to assist the user in doing specified tasks. Microsoft Word and Excel, as well as popular web
browsers like Firefox and Google Chrome, are examples of application software. It also encompasses the
category of mobile apps, which includes apps like WhatsApp for communication and games like Candy Crush
Saga. There are also app versions of popular services, such as weather or transportation information, as well as
apps that allow users to connect with businesses. Global Positioning System (GPS), Graphics, multimedia,
presentation software, desktop publishing software, and so on are examples of such software.
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Functions of Application Software
Application software programs are created to help with a wide range of tasks. Here are a few examples:
 Information and data management
 Management of documents (document exchange systems)
 Development of visuals and video
 Emails, text messaging, audio, and video conferencing, and cooperation are all options.
 Management of accounting, finance, and payroll
 Management of resources (ERP and CRM systems)
 Management of a project
 Management of business processes
 Software for education (LMS and e-learning systems)
 Software for healthcare applications

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER ACCORDING TO SIZE

Computers according to Size:

 Supercomputer.
 Mainframe computer.
 Personal computer.
 Workstation.
 Minicomputer.

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 1. Supercomputers

The most efficient computers in terms of processing data and performance are supercomputers. These
computers are used for research and exploratory purposes. Supercomputers are exceedingly large and highly
expensive. It can only fit in large, air-conditioned spaces. Supercomputers are used for a range of tasks, such as
space exploration, seismic research, and the testing of nuclear weapons.

2. Mainframe Computers

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Despite being less efficient than supercomputers, mainframe computers are nevertheless extremely expensive.
Large corporations and governmental organizations frequently employ mainframe computers to run everyday
operations. They have the ability to store and analyze a lot of data. To maintain information on their customers,
students, and insurance policyholders, banks, colleges, and insurance companies utilize them. They may also act
as a server in a network environment. Hundreds of users may be managed simultaneously by them.

Mainframe Computer Features:

 They have enormous amounts of memory.

 They are capable of running several different operating systems.
 They have a significant number of CPUs with powerful processing speeds.
 Tightly Coupled Clustering Technology is employed.

3. Minicomputers

Minicomputers are used by small businesses and industries. They go by the term "Midrange Computers." These
minicomputers frequently have several users, just as mainframe computers. They are a bit slower than
mainframe computers. For example, the manufacturing department may employ minicomputers to keep an eye
on specific production processes.

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Features of Minicomputers:

 It is smaller than mainframes or supercomputers in terms of size.

 In comparison to a mainframe or supercomputer, it is less costly.
 It is able to perform many jobs at once.
 It may be utilized by several users simultaneously.
 It is utilized by small businesses.

4. Microcomputers

A microcomputer, sometimes referred to as a personal computer (PC), is a type of computer that runs on a
smaller scale than traditional computers (Personal Computer). A component that is commonly referred to as a
motherboard houses the central processing unit (CPU), a microprocessor, memory in the form of ROM (Read
35
Only Memory), RAM (Random Access Memory), I/O ports, and a bus system of connecting wires. They are the
most affordable.

Features of Microcomputers:

 They are extensively employed for personal usage.

 They are smaller and comparably less expensive.
 Multi-user functionality is not supported.
 It has a limited computational capacity.
 They are quite simple to use.

COMPUTER VIRUSES AND SECURITY

A computer virus is a type of harmful program. When it runs, it makes copies of itself and adds its code to other
programs and files on your computer. These viruses come in different types, and each type can affect your
device differently. Simply put, a computer virus changes how your computer works and aims to spread to other
computers. It does this by attaching itself to normal programs or documents that can run code, known as
macros.

Computer security refers to protecting and securing computers and their related data, networks, software,
hardware from unauthorized access, misuse, theft, information loss, and other security issues. The Internet has
made our lives easier and has provided us with lots of advantages but it has also put our system’s security at
risk of being infected by a virus, of being hacked, information theft, damage to the system, and much more.

COMPUTER VIRUS

A computer virus is a program which can harm our device and files and infect them for no further use. When a
virus program is executed, it replicates itself by modifying other computer programs and instead enters its own
coding. This code infects a file or program and if it spreads massively, it may ultimately result in crashing of the
device. Across the world, Computer viruses are a great issue of concern as they can cause billions of dollars’
worth harm to the economy each year.

What are the symptoms of a computer virus?

Your computer may be infected if you recognize any of these malware symptoms:

 Slow computer performance

 Erratic computer behavior

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  Unexplained data loss
 Frequent computer crashes

How does a computer get a virus?

Even if you’re careful, you can pick up computer viruses through normal Web activities like:

 Sharing music, files, or photos with other users

 Visiting an infected website
 Opening spam email or an email attachment
 Downloading free games, toolbars, media players and other system utilities
 Installing mainstream software applications without thoroughly reading license agreements.

COMPUTER SECURITY
Computer virus protection

When your arm yourself with information and resources, you’re wiser about computer security threats and less
vulnerable to threat tactics. Take these steps to safeguard your PC with the best computer virus protection:

 Use antivirus protection and a firewall

 Get antispyware software
 Always keep your antivirus protection and antispyware software up-to-date
 Update your operating system regularly
 Increase your browser security settings
 Avoid questionable Websites
 Only download software from sites you trust.
 Carefully evaluate free software and file-sharing applications before downloading them.
 Don't open messages from unknown senders
 Immediately delete messages you suspect to be spam
An unprotected computer is like an open door for computer viruses. Firewalls monitor Internet traffic in and out
of your computer and hide your PC from online scammers looking for easy targets. Products like Webroot
Internet Security Complete and Webroot Antivirus provide complete protection from the two most dangerous
threats on the Internet – spyware and computer viruses. They prevent viruses from entering your computer,
stand guard at every possible entrance of your computer and fend off any computer virus that tries to open, even
the most damaging and devious strains.
While free antivirus downloads are available, they just can't offer the computer virus help you need to keep up
with the continuous onslaught of new strains. Previously undetected forms of polymorphic malware can often
do the most damage, so it’s critical to have up-to-the-minute, guaranteed antivirus protection.

BASIC COMPUTER MAINTANANCE

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Regular maintenance is essential to keep your computer running smoothly, efficiently, and securely.

Why is Basic Computer Maintenance Important?

1. Improves Performance: Regular maintenance helps keep your computer running smoothly and efficiently.

2. Prevents Data Loss: Backing up your data and keeping your computer secure helps prevent data loss and
corruption.

3. Reduces Downtime: Regular maintenance helps prevent computer crashes and downtime.

4. Extends Computer Life: Proper maintenance can help extend the life of your computer and its components.

5. Saves Money: Regular maintenance can help prevent costly repairs and replacements.

MAINTANANCE

Cleaning your computer regularly can help extend its shelf life, saving you time and money on repairs and
replacements. Remember that computers are especially prone to dust and overheating, so these steps can help
reduce risk and keep your computer running optimally.

 Dust your keyboard using compressed air

 Wipe down your monitor
 Get rid of your mouse’s dust and particles
 Clean your system thoroughly
 Power down or reboot your device regularly
 Run antivirus and malware scans regularly
 Purge your system of junk files & programs
 Defragment the hard drive
 Keep your PC cool
 Update Windows OS and programs
 Backup your data

PREVENTIVE MAINTANANCE

Preventative maintenance refers to the maintenance required to keep equipment and hardware running.
Maintenance activities include performing diagnostics on circuit boards, changing boards, performing
diagnostics on memory, and BIOS and any other parts of the hardware.

Preventive Maintenance Tasks:

1. Inspections: Regular inspections of equipment, systems, and infrastructure to identify potential problems.

38
2. Lubrication: Regular lubrication of moving parts to reduce wear and tear.

3. Cleaning: Regular cleaning of equipment and systems to prevent dirt and debris buildup.

4. Filter Replacement: Regular replacement of filters to prevent contamination and maintain equipment
performance.

5. Software Updates: Regular updates of software and firmware to ensure compatibility and security.

Tools and Technologies for Preventive Maintenance:

1. Computerized Maintenance Management Systems (CMMS): Software systems for managing maintenance
tasks, scheduling, and inventory.

2. Predictive Analytics: Software and tools for analyzing data and predicting equipment failures.

3. Internet of Things (IoT) Devices: Devices and sensors for monitoring equipment and systems in real-time.

4. Mobile Devices: Mobile devices and apps for accessing maintenance information and performing tasks on-
the-go.

COORECTIVE MAINTANANCE

Corrective Maintenance (CM) is a reactive maintenance strategy employed to restore a system, machine, or
software to its optimal working condition after a failure or malfunction has occurred. Unlike preventive
maintenance, which aims to prevent issues before they happen, Corrective Maintenance focuses on
identifying, isolating, and repairing faults or defects once they are detected. This approach is crucial in ensuring
that operations resume quickly and efficiently, minimizing downtime and maintaining productivity.
There are several situations when such maintenance occurs:
 Whenever any problem is detected using condition monitoring.
 Whenever a potential fault is identified while routine inspection.
 Whenever an asset or equipment fails or breaks down.

39
When to use CM?
 It’s obvious that, at certain times, assets or equipment generally break down or gets failed. Maintenance
team usually perform maintenance task in order to repair or replace failed equipment.
 Main question that arises is when one should use CM over another maintenance strategy because there
are many maintenance strategies available nowadays.
 This decision of choosing CM mainly depends upon how fast equipment can be repaired if a problem
occurs, reliability of a particular asset, and the cost of downtime.
 Sometimes performing corrective maintenance can be more costly than other performing types of
maintenance.
 But it’s better for one to prevent equipment from failure by performing preventive maintenance rather
than performing corrective maintenance.

WORKING WITH DESTOP

The desktop is the primary interface for interacting with a computer, and it's where you'll spend most of your
time when using a computer. Here are some essential skills for working with a desktop:

 Desktop Navigation: Learn how to navigate the desktop, including how to move windows, resize them,
and minimize or maximize them.
 Icon Management: Understand how to create, delete, and manage icons on the desktop, including how to
change their appearance and behavior.
 Folder Organization: Learn how to create and manage folders on the desktop, including how to rename,
move, and delete them.
 File Management: Understand how to create, edit, and manage files on the desktop, including how to
save, open, and delete them.
 Shortcut Keys: Learn essential shortcut keys for working with the desktop, such as Ctrl+C, Ctrl+V, and
Ctrl+Z.
 Desktop Customization: Understand how to customize the desktop, including how to change the
wallpaper, theme, and layout.
 Taskbar Management: Learn how to manage the taskbar, including how to pin, unpin, and rearrange
icons.

40
  Notification Area: Understand how to manage the notification area, including how to customize
notifications and hide or show icons.
 Desktop Search: Learn how to use the desktop search function to find files, folders, and applications.
 Troubleshooting: Understand how to troubleshoot common desktop issues, such as frozen windows,
missing icons, and error messages.

Desktop Components:

 Taskbar:
 Start Menu:
 Desktop Icons
 System Tray
 Notification Area

WORKING WITH WINDOWS

 Windows is a popular operating system developed by Microsoft, and it's widely used in personal and
professional settings. Here are some essential skills for working with Windows:
 1. Windows Navigation: Learn how to navigate the Windows interface, including how to use the Start
menu, taskbar, and desktop.
 2. File Management: Understand how to create, edit, and manage files and folders in Windows,
including how to use the File Explorer.
 3. Application Management: Learn how to install, update, and manage applications in Windows,
including how to use the Windows Store.
 4. Settings and Configuration: Understand how to configure Windows settings, including how to change
the desktop background, theme, and display settings.
 5. Security and Maintenance: Learn how to keep Windows secure and up-to-date, including how to use
Windows Defender, Windows Update, and Disk Cleanup.
 6. Troubleshooting: Understand how to troubleshoot common Windows issues, including how to use the
Task Manager, Event Viewer, and System Restore.
 7. Networking and Connectivity: Learn how to connect to networks, including how to use Wi-Fi,
Ethernet, and VPNs.
 8. Hardware and Devices: Understand how to manage hardware and devices in Windows, including how
to use the Device Manager and install drivers.
 9. Windows Features: Learn about Windows features, including how to use Cortana, Windows Search,
and Windows Ink.
 10. Windows Updates: Understand how to keep Windows up-to-date, including how to use Windows
Update and install updates.

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 CATAGORIES OF MENUS

In computing, a menu is a list of options or commands that a user can select to perform a specific action or
access a particular feature. There are several types of menus, each with its own unique characteristics and uses.
Here are some common types of menus:

 Drop-Down Menu: A menu that appears when you click on a button or icon, and it drops down to reveal
a list of options.
 Pull-Down Menu: A menu that appears when you click on a button or icon, and it pulls down to reveal a
list of options.
 Pop-Up Menu: A menu that appears in a new window or dialog box, often used for context-sensitive
menus.
 Context Menu: A menu that appears when you right-click on an object or icon, providing options
specific to that object.
 Toolbar Menu: A menu that appears as a toolbar or ribbon, providing quick access to frequently used
commands.
 Tabbed Menu: A menu that uses tabs to organize options, often used in web browsers and other
applications.
 Hierarchical Menu: A menu that uses a tree-like structure to organize options, often used in file systems
and other applications.
 Cascading Menu: A menu that uses a series of menus to organize options, often used in complex
applications.
 Dialog Box Menu: A menu that appears in a dialog box, often used for settings or configuration options.
 Radial Menu: A menu that appears as a circular or radial pattern, often used in games and other
interactive applications.

MAIN AND CONTEXT-SENSITIVE MENUS

Main Menus:

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  Definition: A main menu is a primary menu that provides access to the main features and functions of
an application.
 Characteristics: Main menus are typically located at the top of the application window and are always
visible.
 Purpose: The main menu provides a way for users to access the main features and functions of the
application, such as file management, editing, and viewing options.
 Examples: Examples of main menus include the File menu, Edit menu, and View menu in a word
processing application.

Context-Sensitive Menus:

 Definition: A context-sensitive menu is a menu that appears in response to a specific action or event,
such as right-clicking on an object.
 Characteristics: Context-sensitive menus are typically hidden until a specific action or event occurs,
and they provide options that are relevant to the current context.
 Purpose: The context-sensitive menu provides a way for users to access options and functions that are
relevant to the current context, such as editing or formatting options.
 Examples: Examples of context-sensitive menus include the right-click menu in a web browser, the
context menu in a word processing application, and the shortcut menu in a file manager.

Key Differences:

 Visibility: Main menus are always visible, while context-sensitive menus are hidden until a specific
action or event occurs.
 Purpose: Main menus provide access to the main features and functions of an application, while context-
sensitive menus provide options that are relevant to the current context.
 Location: Main menus are typically located at the top of the application window, while context-sensitive
menus can appear anywhere on the screen.

USING THE SYSTEM (BOOTING/SHUTTING DOWN)

Booting
The process of starting a computer, either by turning it on or restarting it. The Basic Input/Output System (BIOS)
activates peripheral devices and loads the operating system into the main memory.
Booting the System:
 Power-On Self-Test (POST): The computer performs a series of tests to ensure that the hardware is
functioning properly.
 Loading the Operating System: The computer loads the operating system into memory, which includes
the kernel, device drivers, and system services.
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  Initializing Devices: The operating system initializes the devices, such as the keyboard, mouse, and
display.
 Loading Applications: The operating system loads the applications and services that are configured to
start automatically.
 Login: The user logs in to the system, which includes entering a username and password.

Shutting down
The process of removing power from a computer's main components in a controlled way. This makes the system
safe to turn off.

To shut down a computer, you can:

1. Click the Start button
2. Select Shut Down from the start menu
3. Click OK in the shutdown box
Shutting Down the System:

 Saving Work: The user saves any unsaved work and closes any open applications.
 Shutting Down Services: The operating system shuts down the services and applications that are running
in the background.
 Unloading Device Drivers: The operating system unloads the device drivers and releases any system
resources.
 Powering Down: The computer powers down, which includes shutting down the CPU, memory, and
other hardware components.

INTRODUCTION TO INTERNET

Internet is a global network that connects billions of computers across the world with each other and to the
World Wide Web. It uses standard internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to connect billions of computer users
worldwide. It is set up by using cables such as optical fibers and other wireless and networking technologies. At
present, internet is the fastest mean of sending or exchanging information and data between computers across
the world.
It is believed that the internet was developed by "Defense Advanced Projects Agency" (DARPA) department of
the United States. And, it was first connected in 1969.

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How internet works?

COMPUTER NETWORKS (NETWORKING AND INTERNETWORKING)

A computer network is a collection of interconnected devices that can communicate with each other to share
resources, exchange data, and provide services. Networking and internetworking are two fundamental concepts
in computer networks.

Networking:

 Definition: Networking refers to the process of connecting devices within a network to enable
communication and resource sharing.
 Types of Networks: There are several types of networks, including:
1. Local Area Network (LAN): A LAN connects devices within a limited geographical area, such as a
home, office building, or campus.
2. Wide Area Network (WAN): A WAN connects devices over a larger geographical area, such as a city,
country, or continent.
3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): A MAN connects devices within a metropolitan area, such as a city
or town.
4. Wireless Network (WLAN): A WLAN connects devices wirelessly, using radio waves or infrared
signals.
 Network Topologies: Network topologies refer to the physical or logical arrangement of devices within
a network, including:
1. Bus Topology: A bus topology connects devices in a linear sequence, with each device connected to a
central backbone.
2. Star Topology: A star topology connects devices to a central hub or switch, with each device connected
to the hub.
3. Ring Topology: A ring topology connects devices in a circular configuration, with each device
connected to its two neighbors.
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 4. Mesh Topology: A mesh topology connects each device to every other device, with multiple paths for
data transmission.

Internetworking:
 Definition: Internetworking refers to the process of connecting multiple networks together to enable
communication and resource sharing between them.
 Internet: The internet is a global network of interconnected computers and servers, using standardized
protocols such as TCP/IP to communicate.
 Internetworking Devices: Internetworking devices, such as routers, switches, and gateways, connect
multiple networks together and enable data transmission between them.
 Protocols: Internetworking protocols, such as HTTP, FTP, and SMTP, enable data communication and
resource sharing between networks.
 Types:

 Extranet
It’s a network of the internetwork with a confined scope to one organization or institution but with limited links
to one or more other networks on occasion

 Internet
Internet is a specific internetworking that connects governmental, academic, public, and private networks on a
global scale.

 Intranet
This computer network can be a collection of interconnected networks that employ the Internet Protocol and IP-
based software like web browsers as well as FTP tools, all of which are controlled by a single body entity.

TYPES OF NETWORKS
Local Area Network
The full form of LAN is Local-area Network. It is a computer network that covers a small area such as a
building or campus up to a few kilometers in size. LANs are commonly used to connect personal computers and
workstations in company offices to share common resources, like printers, and exchange information. If we
connect LAN in a real-life example then the family is the best example each family member is connected to
each other in the same way each device is connected to the network.

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 Local Area Network

Wide Area Network

WAN stands for Wide Area Network. It is a computer network that covers a large geographical area consisting
of two or more LANs or MANs. These networks are established with leased telecommunication circuits, in
which two sides which are connected have routers that connect the LAN of both sides together in a network to
facilitate communication.

WAN Full Form

Wireless Local Area Network.

WLAN stands for Wireless Local Area Network. WLAN is a local area network that uses radio communication
to provide mobility to the network users while maintaining the connectivity to the wired network. A WLAN
basically, extends a wired local area network. WLANs are built by attaching a device called the access point
(AP) to the edge of the wired network. Clients communicate with the AP using a wireless network adapter
which is similar in function to an ethernet adapter. It is also called a LAWN is a Local area wireless network.
The performance of WLAN is high compared to other wireless networks. The coverage of WLAN is within a
campus or building or that tech park. It is used in the mobile propagation of wired networks. The standards of
WLAN are HiperLAN, Wi-Fi, and IEEE 802.11. It offers service to the desktop laptop, mobile application, and
all the devices that work on the Internet. WLAN is an affordable method and can be set up in 24 hours. WLAN
gives users the mobility to move around within a local coverage area and still be connected to the network.

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 WLAN Architecture

Intranet
An intranet is a kind of private network. For example, an intranet is used by different organizations and only
members/staff of that organization have access to this. It is a system in which multiple computers of an
organization (or the computers you want to connect) are connected through an intranet. As this is a private
network, so no one from the outside world can access this network. So many organizations and companies have
their intranet network and only its members and staff have access to this network. This is also used to protect
your data and provide data security to a particular organization, as it is a private network and does not leak data
to the outside world.
Working of Intranet

An intranet is a network confined to a company, school, or organization that works like the Internet. Let us
understand more about the working of the intranet with the help of a diagram, as shown below:

Here in this diagram, a company or an organization has created its private network or intranet for its work
(intranet network is under the circle). The company or organization has many employees (in this diagram, we
have considered 3). So, for their access, they have PC 1, PC 2, and PC 3(In the real world there are many
employees as per the requirements of an organization). Also, they have their server for files or data to store, and
to protect this private network, there is a Firewall. This firewall protects and gives security to the intranet server
and its data from getting leaked to any unwanted user. So, a user who has access to the intranet can only access

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this network. So, no one from the outside world can access this network. Also, an intranet user can access the
internet but a person using the internet cannot access the intranet network.

Extranet

An extranet is an organization’s private network and its available only for selected users. It’s a way to connect
to third parties like vendors, customers, and partners in a secure and controlled way. The users typically have a
login mechanism such as username and password to access the network. Extranet in simple terms provides a
secure network for an organization to share information with relevant people outside the organization. It is part
of an organization’s intranet divided via a firewall.

HISTORY OF INTERNET
The internet as we know it today is a vast, interconnected network that has transformed how we communicate,
work, learn, and interact. But it wasn’t always this way. The origin of the internet dates back to the 1950s when
the world was grappling with the Cold War, and researchers sought to create a communication system that
could withstand disruptions. From its humble beginnings as a military project to the global web it is now, the
history of the internet is a tale of human ingenuity, collaboration, and the relentless pursuit of connectivity and a
fascinating journey of innovation, collaboration, and rapid technological advancement.

The Internet was developed by Bob Kahn and Vint Cerf in the 1970s.

1960 This is the year in which the internet started to share information s a way for government
researchers. And, the first known MODEM and dataphone were introduced by AT&T.

1961 On May 31, 1961, Leonard Kleinrock released his first paper, "Information Flow in Large
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 Communication Nets."
1962 A paper talking about packetization was released by Leonard Kleinrock. Also, this year, a
suggestion was given by Paul Baran for the transmission of data with the help of using
fixed-size message blocks.
1964 Baran produced a study on distributed communications in 1964. In the same year, Leonard
Kleinrock released Communication Nets Stochastic Message Flow and Design, the first
book on packet nets.

1965 The first long-distance dial-up link was established between a TX-2 computer and a Q-32 at
SDC in California by Lawrence G. Roberts of MIT and Tom Marill of SDC in California
with a Q-32. Also, the word "Packet" was coined by Donald in this year.

1966 After getting success at connecting over dial-up, a paper about this was published by Tom
Marill and Lawrence G. Roberts.
In the same year, Robert Taylor brought Larry Roberts and joined ARPA to develop
ARPANET.

1967 In 1967, 1-node NPL packet net was created by Donald Davies. For packet switch, the use
of a minicomputer was suggested by Wes Clark.

1968 On 9 December 1968, Hypertext was publicly demonstrated by Doug Engelbart. The first
meeting regarding NWG (Network Working Group) was also held this year, and on June 3,
1968, the ARPANET program plan was published by Larry Roberts.
1969 On 1 April 1969, talking about the IMP software and introducing the Host-to-Host, RFC #1
was released by Steve Crocker. On 3 July 1969, a press was released for announcing the
public to the Internet by UCLA. On August 29, 1969, UCLA received the first network
equipment and the first network switch. CompuServe, the first commercial internet service,
was founded the same year.
1970 This is the year in which NCP was released by the UCLA team and Steve Crocker.
1971 In 1971, Ray Tomlinson sent the first e-mail via a network to other users.
1972 In 1972, the ARPANET was initially demonstrated to the general public.
1973 TCP was created by Vinton Cerf in 1973, and it was released in December 1974 with the
help of Yogen Dalal and Carl Sunshine. ARPA also launched the first international link,
SATNET, this year. And, the Ethernet was created by Robert Metcalfe at the Xerox Palo
Alto Research Center.
1974 In 1974, the Telenet, a commercial version of ARPANET, was introduced. Many consider it
to be the first Internet service provider.
1978 In 1978, to support real-time traffic, TCP split into TCP/IP, which was driven by John
Shoch, David Reed, and Danny Cohen. Later on, on 1 January 1983, the creation of TCP/IP
was standardized into ARPANET and helped create UDP. Also, in the same year, the first
worm was developed by Jon Hupp and John Shoch at Xerox PARC.
1981 BITNET was established in 1981. It is a time network that was formerly a network of IBM
mainframe computers in the United States.
1983 In 1983, the TCP/IP was standardized by ARPANET, and the IAB, short for Internet
Activities Board was also founded in the same year.
1984 The DNS was introduced by Jon Postel and Paul Mockapetris.

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1986 The first Listserv was developed by Eric Thomas, and NSFNET was also created in 1986.
Additionally, BITNET II was created in the same year 1986.
1988 The First T1 backbone was included in ARPANET, and CSNET and CSNET merged to
create CREN.
1989 A proposal for a distributed system was submitted by Tim Berners-Lee at CERN on 12
March 1989 that would later become the WWW.
1990 This year, NSFNET replaced the ARPANET. On 10 September 1990, Mike Parker, Bill
Heelan, and Alan Emtage released the first search engine Archie at McGill University in
Montreal, Canada.
1991 Tim Berners-Lee introduced the WWW (World Wide Web) on August 6, 1991. On August
6, 1991, he also unveiled the first web page and website to the general public. Also, this
year, the internet started to be available to the public by NSF. Outside of Europe, the first
web server came on 1 December 1991.
1992 The main revolution came in the field of the internet that the internet Society was formed,
and NSFNET upgraded to a T3 backbone.
1993 CERN submitted the Web source code to the public domain on April 30, 1993. This caused
the Web to experience massive growth. Also, this year, the United Nations and the White
House came, which helped to begin top-level domains, such as .gov and .org. On 22 April
1993, the first widely-used graphical World Wide Web browser, Mosaic, was released by
the NCSA with the help of Eric Bina and Marc Andreessen.
1994 On April 4, 1994, James H. Clark and Marc Andreessen found the Mosaic Communications
Corporation, Netscape. On 13 October 1994, the first Netscape browser, Mosaic Netscape
0.9, was released, which also introduced the Internet to cookies. On 7 November 1994, a
radio station, WXYC, announced broadcasting on the Internet, and it became the first
traditional radio station for this. Also, in the same year, the W3C was established by Tim
Berners-Lee.
1995 In February 1995, Netscape introduced the SSL (Secure sockets layer), and the dot-com
boom began. Also, the Opera web browser was introduced to browsing web pages on 1
April 1995, and to make voice calls over the Internet, the VocalTec, the first VoIP software,
was introduced.
Later, the Internet Explorer web browser was introduced by Microsoft on 16 August 1995.
In RFC 1866, the next version of HTML 2.0 was released on 24 November 1995.
In 1995, JavaScript, originally known as Live Script, was created by Brendan Eich. At that
time, he was an employee at Netscape Communications Corporation. Later Live Script was
renamed to JavaScript with Netscape 2.0B3 on December 4, 1995. In the same year, they
also introduced Java.
1996 This year, Telecom Act took a big Decision and deregulated data networks. Also,
Macromedia Flash that is now known as Adobe Flash was released in 1996.
In December 1996, the W3C published CSS 1, the first CSS specification. As compared to
postal mail, more e-mail was sent in the USA. This is the year in which the network has
ceased to exist as CREN ended its support.
1997 In 1997, the 802.11 (Wi-Fi) standard was introduced by IEEE, and the internet2 consortium
was also established.
1998 The first Internet weblogs arose in this year, and on February 10, 1998, XML became a
W3C recommendation.
1999 In September 1999, Napster began sharing files, and Marc Ostrofsky, the business.com, the
most expensive Internet domain name for $7.5 million on 1 December 1999. Later on, on 26
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 July 2007, this domain was sold for $345 million to R.H. Donnelley.
2000 The craze of dot-com began to decrease.
2003 The members of CERN took the decision to dissolve the organization on 7 January 2003.
Also, this year, the Safari web browser came into the market on 30 June 2003.
2004 The Mozilla Firefox web browser was released by Mozilla on 9 November 2004.
2008 On 1 March 2008, the support b AOL for the Netscape Internet browser was ended. Then,
the Google Chrome web browser was introduced by Google on 11 December 2008, and
gradually it became a popular web browser.
2009 A person using the fictitious name Satoshi Nakamoto published the internet money Bitcoin
on 3 January 2009.
2014 On 28 October 2014, W3C recommended and released the HTML5 programming language
to the public.

Year Event

WHY THE INTERNET?

The internet has revolutionized the way we live, work, and communicate. It has become an essential part of our
daily lives, and its impact is felt in almost every aspect of modern society. Here are some reasons why the
internet is so important:

 1. Global Connectivity: The internet connects people and devices from all over the world, enabling
global communication, collaboration, and information sharing.
 2. Access to Information: The internet provides unparalleled access to information, education, and
knowledge, making it an invaluable resource for learning, research, and personal growth.
 3. E-commerce and Online Shopping: The internet has enabled online shopping, making it possible to
purchase products and services from anywhere in the world, at any time.

52
  4. Communication and social media: The internet has given rise to social media, email, and instant
messaging, making it easier to stay connected with friends, family, and colleagues.
 5. Entertainment and Leisure: The internet offers a vast array of entertainment options, including
streaming services, online games, and video sharing platforms.
 6. Education and Learning: The internet has transformed the way we learn, with online courses,
tutorials, and educational resources available at our fingertips.
 7. Business and Commerce: The internet has enabled businesses to reach a global audience, facilitating
international trade, commerce, and economic growth.
 8. Healthcare and Medicine: The internet has improved healthcare outcomes by providing access to
medical information, telemedicine, and online health services.
 9. Government and Civic Engagement: The internet has enabled citizens to engage with their
governments, access public services, and participate in democratic processes.
 10. Innovation and Economic Growth: The internet has driven innovation, entrepreneurship, and
economic growth, creating new industries, jobs, and opportunities.

PROTOCOLS (RULES OF NETWORKING)

A network protocol is a set of rules that govern data communication between different devices in the network. It
determines what is being communicated, how it is being communicated, and when it is being communicated. It
permits connected devices to communicate with each other, irrespective of internal and structural differences.
The protocols can be broadly classified into three major categories:
 Network Communication
 Network Management
 Network Security

1. Network Communication
Communication protocols are really important for the functioning of a network. They are so crucial that it is not
possible to have computer networks without them. These protocols formally set out the rules and formats
through which data is transferred. These protocols handle syntax, semantics, error detection, synchronization,
and authentication.
2. Network Management
These protocols assist in describing the procedures and policies that are used in monitoring, maintaining, and
managing the computer network. These protocols also help in communicating these requirements across the
network to ensure stable communication. Network management protocols can also be used for troubleshooting
connections between a host and a client.
3. Network Security
These protocols secure the data in passage over a network. These protocols also determine how the network
secures data from any unauthorized attempts to extract or review data. These protocols make sure that no

53
unauthorized devices, users, or services can access the network data. Primarily, these protocols depend on
encryption to secure data.

WORLD WIDE WEB

WWW stands for World Wide Web and is commonly known as the Web. The WWW was started by CERN in
1989. WWW is defined as the collection of different websites around the world, containing different
information shared via local servers (or computers).
Web pages are linked together using hyperlinks which are HTML-formatted and, also referred to as hypertext,
these are the fundamental units of the Internet and are accessed through Hypertext Transfer Protocol(HTTP).
Such digital connections, or links, allow users to easily access desired information by connecting relevant
pieces of information. The benefit of hypertext is it allows you to pick a word or phrase from the text and click
on other sites that have more information about it.
Features of WWW
 WWW is open source.
 It is a distributed system spread across various websites.
 It is a Hypertext Information System.
 It is Cross-Platform.
Working of WWW
A Web browser is used to access web pages. Web browsers can be defined as programs which display text,
data, pictures, animation and video on the Internet. Hyperlinked resources on the World Wide Web can be
accessed using software interfaces provided by Web browsers. Initially, Web browsers were used only for
surfing the Web but now they have become more universal.
The below diagram indicates how the Web operates just like client-server architecture of the internet. When
users request web pages or other information, then the web browser of your system request to the server for the
information and then the web server provide requested services to web browser back and finally the requested
service is utilized by the user who made the request.

World Wide Web

54
Web browsers can be used for several tasks including conducting searches, mailing, transferring files, and much
more. Some of the commonly used browsers are Internet Explorer, Opera Mini, and Google Chrome.

FILES SHARING AND TOPIC SEARCHING

File Sharing:
 Definition: File sharing refers to the process of sharing files between users over the internet.
 Types of File Sharing: There are several types of file sharing, including:
 Peer-to-Peer (P2P) File Sharing: P2P file sharing involves sharing files directly between users, without
the need for a central server.
 Cloud-Based File Sharing: Cloud-based file sharing involves storing files in a cloud storage service,
such as Google Drive or Dropbox, and sharing them with others.
 File Transfer Protocol (FTP) File Sharing: FTP file sharing involves using a protocol to transfer files
between users over the internet.
 Benefits of File Sharing: File sharing has several benefits, including:
 Collaboration: File sharing enables users to collaborate on projects and share files with others.
 Convenience: File sharing makes it easy to access and share files from anywhere, at any time.
 Cost-Effective: File sharing can be a cost-effective way to share files, as it eliminates the need for
physical storage devices.

Topic Searching:
 Definition: Topic searching refers to the process of searching for information on a specific topic or
subject.
 Types of Topic Searching: There are several types of topic searching, including:
 Keyword Searching: Keyword searching involves searching for information using specific keywords or
phrases.
 Boolean Searching: Boolean searching involves using Boolean operators, such as AND, OR, and NOT,
to refine search results.
 Natural Language Searching: Natural language searching involves searching for information using
natural language queries, such as questions or phrases.
3. Benefits of Topic Searching: Topic searching has several benefits, including:
 Access to Information: Topic searching enables users to access a vast amount of information on a
specific topic or subject.
 Time-Saving: Topic searching can save time, as it enables users to quickly find relevant information.
 Improved Research: Topic searching can improve research, as it enables users to find credible sources
and information.

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 BROWSERS
A software application used to access information on the World Wide Web is called a Web Browser. When a
user requests some information, the web browser fetches the data from a web server and then displays the
webpage on the user’s screen.

Functions of Web Browser

 The main function is to retrieve information from the World Wide Web and making it available for users
 Visiting any website can be done using a web browser. When a URL is entered in a browser, the web
server takes us to that website
 To run Java applets and flash content, plugins are available on the web browser
 It makes Internet surfing easy as once we reach a website, we can easily check the hyperlinks and get
more and more useful data online
 Browsers user internal cache which gets stored and the user can open the same webpage time and again
without losing extra data
 Multiple webpages can be opened at the same time on a web browser
 Options like back, forward, reload, stop reload, home, etc. are available on these web browsers, which

make using them easy and convenient

Types of Web Browser

 WorldWideWeb
 Netscape Navigator
 Internet Explorer
 Firefox
 Google Chrome

WEBSITE/WEBPAGE

Website: Website, as the name suggests, is a central location that includes multiple web pages that are
maintained by a person or organization and is accessible to anyone, anywhere at any time using the internet. It
is the best way to market a business online and increase the growth of the business.
Webpage: Webpage, as the name suggests, is a document or a single page of the website displayed in a web
browser and makeup the WWW (World Wide Web) and is mainly used to sell products and services to users or
visitors.

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Website vs Webpage
Website Webpage

It is part of website that includes

Website is a collection of webpages displayed on the web with
information and content and is displayed
a client-like browser.
on the browser to user or visitor.

It contains more than one web webpages that contain It is a single document display on the
information. browser.

Information is usually written in HTML

It is a combination of webpages created using HTML and CSS.
language.

It is a place used to display content. It is content displayed on the website.

It requires more time to develop the website as compared to It requires less time to develop a
webpages. webpage as compared to the website.

It includes content or information about a

It includes content about several entities.
single entity.

It can be accessed using HTTP, DNS (Domain Name System)

It can be accessed through web browser.
Protocols.

There is no such extension included in the URL of a website. URL of webpage include extension.

It is quite easy and simple to develop

It is quite hard and complex to create the structure of the
webpage after website structure is being
website and its programming.
created.

It might include text, graphics,

It includes webpages, related content, and hyperlinks.
hyperlinks, etc.

They are used to establish credibility as business and also to

They are used to provide information
increase the positive impression about the company or business
with related pictures, videos to users.
that in turn increase user experience.

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 SEARCH ENGINE

Search engines are programs that allow users to search and retrieve information from the vast amount of content
available on the internet. They use algorithms to index and rank web pages based on relevance to a user’s query,
providing a list of results for users to explore. Popular search engines include Google, Bing, and Yahoo.
For example: a student wants to learn C++ language so he searches the “C++ tutorial GeeksforGeeks” in the
search engine. So, the student gets a list of links that contain the tutorial links of GeeksforGeeks or we can say
that a search engine is an internet-based software program whose main task is to collect a large amount of data
or information about what is on the internet, then categorize the data or information and then help user to find
the required information from the categorized information. Google, Yahoo, and Bing are the most popular
Search Engines.
How Search Engines Work:

 Crawling: Search engines use software programs called "crawlers" or "spiders" to continuously scan and
index the internet for new and updated content.
 Indexing: The crawled content is then indexed, which means that it is organized and stored in a massive
database called an index.
 Query Processing: When a user enters a query or keyword, the search engine's algorithm analyzes the
query and matches it with the indexed content.
 Ranking: The search engine's algorithm then ranks the matched content in order of relevance, using
various factors such as keyword frequency, link equity, and user experience.
 Retrieval: The ranked content is then retrieved from the index and displayed to the user in the form of a
search engine results page (SERP).

How Search Engine Works

Search Engine Optimization (SEO):

 Keyword Research: SEO involves researching and selecting relevant keywords to optimize a website's
content.
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  On-Page Optimization: SEO involves optimizing a website's on-page elements, such as title tags, meta
descriptions, and header tags.
 Link Building: SEO involves building high-quality backlinks to a website to increase its authority and
ranking.
 Content Creation: SEO involves creating high-quality, engaging, and informative content to attract and
retain users.

DOWNLOADING

Downloading refers to the process of transferring data, such as files, programs, or media, from a remote server
or website to a local device, such as a computer, smartphone, or tablet. Downloading allows users to access and
use digital content, such as music, videos, software, and documents, on their devices.

Types of Downloading:

1. File Downloading: File downloading involves transferring files, such as documents, images, and videos, from
a website or server to a local device.

2. Software Downloading: Software downloading involves transferring software programs, such as applications,
games, and utilities, from a website or server to a local device.

3. Media Downloading: Media downloading involves transferring media files, such as music, videos, and
podcasts, from a website or server to a local device.

4. Torrent Downloading: Torrent downloading involves using peer-to-peer (P2P) file sharing protocols to
download files from multiple sources.

CHAT OR INTERNET TELECONFERENCE

Chat:

 Definition: Chat refers to a real-time text-based communication between two or more people over the
internet.
 Types of Chat: There are several types of chat, including:
 Instant Messaging (IM): IM allows users to send and receive text messages in real-time.
 Online Chat Rooms: Online chat rooms allow multiple users to communicate with each other in a virtual
room.
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  Video Chat: Video chat allows users to communicate with each other using video and audio.

3. Benefits of Chat: Chat has several benefits, including:

 Convenience: Chat allows users to communicate with others from anywhere with an internet connection.
 Speed: Chat allows for fast and real-time communication.
 Cost-Effective: Chat is often free or low-cost, making it a cost-effective way to communicate.

Internet Teleconference:

 Definition: Internet teleconferencing refers to a virtual meeting between two or more people over the
internet, using audio and video conferencing tools.
 Types of Internet Teleconferencing: There are several types of internet teleconferencing, including:
 Video Conferencing: Video conferencing allows users to communicate with each other using video and
audio.
 Audio Conferencing: Audio conferencing allows users to communicate with each other using audio
only.
 Web Conferencing: Web conferencing allows users to communicate with each other using a
combination of audio, video, and screen sharing.
 Benefits of Internet Teleconferencing: Internet teleconferencing has several benefits, including:
 Increased Productivity: Internet teleconferencing allows teams to collaborate and work together more
effectively.
 Reduced Travel Costs: Internet teleconferencing reduces the need for travel, saving time and money.
 Improved Communication: Internet teleconferencing allows for face-to-face communication, improving
communication and reducing misunderstandings.

TELNET

TELNET is a type of protocol that enables one computer to connect to the local computer. It is used as a
standard TCP/IP protocol for virtual terminal service which is provided by ISO. The computer which starts the
connection is known as the local computer. The computer which is being connected to i.e. which accepts the
connection known as the remote computer. During telnet operation, whatever is being performed on the remote
computer will be displayed by the local computer. Telnet operates on a client/server principle.

1. Local Login

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 Local Login

2. Remote Login

Remote Login in Logging

DISADVANTAGES OF USING COMPUTER

While computers have revolutionized the way we live, work, and communicate, there are also some
disadvantages to using them. Here are some of the most significant disadvantages of using computers:

 Health Risks: Prolonged computer use can lead to various health problems, such as:
 Eye strain and vision problems
 Carpal tunnel syndrome and repetitive strain injuries
 Back and neck pain
 Headaches and migraines.

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  Social Isolation: Excessive computer use can lead to social isolation, as people spend more time
interacting with their computers than with other humans.
 Addiction: Computers can be addictive, and excessive use can lead to:
 Internet addiction
 Gaming addiction
 Social media addiction
 Security Risks: Computers are vulnerable to various security risks, including:
 Viruses and malware
 Hacking and cyber attacks
 Identity theft and phishing
 Dependence on Technology: Over-reliance on computers can lead to a lack of basic skills, such as:
 Mathematical calculations
 Writing and typing
 Critical thinking and problem-solving
 Environmental Impact: The production, use, and disposal of computers can have a significant
environmental impact, including:
 E-waste and pollution
 Energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions
 Resource depletion and mining
 Cost: Computers can be expensive to purchase and maintain, especially for individuals and small
businesses.
 Distractions: Computers can be distracting, with notifications, emails, and social media competing for
attention and reducing productivity.
 Lack of Face-to-Face Interaction: Excessive computer use can lead to a lack of face-to-face interaction,
which is essential for building relationships and communicating effectively.
 ob Displacement: Automation and artificial intelligence can displace certain jobs, especially those that
involve repetitive tasks or can be easily automated.

TYPING/KEYBOARDING

Typing and keyboarding are essential skills in today's digital age. With the increasing use of computers, laptops,
and mobile devices, being able to type quickly and accurately is crucial for productivity, communication, and
entertainment.

Benefits of Typing/Keyboarding:

 Improved Productivity: Typing and keyboarding enable you to work more efficiently, complete tasks
faster, and meet deadlines.

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  Enhanced Communication: Typing and keyboarding allow you to communicate effectively with others
through email, instant messaging, and social media.
 Increased Accuracy: Typing and keyboarding help you to reduce errors and improve accuracy in your
work, whether it's writing documents, filling out forms, or entering data.
 Better Job Prospects: Having strong typing and keyboarding skills can give you a competitive edge in
the job market, especially in industries that require high levels of data entry, writing, or communication.
 Improved Gaming Experience: For gamers, typing and keyboarding skills can enhance their gaming
experience, allowing them to interact with games more efficiently and respond quickly to in-game
situations.
 Typing Techniques:
 Touch Typing: Touch typing involves using all your fingers to type, without looking at the keyboard.
This technique allows you to type quickly and accurately.
 Hunt and Peck: Hunt and peck typing involves using only your index fingers to type, often with a slow
and inaccurate pace.
 Hybrid Typing: Hybrid typing combines elements of touch typing and hunt and peck typing, using a
combination of fingers to type.

Keyboarding Tips:

 Practice Regularly: Practice typing and keyboarding regularly to improve your skills and increase your
speed and accuracy.
 Use the Correct Posture: Maintain good posture while typing, with your feet flat on the floor, back
straight, and arms at a 90-degree angle to the keyboard.
 Use the Correct Finger Placement: Place your fingers on the home row keys (ASDF for the left hand and
JKL; for the right hand) to improve your typing speed and accuracy.
 Use Keyboard Shortcuts: Learn keyboard shortcuts to increase your productivity and efficiency, such as
Ctrl+C to copy and Ctrl+V to paste.
 Take Breaks: Take regular breaks to stretch your hands, wrists, and arms, and to rest your eyes.

USING HELP AND SUPPORT KEYBOARD SHORTCUTS

Keyboard shortcuts can be a huge time-saver when it comes to using help and support features on your
computer. Here are some common keyboard shortcuts that can help you access help and support resources:

Help Keyboard Shortcuts:

 F1: Pressing the F1 key will open the Help window in most applications, providing you with access to
tutorials, guides, and troubleshooting resources.

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  Ctrl + F1: This shortcut will open the Help menu in some applications, allowing you to search for
specific topics or access additional resources.
 Windows Key + F1: This shortcut will open the Windows Help and Support Center, providing you with
access to a wide range of resources, including tutorials, troubleshooting guides, and FAQs.

Support Keyboard Shortcuts:

 Ctrl + Shift + Esc: This shortcut will open the Task Manager, allowing you to view and manage running
applications, as well as access system resources and performance metrics.
 Windows Key + X: This shortcut will open the Quick Links menu, providing you with access to
commonly used features, such as the Control Panel, Device Manager, and Disk Management.
 Windows Key + I: This shortcut will open the Settings app, allowing you to access and configure system
settings, including display, sound, and network settings.

FILE PROCESSING

A File Processing System, in computer science, is a method to read, write, modify, and store data in files. These
systems typically fall under traditional data management systems and are prevalent in businesses with simpler,
less-interactive data storage requirements.

Functionality and Features

File Processing Systems offer direct access to files for reading, writing, and modifying data. They store data in a
structured manner, often in text or binary format. Key features include file organization, sequential access to
files, and file-level data manipulation.

Architecture

The architecture of a File Processing System consists of direct access to data files. It lacks a concept of a
database, and hence, data is generally not interrelated. However, metadata is often maintained to track file
locations, file size, and file access permissions.

Benefits and Use Cases

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File Processing Systems offer simplicity and direct control over data. They're particularly useful in simpler
applications like local data storage, transaction logging, or single-user databases. They're also advantageous for
storing large volumes of uncorrelated data.

Challenges and Limitations

With File Processing Systems, duplication of data, lack of security, and poor data integrity are common. As data
grows, maintaining and managing files can become challenging. Additionally, as these systems lack a schema,
analyzing complex data relationships can be difficult.

Security Aspects

File Processing Systems typically rely on file-system level security. The administrator controls access to data
files, and permissions are granted at the file level. However, these systems lack finer-grained data control, sheer
compartmentalization, and advanced security protocols like those found in DBMS or data lake houses.

SIMPLE DISK MANAGEMENT

Simple disk management refers to the basic techniques and strategies used to manage and maintain computer
disks, including hard disk drives, solid-state drives, and flash drives. Effective disk management is essential to
ensure the reliability, performance, and security of computer systems.

Basic Disk Management Concepts:

 Disk Partitioning: Disk partitioning involves dividing a disk into separate partitions or volumes, each
with its own file system and storage capacity.
 File Systems: File systems, such as NTFS, HFS+, and ext4, are used to organize and manage files on a
disk.
 Disk Formatting: Disk formatting involves preparing a disk for use by creating a file system and
allocating storage space.
 Disk Defragmentation: Disk defragmentation involves rearranging files on a disk to improve
performance and reduce fragmentation.

Disk Management Tools:

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  Disk Management Software: Disk management software, such as Disk Utility (Mac) or Disk
Management (Windows), provides a graphical interface for managing disks and partitions.
 Command-Line Tools: Command-line tools, such as frisk (Linux) or disk part (Windows), provide a
text-based interface for managing disks and partitions.
 Third-Party Tools: Third-party tools, such as Acronis Disk Director or EaseUS Partition Master, offer
advanced disk management features and functionality.

DOCUMENTS

Documents are an essential part of our personal and professional lives. They can be in the form of text, images,
audio, or video, and are used to convey information, express ideas, and communicate with others.

Types of Documents:

 Text Documents: Text documents, such as Microsoft Word or Google Docs, are used to create and edit
written content.
 Image Documents: Image documents, such as Adobe Photoshop or Illustrator, are used to create and edit
visual content.
 Audio Documents: Audio documents, such as MP3 or WAV files, are used to store and play back audio
content.
 Video Documents: Video documents, such as MP4 or AVI files, are used to store and play back video
content.

Document Tools:

 Microsoft Office: Microsoft Office is a suite of software applications used for creating and editing
documents.
 Google Docs: Google Docs is a cloud-based word processing and document management tool.
 Adobe Creative Cloud: Adobe Creative Cloud is a suite of software applications used for creating and
editing visual content.
 Dropbox: Dropbox is a cloud storage service used for storing and sharing documents.
 Evernote: Evernote is a note-taking and document management tool used for organizing and searching
content.

FILE MANAGEMENT

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A file management system is used for file maintenance (or management) operations. It is a type of software that
manages data files in a computer system. A file management system has limited capabilities and is designed to
manage individual or group files, such as special office documents and records. It may display report details,
like owner, creation date, state of completion, and similar features useful in an office environment.

A file management system is also known as a file manager.

A file management system’s tracking component is key to the creation and management of this system, where
documents containing various stages of processing are shared and interchanged on an ongoing basis. It consists
of a straightforward interface where stored files are displayed. It allows the user to browse, move, and sort them
according to different criteria, such as date of last modification, date of creation, file type/format, size, etc.

The system may contain features like:

 Assigning queued document numbers for processing.

 Owner and process mapping to track various stages of processing.
 Report generation.
 Notes.
 Status.
 Create, modify, move, copy, delete, and other file operations.
 Add or edit basic metadata.
Benefits:

 Improved organization
 Increased productivity
 Scalability
 Version control

Conclusion
In conclusion, computers are becoming very important everywhere. More companies are using them, records
are being stored in computer files, and stores are taking their business online to sell to a broader audience. All of
these are possible because of Computer Engineering. If some very important changes are made in the
curriculum, more students will be attracted to the major allowing it to flourish even more. If students have the
ability to learn what they need to know about computers, they can go on into the job market and, hopefully,
become very successful. There will always be a rising need for people who can work with technology, make it
better, and even invent new tools to work with it, which is why it is a major that could really have a bright
future the rapid advancements in computer technology have led to the development of more powerful and
efficient components, allowing for faster processing speeds, higher storage capacities, and better overall
performance. As technology continues to evolve, it is important for users to stay informed about the latest
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developments in computer components in order to make informed decisions about their computing needs. By
understanding the role of each component and how they work together, users can build and maintain a high-
performance computer system tailored to their specific needs and requirements.

Reference

In making of this project, I have taken help of my teacher Dr. Vivek Kumar and the following
 Books:
 Icse understanding computer applications – by Vijay Kumar Pandey and Dilip Kumar Dey
 Basics of computer science – by Rajiv Khanna
 Websites:
 www.javatpoint.com
 www.shiksha.com
 www.geeksforgeeks.org
 www.vedantu.com
 www.quora.com
 www.tutorialpoint.com
 www.byjus.com

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