BMEE308L

Control Systems
CAT-2 Revisit

Module-4
Module-3

Modelling of Physical Systems

Physical Systems- Types
• Mechanical

• Electrical

• Electro Mechanical

• Pneumatic

• Thermal

• Chemical
System Input-Disturbance-Control
Control : Reference-Disturbance
• Many control systems can be characterised by these components
Disturbance

Plant
Control
Reference Error Signal Output
r(t) e(t) u(t) y(t)
Control Actuator Process
+
-

Feedback

Sensor

Sensor Noise
Spring-Mass-Damper
• The Mass-Spring-Damper model is one of the most common models used
by engineers to model kinematic systems. From human tissue to bridges,
this straightforward model features three mechanisms and can be
summarized as the following second-order differential equation:

• Here x represents the displacement of the object with mass m away from
its resting position. The mass is subject to some spring force characterized
by spring constant k and a damping force that resists change in motion
with damping coefficient c
Rotational Systems
Rotational Systems

• In rotational motion, the motion is

about a fixed axis. There are
three types of elements that
oppose this motion.

• Conceptually, they can be

related to their linear counterpart
in how they work but
mathematically, they must be
treated very differently.
J = Moment of inertia in Kg.m2
T(t) = Torque in N.m
ω(t) = angular velocity in rad/s
θ(t) = angular displacement radians
Translation-Rotation Systems
Modelling Electrical Systems
Have you Seen Electricity? …..Lightning
Modelling Electrical Systems
• Electrical circuits have three basic elements, the resistor, the
capacitor and the inductor. These are analyzed based on
Kirchhoff’s laws as stated before.
The sum of all currents entering a junction must
equal the sum of all currents leaving the junction.
The algebraic sum of changes in potential around
any closed circuit path (loop) must be zero.
Electrical –Mechanical System:

Motors- DC-AC
Electric motor
• The commonly used parts used in electric motors are Central
motor shaft, Windings, Bearings (to reduce friction and wear),
Armature (located on the rotor, the rotating part, or the stator,
the stationary part), Brushes (in DC motors), Terminals, Frame
and end shields.
Electrical System: Motors- DC-AC
DC Motor
• These motors are based on a piece of wire bent into a
rectangular loop. This loop is suspended between the poles of a
magnet.

• Through hooking up a wire and connecting it to a battery,

there’s a flow of direct current (DC) through it and thus a
temporary magnetic field is produced all around it.

• This temporary field repels the original field from the permanent
magnet, causing the wire to flip over.
Insights on DC motor operation
Interaction of magnetic and electric fields.

Attraction and Repulsion

Back EMF
Magnetic Field-Direction
Direction of magnetic field
Attraction and Repulsion (Opp / Same poles)
• The brushes reverse the
polarity of the windings in a
motor. Reversing the polarity in
the windings changes the poles
of the electromagnet that the
winds create.
• The constant movement of the
magnetic field pushes the
motor around as the magnet
fields get pushed and pulled
towards permanents on the
outside of the motor.
Split Ring Commutator
• The change in direction of current is facilitated by the split ring
commutator.
• The brushes remain stationary, but they are in contact with the
armature at the commutator, which rotates with the armature such that
at every 180° of rotation, the current in the armature is reversed. They
carry current to the armature (the rotating part).
• The brushes work with the commutator to switch the current to the
proper winding of the armature as it rotates. This creates the correct
magnet fields to make the motor run. Essentially, a brush is one
contact of a switch; the commutator is the other.
Multiple Coils
• The lever arm for the torque
produced on the armature varies
with the angle of the coil (cos α).
Therefore, when the coil is
perpendicular (vertical) to the
magnetic field of the stator, no
torque is produced.

• This is why DC motors have multiple

coils; so the armature mechanism
will continue to experience a force,
even when one coil is perpendicular
to the magnetic field.
Image credit: Georgia State
University
Operation of DC motor
What is a motor back emf?
Back emf equation of DC motor
• The back emf equation of DC motor are given as:
Eb=(PɸNZ)/(60A)

• Armature torque equation of DC Motor is given as:

Ta= 0.159(PZ/A)ɸIa
• where P= number of poles,
• Z= Total number of conductor and
• A= Number of parallel path
Lenz’s law and back EMF
• Lenz’s law and back EMF work hand-in-hand. In electric
motor operation, as the armature rotates inside the magnetic
field, a voltage is produced.

• This voltage is commonly referred to as back EMF

(electromotive force), since it acts against the voltage driving
the motor.
What is a motor back emf?

• According to the Electromagnetic Induction

Phenomenon “when the conductor cuts the magnetic field,
EMF induces in the conductor”.

• Back emf is the generator output of a motor, and so it is

proportional to the motor’s angular velocity ω. It is zero when
the motor is first turned on, meaning that the coil receives the
full driving voltage and the motor draws maximum current when
it is on but not turning.
Characteristics of DC series Motor
Problem
• A D.C. motor takes an armature current of 100 A at 460 V.
The armature circuit resistance is 0.2 Ω. The machine has 6-
poles and the armature is lap-connected with 864
conductors. The flux per pole is 0.05 Wb.

• Calculate-(i) Speed of the motor (ii) the gross torque

developed by the armature.
Given Data

• Ia = 100 A
V = 460 V
Ra = 0.2 Ω
P = 6
A = P= 6 (Lap winding)
Z = 864
Φ = 0.05 Wb
Ta = ?
Physical System Model of DC motor
DC motor model
• This motor is excited by the magnetic field produced by an
external electromagnet or a permanent magnet. This means
that the flux linkage remains constant here.

• Now, the motor torque is directly proportional to current flowing

in its armature.
Electro-Mechanical System
Electro-Rotational System
DC motor model
Module: 4 Time Response
 General Model For A Dynamic System
nth Order ordinary linear differential equation with constant coefficient
d n y (t ) d n 1 y (t ) dy (t ) d m x(t ) d m 1 x(t ) dx(t )
an n
 an 1 n 1
   a1  a0 y (t )  bm m
 bm 1 m 1
   b1  b0 x(t )
dt dt dt dt dt dt

F(t) = forcing function

Where m≤n
y(t) = output from the system
x(t) = input to the system
t = time
a’s and b’s = system physical parameters, assumed constant
y(0)
The solution y (t )  yocf  yopi

x(t) y(t) Where yocf = complementary-function part of

Dynamic solution
system
yopi = particular-integral part of solution
 Time domain dynamic response
The time response of a control system is usually divided into two
parts: the transient response and the steady-state response.

𝒚𝒕 (t): transient response is defined as the part of the time response that
goes to zero as time becomes very large.

𝒚𝒔𝒔 (t):The steady-state response is simply the part of the total response
that remains after the transient has died out. (final accuracy of the system)

All real, stable control systems exhibit

transient phenomena to some extent before
the steady state is reached
• The transient response of a system is determined by the
system’s natural response and forced response.

• The natural response depends on the system’s inherent

properties, while the forced response depends on the input
applied to the system.
Transfer Function
complex frequency domain description of the system.
Transfer function
Laplace Transforms
• It is an integral transform that converts a time-limited signal with
finite energy from time domain to frequency-domain
• Can be thought of as a substitution
What is “S”?

Spiral= Exponential + Cyclic

What is “S”?
• A powerful mathematical concept useful for practically analyzing
behavior of any physical system – mechanical systems, electrical
circuits.
 Exponential + Complex

Exponential :Growth / Decay

Sinusoid : Cyclic / Oscillatory Behavior
Complex Exponential Sinusoid

Laplace transform projects signals onto exponentially growing or decaying complex sinusoids
 Sinusoid : Cyclic / Oscillatory Behavior
Exponential : Decay / Growth (Damping)

Complex- Exponential- Sinusoid

Example-Laplace Transform
Transfer function-Poles and Zeros
Transfer function
• An general way of writing a transfer function is in the form of poles
and zeros with the polynomial fraction written as factorized
subtractions:

Here z indicates a zero, and p a pole, and the factor k is scales the overall amplification. When s
equals any z, the complex transfer function equals zero, and when s equals any pole the expression
goes to infinity.
Poles and Zeros in ‘S’ Plane
Pole-Zero diagram in MATLAB
• Creating a pole-zero diagram in MATLAB is a straightforward process
that involves using the `pzmap` function for continuous-time systems
or the `zplane` function for discrete-time systems.

• These functions plot the poles and zeros of a system on the complex
plane, which is essential for analyzing the stability and response
characteristics of the system.
matlab

• For a continuous-time system, you can define a transfer function and

then use `pzmap` to create the pole-zero diagram:

• H = tf([2 5 1],[1 3 5]); % Define the transfer function

• H(s) = (2s^2 + 5s + 1) / (s^2 + 3s + 5)
• pzmap(H); % Create the pole-zero diagram
In short, they describe how the system responds to different
inputs. Which response is excited depends on the form of the
forcing function and the initial conditions in the circuit.
Physical System Modelling
Time Response Analysis of dynamic systems
Types of Systems
• Mechanical

• Electrical

• Electro Mechanical

• Pneumatic

• Thermal

• Chemical
 General Model For A Dynamic System
nth Order ordinary linear differential equation with constant coefficient
d n y (t ) d n 1 y (t ) dy (t ) d m x(t ) d m 1 x(t ) dx(t )
an n
 an 1 n 1
   a1  a0 y (t )  bm m
 bm 1 m 1
   b1  b0 x(t )
dt dt dt dt dt dt

F(t) = forcing function

Where m≤n
y(t) = output from the system
x(t) = input to the system
t = time
a’s and b’s = system physical parameters, assumed constant
y(0)
The solution y (t )  yocf  yopi

x(t) y(t) Where yocf = complementary-function part of

Measurement solution
system
yopi = particular-integral part of solution
 Behavior of the System Model

Zero order a0 y  x(t )

dy
First order a1  a0 y  x(t )
dt
d2y dy
Second order a2 2  a1  a0 y  x(t )
dt dt
nth order

dny d n 1 y d2y dy
an n  an 1 n 1  ...........a2 2  a1  a0 y  x(t )
dt dt dt dt
Zero order systems
• Zero order systems are governed by equations that contain no derivatives, that is,
their output is equal to a constant times the input. Another way of looking at it is
that, for a constant input, the output is independent of time.

• Electrical circuits containing only resistors are zero order. Mechanical systems
such as a collection of levers are completely analogous to the resistance circuits
and are also zero order because they simply amplify a force.

• A voltage divider circuit is chosen as an example of a zero order system in this

experiment.
Mechanical Zero-Order Systems
 The simplest model of a measurement l1 l2
system is the zero-order system model.
This is represented by the zero-order
differential equation:

ao x  f (t ) f(t) x(t)
1
x f (t )  Kf (t )
ao
x(t)/l2 = f(t)/l1
 K is the static sensitivity or steady gain of K = l2/l1
the system. It is a measure of the
amount of change in the output in
response to the change in the input.
Mechanical Zero-Order Systems
 In a zero-order system, the l1 l2
output responds to the
input signal
instantaneously.
 If an input signal of
magnitude f(t) = A were f(t) x(t)
applied, the instrument
would indicate KA. The x(t)/l2 = f(t)/l1
scale of the measuring
device would normally be K = l2/l1
calibrated to indicate A
directly. ao x  f (t )
1
x f (t )  Kf (t )
ao
A Unity Gain Zero-Order system

l
xi xo

xo(t) = xi(t)

K=1
Electrical Zero-Order Systems
 In a zero-order system, the vi
output responds to the
input signal
R1 R2
instantaneously.

Vo
vi
vo  iR1  R1
R1  R2
R1
vo  vi
R1  R2
 Zero-order Systems

All the a’s and b’s other than a0 and b0 are zero.

a0 y(t )  b0 x(t ) y(t )  Kx(t ) where K = static sensitivity = b0/a0

The behavior is characterized by its static sensitivity, K and remains

constant regardless of input frequency (ideal dynamic characteristic).

x
x
m
V  Vr  here, K  Vr / xm
Vr + xm
Where 0  x  xm and Vr is a reference voltage
y=
x=0 V-

A linear potentiometer used as position

sensor is a zero-order sensor.
Second Order System
Time Response Analysis for
Different Type of Standard Test Signals
Different Type of Standard Test Signals

• The various inputs or disturbances affecting the performance of a

system are mathematically represented as a standard test signal.

• Step signal ( sudden input )

• Ramp Signal (velocity type of input )
• Parabolic Signal ( type of acceleration input )
• Impulse signal (sudden shock )
Different Type of Standard Test Signals
First order system step response
Parameters of a 1-order system

Input u(t) K output y(t)

G ( s) 
 s 1

t, the time constant, will determine how quickly the

system moves toward steady state.

K, the DC gain of the system, will determine the size

of steady state response when the input settles out to
a constant value.
First order system step response

x(t )  b0t  0
b0
b0
X ( s) 
s

X s  b0
Y s   
a1s  a0  sa1s  a0 
The complex function F(s) must be decomposed into partial fractions
in order to use the tables of correspondences.
 b0 1 b0 a1
Y s   
a0 s a0 a1s  a0 

b0 1 b0 1
Y s   
a0 s a0  a0 
 s  
 a1 

    
    
b0  1 1  1  b0 1 1 
Y s      y t      
a0  s  a   a0 s  a 
 s  0      s  0  
  a1      a1  
 b0   a0t 
y t   1  exp  
a0   a1 

a1
  : time constant
a0
yt 
= 𝐾: DC GAIN K

  t 
y t   K 1  exp  
   
Example 1 Consider a first-order system with the following
parameters.
Time constant   0.1s ; DC gain K  20
The problem is to determine the unit step response of a
system that has these parameters.

Solution.
Using the general form of the unit-step response of first –order systems

y (t )  K (1  e  t / )

With the parameters above, the impulse response is:

y (t )  20(1  e  t /0.1 )  20(1  e 10t )

Example 3 Time constant   0.1s ; DC gain K  20
Solution. Unit-step time response: y (t )  20(1  e 10 t )
Transfer function of the K 20
first-order system: G ( s)  
 s  1 0.1s  1
Using MATLAB to get its
step response
>> num=20;
>> den=[0.1 1];
>> step(num,den)

  0.1s
If we keep
but change K,
what will happen?
Time constant   0.1s ;
DC gain K  20  16  10  4
 DC gain K  20
Time constant   0.1s  0.2 s  0.3s  0.5s

Note: the time constant reflects the system inertia. The smaller is the
system inertia, the shorter is  and the quicker is the response, vice versa.
Two important properties of the unit-step response of a
first-order system:
a) The time constant  can be used to calculate the
system output
experiment methods
t   , y ( )  0.632 y ()  63.3% final value; -- estimate the
time constant
t  2 , y (2 )  0.865 y ()  86.5% final value;
--judge whether a
t  3 , y (3 )  0.950 y ()  95.0% final value; system is first-
order or not
t  4 , y (4 )  0.982 y ( )  98.2% final value;

b) The initial slope of the response curve is 1/T and

the slope decreases with time
dy (t ) 1 dy (t ) 1 dy (t )
 ,  0.368 ,  0.
dt t 0  dt t   dt t 
It is also a common method to obtain the time constant though the initial
slope in control engineering.
time constant
• The time constant is a measure of the speed of response of the
instrument or system

• After three time constants the response has reached 95% of the step
change and after five time constants 99% of the step change.

• Hence the first order system can be said to respond to the full step
change after approximately five time constants.
 Unit-step response of a first-order system

y (t )
y ( )
y(t )  K (1  et / )
0.632 y ()
1
slope 

0 t

Impulse Response of 1-Order System
 Impulse Response of 1-Order System
• The impulse response is the response to a unit impulse
input .  (t )
a very intense force
u (t ) for a very short time
 (t )

 
L[ (t )]  1
0 00
t
• The unit impulse has a Laplace transform of unity (1).
• That gives the unit impulse a unique stature.
For a first-order systems satisfy this generic
differential equation
dy (t )  - time constant
  y (t )  Ku (t )
dt K - DC gain
For a unit impulse input  (t ) and assuming zero initial
conditions, could you calculate its output?
K t 
y (t )  e

The impulse response is the inverse transform of the
transfer function of the above system:
K
G ( s) 
 s 1
Now, we need to examine what the impulse response
looks like…
Example 1
Consider a first-order system with the following parameters.

Time constant   0.1s ; DC gain K  20

The problem is to determine the unit impulse response of a
system that has these parameters.

Solution. Using the general form of the impulse response of

first –order systems
K
y (t )  et 

With the parameters above, the impulse response is:
K 20  t /0.1
y (t )  et   e  200e10t
 0.1
What value does the impulse response start from?
Example 1
Consider a first-order system with the following parameters.
Time constant   0.1s ; DC gain K  20
The problem is to determine the unit impulse response of a
system that has these parameters.
K 20  t /0.1
Solution. y (t )  et   e  200e10t
 0.1

Using MATLAB to get its

impulse response
K 20
G ( s)  
 s  1 0.1s  1
>> num=20;
>> den=[0.1 1];
>> impulse(num,den)
Example 2 Below is the impulse response of a system -
i.e. the response to a unit impulse.

The system starts with

an initial condition of
zero just before the
impulse comes along at t
= 0, so y(0-) = 0.

Could you compute the parameters of the system?

 Solution. Transfer function:
The general time response K 44
G(s)  
of a first-order system is
 s  1 2.2s  1
K
y (t )  et  (1) A

From the right figure, we have

at t  0, y (0)  20
So we can get
K
 20 (2) With (2) and (3), we have
 y (2)  20e 2/  8
How to get K ?
Pick up a point on the response curve: e 2/  0.4
Solving the equation yields:

A: at t  2sec; y (2)  8 2 /   ln(0.4)  0.9163

K   2.2sec K  20  44
y (2)  e 2   8 (3)

A few conclusions from examples
• Calculating the impulse response is straight-forward.
• Given the system parameters it is not difficult to
calculate - predict - the response of the system.
• The inverse problem is somewhat more difficult.
• Given a response, you will have to be more inventive to
determine what the system was that produced the
given response - the system identification problem.
• The underlying theory is the same.
• You use the same general principles to solve both
problems, but the way you have to use the information
makes the identification problem more difficult.
Encountering 1-order Systems
Unit-impulse
response:

K
y (t )  et 

K
G ( s) 
 s 1

Unit-step
response:

y (t )  K (1  e  t / )
Second-Order System
The dynamic behavior of the second-order system can then be described in
terms of two parameters: the damping ratio and the natural frequency.
 Second-Order System1
• Parameters of First-order system determine the speed of the system.
• Parameters of Second-order system determine the form (shape) of the system.
System poles
𝑎 𝑎 − 4𝑏
Consider the general system, = − ∓ 𝑠 General case of second order system
,
2 2
• For un-damped(without damping) system, 𝑎 = 0, and the poles are on 𝑗𝜔 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 at ∓𝑗 𝑏,
Natural Frequency
Hence 𝑏 = 𝝎𝒏 un-damped system
• For an under-damped system, poles have real part 𝜎 = − ⁄ (exponential decay ),
Exponential decay frequency
D𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐑𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨 exponential decay
𝛏=
𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
Natural frequency

𝝎𝒏 : (Natural Frequency ) the frequency of oscillation of the system without damping.

𝛏 ∶ (D𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐑𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨 ) dimensionless measure describing how oscillations in a system decay.
σ ∶ (𝑨𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏) exponential decay , real part of the pole

Poles
𝑏 = 𝝎𝒏
𝑎 =2ξ𝜔
Canonical form
156
(two finite poles and no zeros)
 Over-damped responses Second-Order System
Two real poles
Twoat −𝜎 , −𝜎

𝛏>1

Under-damped responses
Two complex poles
Two at −𝜎 ∓ 𝑗𝑤 0<𝛏<1

Un-damped responses
Two imaginary
Twopoles at ∓𝑗𝑤 𝛏=0

Critically damped responses 𝛏=1

Two real poles at −𝜎
Two

Step responses for second-order system damping cases

157
Definitions of transient-response specifications
Definitions of transient-response specifications
 Definitions of transient-response specifications
1. Delay time (t ) d

The delay time is the time required for the response to reach half the final value the very first time.

2. Rise time (t )
r

The rise time is the time required for the response to rise from 10% to 90%, 5% to 95%, or 0% to 100% of its final value.
For underdamped second-order systems, the 0% to 100% rise time is normally used.
For overdamped systems, the 10% to 90% rise time is commonly used.

3. Peak time (t ) p

The peak time is the time required for the response to reach the first peak of the overshoot.

4. Maximum (percent) overshoot (M ) p

The maximum overshoot is the maximum peak value of the response curve measured from unity.
If the final steady-state value of the response differs from unity, then it is common to use the maximum percent overshoot.
It is defined by

5. Settling time (t ) s

The settling time is the time required for the response curve to reach and stay within a range about the
final value of size specified by absolute percentage of the final value (usually 2% or 5%).
•Overdamped systems - Transients in this
type of system exponentially decay to steady
state without any oscillations.

•Critically damped systems - Transients in

this type of system decay to steady state
without any oscillations in the shortest
possible time.

•Underdamped systems - Transients in this

type of system oscillates with the amplitude
of the oscillation gradually decreasing to
zero.

•Undamped systems - The system keeps

oscillating at its natural frequency without any
decay in amplitude.
 Over-damped responses Second-Order System
Two real poles
Twoat −𝜎 , −𝜎

𝛏>1

Under-damped responses
Two complex poles
Two at −𝜎 ∓ 𝑗𝑤 0<𝛏<1

Un-damped responses
Two imaginary
Twopoles at ∓𝑗𝑤 𝛏=0

Critically damped responses 𝛏=1

Two real poles at −𝜎
Two

Step responses for second-order system damping cases

168
Case1: Overdamped system:
( ) Two real poles
 Second-Order System2
The sign of the discriminant of the denominator polynomial depends on the damping ratio 𝛏, three cases.
𝑎 𝑎 − 4𝑏 𝑎 =2ξ𝜔
System poles
𝑠 , =− ∓
2 2 𝑏 = 𝝎𝒏
Case1: Overdamped system: (𝛏 > 𝟏) Two real poles
𝑎 = 9 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = 9 the general case
(two finite poles and no zeros)

1 0.171 1.171
𝐶 𝑠 = + −
𝑠 𝑠 + 7.854 𝑠 + 1.146

𝑐 𝑡 = 1 + 0.171𝑒 . − 01.171𝑒 .

Overdamped system

𝑇𝑤𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠

CEN455: Dr. Nassim Ammour 170
Case 2: Under-damped Response
( ) : (Two complex poles
that come from the system).
 Second-Order System
Case 2: Under-damped Response (0 < 𝛏 < 𝟏) : (Two complex poles that come from the system).

Poles from the system:

exponential decay frequency of the
sinusoidal oscillation.
𝑎 = 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = 9

𝑇𝑤𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠

From, 𝐾 cos 𝛼 + 𝛽 = 𝐾 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 − 𝐾 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽

= 𝐾 cos 8𝑡 + 𝐾 sis 8𝑡

Second-order
step response
components
Where, generated by
complex poles

CEN455: Dr. Nassim Ammour 172

 Case 3: Un-damped Response (
: pole at the origin that comes
from the input and two imaginary
poles that come from the system.

Case 4: Critically Damped Response (

: pole at the origin that comes
from the input and two multiple real
poles that come from the system.-
 Second-Order System
Case 3: Un-damped Response (𝛏 = 0) : pole at the Case 4: Critically Damped Response (𝛏 = 1) : pole at the origin that
origin that comes from the input and two imaginary comes from the input and two multiple real poles that come from the
poles that come from the system. system.-
two poles (double) on
the real axis at —3

𝑎 = 6 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = 9
𝑎 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = 9 two system poles on
the imaginary axis 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒

There is no exponential term, so no decay.

There is no sinusoidal term, so no oscillation.

CEN455: Dr. Nassim Ammour 174

 Over-damped responses Second-Order System
Two real poles
Twoat −𝜎 , −𝜎 All Together

𝛏>1

Under-damped responses
Two complex poles
Two at −𝜎 ∓ 𝑗𝑤 0<𝛏<1

Un-damped responses
Two imaginary
Twopoles at ∓𝑗𝑤 𝛏=0

Critically damped responses 𝛏=1

Two real poles at −𝜎
Two

Step responses for second-order system damping cases

CEN455: Dr. Nassim Ammour 175

 Second-Order System As a Function of Damping Ratio
• Relationship between the quantities 𝝎𝒏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝛏 and the pole location.

Solving for the poles of the transfer function

Example
For the system find the value of 𝛏 and report the kind of
response expected.

𝜔 12
We have 𝐺 𝑠 = =
𝑠 + 2𝛏𝜔 𝑠 + 𝜔 𝑠 + 8𝑠 + 12

𝜔 = 12 𝜔 = 12

and 2𝛏𝜔 = 8 8 2
𝛏= = >1
2 12 3

System is over-damped.

CEN455: Dr. Nassim Ammour Second-order response as a function of damping ratio 176
 Underdamped Second-Order Systems
• The nature of the response obtained is related to the value of the damping ratio 𝛏 (over-damped, critically damped,
underdamped, and un-damped responses.).

• Step response for the general second-order system,

1 𝜔
𝐶 𝑠 = 𝑅 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠 =
𝑠 𝑠 + 2𝛏𝜔 𝑠 + 𝜔

Expanding by partial fractions, (𝛏 < 1 the underdamped case )

The lower the value of ζ, the

more oscillatory the response is.
inverse
Laplace
transform

Where,

CEN455: Dr. Nassim Ammour Second-order underdamped responses for damping ratio values 177
 Underdamped Second-Order Systems
Specifications
• Other parameters associated with the underdamped response are rise time, peak time, percent overshoot, and settling time.

Rise time The time required for the waveform

𝑇 to go from 0.1 of the final value to
Second-order underdamped
0.9 of the final value. response specifications

The time required to reach the first,

Peak time or maximum, peak.
𝑇

The amount that the waveform overshoots the steady-

percent state, or final, value at the peak time, expressed as a
overshoot percentage of the steady-state value.
%𝑂𝑆
and 𝛏
𝛏
%𝑂𝑆 = 𝑒 × 100

The time required for the transient's damped

settling time oscillations to reach and stay within ±2% of
𝑇 the steady-state value.
Derivation: self study.

CEN455: Dr. Nassim Ammour 178

 Under-damped Second-Order Systems
Specifications (continued)
from the Pythagorean theorem
Damped frequency of oscillation
𝜔 +𝜎 =𝜔
𝜔 = 𝜔 −𝜎 = 𝜔 −𝛏 𝜔 → 𝜔 =𝜔 1−𝛏
𝜎 = 𝛏𝜔
Damping Ratio
damped frequency of oscillation,
𝜎 𝛏𝜔 Natural frequency
cos 𝜃 = = =𝛏
𝜔 𝜔
inversely proportional to the
imaginary part of the pole.

inversely proportional to the

real part of the pole.

exponential damping frequency.

CEN455: Dr. Nassim Ammour 179

 Under-damped Second-Order Systems
Step Response as Pole moves

poles move in a • frequency increases

vertical direction • envelope remains the same (constant real part )
(with constant real • settling time is virtually the same
part )
• overshoot increases, the rise time decreases

poles move in a • As the poles move to the left, response damps

horizontal direction out more rapidly.
(with constant
imaginary part ) • peak time is the same for all waveforms
(constant imaginary part )

poles move in along a • The percent overshoot remains the same.

constant radial line
direction • The farther the poles are from the origin, the more
rapid the response.

CEN455: Dr. Nassim Ammour 180

 Finding TP, %OS, and TS From Pole Location

Problem: Given the pole plot find 𝛏, 𝜔 , 𝑇 , %OS, and 𝑇 .

Solution:

Damping ration,

Natural frequency, 𝜔 = 𝜔 + 𝜎 𝜔 = 𝜔 +𝜎 = 7 + 3 = 7.616

Peak time,

𝛏
Percent overshoot, %𝑂𝑆 = 𝑒 𝛏 × 100 = 26%

The approximate settling time,

CEN455: Dr. Nassim Ammour 181

 MATLAB
SIMULATION
Second-Order System
Evaluating Steady-State Errors2
The Final Value Theorem is used to find the “final value” of a system as time goes to
infinity. It is derived from the Laplace transform of the derivative, taken as time goes to
infinity (or s goes to zero), as shown in the equation below [2].

Note that we can only use the Final Value Theorem if a system is stable, or at least has
all its poles at the origin (and the left half plane).
The error transfer function will describe how the system
error responds to that input, and we can use the Final
Value Theorem to see how the error will respond in the
long-term. This is shown in Equation 2 below.
 Evaluating Steady-State Errors2

E ( s )  R ( s)  C ( s), and C ( s)  E ( s)G ( s ) Ramp input: tu(t)

s (1 / s 2 ) 1 1
e()  eramp ()  lim  lim 
R( s) s 0 1  G ( s ) s  0 s  sG ( s ) lim sG ( s )
 E ( s)  s 0
1  G(s)

sR ( s) For zero steady-state error, lim sG ( s )  

e()  lim [Final-value theorem] s 0
s 0 1  G ( s )

Parabolic input: (1/2)t2u(t)

Step input: u(t)
s(1 / s 3 ) 1 1
e()  e parabolic ()  lim  lim 2 2 
s (1 / s ) 1 s 0 1  G ( s ) s 0 s  s G ( s ) lim s 2G ( s )
e()  estep ()  lim  s 0
s 0 1  G ( s ) 1  lim G ( s )
s 0
For zero steady-state error, lim s 2G ( s )  
s 0
For zero steady-state error, lim G ( s )  
s 0

CEN455: Dr. Nassim Ammour 192

 System Type

Type 0: if n = 0; (no integration)

Type 1: if n = 1; (one integration)
Type 2: if n = 2; (two integrations)

Problem: Find the value of K so that there is 10% error

in the steady state.

Solution: Type 1. Input should be ramp, because only ramp

yields a finite error in Type 1 system.

195
CEN455: Dr. Nassim Ammour
 Evaluating Steady-State Errors example1

u(t): unity step

Problem: Find steady-state errors for inputs 5u(t), 5tu(t), and 5t2u(t) to the above system.
Solution: Let, the system is stable.
5 5 5
5u (t ) : e()   
1  lim G ( s ) 1  20 21
s 0

5 5
5tu (t ) : e()   
lim sG ( s ) 0
s 0

10 10
5t 2u (t ) : e(  )  2
 
lim s G ( s) 0
s 0

CEN455: Dr. Nassim Ammour 196

Evaluating Steady-State Errors-example2

One integration, s1

5 5 No integration will make it constant,

5u (t ) : e()   0
1  lim G ( s)  one integration makes it zero.
s 0

5 5 1
5tu (t ) : e()    No integration will make it infinity.
lim sG ( s ) 100 20 one integration makes it constant.
s 0

10 10 Two integrations will make it constant

5t 2u (t ) : e(  )   
lim s 2G ( s) 0 and 3 or more will make it zero.
s 0

CEN455: Dr. Nassim Ammour 197

 Static Error Constants
The steady-state error performance specifications are called static error constants.
steady-state error. PROBLEM:
evaluate the static error constants and find the expected error
for the standard step, ramp, and parabolic inputs.
step input, u(t)

ramp input, t u(t)

K p  lim G ( s )  
s 0

500  2  5  6
K v  lim sG ( s )   31.25
s 0 8 10 12
Position constant, Kp:
K a  lim s 2G ( s )  0
s 0
K p  lim G ( s)
s 0
1
For step input, e()  0
1 K p
Velocity constant, Kv:
1 1
For ramp input, e()    0.032
K v  lim sG ( s ) K v 31.25
s 0
1
Acceleration constant, Ka: For parabolic input, e()  
Ka
K a  lim s 2G ( s )
s 0
CEN455: Dr. Nassim Ammour 198
 System Type

Relationships between input, system type, static error constants, and steady-state errors

CEN455: Dr. Ghulam Muhammad 199

https://ctms.engin.umich.edu/CTMS/index.ph
p?example=MotorSpeed&section=ControlPID

PID based Speed Control System

DC motor using ATMEGA16 microcontroller
and L298N motor driver IC.
Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM)
approach
PID Control with Large Ki and Large Kd
• Kp = 100;
• Ki = 200;
• Kd = 10;
• C = pid(Kp,Ki,Kd);
• sys_cl = feedback(C*P_motor,1);
• step(sys_cl, 0:0.01:4)
• grid
• title('PID Control with Large Ki and Large Kd')
 Module : 5
Stability of Control Systems
Control : Reference-Disturbance
• Many control systems can be characterised by these components
Disturbance

Plant
Control
Reference Error Signal Output
r(t) e(t) u(t) y(t)
Control Actuator Process
+
-

Feedback

Sensor

Sensor Noise
Poles and Zeros
Basic concepts
of root locus
Pole Zero Plot
Closed Loop Transfer function
Root Locus: Break-away-in-Point
• Location: The breakaway point is the
location in the s-plane where two or
more closed-loop poles coincide.
• Stability: At the breakaway point, the
system is marginally stable.
• Gain: At the breakaway point, the gain K
is either maximum or minimum.
• Calculation: The breakaway point is
determined by solving the characteristic
equation for the open-loop system and
finding the values of K where the
equation has a double root.
Condition of Root Locus

• The characteristic equation of a general closed-loop negative

feedback system is given as:
• 1 + G(s)H(s) = 0
• So,
• G(s)H(s) = -1
• As s-plane is complex in nature, constituting both real and imaginary
value. Thus, writing the above equation as:
• G(s)H(s) = -1 + j0
• This means G(s)H(s) is also complex. Thus, the above-given
equation must be satisfied for each individual value of s in order to
be present on the root locus.
Angle condition
• : As we know,
• G(s)H(s) = -1 + j0
• On equating angles, we will get,
• G(s)H(s) = ± (2r + 1) 180°
• : r = 0, 1, 2 —
• It is to be noted here that – 1 + j0 = 1 ± 180°. However, – 1 +
j0 will be present on the negative real axis of the s-plane.
• Thus, can be traced as
magnitude value 1 and
± 180°, ± 540°—– ±
(2r + 1) 180°, as shown
below.
• Hence, for the angle
condition, G(s)H(s) for
any of the roots of the
general characteristic
equation will be ± (2r +
i.e., odd multiples of 180°.
1) 180° i.e., odd
multiples of 180°.
Magnitude Condition:
• Further for the magnitude condition, the magnitude of both RHS and
LHS must be equated for the equation G(s)H(s) = -1
• Hence,
• |G(s)H(s)| = |-1 + j0| = 1
• It is to be noted that with the unknown value of K, we will not be able
to determine |G(s)H(s)| at any point in s-plane. However, if we get an
idea regarding the existence of a point in s-plane on the root locus
then it must also satisfy the magnitude condition.
• So, the value of K for a point whose presence on the root locus is
obtained by the angle condition can be determined by the magnitude
condition.
• And the obtained value of K signifies the gain of the system for
which a point on root locus acts as the root of the characteristic
equation.
• It is to be noted here that to apply the magnitude condition in
order to get K, it is necessary that the existence of point on the
root locus must be confirmed by the angle condition.
location of the roots
• we have studies that the stability of a system. It depends
on the location of the roots of the characteristic
equation. We can also say that the stability of the
system depends on the location of closed-loop poles.
• Such knowledge of the movement of the poles in the s-
plane when the parameters are varied is important. The
minor changes in the parameters can greatly help in the
system designing.
• The nature of the system's transient response is closely
related to the location of the poles in the s-plane.
Value of System Gain
Rules
STEPS
Example1: Suppose we have given
the transfer function of the closed system as:

•construct the root locus for this system

and predict the stability of the same.
Firstly, writing the characteristic equation of the above system,

• we get, s = 0, -5 and -10.

• Thus, P = 3, Z = 0 and since P > Z therefore, the number of branches will

be equal to the number of poles.
• So, N = P = 3
• Thus, under this condition, the branches will start from the locations of 0, -
5 and -10 in the s-plane and will approach infinity.
Now, let us calculate the angle
of asymptotes with the formula given below:

: q lies between 0 to P-Z-1

So, in this case, θ will be calculated for

q = 0, 1 and 2.
Asymptodes
• now using the
method to
determine the
breakaway point
we will check the
validity of the
breakaway point
In this method, roots
obtained on
differentiating K with
respect to s and
equating it to 0, will be
the breakaway point.

• Thus, on solving, roots obtained will be -2.113 and -7.88.

• As the root -7.88 falls beyond the predicted section for the breakaway
point thus s = -2.113 is the valid breakaway point.
Course Road Map : Our Journey of control system

Mechatronics
system Design Design
Optimization
• Design Process
• Challenges • Optimization
• V-model techniques
• Model based system • Case studies
Engineering • Constraints
Thank you