Control And Coordination

Top Definitions
1) Receptors – Specialized structures at the ends of the nerve fibers that collect the information to be
conducted by the nerves, and are located in the sense organs.

2) Gustatory receptors – Receptors present in tongue and capable of detecting taste.

3) Olfactory receptors – Receptors present in nose and capable of detecting smell.

4) Synapse – A specialized junction between two neurons, across which nerve impulse passes.

5) Neuromuscular junction – The junction between a nerve fiber and the muscle cell it supplies.

6) Nerve impulse – An electrochemical signal that travels through a neuron in response to a stimulus.

7) Effectors – A muscle, gland, or organ capable of responding to a stimulus, especially a nerve impulse.

8) Sensory neuron – A neuron that conducts impulses from a receptor organ to the central nervous system.

9) Motor neuron – A neuron that conducts impulses from the central nervous system to muscle or gland.

10) Relay neuron – A neuron which connects sensory neurons with motor neurons in neural pathways.

11) Reflex action - An automatic, rapid, involuntary and immediate reaction to a stimulus.

12) Reflex arc – The neural pathway that mediates a reflex action.

13) Cranial nerves – Nerves arising from the brain

14) Spinal nerves – Nerves arising from the spinal cord.

15) Tropic movements – The directional movements shown by plants in response to environmental factors.

16) Hormone – The secretion of an endocrine gland that is transmitted by blood to specific tissues in the body.

17) Phototropism – The movement of a plant towards or away from light.

18) Hydrotropism – The movement of a plant either towards or away from water.

19) Geotropism – The directional movements shown by plants in response to gravity.

20) Chemotropism – Movement or growth of an organism or part of an organism in response to a chemical

stimulus.

21) Endocrine gland – A ductless gland that secretes hormones directly into the bloodstream.

22) Feedback mechanism – A type of self-regulating mechanism in which the level of one substance in body
influences the level of another.
 Importance of control and coordination
A living being does not live in isolation. It has to constantly interact with its external environment and has
to respond properly for its survival. For example; when a hungry lion spots a deer, the lion has to quickly
make a move so that it can have its food. On the other hand, the deer needs to quickly make a move to run
for its life. The responses which a living being makes in relation to external stimuli are controlled and
coordinated by a system; especially in complex animals.

Nervous System
The nervous system is composed of specialized tissues; called nervous tissue. The nerve cell or neuron is
the functional unit of the nervous system. It is the nervous system which is mainly responsible for control
and coordination in complex animals.

Neuron: Neuron is a highly specialized cell which is responsible for transmission of nerve impulses. The
neuron consists of the following parts:

a. Cyton or cell body: The cell body or cyton is somewhat star-shaped; with many hair-like structures
protruding out of the margin. These hair-like structures are called dendrites. Dendrites receive the
nerve impulses.
b. Axon: This is the tail of the neuron. It ends in several hair-like structures; called axon terminals. The
axon terminals relay nerve impulses.
c. Myelin Sheath: There is an insulator cover around the axon. This is called myelin sheath. The myelin
sheath insulates the axon against nerve impulses from the surroundings.

Types of Neuron

a. Sensory neuron: These neurons receive signals from a sense organ.

b. Motor neuron: These neurons send signals to a muscle or a gland.
c. Association neuron: These neurons relay the signals between sensory neuron and motor neuron.

The Human Nervous System

The nervous system in humans can be divided into two main parts, viz. the central nervous system and the
peripheral nervous system. The peripheral nervous system can be further divided into the somatic nervous
system and the autonomous nervous system.

Central Nervous System: The central nervous system is composed of the brain and the spinal cord. The brain
controls all the functions in the human body. The spinal cord works as the relay channel for signals between
the brain and the peripheral nervous system.

Peripheral Nervous System: The peripheral nervous system is composed of the cranial nerves and spinal
nerves. There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves. The cranial nerves come out of the brain and go to the organs in
the head region. There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves. The spinal nerves come out of the spinal cord and go to
the organs which are below the head region.

Autonomous Nervous System: The autonomous nervous system is composed of a chain of nerve ganglion
which runs along the spinal cord. It controls all the involuntary actions in the human body.

Human Brain
Human brain is a highly complex organ; which is mainly composed of the nervous tissue. The tissues are
highly folded to accommodate a larger surface area in less space. The brain is covered by a three layered
system of membranes; called meninges. Cerebrospinal fluid is filled between the meninges. The CSF
provides cushion to the brain against mechanical shocks. Furthermore, the brain is housed inside the skull
for optimum protection. The human brain can be divided into three regions, viz. forebrain, midbrain and
hindbrain.

Parts of Human Brain

• Forebrain: It is composed of the cerebrum.
• Midbrain: It is composed of the hypothalamus.
• Hindbrain: It is composed of the cerebellum, pons and medulla oblongata

Cerebrum: The cerebrum is the largest part in the human brain. It is divided into two hemispheres; called
cerebral hemispheres.

Functions of cerebrum:

• The cerebrum controls the voluntary motor actions.

• It is the site of sensory perceptions; like tactile and auditory perceptions.
• It is the seat of learning and memory.

Hypothalamus: The hypothalamus lies at the base of the cerebrum. It controls sleep and wake cycle
(circadian rhythm) of the body. It also controls the urges for eating and drinking.

Cerebellum: Cerebellum lies below the cerebrum and at the back of the whole structure. It coordinates the
motor functions. When you are riding your bicycle; the perfect coordination between your pedaling and
steering control is achieved by the cerebellum.

Medulla: Medulla forms the brain stem; along with the pons. It lies at the base of the brain and continues
into the spinal cord. Medulla controls various involuntary functions; like hear beat, respiration, etc.
 Reflex Action:
Reflex action is a special case of involuntary movement in voluntary organs. When a voluntary organ is in
the vicinity of a sudden danger, it is immediately pulled away from the danger to save itself. For example;
when your hand touches a very hot electric iron, you move away your hand in a jerk. All of this happens in
flash and your hand is saved from the imminent injury. This is an example of reflex action.

Reflex Arc: The path through which nerves signals; involved in a reflex action; travel is called the reflex arc.
The following flow chart shows the flow of signal in a reflex arc.

Receptor ⇨ Sensory Neuron ⇨ Relay neuron ⇨ Motor neuron ⇨ Effector (muscle)

The receptor is the organ which comes in the danger zone. The sensory neurons pick signals from the
receptor and send them to the relay neuron. The relay neuron is present in the spinal cord. The spinal cord
sends signals to the effector via the motor neuron. The effector comes in action moves the receptor away
from the danger.

The reflex arc passes at the level of the spinal cord and the signals involved in reflex action do not travel up
to the brain. This is important because sending signals to the brain would involve more time. Although
every action is ultimately controlled by the brain, the reflex action is mainly controlled at the level of spinal
cord.

Muscular Movements and Nervous Control: Muscle tissues have special filaments; called actin and myosin.
When a muscle receives a nerve signal; a series of events is triggered in the muscle. Calcium ions enter the
muscle cells. It results in actin and myosin filaments sliding towards each other and that is how a muscle
contracts. Contraction in a muscle brings movement in the related organ.

The Human Endocrine System

The endocrine system is composed of several endocrine glands. A ductless gland is called endocrine gland.
Endocrine gland secretes its product directly into the bloodstream. Hormones are produced in the
endocrine glands. Hormone is mainly composed of protein. Hormones assist the nervous system in control
and coordination. Nerves do not reach to every nook and corner of the body and hence hormones are
needed to affect control and coordination in those parts. Moreover, unlike nervous control; hormonal
control is somewhat slower.
 Feedback Mechanism
It is important that hormones should be secreted in precise quantities because both excess and deficiency of
hormones has an harmful effect on the body. So we need a mechanism through which this is to be done. The
timing and amount of hormone released by various glands are controlled by ‘ Feedback mechanism’ which is
inbuilt in our body.
For e.g. When we eat a carbohydrate rich meal, the sugar level of the blood rises. It is detected by the cells of
pancreas, which respond by producing and secreting more insulin into the blood. In this way, blood glucose
level is brought back to normal.
And if the blood sugar level falls below normal, insulin secretion by pancreas decreases automatically.

** Consult more examples from reference book

Coordination in Plants:
Unlike animals, plants do not have a nervous system. Plants use chemical means for control and
coordination. Many plant hormones are responsible for various kinds of movements in plants.

Movements in plants can be divided into two main types, viz. tropic movement and nastic movement.

Tropic Movement:
The movements which are in a particular direction in relation to the stimulus are called tropic movements.
Tropic movements happen as a result of growth of a plant part in a particular direction. There are four
types of tropic movements, viz. geotropic, phototropic, hydrotropic and thigmotropic.

a. Geotropic Movement: The growth in a plant part in response to the gravity is called geotropic
movement. Roots usually show positive geotropic movement, i.e. they grow in the direction of
the gravity. Stems usually show negative geotropic movement.

b. Phototropic Movement: The growth in a plant part in response to light is called phototropic
movement. Stems usually show positive phototropic movement, while roots usually show
negative phototropic movement. If a plant is kept in a container in which no sunlight reaches
and a hole in the container allows some sunlight; the stem finally grows in the direction of the
sunlight. This happens because of a higher rate of cell division in the part of stem which is
away from the sunlight. As a result, the stem bends towards the light. The heightened rate of
cell division is attained by increased secretion of the plant hormone auxin in the part which is
away from sunlight.
 c. Hydrotropic Movement: The response of Plants towards water is called hydrotropic
movement. When roots grow in the soil, they usually grow towards the nearest source of
water. This shows a positive hydrotropic movement.

d. Thigmotropic Movement: The growth in a plant part in response to touch is called

thigmotropic movement. Such movements are seen in tendrils of climbers. The tendril grows
in a way so as it can coil around a support. The differential rate of cell division in different parts
of the tendril happens due to action of auxin.

e. Chemotropic Movement: The response of plants towards chemicals is called chemotropic

movements. For example Development of pollen tube towards ovary is due to chemical
response.

Nastic Movement:
The movements which do not depend on the direction from the stimulus acts are called nastic movement.
For example; when someone touches the leaves of mimosa, the leaves droop. The drooping is independent
of the direction from which the leaves are touched. Such movements usually happen because of changing
water balance in the cells. When leaves of mimosa are touched, the cells in the leaves lose water and
become flaccid; resulting in drooping of leaves.

Difference Between Tropic and Nastic Movements:

Plant Hormones