Two main types of components: Active Components and Passive

Components

Active Components: (have directionality)

These devices used for amplification and rectification. The
Semiconductor devices-transistors, diodes are active components.

Passive Components: (Have no directionality)

These devices cannot be used for amplification and rectification. The
Resistors, capacitors, inductors, are passive components.

Resistors
Resistors are passive elements that oppose/restrict the flow
of current.
A voltage is developed across its terminal, proportional to
the current through the resistor.

V = IR Units: Ohms (Ω)

1.Carbon Composition
2.Wire wound
3.Metal film type
4. Carbon Film

Wire Wound Resistor

Wire wound resistor definition

Wire wound resistor is a type of passive component in which
metal wires are used to reduce or restrict the flow of electric
current to a certain level. Construction of wire wound resistor
The wire wound resistor is made by winding the metal wire
around a metal core. In wire wound resistors, metal wire is used
as the resistance element and metal core is used as the non-
conductive material.
 A Nichrome or manganin is commonly used as the metal wires,
because they provide high resistance to the electric current and
operates at high temperature. Most commonly used core materials
include plastic, fiberglass, or ceramic
Resistance range from 1W to 100k W. Power rating 5Watt to 100Watt
Resistance of the wire wound resistor is depends on three factors:

resistivity of the metal wire, length of the metal wire and cross sectional

area of the metal wire

The wire wound resistors are widely used In High voltage and Current
applications

Carbon composition resistor

 Construction
 The carbon composition resistors are made from a solid cylindrical
resistive element with embedded wire leads or metal end caps. The

cylindrical resistive element of the

carbon composition resistor is made from the mixture of carbon or
graphite powder and ceramic (made of clay). The carbon powder
acts as the good conductor of electric current.
The solid cylindrical resistive element is covered with plastic to protect
the resistor from outside heat. The leads made of copper are joined at two
ends of the resistive element. In the early days, no insulating materials
are used in the carbon composition resistors. Hence, even at low
temperature, heat
The carbon composition resistors are available with different resistance
values ranging from one ohm (1Ω) to 22-mega ohms (22 MΩ). easily
enters into the resistor and damages it
Resistance of the carbon composition resistor is depends on three factors:
amount of carbon added, length of solid cylindrical rod, and cross
sectional area of the solid cylindrical rod
Applications of carbon composition resistor
The various applications of carbon composition resistor include:
Current limiting
Protection of circuits
Carbon film resistor
Carbon film resistor definition
The carbon film resistor is a type of fixed resistor that uses carbon film to
restrict the electric current to certain level. These types of resistors are
widely used in the electronic circuits.
Carbon film resistor construction

The carbon film resistor is made by placing the carbon film or carbon
layer on a ceramic substrate. The carbon film acts as the resistive
material to the electric current. Hence, the carbon film blocks some
amount of electric current. The ceramic substrate acts as the insulating
material to the heat or electricity. Hence, the ceramic substrate does not
allow heat through them. Therefore, these resistors can withstand at
higher temperatures without any damage.
Metallic end caps are fitted at both ends of the resistive material. The
leads made of copper are joined at two ends of these metallic end caps.
The resistive element of the carbon film resistor is coated with epoxy for
protection.
Applications of carbon film resistor
RADAR
X-rays
Power supplies
Color Coding
Examples
1). Red Yellow gold gold
2 4 10-1 ±5%
24×10-1 Ώ
2.4Ώ ±5%
2). Red, Red, Green, Gold
2 2 105 ±5%
22×105 Ώ
2200000Ώ ±5%
2.2M Ώ ±5%
3). Yellow, Violate, Orange, Gold
4 7 103 ±5%
47×103 Ώ
47000Ώ ±5%
47K Ώ ±5%

4). Green Blue, Silver Silver

5 6 10-2 ±10%
0.56Ώ ± 5%

What is potentiometer?
A potentiometer is a three terminal resistor in which the
resistance is manually varied to control the flow of electric
current
Construction of potentiometer
The potentiometer consists of three terminals among which two
are fixed and one is variable.
The two fixed terminals of the potentiometer are connected to
both ends of the resistive element called track and third terminal
is connected to the sliding wiper.
The wiper that moves along the resistive element varies the
resistance of the potentiometer.
The resistance of the potentiometer is changed when the wiper is
moved over the resistive path.

The resistive element

of the potentiometer is either flat or angled. If the
resistive element is flat, the wiper moves linearly. On the other hand, if
the resistive element is angled, the wiper moves in a rotary manner.
The materials used to construct the resistive element of the potentiometer
include carbon particles in plastic, graphite, resistive wires, and cermets
(combination of ceramics and metals). Potentiometers are also sometimes
referred as pots.Resistance range 1Ω to 5M Ω
Two types :
1. Linear type : 100 =100 W, 200 =200 W
2. Log Type : 100 = 10 W
• Applications of potentiometers
Potentiometers are used to control volume in audio equipments,
frequency attenuation, changing loudness, and changing other
characteristics of audio signals.
Potentiometers are used in televisions and computers to control the
picture contrast and brightness.
Rheostat
Rheostat is a variable resistor, which is used to control the flow of
electric current by manually increasing or decreasing the resistance.
The zigzag lines with three terminals represent the American standard
symbol of rheostat and the rectangular box with three terminals
represents the international standard symbol of rheostat.

The resistance of the rheostat is depends on the length of the resistive

track
through which electric current is flowing.
If we use the terminals A and B in the rheostat, the minimum resistance
is achieved when we move the slider or
wiper close to the terminal A, because the length of the resistive path
decreases. As a result, only a small amount of electric
current is blocked and large amount of electric current is allowed.
Rheostat is generally used in the applications where high voltage or
current is required.
Rheostats are used to increase or decrease the volume of a radio and to
increase or decrease the speed of an electric motor
Thermistor
Types of thermistors
Thermistors are classified into two types based on how they behave with
the change in temperature:
Negative Temperature Co-efficient (NTC) thermistors
Positive Temperature Co-efficient (PTC) thermistors+
The resistance of the NTC (Negative Temperature Co-efficient)
thermistors decreases with increasing temperature. In other words, the
electric current flow through the NTC (Negative Temperature Co-
efficient+) thermistors increases with the increase in temperature.
T

• Positive Temperature Co-efficient (PTC) thermistors

The resistance of Positive Temperature Co-efficient (PTC) thermistors
increases with Increase in temperature. Most of the PositiveTemperature
Co-efficient (PTC) thermistors
Thermistors are used as temperature sensors.
Thermistors are used in medical equipments
Thermistors are used in home appliances such as ovens, hair dryers,
toasters, refrigerators, etc.

LDR
The resistance changes according to the light incident What is a
Light Dependent Resistoror aon the LDR.

Resistors in Series and Parallel

Series resistor circuit
A series resistor circuit is an electronic circuit in which all the resistors are

connected one after another in the same path so that the same current flows
through each and every resistor.

The total resistance of such a circuit is obtained by simply adding up the

resistance values of the individual resistors.
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 ……..etc
For example, if five resistors are connected in series. Then the total
resistance of the circuit is equal to:
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + R5
All the current flowing through the first resistor has no other path to go.
Hence, it must also pass through the second resistor, third resistor, fourth
resistor, and so on.
Example:
A series resistor circuit is shown in the below figure. This circuit consists
of five resistors that are connected in series and a DC voltage source
Example : The current flowing through each and every resistor would
be1 A

The voltage across resistor (R1) is V1 = I × R1 = 1 × 4 = 4 V

The voltage across resistor (R2) is V2 = I × R2 = 1 × 4 = 4 V
The voltage across resistor (R3) is V3 = I × R3 = 1 × 2 = 2 V
The voltage across resistor (R4) is V4 = I × R4 = 1 × 2 = 2 V
The voltage across resistor (R5) is V5 = I × R5 = 1 × 3 = 3 V
The total voltage in a series circuit is equal to the sum of all the
individual voltages added together
I.e. VT = V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 + ……….+VN
In our circuit, the total voltage is equal to the sum of potential differences
across R1,, R2, R3, R4, and R5.
I.e. VT = V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 + V5 = 4 + 4 + 2 + 2 + 3 = 15 V.
Parallel resistor circuit
A parallel resistor circuit is an electronic circuit in which all the resistors
are connected side by side in different paths so that the same current will
not flows through each resistor. The parallel circuit shows multiple paths
to the electric current to flow.

Example
If the values of the three resistors are: R1 = 8 Ω, R2 = 8 Ω, R3 = 4 Ω and
DC battery = 14 V, then
The total resistance is
As the voltage across each and every resistor is same in parallel circuit,
we can use ohms law to find the individual branch current as follows.
The current through resistor (R1) is I1 = V / R1 = 14 / 8 = 1.75 A
The current through resistor (R2) is
I2 = V / R2 = 14 / 8 = 1.75 A
The current through resistor (R3) is
I3 = V / R3 = 14 / 4 = 3.5 A
Then, the total current is equal to the sum of
individual branch currents
I.e. IT = I1 + I2 + I3 = 1.75 + 1.75 + 3.5 = 7 A
Where Q is charge in coulomb and V is voltage across the plates.1 farad
is a very large unit. It is much more common to use the following:
mF = 10-3 F
μF = 10-6 F
nF = 10-9 F
pF = 10-12 F

Standard Units of Capacitance

 Microfarad (μF) 1μF = 1/1,000,000 = 0.000001 = 10-6 F
 Nanofarad (nF) 1nF = 1/1,000,000,000 = 0.000000001 = 10-9 F
 Picofarad (pF) 1pF = 1/1,000,000,000,000 = 0.000000000001 = 10-12 F

Ɛ0 = permittivity of free space =8.85x10-12 F/M

k = Relative permittivity
A= Area of plates
d = dist. Between the plates
the ability of a substance to store electrical energy in an electric field.

Capacitor Charging

When a capacitor is connected to DC

supply, it acts as a short initially (i.e, offers zero resistance) and full current flows through it. Now
with time charge starts to accumulate on the plates of capacitor, which develops an opposite
voltage difference and reduces the current flow through it.
The current is governed by the equation while charging:

Discharging of Capacitor
Initially voltage on the plates of capacitor is E0. When the switched is
closed., electrons go from negative plate of the capacitor to the positive
plate through the resistor. Therefore the p.d. goes on decreasing. When
the potential difference between the plates of capacitor becomes zero,
there is no discharge current.
Numericals :
1. A Capacitor of 5 uF is charged through resistance of 10MΏ from a
250V Supply. How long does it take the capacitor to charge upto 63.2%
of its final voltage
Ans. : T = RC = 10×106 × 5×10-6 = 50 Seconds
2. If the RC is 5milisecond time constant is connected with a 500pF
in series with resistor. Find the value of resistor used?
×
Ans : T = RC R = = = 10×106 = 10MΏ
×

3. A constant current of 20mA chargs a 25mF capacitor for 10

Second. How much is the voltage across capacitor? How much
charge I stored in a 10 mF capacitor with 30V across it.?

Ans : As, I =

Charge = Q = I×t
= 20×10-3 × 10 = 200×10-3 Columb
×
V= = = 8000V
×

Q = CV = 10×10-6 × 30 = 300×10-6 C = 300 uC

Types of Capacitors :

Fixed Capacitor
Nonpolar Capacitor
1. Paper Capacitor

Paper capacitor is capacitor dielectric materials made from paper. In

general paper capacitor values ranging between 300pF to 4μF. Paper
capacitors doesn’t has polarity poles,so it can be reverse installed in
electronics circuit.
 Paper capacitors are widely used in various applications such as,
 High voltage and high current applications.
 used in electrical and electronic applications.
 Power conditioning systems to block DC signals and allow AC signals.

2. Mica Capacitor

Mica capacitor is capacitor dielectric materials made from mica.

Mica capacitor values generally range between 50pF to 0.02μF. Mica
capacitors doesn’t has polarity poles,so it can be reverse installed in
electronics circuit.

3. Ceramic Capacitor

Ceramic capacitor is made from ceramic materials. This capacitor

has a thin round shaped or rectangular. Ceramic capacitor doesn’t
has polarity poles, so it can be installed in reverse polarity. Ceramic
capacitor values ranging from 1pF to 0.01μF.

Electrolytic Capacitor
Electrolytic capacitors store the electric energy statically by charge
separation in an electric field in the dielectric oxide layer between two
electrodes. The non-solid or solid electrolyte in principle is the cathode,
which thus forms the second electrode of the capacitor.
Aluminium electrolytic capacitors provide a much higher level of capacitance
for a given volume than most ceramic capacitors. This means that high value
electrolytic capacitors can be relatively small.

Capacitance ranges from 5 to 1000 Breakdown voltage is 10 to 450V.

Leakage Current is 0.1 to 0.5mA/
Variable Capacitor
he construction of the variable capacitor is shown below. These capacitors are
frequently used in different applications due to their simple construction. Generally,
these capacitors are made with 2 sets of hemispherical metal plates which are
divided through air gaps. One set of the metal plates is fixed whereas the other one
is connected to a shaft so that the user can allow turning the assembly, thus the
capacitance can be changed when it is needed. So the construction of each type of
capacitor varies based on its type.
Variable Capacitor
Variable Capacitors are useful for tuning in radio receivers.Two or three
capacitors can be ganged on one common shaft.

Capacitor Symbols

Series Combination

1/Ct= 1/CT = 1/C1 + 1/C2

Calculate:
a) the capacitance between points B and C
CT = C1 + C2 = 100 + 250 = 350 μF
b) the capacitance between points A and C
1/CT = 1/C1 + 1/C2 = 1/500 + 1/350
CT = 206 μF

 Problem 1: Two capacitors of capacitance C1 = 6 μ F and C2 = 3 μ F are connected in

series across a cell of emf 18 V. Calculate: The equivalent capacitance
Ratings of Capacitors
Capacitance of capacitor .
Voltage rating (Breakdown voltage) : this specification the max voltage that can be applied
across the plate without puncturing the dielectric

Other specification of capacitor include the tolerance and temperature range

Inductors
An inductor is a passive electronic component which is capable of storing
electrical energy in the form of magnetic energy. Basically, it uses a conductor that
is wound into a coil, and when electricity flows into the coil from the left to the
right, this will generate a magnetic field in the clockwise direction.

Inductance is the ability of a conductor to produce induced voltage when the current
varies. In AC circuits the current is continuously changing and producing induced
voltage. A steady direct current is not affected by inductance.

Self inductance (L) :

The ability of conductor to induce voltage in itself when the current changes is its
‘self inductance; Its unit is henry (H).

One henry is the amount of inductance that induces one volt when the when the
current current changes at the rate of one ampere per second.

=
/
Where VL is in volts and di/dt is the current change in A/s.
Inductance of coil is also given by

, = H

Where
 N is the number of turns
 A is the cross-sectional Area in m2
 is the Permeability of Free space = 1.26×10-6 H/m
 = relative permeability
 l is the Length of the coil in meters

1 mH = 1×10-3 H and 1 H = 1×10-6 H

Typically air core coils have L values in mH or H. But iron core inductors
may have L values upto few H.

Mutual Inductance
Mutual Inductance(Lm): is the interaction of one coils magnetic field on another coil as it
induces a voltage in the adjacent coil. In the previous tutorial we saw that an inductor generates
an induced emf within itself as a result of the changing magnetic field around its own turns

Two coils have mutual inductance of 1 H when current change of 1

Amp/second in one coil induces 1 volt in the other coil.The coefficient of
coupling is

=
 Lm = K Henry

Types of Inductors
Air Core Inductor:
Air core inductors have non-magnetic core such as plastic, ceramic or just air as
suggested by its obvious name.

There is loss of magnetic flux. But there is no loss of Eddy current. Air core coils
are used in RF application Have L values in mH or H.

Iron Core Inductor

As the name implies, the core of these inductors have magnetic materials with some
air gaps in it. ...Magnetic flux leakage is negligible as iron ferromagnetic material.
These inductors provide very low eddy current losses and hysteresis losses.

Symbol
Ferrite Core inductor
These are ferromagnetic, but insulators. They provide high flux density.
This core is a slug that can move in or out of the coil.

Transformer
What is a Transformer?
A transformer is defined as a passive electrical device that transfers electrical energy
from one circuit to another through the process of electromagnetic induction. It is
most commonly used to increase (‘step up’) or decrease (‘step
down’) voltage levels between circuits.
Working Principle of Transformer
The working principle of a transformer is very simple. Mutual induction between
two or more windings (also known as coils) allows for electrical energy to be
transferred between circuits. This principle is explained in further detail below.

In step up transformer , NS>NP, VS>VP and IS<IP, where NS is number of

turns in primary and NP is number turns in secondary

In step down transformer , NS<NP, VS<VP and IS>IP,

 • Voltage Ratio
The ratio of primary voltage to secondary voltage is the voltage ratio
=

• Turn ratio
The ratio of number of turns in primary to the number of turns in
secondary is the turns ratio of transformer.

 Current Ratio
Assuming zero loss for transformer, the power in the secondary is equals
the power in the primary.

VsIs = VpIp, ∴ =

Transformer equation

= = = (Constant)
Types of transformers

1. Power transformer

This transformer has only one winding and several secondary winding. The
primary winding is always connected to AC mains supply. Each secondary winding
induced voltage in proportion to its turns ratio with the primary windings.
2. Isolation transformer

Isolation transformers provide galvanic isolation; no conductive path is present between source
and load. ... Transformers that have a ratio of 1 to 1 between the primary and secondary
windings are often used to protect secondary circuits and individuals from electrical shocks
between energized conductors and earth ground.

3. Auto transformer

An auto transformer consist of one continuous coil with a tapped

connection such as terminal 2 between the end terminals 1 and 3 In fig C
the auto transformer steps up the voltage, in second fig it steps down the
primary voltage connected across the entire coil. Then the secondary
voltage is taken across less than the total turns.
Auto transformer also known as dimmerstats