12/6/2024
CE 361
Module 8
Instructor: Prof.Dr.Nurhan Ecemiş
Learning Objectives
Consolidation settlement in fine grained soils
• Consolidation Analogy
• Magnitude of Settlement/Consolidation in Soils
• Void ratio – pressure plots
• Time dependent consolidation
• Measuring 1-D Consolidation Behavior in Laboratory
• Determination of Cc, Cr, Ca, cv, mv and sc’
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Compressibility of Soil
Superimposed loading causes soil layers to undergo a
certain amount of compression.
The compression of soil layers is due to
• deformation of soil particles
• relocation of soil particles
• expulsion of air from voids
• expulsion of water from the voids, and other reasons. 3
Total settlement consists of three parts
1. Immediate settlement (Elastic compression )
– due to the deformation of dry soils and of moist and saturated soils
without any change in water content (based on elastic theory, elastic
compression)
– change in shape at constant volume, i.e. due to vertical compression
and lateral expansion.
2. Consolidation settlement (plastic deformation)
– due to the volume change in saturated soils caused by the expulsion
of water from the voids.
– is a function of the permeability and compressibility of soil.
3. Creep (Secondary compression)
– Time-dependent, creep-like behavior
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Our objective is now to understand how soils consolidate
with time after loads are placed on them. This a question
of great importance when designing:
– Foundations for all types of structures
– Landfills
– Virtually any other system that rests on the soil
In studying the consolidation of soils, there are two basic
issues to be addressed:
1) Once a load is applied, how much settlement will
occur?
2) On what time scale will the settlement occur?
In the field, when the stress on a saturated clay are increased, the
pore water pressure will increase. Because the k is very small in clay,
some time is required for water to dissipate and stress will be
transferred to the soil skeleton. 5
A historic example of relevance is the Tower of
Pisa. In this case, the builders did not understand
either:
• how to compute soil settlements under structural
loading; or
• how to compute the time scale on which
settlements would occur.
Consequently, over a time scale of centuries, the
soil beneath this famous structure has developed
very significant consolidation settlements. If
unchecked, the structure would ultimately collapse.
Structures are more significantly
affected by differential settlement
rather than total settlement.
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Consolidation
Time-dependent compression of a soil mass)
Before loading After loading
• In sand, the drainage caused by the increase of pore water pressure is
completed immediately, resulting in settlement.
i.e. immediate and consolidation take place simultaneously.
(Hs-Hs’=settlement)
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• In saturated compressible clay, the excess pore water pressure
dissipates very slowly. Thus, the volume change associated with
the expulsion of excess pore water pressure (i.e. consolidation)
may continue long after the immediate settlement.
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Consolidation of
Clayey Soils
Changes in soil as
consolidation
occur
Consolidation Analogy
• The time required for the consolidations to complete (100%) depends on
the permeability of the soil. This might take months or years.
• Therefore, in order to evaluate the amount of settlement at any given
time, knowledge of the magnitude of the final settlement are needed.
• If Dsz is the applied load, then at any instant of time, t:
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The removal of water from the clay layer under the vertical load
reduces the volume of the voids. Therefore, the thickness of the
clay layer reduces.
Swelling: reverse of
consolidation
Superimposed loading increases the total vertical stress in the clay layer.
Because drainage is permitted, any excess pressure generated in the pore water
will dissipate with time (consolidation). Therefore, after the dissipation of excess
pore pressure, the effective stress will become equal to the total stress.
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Magnitude of Settlement/Consolidation in Soils
A general theory for consolidation, incorporating 3D flow is complicated and only
applicable to a very limited range of problems in geotechnical engineering. For the
vast majority of practical settlement problems, it is sufficient to consider that both
seepage and strain take place in one direction only, as one-dimensional
consolidation in the vertical direction.
• Consider the following block diagram for a soil:
• For simplicity in treating the compression of soils, it is assumed that:
a) the soil grains themselves are rigid and incompressible; and
b) the change in volume of a soil is due to a re−arrangement of
the soil grains, leading to a reduction of void volume.
• For most soils, these assumptions are quite valid. 12
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When a soil is subjected to compressive stresses, there will be a
reduction of volume. Most of the volume reduction comes from a
reduction in void volume, as shown below.
Thus, changes in volume in soil are directly related to changes in the
void ratio e. How can we find the change in void ratio?
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Void Ratio – Pressure plots
Continue steps (iii) to
(v) for each
increment of loading.
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Typical e vs log sv’ plot
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If the one−dimensional
compression behavior of soil were
measured, the observed
relationship between void ratio e
and σ′v would be highly nonlinear.
However, if the same behavior
were plotted on a log−linear scale,
the response would appear more
linear.
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Effects of vertical stresses on primary consolidation
• (σv’)c is the maximum vertical
effective stress that the soil has
ever seen in its preceding history. It
is called the pre−consolidation
stress.
• The dimensionless slope of the
virgin compression curve is Cc and
is called the compression index.
Along the virgin compression
curve:
e1 e2 e e
Cc 1 2
log s 2 ' log s 1 ' s '
log 2
s1 '
• The dimensionless slope of the
swelling curve is Cs and is called
the swelling/recompression index.
Along the swelling curve:
e3 e4 e e
Cr C s 3 4
log s 4 ' log s 3 ' s '
log 4
s 3 '17
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• The value of Cc can vary widely, depending on
the soil. Skempton (1944) gave an empirical
correlation:
Cc =0.009(LL-10)
• On most cases, the value of Cr is 1/4 or 1/5 of
the Cc.
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These 3 cases are OC soil.
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Class Example
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Time dependent consolidation
Understanding consolidation rate effects
• Consider the soil deposit shown below.
It is fully consolidated under its own weight, leading to an equilibrium distribution of sv(z),
pw(z) and s`v(z) as shown.
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Analysis of Consolidation - Terzaghi's Theory
The total stress increases when additional
vertical load is first applied. Instantaneously,
the pore water pressure increases by exactly
the same amount. Subsequently there will be
flow from regions of higher excess pore
pressure to regions of lower excess pore
pressure causing dissipation. The effective
stress will change and the soil will consolidate
with time.
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k k
cv = =
mv γw De
γw
Ds '(1 eav )
To estimate the degree of
consolidation of a clay layer at some
time after the load is applied, you
need to know the rate of dissipation
of the excess pore water pressure
(Du).
We get the general equation for one-
dimensional consolidation. This eq.
describes the variation of excess
pore water pressure (Du) with time
and depth.
The solution of any differential eq.
requires a knowledge of the
boundary conditions. 26
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Derive Terzaghi's one-dimensional consolidation equation
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Solution of the consolidation equation
Highly permeable soil layers are located a z=0
and z=2H, the pore water pressure developed
at those points will be immediately dissipated.
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Single drainage Double drainage
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Geotechnical engineers are often concerned with the average degree of
consolidation, U(t), of a whole layer at a particular time rather than the
consolidation at a particular depth.
Sc(t) Sc(t) = Settlement of a clay layer at time t after the load is applied.
U= Sc(max) = Maximum consolidation settlement that the clay will
Sc(max) undergo under a given load.
2H 2H
Sc(t) (Duo )dz (Du )dz Duo=initial pore water pressure
U= 0
2H
0
Sc(max)
(Du )dz
0
o
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Relationship between average degree of consolidation
and time factor
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Lab. one-dimensional consolidation test
Basic Apparatus: The Oedometer
Standard: ASTM D2435
It is used to find Cc, Cr, Ca, cv, mv and sc’
• A disk of soil enclosed in a stiff metal
ring and placed between porous
stones in cylindrical container filled
with water. A metal plate mounted on
top of the upper porous stone
transmits the applied vertical stress
to the soil sample.
• Incremental loads, including the
unloading sequences are applied to
the loading plate. The settlement of
the soil is measured by a
displacement gauge. 35
• For a given increment of compressive vertical stress on the soil
sample, time dependent compression of the soil sample is observed.
• A reduction in height H of the soil layer occurs as a function of time,
eventually reaching an equilibrium value. As H decreases, so does
e.
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Stage I: Due to preloading
Stage II: Due to expulsion of pore
water
Stage III: Due to plastic
readjustment of soil fabric.
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Thickness = 6.3 cm
Height = 2.54 cm
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Over many loading increments, one would see something like that
below. That is, for each value of σ′v, a corresponding equilibrium
value of e is eventually achieved in the soil.
Procedure for Confined Compression Testing:
1) Mount soil specimen in oedometer and
testing machine.
2) Increment total vertical stress σv.
3) Measure H(t), and wait for excess pore fluid
pressure in the soil sample to diffuse.
4) When pore pressure diffusion is complete,
measure the final change in height ∆H of the
specimen;
5) Calculate the associated change in void
ratio of the soil as:
∆e = ∆H/Hs
6) Return to Step #2 and repeat.
7) Upon completion of the test, plot e versus
log (σ′v)
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Typical Load Increment
Each loading increment is
allowed to remain on the soil until
the change in settlement is
negligible. For many soils, this
usually occurs in 24 hours.
Typical time vs. d for each
increment
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Example for applied loads and time periods
during an oedometer test
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Determination of dc
(primary
consolidation) from d
vs. time data?
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Class Example
Plot e versus log sv’
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Methods to determine coefficient of
consolidation from the oedometer tests
• Casagrande’s log-time method
• Taylor’s square root of time method
cv can be determined form the time-settlement data obtained
from a consolidation test during any pressure increment.
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Casagrande’s log-time Method (1938)
𝐜𝐯 t
T = 0.197 =
H
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Taylor’s square root of time method
𝐜𝐯 t
T = 0.848 =
H
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Determination of
pre-consolidation
stress using
Casagrande’s
method:
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Secondary Compression
∆e
C =
∆logt
When consolidation is completed, the excess pore pressure has fully
dissipated at every point within the clay layer. Beyond this time, the clay
continues to settle under constant effective stress. This process is known as
SECONDARY COMPRESSION or CREEP and occurs due to some changes
in the microstructure of the clay fabric. This is more pronounced in organic
clays.
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What is t50 in the field?
We determine t50 in the lab. which is very quick. In the field, the
settlement time has to be much more slower. So how can we find the
t50 in the field?
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50
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Class Example
A clay sample 75mm in diameter and 20mm high, taken from a 10m
clay layer between sand layers. It was tested in the oedometer with
drainage at the upper and lower boundaries. It took the lab sample
15minutes to reach 50% consolidation. Calculate how long it will take
10m clay layer to achieve 50% and 90% consolidation?
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