Nepal Journal of Epidemiology

eISSN 2091-0800

Review Article Open Access

Evolution of technology in teaching: Blackboard and beyond in Medical Education

Jayakumary Muttappallymyalil1, Susirith Mendis2, Lisha Jenny John3, Nisha Shanthakumari4,
Jayadevan Sreedharan5, Rizwana B Shaikh1

Abstract:
Teaching and learning - the passing of knowledge from one generation to another - has been in existence from
the earliest times of human civilization. It began in 1801, with a large piece of slate hung on the wall in a
school in Scotland to provide information to a large audience at one time. In the US by mid-19th century, every
class room had a blackboard to teach students. The modern version of the blackboard is either green or brown
board. This was introduced in late 1960s. The whiteboards came into use during the late 1980s. Projected aids
have been used since 1420. The various devices used are the epidiascope, slide projector, overhead projector
for transparencies and the micro projector. An instrument to project images from a horizontal surface onto a
vertical screen was invented in the 1870s. By the 1960s, transparencies were in use in classrooms.
The ‘Hyalotype’, a transparent image of a photograph using actual black and white photographs on a glass
slide that could be projected was invented in 1851. By 1916, the German company Agfa started producing
colored lantern slides. The first version of PowerPoint was released by Microsoft in the year 1990.
Cell phones, palmtops, and handheld computers; tablets, laptops, and media players are included under mobile
learning devices. With the evolution of technology, students achieved competence and interested in interactive
learning. The education industry has moved from distance learning to e-learning and finally to m-learning as
knowledge expanded exponentially and the demand escalated.
While using teaching aids with advanced technology, we must not forget the lessons from the past, striking a
balance between embracing new methods of teaching and learning while upholding the timeless principles of
education. The newer educational technology can be part of a comprehensive system for lifelong education.

Keyword: Teaching; Blackboard; Medical Education.

Correspondence: Dr. Jayakumary Muttappallymyalil, Professor, Department of Community Medicine, Gulf

Medical University, Ajman, UAE.
Email: [email protected]
Received 15 December 2015/Revised 08 September 2016/Accepted 10 September 2016
Citation:
Muttappallymyalil J, Mendis S, John LJ, Shanthakumari N, Sreedharan J, Shaikh RB. Evolution of technology in
teaching: Blackboard and beyond in Medical Education. Nepal J Epidemiol. 2016;6(3); 588-594.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Copyright © 2016 CEA& INEA. Published online by NepJOL-INASP.

www.nepjol.info/index.php/NJE

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Introduction
Teaching and learning, which is the passing of knowledge The story of technology in teaching and learning is a long one
from one generation to another has been in existence from the extending from the misty past of the early ages of human
earliest times of human civilization. Teaching in primitive civilization to the present times.
societies occurred through the oral tradition and memory The teaching boards
retention. The first primordial step in developing a teaching The need to provide information to a large audience at one
tool was the advent of writing. Hence, the development of a time led to the evolution of teaching boards. The whole class
script and writing can be considered the first ‘teaching tool’. or group of students can visualize the information provided on
Earliest writing may have been on soft surfaces such as the the board. Globally, the classrooms of universities, colleges
ground surface or sand, and the equipment originally, fingers and schools use blackboard, green board, white board (dry-
and then sticks. What is preserved, as the earliest writings are erase board) or the smart boards.
those that were carved on stone tablets. It is of ironic Blackboard: In Europe and United States (US) during the 18 th
significance that today, another kind of tablet is one of the century, teachers and students used clay tablets. The teacher
latest technologies that is used in teaching/learning. went to each student and wrote the lesson on each student’s
The Sumerians emerged as one of the earliest urban societies slate/tablet. In 1801, in Scotland, James Pillans, Head of the
in the world in Southern Mesopotamia more than 5000 years school and geography teacher, hung a large piece of slate on
ago. They developed a writing system whose wedge-shaped the wall to teach the students [6]. George Baron, a
strokes would influence the style of scripts in the same mathematics teacher from the US used the first wall-mounted
geographical area for the next 3000 years [1]. Eventually, all blackboard of connected slates. In the US by mid-19th century,
of these diverse writing systems became known as cuneiform. every class room had a blackboard to teach students. These
By about 3500 BC, various writing systems developed in were made of dark grey or black slate stone [7-10]. Calcium
ancient civilizations around the world. In Egypt, fully carbonate or calcium sulphate sticks were used to write on the
developed hieroglyphs were in use as early as 3400 B.C. One blackboard. The use of the blackboard by a teacher depended
hieroglyphic script was used on stone while other scripts were on his/her ability to draw and write on the board. It provided
written in ink on papyrus [2]. variety of opportunities for modifying the presentation of the
The documented development and use of ‘teaching machines’ subject content. The introduction of blackboard was a new
as against ‘teaching aids’ dates back to the Greek period. innovation that was well accepted by the teachers and it gained
Teaching machines are devices manufactured to demonstrate popularity across the globe.
certain conditions not easily observable. It is the earliest Greenboard and Brownboard: The modern version of the
known use of ‘teaching technology’. Archimedes (287-212 blackboard is either green or brown board. This was
BC) is attributed to have produced the first documented introduced in late 1960s. These boards were steel plate coated
teaching machines to teach astronomy. Cicero (106-43 BC) with porcelain-based enamel, which could be used for a long
had described them and suggested that Thales of Miletus (ca time.
550 BC) had allegedly constructed a globe which was the Whiteboards: The whiteboards or dry-erase boards came into
precursor to it [3]. use during the late 1980s. They have a glossy-white surface
The earliest known ‘technology’ that was used in teaching has for writing. Instead of chalk pencils, whiteboard pens were
to be the stone carver or chisel; if you ignore the sharpened used to write on whiteboards. Considering the health reasons
stick used in writing on the sand. The first known ‘erasable’ and cost-effectiveness, by 1990s most of the class rooms were
tablet used as a teaching aid was when Quintilian got students replaced with whiteboards instead of blackboards [8].
to write on hard wax tablets using a blunt stylus made of wood Interactive Boards: Interactive boards are connected to a
or metal. The wax tablet could be scraped to get a new surface projector which connects with a computer or laptop. The
to write on it again [4]. This was perhaps the first time interactive whiteboards can be mounted on to walls and used
reusable writing material was used; a new technological in any setting. Towards the end of 2000, the Smart Board
innovation. The use of the stone slate and stylus - an ancient came into existence. It is like a dry-erase board that does not
teaching/learning tool before paper and graphite pencils came use pens to mark on it. It has a projector that puts the image on
into common use, was used in rural schools in the developing the board [11].
world as late as the mid-20th century [5]. The teacher could however never reproduce on the boards by
From this beginning, the teaching machines today have either chalk or markers the intricate diagrams in a book. Hence
become the computer, the laptop, the modern tablet and the a teaching aid had to be created to do just that. The
smart phone. epidiascope and the overhead projectors were the results of
that need.
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Projected Teaching Aids: (LANs) and the internet have contributed to a great extent to
Projected aids have been used since antiquity. One of the first the abandonment of the cumbersome audio-visual aids of the
ones to depict this idea was a drawing by Johannes de Fontana past.
in 1420 which showed a monk with a lantern and the side of MS PowerPoint: Bob Gaskins and Dennis Austin developed
the lantern had a translucent window with an image of the the first version of PowerPoint called presenter in 1984 and
devil on it and the image could be projected on the wall. Microsoft released the first version of the software in the year
Several people took inspiration from this and created their own 1990. Before the introduction of PowerPoint a lot of time was
versions. Thomas Rasmusser Walgenstein was the first to call spent drawing and writing on the board/transparencies/slides.
the device a “Lanterna Magica” or the Magic Lanterna [12]. A The introduction of PowerPoint thus saved millions of man-
projected aid is used to enlarge the image of a slide or a hours every year [16]. The prominent place that the
filmstrip and project it on a screen kept at a distance. The chalkboard, whiteboard, and the overhead projector occupied
room is either totally or partially darkened. Since a darkened in the classroom was replaced almost completely by the
room reduces distraction it tends to be an effective teaching ubiquitous PowerPoint presentation. PowerPoint software
aid. Color on the slides makes it more attractive, motion will package has found wide acceptance among the teaching,
make it more dynamic and motion with sound will make it scientific as well as the business community for making
more enticing. Projected aids are useful for small and large presentations.
group learning [13]. The various devices used are the Computer assisted instruction
epidiascope, slide projector, overhead projector for Computer assisted instruction consists of a range of computer
transparencies and the micro projector. The epidiascope is an based packages which focuses on providing interactive
optical device for projecting a magnified image of both instruction in a specific subject area. In the field of education,
transparent and opaque objects onto a screen. The epidiascope computers were used initially in mathematics, science and
is comprised of an episcope and a diascope. In the epi- engineering as a tool for mathematical problem-solving [17].
position, it can project opaque and flat objects such as Around 1900 the use of computers and e-learning were
textbooks, journal pages and drawings. In the dia-position, increasingly incorporated in the teaching/ learning resources in
with the use of a suitable slide carrier slides can be projected. medical schools. In the 1960’s the use of computer-based
Transparencies for overhead projection: French optician materials were used to demonstrate management of acute
Jules Duboscq invented a well-designed instrument to project abdominal pain in emergency care settings [18]. A large
images from a horizontal surface onto a vertical screen during number of high quality computer simulations and computer
the 1870s. When the projector was illuminated the audience programs developed by several medical schools are available
could see images placed on the horizontal surface on a vertical for instruction. The rapid changes in health care delivery
surface. The United States Army was the first to use it in systems and methods of instruction in medical education have
training in World War II. By the early 1960s, Minnesota also been the driving force for including computers as a
Mining and Manufacturing Company (3M) sold transparencies teaching tool [19]. Currently, in most part of the world, there
for classroom use [14]. is an emphasis on the computer-based instruction in medical
Slides: In 1850, William and Frederick Langenheim, from curricula starts right from the beginning of the medical school
Philadelphia invented the ‘Hyalotype’ a transparent image of a training. During the preclinical years, simulations of
photograph using actual black and white photographs on a experiments, interactive atlas of dissections and anatomical
glass slide that could be projected using a Magic Lantern. cross sections and simulation programs for learning clinical
Later, transparent colors were added to the pictures to enrich skills have been incorporated. Case libraries, computer based
the visual experience. By 1873, a German art historian Bruno case simulations, computer modeled patients and clinical
Meyer, manufactured and used projected lantern slides called reasoning programs are being used in the clinical years [20].
Glasphotogramme in art history lectures. In 1892, the new Mobile learning (m–learning):
electric Magic Lantern projectors were introduced. This “A mobile learning educational process can be considered as
technology was embraced with enthusiasm by Hermann any learning and teaching activity that is possible through
Grimm, an art history professor at the University of Berlin. In mobile tools or in settings where mobile equipment is
1916, the German company Agfa started producing colored available” [21]. Cell phones, palmtops, and handheld
lantern slides but it was only after the1920s that it was computers; tablets, laptops, and media players can all be
available outside Germany [15]. included under mobile learning devices [22].
Software package With the evolution of technology, also evolving is a generation
The wide availability of computers, laptops, the low cost of which has a preference for multimedia to written texts; who
convenient storage media and the ease with which teaching have grown up with increasing attachment to technological
materials can be distributed through local area networks innovations and are interested in interactive learning [23-25].
590
The education industry has also been affected by these inbuilt powerful fans the pages of the books exposed to the
changes resulting in a transformation in knowledge delivery intense heat can become dehydrated and get damaged. The
using information technology and digital media; from distance light scattered from the book source is less than 20% and the
learning to e-learning and finally to m-learning as is seen image formed on the screen may not be bright. Therefore, the
today. It was only around 2005 that the term m-learning room needs to be totally darkened [13, 29].
became known. It was first used to channel e-learning which Transparencies however can be projected in normal lighting to
was being imparted on desktop computers. However, the lack large audiences and the presenter can face the audience. It is
of functionality, processing speed and battery life served as easy to prepare with materials that are readily available. The
limitations of this approach [26]. In the latter part of 2000s presenter can use strips of opaque paper or cardboard to cover
with the introduction of tablets and iPhones the trend shifted to sections to progressively disclose information [29, 30]. The
greater mobility adding a boost to m-learning. disadvantage is that it cannot be used without electricity and
storage is difficult as the transparencies can stick to each other.
Discussion The projector head can get in the way of audience’s view and
some presenters feel confined to the machine because they
As stated by [27], a teaching aid assists the teacher in teaching have to manually change each transparency by hand. Another
a topic, does only a part of the job and is controlled and drawback is that it is not suitable for photographic material.
administered by the teacher. These aids encompass many Slides overcame this drawback with its ability to show full-
kinds of tools starting from the basic Blackboard to the most resolution photographs. The disadvantages are that it requires
modern mobile teaching aids. The clarity of the lesson a screen, a slide carousel, projection equipment, and power
depends on the type of teaching aids. The choice of teaching and at least partial darkness for viewing. The order of the
aid used depends fundamentally on the task to be slides is fixed in the frame strip making any last-minute
accomplished. additions or changes difficult. Duplication of color slides is
Black, green brown & white boards difficult or often impossible in resource limited settings [29,
As an old method of teaching aid, the blackboard has 31].
advantages of being inexpensive reusable, allow students to MS PowerPoint, Computer assisted instruction, Mobile
keep pace with the teacher and not dependent on electricity. learning (m–learning):
The chalk used for writing requires no special care, is cheaper, The subject content, the learning objectives and learner types
without any smell, good impact on presenting written and are the primary factors that determine the effectiveness of the
visual ideas. The disadvantages include time consumption to software package in the learning setting [32]. Although the
write, not being very effective for a large audience, content software package has many features that can be used to
cannot be retrieved once erased and chalk dust may cause promote learning and teaching, it is rarely that one sees
respiratory problems [28]. The green board is more pleasing to teachers incorporating these aspects into their presentations
the eye than black, lighter in weight, more durable and cost- [33]. Among the facilities underutilized is the opportunity for
effective. Dust formed while cleaning the board was the only “builds” that may be used to show, for example, variations
disadvantage which led to the development of chalk-free white from the normal in a progressive manner [34]. The choice of
boards. Washable or permanent ink markers of multiple colors font types and sizes that facilitates reading and the factors
can be used on such boards as the background is white. There related to the design that promote or hinder the recall of
boards are convenient for drawing diagrams and highlighting. information have been described. The judicious use of the
The pens used for writing and the solvents used for cleaning features available would help the instructor to produce slides
have pungent smell and are expensive. Sometimes solvents are that play an important role in conveying the key messages
required for cleaning the whiteboard when permanent ink effectively [35, 36]. The slides can be used by both by the
markers are used. Added to this is the fundamental limitation teachers as well as the learners. Few presenters use the
that reproducibility of figures was limited by the drawing interactive features available in PowerPoint; instead of relying
skills of the teachers. on text, sound and animation, thus leading to the
Epidiascope, Transparencies for overhead projection, categorization of the common use of the package as a “weak”
Slides: form of multimedia [37]. Text-heavy slides with inappropriate
The epidiascope was used to project any non-transparent and incorrectly used images and symbols abound in many
pictures, photographs, charts, sketches, 3-dimensional objects classroom settings [38]. The practice of many teachers
and hand written materials. The reason for its popularity was providing slides that are loaded with text to their students may
the ease of use by busy practitioners [29] and the fact that it be attributed to the fondness of some students for slides of this
obviates the need for making slides and transparencies. The format, which obviates them from the need of having to take
disadvantages of using an epidiascope is that in spite of having notes. Some critics refer to the emphasis of the use of
591
unnecessary animations as that which interferes with the Based Learning case videos which once copied into the device
presentation of clear ideas. are easily available for the students to revise as and when they
Apart from PowerPoint, other Computer based materials can desire [42]. PDAs can also serve as knowledge data bases as
enhance or supplement lectures and other tradition methods of they are a resource for various activities like accessing
instruction. Computer aided instruction is readily accessible in electronic texts, patient tracking and obtaining drug
electronic format. It is reproducible, can create an interactive information [43-46]. The small screens of the handy mobile
environment and can mimic clinical situations in medical devices however pose a difficulty in viewing a large amount
practice. Computers have the advantage of presenting a large of text or vivid graphical representations. Compared with the
number of images, images with sounds, animations and video larger screens offered by desktop or laptop computers this is
clips. The information can be easily accessed by students at especially limiting [42]. While portability is an important
home and enables individualized learning at their own pace advantage it also increases the threat of damage or loss and
and time [20]. It assists in the understanding of the theoretical can put the security and confidentiality of information at risk;
concepts when it is applied in a simulated setting. The hence the necessity of password protection and file encryption.
effectiveness of this method of instruction has been The ease of connectivity helps in easy information transfer
documented in terms of knowledge acquisition and meeting among students, nevertheless it is essential to inculcate the
learning objectives [39]. A well-structured computer-assisted value of confidentiality, responsibility and other aspects of
session is enjoyable and appealing and maintains the interest professional practice. This is especially so in medical practice
of the student [39]. Computer aided instruction reduces the where confidentiality of patient or cadaver images is at stake
expenses in terms of laboratory costs and consumables. It is a [42]. Other activities in a professional environment could be
useful aid to demonstrate difficult and time consuming disrupted if basic etiquette of mobile use is not followed
experiments; it can extend the learning experience to a large during work time [9, 47]. In view of ongoing compatibility
number of students [20]. The case scenarios in the computer issues of these devices, newer generations are being produced
program are effective in imparting knowledge in terms of to combine greater ranges of functions, fidelity and usability.
short-term knowledge gain and problem-solving abilities, but This ensures that use of mobile devices will most likely
cannot replace patients in the clinical settings [20]. Technical become an integral part of education in years to come.
difficulties are often encountered during sessions which could
be resolved with appropriate IT assistance [40]. Integration of Conclusion
computer-based resources into modules and learning strategies
in the curriculum have been often ignored due to the high cost Use of technology in education has come a long way since the
involved in acquiring appropriate computing materials [41]. earliest times of human civilization. While embarking on aids
Another challenge faced by institutions is the resistance of with advanced technology, we need to take full cognizance of
faculty to adopt computer-based material or to operate these the lessons from the past, striking a balance between
programs in the context of their teaching [20]. embracing new methods of teaching and learning while
When compared to computers the small size of the mobile holding on to the timeless principles of education. Thus, the
devices make them portable, helping the doctors or students to newer educational technology can be effective tools of
enter patient details, transfer them immediately and be able to teaching and learning in this rapidly changing technological
retrieve the information online without being restrained by world and be part of a comprehensive system for lifelong
location [42]. Desktop or laptop computers are relatively more education.
expensive than mobile devices in spite of the fact that these Authors’ contributions:
devices have to be replaced frequently as they could become JM, SM, LJJ, NS, JS, RBS -Concept, retrieving the articles
outdated just like any other technology [42]. The short and preparing the review. SM-Editing the manuscript.
message system (SMS) available in mobile phones can help in Authors’ affiliations:
1
alerting all the students about changes in schedules or alerts on Dept. of Community Medicine, Gulf Medical University,
any issues. This is of importance especially owing to the fact Ajman, UAE.
2
that medical students are highly mobile, balancing schedules Medical Education Unit, Gulf Medical University, Ajman,
on campus and off campus [43]. Personal Digital Assistants UAE.
3
(PDAs) and smartphones have a variety of productivity tools Dept. of Pharmacology, Gulf Medical University, Ajman,
such as memos, address lists and calendars that provide greater UAE.
4
support to the teacher for class management [43-45]. Hand Dept. of Physiology, Gulf Medical University, Ajman, UAE.
5
held devices like PDA are ideal for playing podcasts as they Statistical Support Facility, Gulf Medical University, Ajman,
can play audio and video files. Videos of simulated patients or UAE.
sometimes even real patients can be used to design Problem
592
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