Ch-6 EVOLUTION
• Evolution is an orderly change from one form to another.
• Evolutionary Biology is the study of the evolutionary history of life forms.
ORIGIN OF LIFE
- The Big Bang Theory states that the universe originated about 20 billion years ago by a singular huge
explosion.
- The earth was formed about 4.5 billion years ago.
- There was no atmosphere on early Earth. Water vapour, CH4, CO2 & NH3 released from molten mass covered
the surface.
- The UV rays from the sun broke up water into H2 and O2.
- Oxygen combined with NH3 & CH4 to form water, CO2etc.
- The ozone layer was formed. As it cooled, the water vapour fell as rain to form oceans.
- Life appeared almost four billion years ago.
THEORIES OF ORIGIN OF LIFE
1. Theory of spontaneous generation (Abiogenesis): It states that life came out of decaying and rotting
matter like straw, mud etc.
Louis Pasteur disproved this theory. He demonstrated that life comes only from pre-existing life.
He showed that life did not come from killed yeast in a closed pre-sterilized flask. But in an opened flask,
life (microbes) appeared.
2. Biogenesis: Proposed by Francisco Redi, Spallanzani & Louis Pasteur. It states that life originates from
pre-existing life. But it does not explain the origin of first life.
3. Cosmic theory (Theory of Panspermia): It states that the units of life (spores) were transferred to
different planets including Earth.
4. Theory of special creation: It states that living things were created by some supernatural power (God).
5. Theory of chemical evolution: Proposed by Oparin & Haldane. It states that the first form of life was
originated from non-living inorganic & organic molecules such as CH4, NH3, H2O, sugars, proteins, nucleic
acids etc. i.e. “Abiogenesis first, but biogenesis ever since”.
Urey-Miller experiment
- Harold Urey & Stanley Miller experimentally proved the theory of chemical evolution. They created a
conditions like that of primitive earth (i.e. high temperature, volcanic storms, reducing atmosphere with CH4,
NH3, H2O, H2etc).
- They made electric discharge in a closed flask containing CH4, NH3, H2 and water vapour at 800o C. As a
result, some amino acids are formed.
- In similar experiments, others observed the formation of sugars, nitrogen bases, pigment and fats.
The first non-cellular forms of life originated 3 billion years ago. They were self-replicating metabolic
capsules containing RNA, proteins, Polysaccharides etc.
EVIDENCES FOR EVOLUTION
1. Paleontological evidences
Paleontology is the study of fossils.
Fossils are remnants of life forms found in rocks (earth crust). They are written documents of evolution.
Significance of fossils:
a. To study phylogeny (evolutionary history or race history). E.g. Horse evolution.
b. To study the connecting link between two groups of organisms. E.g. Archaeopteryx.
c. To study about extinct animals. E.g. Dinosaurs.
d. To study about geological period by analysing fossils in different sedimentary rock layers. The study
showed that life forms varied over time and certain life forms are restricted to certain geological time spans.
2. Morphological & Anatomical evidences
Comparative anatomy and morphology show that different forms of animals have some common structural
features. This can be explained as follows:
a. Homologous organs
- Homologous organs are the organs that have fundamentally
similar structure and origin but different functions. This phenomenon is called Homology.
- E.g. Human hand, Whale’s flippers, Bat’s wing & Cheetah’s foot. These forelimbs have different functions
but similar anatomical structures such as bones (e.g. humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals &
phalanges).
- Homology is also seen in the heart, brain etc.
- Homology in plants: E.g. Thorns of Bougainvillea and tendrils of Cucurbita.
- The origin of homologous organs is due to Divergent evolution. It is the evolution by which related
species become less similar to survive and adapt to different environmental conditions.
- Homology indicates common ancestry.
b. Analogous organs
These are the organs that have similar functions but different structure & origin. This phenomenon is
called Analogy. E.g.
• Wings of insects (formed of a thin flap of chitin) and wings of birds (modified forelimbs).
• Eyes of Octopus (retina from skin) and mammals (retina from embryonic brain).
• Flipper of Penguins and Dolphins.
• Sweet potato (modified root) & Potato (modified stem).
• Trachea of insects (from ectoderm) and lungs of vertebrates (from endoderm).
The origin of analogous organs is due to Convergent evolution. It is the evolution by which unrelated
species become more similar to survive and adapt in similar environmental conditions.
3. Adaptive radiation (Biogeographical evidences)
Adaptive radiation (evolution by adaptation) is the evolution of different species from an ancestor in a
geographical area starting from a point. It is a type of divergent evolution. E.g.
o Darwin’s finches in Galapagos Islands.
o Australian marsupials (Marsupial radiation).
o Placental mammals in Australia.
When more than one adaptive radiation is appeared in an isolated geographical area, it results in convergent
evolution.
E.g. Australian Marsupials and Placental mammals.
Placental mammals Australian Marsupials
Mole Marsupial mole
Ant eater Numbat (Ant eater)
Mouse Marsupial mouse
Lemur Spotted cuscus
Flying squirrel Flying phalanger
Bobcat Tasmanian tiger cat
Wolf Tasmanian wolf
4. Biochemical evidences
- Organisms show similarities in proteins, genes, other biomolecules & metabolism. It indicates common
ancestry.
5. Embryological evidences
- Proposed by Ernst Haeckel.
- He observed that all vertebrate embryos have some common features that are absent in adults.
- E.g. all vertebrate embryos (including humans) develop vestigial gill slits just behind the head. But, it is
functional only in fish and not found in other adult vertebrates.
- However, Karl Ernst von Baer rejected this proposal. He noted that embryos never pass through the
adult stages of other animals.
6. Evidences for evolution by natural selection
Natural selection is the process in which organisms with better favourable & heritable variation are survived and
reproduced.
Some evidences are given below:
§ Industrial melanism: In England, before industrialization (1850s), there were more white-winged moths
(Biston betularia) on trees than dark-winged or melanised moths (Biston carbonaria). After industrialization
(1920), more dark-winged moths and less white-winged moths were developed.
Reason:
Before industrialization: There was white lichens covered the trees. In that background, white-winged
moths survived but dark-winged moths were picked out by predators.
After industrialization: The tree trunks became dark due to industrial smoke and soot. No growth of lichens.
So white-winged moths did not survive because the predators identified them easily. Dark-winged moth
survived because of suitable dark background.
Development of resistant varieties in organisms against herbicides, pesticides, antibiotics or drugs etc.
These are examples of natural selection by anthropogenic action (evolution due to human activities).
THEORIES OF BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION
Lamarckism (Theory of Inheritance of Acquired characters)
It is proposed by Lamarck. It states that the evolution of life forms occurred by the inheritance of acquired
characters.
Acquired characters are developed by the use & disuse of organs.
o Evolution by use of organs: E.g. Long neck of a giraffe is due to continuous elongation to forage leaves
on trees. This acquired character was inherited to succeeding generations.
o Evolution by disuse: E.g. Disappearance of limbs in snakes.
This theory was eliminated out because it is proved that the characters are inherited only through genes.
Darwinism (Theory of Natural selection)
- Proposed by Charles Darwin.
- It was based on observations during a sea voyage in a sail ship called H.M.S. Beagle.
- Alfred Wallace (a naturalist who worked in Malay Archepelago) had also come to similar conclusions.
- The work of Thomas Malthus on populations influenced Darwin.
Darwinism is based on 2 key concepts:
• Branching descent: It explains that all organisms are modified descendants of previous life forms.
• Natural selection: Consider a bacterial colony A growing on a given medium. If the medium
composition is changed, only a part of the population can survive under new conditions. This variant
population (B) outgrows the others and appears as a new species, i.e. B is better than A under new
conditions. Thus, nature selects for fitness.
Natural selection is based on the following facts:
• Heritable minor variations: It is either beneficial or harmful to the organisms.
• Overproduction: Population size grows exponentially due to maximum reproduction (E.g. bacterial
population).
• Limited natural resources: Resources are not increased in accordance with the population size.
• Struggle for existence: It is the competition among organisms for resources so that population size is
limited.
• Survival of the fittest: In the struggle for existence, organisms with beneficial variations can utilize
resources better. Hence, they survive and reproduce. This is called Survival of the fittest. It leads to a
change in population characteristics and new forms appear.
• Darwin ignored about the origin of variation and the mechanism of evolution or speciation.
MECHANISM OF EVOLUTION
- Hugo de Vries proposed the Mutation Theory of evolution.
- He conducted experiments on Oenothera lamarckiana
(evening primrose) and believed that evolution takes place through mutation and not by minor variation.
- Darwinian variation is minor, slow and directional. It results in gradual evolution.
- Mutational variation is sudden, random & directionless. Here, speciation is by saltation (single step, large
mutation).
- Mutation is the origin of variation for evolution.
HARDY-WEINBERG PRINCIPLE
• It states that allele frequencies in a population are stable and is constant from generation to generation
in the absence of disturbing factors.
• The gene pool (total genes and their alleles in a population) remains a constant. This is called genetic
equilibrium (Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium).
• Sum total of all the allelic frequencies = 1
• E.g. Consider, in a diploid, p & q are the frequencies of alleles A & a respectively.
Frequency of AA = p2
Frequency of aa = q2
Frequency of Aa = 2pq
Hence p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 [binomial expansion of (p+q)2]
Change of frequency of alleles in a population disturbs Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. This change is due to
evolution.
Factors affecting Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium
• Gene migration: Gene flow from one population to another. Here gene frequencies change in both
populations. Gene flow occurs if migration happens multiple times.
• Genetic drift: The gene flow by chance causing change in frequency. Sometimes, the change in
frequency is so different in the new sample of population that they become a different species. The
original drifted population becomes founders and the effect is called founder effect.
• Mutation: It results in formation of new phenotypes. Over few generations, this leads to speciation.
• Genetic recombination: Reshuffling of gene combinations during crossing over resulting in genetic
variation.
• Natural selection: It is 3 types.
• Stabilizing selection: Here, more individuals acquire mean character value and variation is reduced.
• Directional selection: Individuals of one extreme (value other than mean character value) are more
favoured.
• Disruptive selection: Individuals of both extremes (peripheral character value at both ends of the
distribution curve) are more favoured.
A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF EVOLUTION
The geological time scale includes 4 eras: Proterozoic, Palaeozoic, Mesozoic & Cenozoic.
1. Proterozoic era: 2500 - 541 million yrs ago (mya)
• 2000 mya: First cellular forms of life appeared.
• Some of the cells had the ability to release O2 as the light reaction in photosynthesis.
• Single-celled organisms became multicellular organisms.
2. Palaeozoic era (540 - 252 mya)
• It has 6 periods: Cambrian (540 - 490 mya), Ordovician (490 - 443 mya), Silurian (425
mya), Devonian (405 mya),Carboniferous (360 mya) & Permian (285 mya).
• 500 mya: Invertebrates were formed.
• 450 mya: First land organisms (plants) appeared.
• 400 mya: Arthropods invaded the land.
• 350 mya: Jawless fishes were evolved.
Lobefins (stout & strong-finned fishes) could move on land and go back to water. They evolved to first
amphibians (ancestors of modern-day frogs & salamanders).
In 1938, a lobe-fin called coelacanth fish was caught in South Africa which was thought to be extinct.
• 320 mya: Seaweeds and few plants existed.
• Amphibians evolved into reptiles. They lay thick-shelled eggs (do not dry up in sun).
• Giant ferns (Pteridophytes) were present but they all fell to form coal deposits slowly.
3. Mesozoic era (252 - 66 mya)
• Age of reptiles and gymnosperms.
• It has 3 periods: Triassic (230 mya), Jurassic (208 mya) & Cretaceous (144 mya).
• 200 mya: Some of the land reptiles went back into the water to evolve into fish-like reptiles (E.g.
Ichthyosaurs).
• The land reptiles were dinosaurs (Tyrannosaurus rex, Triceratops, Stegosaurus, Brachiosaurus etc.)
• T. rex was the largest dinosaur (20 feet in height, huge fearsome dagger-like teeth).
• Toothed birds were emerged.
4. Cenozoic era (66 - 0 mya)
• Age of Mammals & Angiosperms.
• It has 2 periods: Tertiary (66 mya) & Quaternary (2 mya - Age of man).
• 65 mya: Dinosaurs suddenly disappeared. Some say climatic changes killed them. Some say most of
them evolved into birds.
• The first mammals were shrew-like. Their fossils are small sized.
• In South America, there were mammals resembling horse, hippopotamus, bear, rabbit etc. Due
to continental drift, when South America joined North America, these animals were overridden by North
American fauna.
• Due to continental drift, Australian marsupials survived because of lack of competition from any other
mammals.
ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF MAN
• 15 mya: Dryopithecus & Ramapithecus.
➢ Hairy. Walked like gorillas & chimpanzees.
➢ Dryopithecus: ape-like.
➢ Ramapithecus: man-like.
• 3-4 mya: Man-like primates walked upright in eastern
➢ Africa. Height up to 4 feet. This belief is based on fossils of man-like bones found in Ethiopia &
Tanzania.
• 2 mya: Australopithecus. Lived in East African grass lands. Hunted with stone weapons. Ate fruits.
•
• Homo habilis: First human-like being (hominid).
➢ Brain capacity: 650-800 cc. Did not eat meat.
• 1.5 mya: Homo erectus (Java man). Large brain (900 cc). Ate meat.
• 1 lakh - 40,000 yrs ago: Homo neanderthalensis (Neanderthal man).
➢ Brain capacity: 1400 cc. Lived in East & Central Asia. Used hides to protect their body. Buried their
dead.
• 75,000 - 10,000 yrs ago (ice age): Homo sapiens (Modern man).
➢ Prehistoric cave art developed about 18,000 years ago. E.g. Cave paintings at Bhimbetka rock shelter
in Raisen district of Madhya Pradesh.
➢ Agriculture & settlements: 10,000 years ago.
Sequence of Human evolution:
Dryopithecus
Ramapithecus
Australopithecus
Homo habilis
Homo erectus
Homo neanderthalensis
Homo sapiens
