Error Detection in Computer Networks-

Error detection is a technique that is used to check if any error occurred in the data during the
transmission.

Some popular error detection methods are-

1. Single Parity Check

2. Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
3. Checksum

Checksum-
Checksum is an error detection method.

Error detection using checksum method involves the following steps-

Step-01:
At sender side,

 If m bit checksum is used, the data unit to be transmitted is divided into segments of m bits.
 All the m bit segments are added.
 The result of the sum is then complemented using 1’s complement arithmetic.
 The value so obtained is called as checksum.

Step-02:
The data along with the checksum value is transmitted to the receiver.

Step-03:
At receiver side,

 If m bit checksum is being used, the received data unit is divided into segments of m bits.
 All the m bit segments are added along with the checksum value.
 The value so obtained is complemented and the result is checked.

Then, following two cases are possible-

 Case-01: Result = 0

If the result is zero,

 Receiver assumes that no error occurred in the data during the transmission.
 Receiver accepts the data.

Case-02: Result ≠ 0

If the result is non-zero,

 Receiver assumes that error occurred in the data during the transmission.
 Receiver discards the data and asks the sender for retransmission.

Checksum Example-

Consider the data unit to be transmitted is-

10011001111000100010010010000100

Consider 8 bit checksum is used.

Step-01:

At sender side,

The given data unit is divided into segments of 8 bits as-

Now, all the segments are added and the result is obtained as-

 10011001 + 11100010 + 00100100 + 10000100 = 1000100011

 Since the result consists of 10 bits, so extra 2 bits are wrapped around.
 00100011 + 10 = 00100101 (8 bits)
 Now, 1’s complement is taken which is 11011010.
 Thus, checksum value = 11011010

Step-02:

 The data along with the checksum value is transmitted to the receiver.

Step-03:

At receiver side,

 The received data unit is divided into segments of 8 bits.

 All the segments along with the checksum value are added.
 Sum of all segments + Checksum value = 00100101 + 11011010 = 11111111
 Complemented value = 00000000
 Since the result is 0, receiver assumes no error occurred in the data and therefore accepts it.

Important Notes-

Note-01:

 Consider while adding the m bit segments, the result obtained consists of more than m bits.
 Then, wrap around the extra bits and add to the result so that checksum value consists of m bits.

Note-02:

 While calculating the checksum, if checksum value is needed, then assume it to be zero.
 After calculating the checksum value, substitute the checksum value in the checksum field.
 This will be required during checksum calculation of IP Header, TCP Header and UDP Header.

Note-03:

 The checksum is used in the internet by several protocols although not at the data link layer.

PRACTICE PROBLEM BASED ON CHECKSUM ERROR DETECTION METHOD-

Problem-

Checksum value of 1001001110010011 and 1001100001001101 of 16 bit segment is-

1. 1010101000011111
2. 1011111000100101
3. 1101010000011110
4. 1101010000111111

Solution-

We apply the above discussed algorithm to calculate the checksum.

 1001001110010011 + 1001100001001101 = 10010101111100000

 Since, the result consists of 17 bits, so 1 bit is wrapped around and added to the result.
 0010101111100000 + 1 = 0010101111100001
 Now, result consists of 16 bits.
 Now, 1’s complement is taken which is 1101010000011110
 Thus, checksum value = 1101010000011110

Thus, Option (C) is correct.

 Error Detection in Computer Networks | Parity Check
Error Detection in Computer Networks-

When sender transmits data to the receiver, the data might get scrambled by noise or data might get
corrupted during the transmission.

Error detection is a technique that is used to check if any error occurred in the data during the
transmission.

Error Detection Methods-

Some popular error detection methods are-

1. Single Parity Check

2. Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
3. Checksum

In this article, we will discuss about Single Parity Check.

Single Parity Check-

In this technique,

 One extra bit called as parity bit is sent along with the original data bits.
 Parity bit helps to check if any error occurred in the data during the transmission.

Steps Involved-

Error detection using single parity check involves the following steps-
 Step-01:

At sender side,

 Total number of 1’s in the data unit to be transmitted is counted.

 The total number of 1’s in the data unit is made even in case of even parity.
 The total number of 1’s in the data unit is made odd in case of odd parity.
 This is done by adding an extra bit called as parity bit.

Step-02:
The newly formed code word (Original data + parity bit) is transmitted to the receiver.

Step-03:
At receiver side,

 Receiver receives the transmitted code word.

 The total number of 1’s in the received code word is counted.

Then, following cases are possible-

 If total number of 1’s is even and even parity is used, then receiver assumes that no error occurred.
 If total number of 1’s is even and odd parity is used, then receiver assumes that error occurred.
 If total number of 1’s is odd and odd parity is used, then receiver assumes that no error occurred.
 If total number of 1’s is odd and even parity is used, then receiver assumes that error occurred.

Parity Check Example-

Consider the data unit to be transmitted is 1001001 and even parity is used.

Then,

At Sender Side-

 Total number of 1’s in the data unit is counted.

 Total number of 1’s in the data unit = 3.
 Clearly, even parity is used and total number of 1’s is odd.
 So, parity bit = 1 is added to the data unit to make total number of 1’s even.
 Then, the code word 10010011 is transmitted to the receiver.
 At Receiver Side-

 After receiving the code word, total number of 1’s in the code word is counted.
 Consider receiver receives the correct code word = 10010011.
 Even parity is used and total number of 1’s is even.
 So, receiver assumes that no error occurred in the data during the transmission.

Advantage-

 This technique is guaranteed to detect an odd number of bit errors (one, three, five and so on).
 If odd number of bits flip during transmission, then receiver can detect by counting the number of
1’s.

Checksum

Limitation-

 This technique can not detect an even number of bit errors (two, four, six and so on).
 If even number of bits flip during transmission, then receiver can not catch the error.

EXAMPLE

 Consider the data unit to be transmitted is 10010001 and even parity is used.
 Then, code word transmitted to the receiver = 100100011
 Consider during transmission, code word modifies as 101100111. (2 bits flip)
 On receiving the modified code word, receiver finds the number of 1’s is even and even parity is
used.
 So, receiver assumes that no error occurred in the data during transmission though the data is
corrupted.

To gain better understanding about single parity check,

Cyclic Redundancy Check

Cyclic Redundancy Check | CRC | Example Error Detection in Computer

Networks-

Error detection is a technique that is used to check if any error occurred in the data during the
transmission.

Some popular error detection methods are-

1. Single Parity Check
2. Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
3. Checksum

Cyclic Redundancy Check-

 Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) is an error detection method.

 It is based on binary division.

CRC Generator-

 CRC generator is an algebraic polynomial represented as a bit pattern.

 Bit pattern is obtained from the CRC generator using the following rule-

The power of each term gives the position of the bit and the coefficient gives the value of the bit.

Example-

Consider the CRC generator is x7 + x6 + x4 + x3 + x + 1.

The corresponding binary pattern is obtained as-

Thus, for the given CRC generator, the corresponding binary pattern is 11011011.

Properties Of CRC Generator-

The algebraic polynomial chosen as a CRC generator should have at least the following properties-

Rule-01:

 It should not be divisible by x.

 This condition guarantees that all the burst errors of length equal to the length of polynomial are
detected.

Rule-02:
 It should be divisible by x+1.
 This condition guarantees that all the burst errors affecting an odd number of bits are detected.

Important Notes-

If the CRC generator is chosen according to the above rules, then-

 CRC can detect all single-bit errors

 CRC can detect all double-bit errors provided the divisor contains at least three logic 1’s.
 CRC can detect any odd number of errors provided the divisor is a factor of x+1.
 CRC can detect all burst error of length less than the degree of the polynomial.
 CRC can detect most of the larger burst errors with a high probability.

Steps Involved-

Error detection using CRC technique involves the following steps-

Step-01: Calculation Of CRC At Sender Side-

At sender side,

 A string of n 0’s is appended to the data unit to be transmitted.

 Here, n is one less than the number of bits in CRC generator.
 Binary division is performed of the resultant string with the CRC generator.
 After division, the remainder so obtained is called as CRC.
 It may be noted that CRC also consists of n bits.

Step-02: Appending CRC To Data Unit-

At sender side,

 The CRC is obtained after the binary division.

 The string of n 0’s appended to the data unit earlier is replaced by the CRC remainder.

Step-03: Transmission To Receiver-

 The newly formed code word (Original data + CRC) is transmitted to the receiver.

Step-04: Checking at Receiver Side-

At receiver side,

 The transmitted code word is received.

 The received code word is divided with the same CRC generator.
 On division, the remainder so obtained is checked.
 The following two cases are possible-

Case-01: Remainder = 0

If the remainder is zero,

 Receiver assumes that no error occurred in the data during the transmission.
 Receiver accepts the data.

Case-02: Remainder ≠ 0

If the remainder is non-zero,

 Receiver assumes that some error occurred in the data during the transmission.
 Receiver rejects the data and asks the sender for retransmission.

PRACTICE PROBLEMS BASED ON CYCLIC REDUNDANCY CHECK (CRC)-

Problem-01:

A bit stream 1101011011 is transmitted using the standard CRC method. The generator polynomial is
x4+x+1. What is the actual bit string transmitted?

Solution-

 The generator polynomial G(x) = x4 + x + 1 is encoded as 10011.

 Clearly, the generator polynomial consists of 5 bits.
 So, a string of 4 zeroes is appended to the bit stream to be transmitted.
 The resulting bit stream is 11010110110000.

Now, the binary division is performed as-

 From here, CRC = 1110.

Now,

 The code word to be transmitted is obtained by replacing the last 4 zeroes of

11010110110000 with the CRC.
 Thus, the code word transmitted to the receiver = 11010110111110.

Problem-02:
A bit stream 10011101 is transmitted using the standard CRC method. The generator
polynomial is x3+1.

1. What is the actual bit string transmitted?

2. Suppose the third bit from the left is inverted during transmission. How will receiver detect this
error?
 Solution-

Part-01:

 The generator polynomial G(x) = x3 + 1 is encoded as 1001.

 Clearly, the generator polynomial consists of 4 bits.
 So, a string of 3 zeroes is appended to the bit stream to be transmitted.
 The resulting bit stream is 10011101000.

Now, the binary division is performed as-

From here, CRC = 100.

 Now,

 The code word to be transmitted is obtained by replacing the last 3 zeroes of

10011101000 with the CRC.
 Thus, the code word transmitted to the receiver = 10011101100.

Part-02:
According to the question,

 Third bit from the left gets inverted during transmission.

 So, the bit stream received by the receiver = 10111101100.

Now,

 Receiver receives the bit stream = 10111101100.

 Receiver performs the binary division with the same generator polynomial as-

From here,

 The remainder obtained on division is a non-zero value.

 This indicates to the receiver that an error occurred in the data during the transmission.
 Therefore, receiver rejects the data and asks the sender for retransmission.