UNIT-I COMPUTER SYSTEMS

COMPUTER MEMORY

Computer memory is a critical component that stores data and instructions

required for processing. It acts as the brain’s workspace, allowing the CPU to
access and manipulate data efficiently. Computer memory is broadly
categorized into primary and secondary memory.

Primary memory (or main memory) includes RAM (Random Access Memory)
and ROM (Read-Only Memory). RAM is volatile, meaning it loses its data
when the computer is turned off, but it provides fast access to data, making
it essential for running applications and the operating system. ROM, on the
other hand, is non-volatile and contains essential instructions needed for
booting the computer.

Secondary memory refers to storage devices like hard drives, SSDs (Solid
State Drives), and optical discs. This memory is non-volatile, retaining data
even when the computer is powered off. While secondary memory offers
more storage capacity, it is slower than primary memory in terms of data
access.

In addition to these, cache memory is a smaller, faster type of volatile

memory that stores frequently accessed data, bridging the speed gap
between RAM and the CPU. Virtual memory is a technique that extends the
apparent memory capacity of a computer by using a portion of the hard drive
to simulate additional RAM.

Overall, computer memory plays a pivotal role in determining the speed and
efficiency of a computer system, influencing how quickly data is processed
and accessed by the CPU.

MEMORY HIERARCHY IN A COMPUTER

The memory in a computer can be divided into five hierarchies based on the
speed as well as use. The processor can move from one level to another
based on its requirements. The five hierarchies in the memory are registers,
cache, main memory, magnetic discs, and magnetic tapes. The first three
hierarchies are volatile memories which mean when there is no power, and
then automatically they lose their stored data. Whereas the last two
hierarchies are not volatile which means they store the data permanently.
 1. Registers:

Location: Registers are small storage locations built directly into the CPU
(Central Processing Unit).

Speed: Registers are the fastest type of memory in a computer. They operate
with access times that are significantly quicker than other memory types,
such as, cache

, RAM or secondary storage.

Size: Registers are very limited in size, typically holding a few bytes (32 or 64
bits). This small size is due to the need for high speed and the complexity of
the circuitry.

Purpose: Registers store the data currently being processed by the CPU. They
hold operands for arithmetic operations, addresses for memory access, and
instructions for control flow. Because of their speed, registers are crucial for
the immediate execution of instructions, reducing the time required for data
to be moved in and out of memory.

2. Cache Memory:

Location: Cache memory is located either on the CPU chip itself (L1 and L2
caches) or close to it (L3 cache).

Speed: Cache memory is extremely fast, though slightly slower than the CPU
registers. It bridges the speed gap between the ultra-fast CPU registers and
the slower main memory (RAM).

Size: Cache is larger than registers but still relatively small, usually ranging
from a few kilobytes (KB) to several megabytes (MB), depending on the level
(L1, L2, L3).

Purpose: Cache stores copies of frequently accessed data and instructions

from the main memory. By holding this information close to the CPU, cache
reduces the time the CPU needs to fetch data, significantly speeding up
processing. The CPU checks the cache first for data before going to the
slower RAM, a process known as cache hit.

3. Main Memory (RAM):

Location: Main memory, or Random Access Memory (RAM), is installed on the

computer’s motherboard and is accessible to the CPU via a memory bus.
Speed: RAM is slower than cache memory but much faster than secondary
storage. Its speed is crucial for the smooth operation of applications and the
operating system.

Size: RAM is much larger than cache, typically ranging from a few gigabytes
(GB) to dozens of GBs in modern computers.

Purpose: RAM temporarily stores data and instructions that are currently in
use or that the CPU may soon need. Because RAM is volatile, its contents are
lost when the computer is powered off. The large size of RAM allows for
multitasking and the smooth operation of applications that require significant
memory, such as video editing software and games.

4. Secondary Storage:

Location: Secondary storage devices, such as hard drives (HDDs) and solid-
state drives (SSDs), are connected to the motherboard through various
interfaces like SATA, NVMe, or USB.

Speed: Secondary storage is slower than RAM, especially traditional HDDs,

because they use mechanical parts. However, SSDs are significantly faster
due to their flash memory technology, though still slower than RAM.

Size: Secondary storage offers large capacities, typically ranging from

hundreds of gigabytes (GB) to several terabytes (TB), allowing for the
storage of vast amounts of data.

Purpose: Secondary storage holds data, programs, and files that are not
currently in use by the CPU. It is non-volatile, meaning it retains data even
when the computer is turned off. This storage is essential for long-term data
retention, storing the operating system, applications, personal files, and
backups.

5. Tertiary and Off-line Storage:

Location: Tertiary storage refers to external or removable storage media such

as optical discs (CDs, DVDs, Blu-rays), magnetic tapes, and external drives.
Off-line storage might also include cloud storage solutions, where data is
stored on remote servers.

Speed: Tertiary and off-line storage are the slowest in the memory hierarchy.
Optical drives and tapes have slower read/write speeds compared to internal
storage devices. Cloud storage speed depends on internet connectivity.
Size: These storage types can vary greatly in size. Optical discs might hold a
few gigabytes, while cloud storage and magnetic tapes can store vast
amounts of data, often terabytes or more.

Purpose: Tertiary and off-line storage are used for data that is not frequently
accessed. This includes backups, archives, and data transport. In the case of
cloud storage, it also provides redundancy and remote access to data. These
storage solutions are typically more cost-effective per byte compared to
primary and secondary storage, making them ideal for long-term data
storage and backup purposes.

The memory hierarchy ensures that the most frequently used data is stored
in the fastest memory, reducing the time the CPU spends waiting for data to
be retrieved from slower memory. This layered approach optimizes overall
system performance by balancing speed, cost, and storage capacity.

A. Primary Memory includes: Registers, Cache Memory, Main Memory

(RAM).
B. Secondary Memory includes: Secondary Storage, Tertiary and Off-line
Storage.

OPERATING SYSTEM

An operating system (OS) is software that manages a computer’s hardware

and provides a platform for applications to run. It acts as an intermediary
between users and the computer hardware, ensuring efficient execution of
tasks. Key functions of an OS include managing memory, processing tasks,
handling input/output operations, and controlling peripheral devices.
Common operating systems include Windows, macOS, Linux, and Android.
The OS also provides a user interface, such as a command line or graphical
user interface (GUI), enabling users to interact with the computer easily.

FUNCTIONS OF OPERATING SYSTEM/ FEATURES OF OPERATING SYSTEM

1. Process Management:

Every software program that runs on a computer whether in the background

or in the frontend is a process. To complete any task, any process, require
some important resources like CPU time, memory files, input and output
devices, etc. These resources are located to any process by the operating
system. The operating system ensures that the programs running on your
computer should be compatible. It is also the job of the operating system to
de-allocate the resources when the task is completed.

Create and delete of user or system process. Suspend or resume any

process. Providing mechanism for process communication, process
synchronisation and deadlock handling.

The OS manages the execution of processes, which are programs in

execution. It handles the scheduling of processes, ensuring that each process
gets enough CPU time to execute efficiently. The OS also manages process
creation, termination, and synchronization, allowing multiple processes to
run simultaneously without interfering with each other.

2. Memory Management:

Memory management refers to management of primary memory or main

memory. The operating system handles the responsibility of storing any data
system programs and user programs in memory. Whatever program is
executed it has to be present in the main memory. Main memory provides of
fast storage that can be accessed directly by the CPU. Activities: Allocates
and dealocates the memory space. Keeps a record of which part of primary
memory is used by whom and how much. Memory distribution while
multitasking. De-allocates the memory when a process no longer needs it.

Memory management involves controlling and coordinating the computer’s

memory, including the allocation and deallocation of memory space to
various programs. File System Management:

3. Device Management:

The OS controls and manages hardware devices such as printers, disk drives,
monitors, keyboards, and mice. It provides drivers and software interfaces
that allow applications to interact with hardware devices without needing to
know the details of how the hardware works. The OS also manages I/O
operations, ensuring that data is transmitted to and from devices correctly.

4. User Interface:

The OS provides a user interface (UI) that allows users to interact with the
computer. This can be a command-line interface (CLI), where users type
commands, or a graphical user interface (GUI), where users interact with the
system through graphical elements like windows, icons, and menus. The UI
makes it easier for users to perform tasks on the computer without needing
to understand the underlying hardware.

5. Security and Access Control:

The OS plays a critical role in securing the computer by managing user

authentication, controlling access to files and system resources, and
protecting the system from unauthorized access. It implements security
measures such as password protection, encryption, and firewalls to
safeguard the system and data.

6. Networking:

Modern operating systems provide networking capabilities that allow

computers to connect and communicate over networks, including the
internet. The OS manages network connections, data transmission, and the
implementation of protocols that facilitate communication between different
devices.

7. Resource Allocation:

The OS is responsible for managing and allocating the computer’s resources,

such as CPU time, memory space, and input/output devices, to various tasks
and applications. It ensures that resources are used efficiently and fairly,
preventing conflicts and ensuring that the system operates smoothly.

8. Error Detection and Handling:

The OS continuously monitors system operations and detects errors or

malfunctions in hardware and software components. When an error occurs,
the OS handles it by generating error messages, logging the error details,
and taking corrective actions to mitigate the impact on the system. This
includes managing exceptions and system crashes, ensuring that the system
can recover gracefully or provide appropriate feedback to users.

9. System Initialization and Booting:

The OS is responsible for initializing the computer system during startup.

This process, known as booting, involves loading the OS from the storage
device into memory, initializing hardware components, and preparing the
system for user interaction. The OS performs hardware checks, loads
essential system files, and starts up necessary services and background
processes to ensure that the system is ready for use.
POPULAR OPERATING SYSTEM

Windows: A widely used OS for personal computers, known for its user-
friendly interface.

macOS: Apple’s OS for Mac computers, known for its smooth integration with
other Apple products.

Linux: An open-source OS known for its flexibility and security, popular

among developers and in server environments.

Android: A mobile OS developed by Google, widely used on smartphones and

tablets.

iOS: Apple’s mobile OS used on iPhones and iPads, known for its security and
user experience.

CONCLUSION

The operating system is the cornerstone of a computer system, enabling all

other software to function by managing the hardware, providing an interface
for users, and ensuring that resources are used efficiently and securely.
Without an operating system, a computer would not be able to perform any
meaningful tasks, making it a critical component of modern computing.

Codes used computer in computer: BCD, EBCDIC, ASCII, Gray Code, Unicode.

BINARY-CODED DECIMAL (BCD)

Binary-Coded Decimal (BCD) is a binary-encoded representation of decimal

numbers where each digit of a decimal number is represented by its own
binary sequence. In BCD, each decimal digit (0-9) is encoded using a fixed
number of binary bits, typically 4 bits. For example:

 Decimal digit 0 is represented as 0000 in binary.

 Decimal digit 1 is represented as 0001 in binary.
 Decimal digit 9 is represented as 1001 in binary.

This encoding method simplifies the conversion between binary and decimal
systems, making it useful in applications where precision with decimal
arithmetic is required, such as in financial calculations and digital clocks.
BCD is often used in digital systems to facilitate human-readable numerical
displays and accurate arithmetic operations.

IMPORTANCE

1. Ease of Decimal Conversion:

BCD allows for straightforward conversion between binary and decimal

systems. Each decimal digit maps directly to a 4-bit binary code, simplifying
the conversion process for calculations and display.

2. Human Readability:

BCD encoding aligns with human-readable decimal numbers, making it

easier for users to understand and work with numerical data without the
need for complex binary-to-decimal conversions.

3. Precision in Decimal Arithmetic:

BCD is useful for precise decimal arithmetic, as it avoids rounding errors

associated with binary floating-point representations, ensuring accurate
results in financial and scientific computations.

4. Compatibility with Digital Displays:

BCD is often used in digital displays, such as calculators and digital clocks,
where decimal numbers are directly represented, making it easier to
interface with human-readable outputs.

5. Simplified Arithmetic Operations:

Arithmetic operations using BCD can be more straightforward to implement

in hardware compared to binary arithmetic, as each decimal digit is
processed independently.

6. Error Detection:

BCD encoding can simplify error detection and correction in digital systems
by providing a clear mapping of decimal digits to binary values, which helps
identify and correct data entry errors.

7. Support for Decimal-Based Applications:

BCD is ideal for applications that require exact decimal representation, such
as financial transactions, where precision is crucial, and traditional binary
representation may introduce inaccuracies.
 8. Standardization in Digital Systems:

BCD is a standardized method for representing decimal numbers in digital

systems, ensuring consistency across various electronic devices and systems
that require decimal data processing.

EXTENDED BINARY CODED DECIMAL INTERCHANGE CODE (EBCDIC)

Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC) is a character

encoding system developed by IBM. It is used primarily on IBM mainframe
and midrange computer systems. EBCDIC is a binary encoding scheme that
represents text in a binary format, using 8 bits per character.

Key Points:

Character Set: EBCDIC encodes 256 different characters, including letters,

digits, punctuation marks, and control characters. It is designed to support a
wide range of characters needed for business and administrative
applications.

8-Bit Encoding: Each character is represented by an 8-bit binary code,

allowing for 256 possible character combinations. This contrasts with ASCII,
which uses 7 bits and represents 128 characters.

Variations: EBCDIC has several variations and code pages, each tailored for
different languages and regional requirements, which can lead to
compatibility issues between systems using different versions of EBCDIC.

Usage: Although less common today, EBCDIC is still used in legacy IBM
systems and applications. It was historically important for data interchange
and text processing in IBM mainframes.

Compatibility: EBCDIC is not directly compatible with ASCII, which is more

commonly used in modern systems. Conversion between EBCDIC and ASCII
often requires special software or routines.

EBCDIC was developed to address the needs of early computing systems,

and while it has been largely supplanted by ASCII and Unicode in most
modern applications, it remains relevant in specific contexts involving legacy
IBM systems.

IMPORTANCE
 1. Legacy System Support:

EBCDIC remains crucial for maintaining compatibility with legacy IBM

mainframes and midrange systems that use this encoding, ensuring
continuity and data integrity in older computing environments.

2. Character Representation:

EBCDIC provides a wide range of character representations, including special

symbols and control characters, which are essential for various business and
administrative applications.

3. Data Interchange:

For organizations that rely on IBM mainframes, EBCDIC facilitates the

exchange of data between systems and applications that require this specific
encoding format.

4. Historical Significance:

EBCDIC played a significant role in the early days of computing, helping to

standardize character encoding and data processing in IBM systems during
the development of computer technology.

5. Business Applications:

Many business-critical applications and systems, such as financial and

administrative software, were developed using EBCDIC. Maintaining EBCDIC
support ensures that these applications continue to function correctly.

6. Control Characters:

EBCDIC includes a variety of control characters that manage text formatting

and control flow, which are important for the proper operation of document
processing and data handling systems.

7. Specialized Variants:

EBCDIC has specialized code pages for different languages and regions,
allowing it to support diverse character sets and internationalization needs
within IBM systems.

8. Data Integrity:

For environments where EBCDIC is the standard, using this encoding ensures
data integrity and consistency, as conversion to other encodings could
potentially introduce errors or data corruption.
ASCII (AMER STQND CODE FOR INFORMATION INTERCHANGE)

ASCII is a character encoding standard used for representing text in

computers and other devices that use text. Developed in the early 1960s,
ASCII uses 7 bits to encode characters, allowing for 128 unique symbols.
These include control characters (such as carriage return and line feed),
punctuation marks, digits, and uppercase and lowercase letters.

Key Points:

7-Bit Encoding: ASCII uses 7 bits to represent each character, which allows
for 128 distinct symbols. Extended versions of ASCII use 8 bits, providing 256
possible characters and accommodating additional symbols and characters.

Standardization: ASCII is widely used and recognized as a standard encoding

format, facilitating interoperability between different systems and devices. It
is foundational for text representation in computing.

Control Characters: ASCII includes a set of control characters used for text
formatting and device control, such as line breaks and tabulation.

Simplicity: The simplicity of ASCII makes it easy to implement and

understand, and it forms the basis for more complex character encodings like
UTF-8, which includes ASCII as a subset.

Legacy and Compatibility: ASCII is supported by virtually all modern

computing systems and software, ensuring compatibility and ease of data
exchange.

ASCII’s role in early computing has set the stage for more advanced
encoding systems, but it remains a fundamental standard for text
representation.

IMPORTANCE

Standardization: ASCII provides a universal standard for text representation,

ensuring compatibility and consistent data exchange across different
computer systems and applications.

Interoperability: It enables seamless communication between various

devices, software, and systems by providing a common encoding scheme for
text data.
Simplicity: ASCII’s straightforward 7-bit encoding system is easy to
understand and implement, making it foundational for text processing in
early computing systems.

Legacy Support: ASCII is widely supported by a vast array of legacy systems

and software, ensuring continued compatibility and data integrity in older
technologies.

Foundational for Modern Encodings: ASCII serves as the basis for more
advanced character encoding systems, such as UTF-8, which extends ASCII
to support a broader range of characters while maintaining backward
compatibility.

Efficient Text Representation: The compact 7-bit encoding allows for efficient
storage and transmission of text data, minimizing resource usage in systems
with limited capacity.

Control Characters: ASCII includes control characters for text formatting and
device control (e.g., line feed, carriage return), which are essential for
managing text layout and communication protocols.

Widespread Adoption: ASCII’s widespread use in computing and

communications ensures that it remains a key element in text processing,
file formats, and data interchange standards.

GRAY CODE

Gray code, also known as reflected binary code, is a binary numeral system
in which two successive values differ in only one bit. This single-bit change
minimizes errors in digital systems during transitions between values.

Key Points:

Single-Bit Change: In Gray code, only one bit changes at a time when moving
from one value to the next, reducing the risk of errors that can occur when
multiple bits change simultaneously.

Application in Digital Systems: Gray code is commonly used in digital

systems and electronics, particularly in rotary encoders, where precise angle
measurements are needed, and in error correction circuits.

Conversion: Gray code can be converted to binary code and vice versa,
which is useful for systems that need to interface with both types of
encoding
Error Detection: The single-bit change property makes Gray code effective
for minimizing errors in digital communication and mechanical encoding
systems.

Gray code is valuable in applications where error reduction and accurate

data measurement are critical, offering a reliable method for encoding and
decoding information in digital systems.

IMPORTANCE

1. Minimized Error During Transitions:

Gray code ensures that only one bit changes at a time when transitioning
between successive values. This minimizes the risk of errors that can occur
when multiple bits change simultaneously, which is particularly useful in
noisy environments.

2. Enhanced Reliability in Encoders:

Gray code is widely used in rotary and optical encoders, where accurate
position and speed measurements are crucial. The single-bit change reduces
the chance of misinterpreting encoder signals during rotation.

3. Simplified Error Detection:

The single-bit difference between consecutive values in Gray code makes it

easier to detect and correct errors, improving the reliability of data
transmission and processing.

4. Improved Data Accuracy:

In applications like analog-to-digital conversion, Gray code helps maintain

data accuracy by reducing errors that can occur during the conversion
process, as only one bit changes at a time.

5. Efficient Digital Communication:

Gray code is used in digital communication systems to ensure that only

minimal changes occur between successive code words, which helps in
reducing communication errors and improving data integrity.

6. Useful in Sequential Logic Design:

In sequential circuits and state machines, Gray code can simplify the design
of state transitions by ensuring that only one bit changes between states,
which can simplify logic and reduce design complexity.

7. Reduced Switching Power:

In digital circuits, Gray code can reduce power consumption associated with
switching because fewer bits change state at once, leading to lower
switching activity and power dissipation.

8. Enhanced Precision in Measurement Systems:

Gray code is used in various precision measurement systems, including

digital calipers and meters, to ensure accurate readings by minimizing the
potential for errors during value changes.

UNICODE

Unicode is a comprehensive character encoding standard designed to

support the digital representation of text in multiple languages and scripts. It
provides a unique number, called a code point, for every character, symbol,
and punctuation mark across different writing systems.

Key Points:

Universal Coverage: Unicode aims to include characters from virtually all

writing systems in use today, including Latin, Cyrillic, Arabic, Chinese, and
many others, as well as symbols, emojis, and special characters.

Code Points: Each character in Unicode is assigned a unique code point,

which is a number that identifies the character. This code point can be
represented in different encoding forms, such as UTF-8, UTF-16, and UTF-32.

Compatibility: Unicode is designed to be backward-compatible with ASCII,

ensuring that ASCII characters are represented in the same way in Unicode,
which facilitates interoperability with existing systems.

Standardization: The Unicode Consortium manages and updates the Unicode

standard, ensuring consistent and comprehensive character encoding across
different platforms and applications.

Global Reach: Unicode supports a diverse range of languages and scripts,

making it essential for internationalization and localization of software,
websites, and digital content.
Unicode provides a unified and standardized approach to character encoding,
facilitating the accurate and consistent representation of text across different
languages and platforms.

IMPORTANCE

1. Universal Text Representation:

Unicode provides a consistent way to represent text in virtually all languages

and scripts, including complex characters and symbols, making it essential
for global communication.

2. Compatibility and Interoperability:

Unicode ensures that text data is consistent and compatible across different
platforms, applications, and devices, reducing issues related to text
corruption or misinterpretation.

3. Support for Multilingual Content:

It allows for the inclusion of multiple languages within the same document or
application, facilitating the development of international and multilingual
software and websites.

4. Consistent Encoding:

Unicode provides a unique code point for every character, which simplifies
text processing and reduces the likelihood of encoding errors compared to
legacy encoding systems.

5. Enhanced Data Exchange:

By standardizing character representation, Unicode supports reliable data

exchange and communication between systems, databases, and applications
across different regions and languages.

6. Extended Symbol and Emoji Support:

Unicode includes a wide range of symbols, emojis, and special characters,

allowing for rich and expressive text representation in modern
communication tools and applications.

7. Facilitates Localization and Internationalization:

Unicode plays a critical role in localization (adapting software for different
languages) and internationalization (designing software to support multiple
languages), aiding in global software deployment.

8. Future-Proofing:

The Unicode standard is continually updated to include new characters and

symbols, ensuring that it can accommodate evolving linguistic and
technological needs over time.

COMPUTER SYSTEM

A computer system is an integrated set of hardware and software

components designed to perform various tasks, from basic calculations to
complex problem-solving. At its core, a computer system is built to receive
input, process that input using predefined instructions, and produce output.
It consists of four primary parts:

Hardware: These are the physical components, such as the Central

Processing Unit (CPU), memory (RAM), storage devices (like hard drives or
SSDs), input devices (keyboards, mice), and output devices (monitors,
printers). The CPU processes data and executes instructions, while memory
temporarily holds data that the system is currently working on.

Software: This includes system software (like the operating system, which
manages hardware resources and provides a platform for running
applications) and application software (programs that perform specific tasks,
such as word processors or web browsers).

Data: Data are the raw facts and figures that the computer processes. In a
computer system, data is typically input, processed, stored, and then output
as information.

Users: Users interact with the computer system, providing input and using
the output generated by the system. They can be individuals or other
systems interacting through network connections.

In short, a computer system is a combination of components that work

together to perform tasks efficiently and accurately, making it a crucial tool
for modern life and business.

SOFTWARE / TYPES OF SOFTWARE

Software is a collection of instructions or programs that tell a computer how
to perform specific tasks. It acts as a bridge between the user and the
hardware, enabling the computer to operate and execute commands
efficiently. It essentially acts as the intelligence behind the hardware, telling
the computer what to do and how to do it. Without software, hardware would
be useless, as it would not know how to process data or carry out any
meaningful task. Software is broadly classified into two main categories:

System Software: This type includes the operating system (OS) and utility
programs. The OS (like Windows, macOS, or Linux) manages the computer’s
hardware, provides a user interface, and allows other applications to run.
Utility programs help maintain the system, such as antivirus software or disk
cleanup tools.

Application Software: These are programs designed for specific user tasks,
such as word processors (Microsoft Word), spreadsheets (Excel), web
browsers (Google Chrome), and multimedia players. They allow users to
perform activities like writing, editing, browsing the internet, or playing
games.

Software can be further divided into custom (tailored for specific users or
tasks) and off-the-shelf (general-purpose software for mass use). Unlike
hardware, software can be easily updated or modified, making it more
flexible in adapting to changing needs.

In short, software is an essential component of a computer system, enabling

the hardware to function and users to perform tasks efficiently.

COMPUTER APPLICATION

A computer application is a type of software program designed to perform

specific tasks for the user. It runs on top of the operating system and
interacts with the hardware to help users complete particular functions, such
as word processing, spreadsheet calculations, graphic design, or database
management. Computer applications are created to fulfill various purposes,
ranging from simple personal tasks to complex business operations.

Applications are broadly classified into categories like productivity software

(e.g., Microsoft Word, Excel), multimedia software (e.g., Adobe Photoshop,
VLC Media Player), communication software (e.g., Skype, Zoom), and
entertainment software (e.g., games, streaming apps). Some applications are
designed for specific industries or roles, such as enterprise resource planning
(ERP) systems or customer relationship management (CRM) tools.

In short, computer applications provide users with tools to carry out specific
functions efficiently, making them an essential part of daily computing
activities across personal, educational, and professional domains.

ROLE OF SYSTEM SOFTWARE IN MANAGING DATA FOR AN INSTITUTION WITH

EXAMPLE

SUGGEST AND EXPLAIN THE COMPONENTS OF A TYPICAL OFFICE COMPUTER

FOR A BUSINESS ORGANISATION

DIFFERENT GENERATION OF A COMPUTER

NUMBER SYSTEM

EXPLAIN DIFFERENT NUMBER SYSTEM

IMPORTANCE OF NUMBER SYSTEM

HARDWARE Vs SOFTWARE

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

ELEMENTS OF DIGITAL COMPUTER

CPU

FUNCTIONS OF CPU

IMPORTANCE OF SOFTWARE

SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES

I/O DEVICES