ENG PHYS 3SP3

Space Systems Engineering

Lecture 6: Introduction to Orbital Mechanics

Thursday Oct 9th 2024
Lecture 6 Outline
• The Heliocentric model and the Renaissance
• Brief review of vectors and forces
• Orbits and The Two-Body Problem

ENGPHYS 3SP3 Fall 2024: Lecture 6 Intro to Orbits 10/09/2024 2

References
• https://orbital-mechanics.space/ great website with explanations and code
examples

• Howard D Curtis. Orbital Mechanics for Engineering Students. Elsevier,

fourth edition, 2020.

ENGPHYS 3SP3 Fall 2024: Lecture 6 Intro to Orbits 10/09/2024 3

 The Geocentric Universe
• Early models of the universe carried a fundamental belief that the heavens followed
uniform circular motion with the Earth at the center
• More philosophical than scientific, it didn’t match observations

I don’t
think that’s
quite
right…

Aristotle ~300 BC Ptolmy ~150 AD “Almagest”

Perfect concentric spheres Added more spheres and offsets: Deferent and Epicycle
Philosophical system More mathematical description within the philosophical boundary
Aristarchus of Samos ~250 BC

ENGPHYS 3SP3 Fall 2024: Lecture 6 Intro to Orbits 10/09/2024 4

The Geocentric Universe
• The Ptolemaic model included increasing complexity of spheres-on-spheres, but matched
observations well enough to be accepted for the next ~1400 years.

• “Prime mover” philosophy

fit nicely with religious teachings,
and was adopted by the church.

ENGPHYS 3SP3 Fall 2024: Lecture 6 Intro to Orbits 10/09/2024 5

Nicolaus Copernicus and the Heliocentric Revolution
• Polish Renaissance mathematician and astronomer
• Formulated and published his Heliocentric model of the
universe in “De revolutionibus orbium coelestium”
(On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres) -1543

Nicolaus Copernicus 1473-1543

• Still based on perfect spheres and circular motion, but a huge step in the right direction.

ENGPHYS 3SP3 Fall 2024: Lecture 6 Intro to Orbits 10/09/2024 6

The Heliocentric Model
• Still based on perfect spheres, but allowed for easier explanation of retrograde motion,
and the orbits of Mercury and Venus.
• Set the stage for future astronomers and scientists into the Renaissance

Yes,
something
like that!

ENGPHYS 3SP3 Fall 2024: Lecture 6 Intro to Orbits 10/09/2024 7

 Galileo and Observations in Support of Heliocentrism
• Galileo Galilei discovered moons orbiting Jupiter, inconsistent with
the Geocentric model (all rotation centered on the Earth)
• Observed all phases of Venus – not possible in Geocentric model)
• Observed the rotation of the sun by displacement of sunspots.
• Accused (and found guilty) of heresy!
Geocentric Model
Heliocentric Model

Galileo Galilei 1564-1642

ENGPHYS 3SP3 Fall 2024: Lecture 6 Intro to Orbits 10/09/2024 8

The Galilean Telescope
• Positive and negative lens to create angular magnification, upright image.
• No internal focus, compact
• Exit pupil is interior to body (need to move eye over field)

https://brunelleschi.imss.fi.it/esplora/cannocchiale/dswmedia/esplora/eesplora2.html

ENGPHYS 3SP3 Fall 2023: Lecture 6 Intro to Orbits 10/12/2023 9

The Keplerian Telescope
• Two positive lenses to create angular magnification, inverted image
• Internal focus, longer length
• Exit pupil is outside eyepiece (can comfortably place eye at exit pupil)

https://brunelleschi.imss.fi.it/esplora/cannocchiale/dswmedia/esplora/eesplora2.html

ENGPHYS 3SP3 Fall 2024: Lecture 6 Intro to Orbits 10/09/2024 10

Johannes Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion
• Astronomer and mathematician, contemporary of Galileo
• Observations led to the concept of planetary orbits governed by
(then unknown) physical laws
• Physics meets astronomy!
• Described orbits with three laws of planetary motion:
Johannes Kepler 1571-1630

K1) The orbit of a planet is an ellipse with the Sun at one of the two foci.
K2) A line segment joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas
during equal intervals of time.
K3) The square of a planet's orbital period is proportional to the cube of the
length of the semi-major axis of its orbit.

ENGPHYS 3SP3 Fall 2024: Lecture 6 Intro to Orbits 10/09/2024 11

Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion
• K1) Elliptical orbits with the sun at one focus.
• K2) Planets sweep out equal areas over equal time.
• K3) Total period 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡 ∝ 𝑎3/2

• Orbiting body moves faster closer to

the Sun, slower further away

• Lacked the foundational physics to

describe why this is the case…

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ellipitical_orbit_of_planet_with_an_eccentricty_of_0.5.gif

ENGPHYS 3SP3 Fall 2024: Lecture 6 Intro to Orbits 10/09/2024 12

Sir Issac Newton’s Laws of Motion
• Newton’s laws of motion and theory of universal gravitation gave a
fundamental explanation of what Kepler observed
• Kepler’s laws could be derived from Newton’s laws and gravity acting on planets.

Sir Issac Newton 1643-1727

N1) “Every body continues in its state of rest, or of uniform motion in a straight line, unless it
is compelled to change that state by forces impressed upon it.”
Inertia of bodies.
N2) “The change of motion of an object is proportional to the force impressed; and is made
in the direction of the straight line in which the force is impressed.”
Force is the time rate-of-change of momentum.
N3) “To every action, there is always opposed an equal reaction; or, the mutual actions of
two bodies upon each other are always equal and directed to contrary parts.”
Momentum is conserved.

ENGPHYS 3SP3 Fall 2024: Lecture 6 Intro to Orbits 10/09/2024 13

Sir Issac Newton’s Theory of Universal Gravitation
• Two bodies exert gravitational force on each other, directed towards their
center of gravity.
2
−11 𝑁𝑚
• Gravitational Constant 𝐺 = 6.67430 × 10
𝑘𝑔2

𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2 𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹21 = 𝐹12 =−
𝑟2 𝑟2
𝑚1 𝑚2

𝑟
𝑥

ENGPHYS 3SP3 Fall 2024: Lecture 6 Intro to Orbits 10/09/2024 14

 Vectors and Mechanics

ENGPHYS 3SP3 Fall 2024: Lecture 6 Intro to Orbits 10/09/2024 15

Vectors Orthogonal XYZ coordinate frame 1 0 0
෡
with direction vectors 𝒊,Ƹ 𝒋,Ƹ 𝒌 𝒊Ƹ = 0 𝒋Ƹ = 1 ෡= 0
𝒌
Z 0 0 1
𝒄=𝒂+𝒃
𝑟𝑥
෡ = 𝑟𝑦
𝒓 = 𝑟𝑥 𝒊Ƹ + 𝑟𝑦 𝒋Ƹ + 𝑟𝑧 𝒌
𝑟𝑧
𝒄 𝒃

𝑘෠
𝑟𝑧
𝒂
𝑂 𝑗Ƹ
Y Vector Magnitude: 𝒓 = 𝑟𝑥2 + 𝑟𝑦2 + 𝑟𝑧2
𝐫Ԧ
𝑖Ƹ Unit vector: 𝒓ො =
𝒓
𝑟𝑥

X 𝑟𝑦

ENGPHYS 3SP3 Fall 2024: Lecture 6 Intro to Orbits 10/09/2024 16

 Dot Product
• Sum-of-products of two vectors
• “Scalar product” produces a scalar number from two vectors
• Depends on angle between vectors, perpendicular vectors dot-product = 0
• Used in projection

𝑎𝑥 𝑏𝑥 Magnitude: 𝒂 2 =𝒂⋅𝒂
𝒂 = 𝑎𝑦 , 𝒃 = 𝑏𝑦
𝑎𝑧 𝑏𝑧 𝒂

𝒂 ⋅ 𝒃 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑎𝑧 𝑏𝑧 𝒂 ⋅ 𝒃 = 𝒂 𝒃 cos 𝜃
𝜃
𝒃
cos 90° = 0

𝒂 ⋅ 𝒂⊥ = 𝟎
𝑑 𝑑𝒂 𝑑𝒃
𝒂⋅𝒃 = ⋅ 𝒃 + 𝒂 ⋅ 𝑑𝑡 product rule
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

ENGPHYS 3SP3 Fall 2024: Lecture 6 Intro to Orbits 10/09/2024 17

Vector Projection
• Component of a vector along direction of another vector

𝒂⋅𝒃 𝒃 𝒂⋅𝒃
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝒃 𝒂 = = ෡
𝒃 𝒂
𝒃 𝒃 𝒃⋅𝒃
𝒂⊥𝒃 = 𝒂 − 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝒃 𝒂

𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝒃 𝒂

ENGPHYS 3SP3 Fall 2024: Lecture 6 Intro to Orbits 10/09/2024 18

Cross Product
• Vector product perpendicular to both input vectors → 2 vectors in, one vector out
• Area of parallelogram with vectors 𝒂 and 𝒃 as sides
• “right hand rule” for direction of resulting vector

𝒂×𝒃
𝒂

𝒊Ƹ 𝒋Ƹ ෡
𝒌
𝜃 𝒂 × 𝒃 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑦 𝑎𝑧
𝒃 𝑏𝑥 𝑏𝑦 𝑏𝑧

𝒂×𝒃 ෡
𝒂 × 𝒃 = 𝑎𝑦 𝑏𝑧 − 𝑎𝑧 𝑏𝑦 𝒊Ƹ − 𝑎𝑥 𝑏𝑧 − 𝑎𝑧 𝑏𝑥 𝒋Ƹ + 𝑎𝑥 𝑏𝑦 − 𝑎𝑦 𝑏𝑥 𝒌
𝑛ො 𝒂𝒃 =
𝒂×𝒃
𝒂 × 𝒃 = 𝒂 𝒃 sin 𝜃 𝑛ො 𝒂𝒃
ENGPHYS 3SP3 Fall 2024: Lecture 6 Intro to Orbits 10/09/2024 19
Cross Product Properties and Identities
• 𝒂 × 𝒂 = 𝟎 cross in same direction is null vector
• 𝒂 × 𝒃 = − 𝒃 × 𝒂 anticommutative

• 𝒂 × 𝒃 + 𝒄 = 𝒂 × 𝒃 + 𝒂 × 𝒄 distributive

• 𝒂 × 𝒃 × 𝒄 = 𝒃 𝒂 ⋅ 𝒄 − 𝒄 𝒂 ⋅ 𝒃 BAC-CAB rule

• 𝒂 ⋅ 𝒃 × 𝒄 = 𝒂 × 𝒃 ⋅ 𝒄 Interchange of dot and cross

𝑑 𝑑𝒂 𝑑𝒃
• 𝒂×𝒃 = ×𝒃+𝒂× product rule
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

ENGPHYS 3SP3 Fall 2024: Lecture 6 Intro to Orbits 10/09/2024 20

Position, Velocity, Acceleration. Force and Momentum.
𝑟𝑥 𝑟𝑥ሶ 𝑟𝑥ሷ
d𝒓 d𝐫Ԧሶ d2 𝒓
Vector Position: 𝒓 = 𝑟𝑦 Vector Velocity: 𝐯 = dt = 𝒓ሶ = 𝑟𝑦ሶ Vector Acceleration: 𝐚 = = = 𝒓ሷ = 𝑟𝑦ሷ
dt dt2
𝑟𝑧 𝑟𝑧ሶ 𝑟𝑧ሷ

d𝒑 Linear Momentum of particle mass 𝑚: 𝒑 = 𝑚𝒗

Force acting on mass 𝑚: F = 𝑚𝒂 = dt

𝑡
Impulse on mass 𝑚: 𝐼 = ‫ 𝑡׬‬2 𝐹Ԧ d𝑡 = 𝑚𝐯𝟐 − m𝐯1 Delta V: Δ𝐯 = 𝐼/𝑚 = 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 Δ𝑡/𝑚 (if 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 const)
1

ENGPHYS 3SP3 Fall 2024: Lecture 6 Intro to Orbits 10/09/2024 21

Rotational Motion. Torque and Angular Momentum.
𝜃𝑥 𝜃ሶ𝑥 𝜃ሷ𝑥
d𝜽 ሶ d𝝎 d2 𝜽 ሷ
Angular Position: 𝜽 = 𝜃𝑦 Angular Velocity: 𝝎 = dt = 𝜽 = 𝜃ሶ𝑦 Angular Acceleration: 𝜶 = dt = dt2 = 𝜽 = 𝜃ሷ𝑦
𝜃𝑧 𝜃ሶ𝑧 𝜃ሷ𝑧
𝑑𝑯0 Angular Momentum: H0 = 𝒓 × 𝑚𝒗 = 𝒓 × 𝒑
Torque (or moment) acting on mass 𝑚: 𝑀0 = 𝒓 × 𝑭 =
𝑑𝑡

𝝎
𝑑𝒓 = 𝒓 sin 𝜙 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝒓
𝑑𝜃 = 𝒓 𝝎 sin 𝜙 = 𝝎 × 𝒓
𝑑𝜃 = 𝝎 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝒓 = 𝒓 𝝎 sin 𝜙 𝑑𝑡 𝑑 𝟐 𝒓 𝑑𝝎 𝑑𝒓
𝜙 𝒓 = × 𝒓 + 𝝎 × =𝜶×𝒓+𝝎× 𝝎×𝒓
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

ENGPHYS 3SP3 Fall 2024: Lecture 6 Intro to Orbits 10/09/2024 22

Inertial and Non-Inertial Reference Frames
• Newton’s first law is valid in non-accelerating, non-rotating reference frames
• Proposed inertial reference frames as being in uniform motion relative to the fixed stars
• Particle moves in straight line at constant speed without the application of external forces
• Rotating or accelerating frames require fictious forces to explain apparent motion
• Observing orbits from the earth involves rotation

Inertial Frame Non-inertial Frame

ENGPHYS 3SP3 Fall 2024: Lecture 6 Intro to Orbits 10/09/2024 23

 Velocity and Acceleration in Rotating Frames
෡
𝐾
Ω
Position: 𝒓 = 𝒓𝑶 + 𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒍 𝑘෠

Z z
Velocity: 𝒗 = 𝒗𝑶 + 𝛀 × 𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒍 + 𝒗𝒓𝒆𝒍 𝑗Ƹ
𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒍 y
ሶ 𝒓
Acceleration: 𝒂 = 𝒂𝑶 + 𝛀 × 𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒍 + 𝛀 × 𝛀 × 𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒍 + 𝟐𝛀 × 𝒗𝒓𝒆𝒍 + 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒍
Moving and Rotating Frame

𝒓𝑶
Euler Force Centrifugal Force Coriolis Force
x
𝐽መ
𝑖Ƹ Y
Inertial Frame

X
𝐼መ
ENGPHYS 3SP3 Fall 2024: Lecture 6 Intro to Orbits 10/09/2023 24
 The Two-Body Problem

ENGPHYS 3SP3 Fall 2024: Lecture 6 Intro to Orbits 10/09/2024 25

Gravitational Force Between two Bodies
𝑁𝑚2
Gravitational Constant 𝐺 = 6.67430 × 10−11 𝑘𝑔2
𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2 ሷ ሷ ሷ
𝐹Ԧ21 = 𝑢
ො 𝑟 = 𝑚1 𝑹 1
𝑚1 𝑹1 = −𝑚2 𝑹2
𝑟Ԧ 𝑟2
𝑢ො 𝑟 = 𝑚1
𝑟 𝑹𝑮 𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2 ሷ
𝐹Ԧ12 = − 2
𝑢ො 𝑟 = 𝑚2 𝑹2
𝑟
𝒓 = 𝑹𝟐 - 𝑹𝟏
𝑹𝟏 𝑚2
𝑧
𝑚1 𝑹𝟏 +𝑚2 𝑹𝟐
Center of mass 𝑹𝑮 = 𝑚1 +𝑚2
𝑹𝟐 ሶ 𝑚1 𝑹𝟏 +𝑚2 𝑹ሶ 𝟐
ሶ
Velocity: 𝑹𝑮 = 𝑚 +𝑚
1 2
ሷ 𝑚1 𝑹ሷ 𝟏 +𝑚2 𝑹ሷ 𝟐
Acceleration: 𝑹𝑮 = 𝑚 +𝑚
𝑦 1 2

ENGPHYS 3SP3 Fall 2024: Lecture 6 Intro to Orbits 10/09/2024 26

Equation of Relative Motion
𝑁𝑚2
Gravitational Constant 𝐺 = 6.67430 × 10−11 𝑘𝑔2
𝐺𝑚2 ሷ
𝑢
ො 𝑟 = 𝑹 1
𝑟Ԧ 𝑟2
𝑢ො 𝑟 = 𝑚1
𝑟
𝐺𝑚1 ሷ
− 2 𝑢ො 𝑟 = 𝑹2
𝑟
𝒓 = 𝑹 𝟐 - 𝑹𝟏
𝑹𝟏 𝑚2 Relative distance: 𝒓 = 𝑹𝟐 − 𝑹𝟏
ሶ ሶ
𝑧 Relative velocity: 𝒓ሶ = 𝑹𝟐 − 𝑹𝟏
ሷ ሷ
Relative acceleration: 𝒓ሷ = 𝑹𝟐 − 𝑹𝟏
𝑹𝟐 𝜇 = 𝐺 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 gravitational parameter

𝑦 ሷ𝒓 = − 𝐺 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 𝒓 = − 𝜇 𝒓
𝑟3 𝑟3
𝑥 Two-body equation of motion

ENGPHYS 3SP3 Fall 2024: Lecture 6 Intro to Orbits 10/09/2024 27

 Angular Momentum and Orbital Plane
𝑯2/1 𝟎
• Specific angular momentum of m2: 𝒉 = = 𝒓 × 𝒓ሶ 𝑑𝒉
= 𝒓ሶ × 𝒓ሶ + 𝒓 × 𝒓ሷ
𝑚2
𝑑𝑡 𝟎
𝜇 𝜇
• Equation of relative motion: 𝒓ሷ = − 𝒓 =𝟎− 3 𝒓×𝒓
𝑟3 𝑟
𝑑𝒉
=𝟎
𝑑𝑡 Angular momentum is constant

𝒉
෡=
𝒉 Angular momentum is directed out of
𝒗 = 𝒓ሶ 𝒉
𝑧
𝑚2 the plane formed by 𝑟Ԧ and 𝑟Ԧሶ

𝒓 Orbit lies in a single plane

Reference frame fixed on 𝑚1
𝑚1 𝑦
𝒉
෡=
𝒉
𝑥 𝒓 𝒉
ሶ𝒓
ENGPHYS 3SP3 Fall 2024: Lecture 6 Intro to Orbits 10/09/2024 28
The Orbital Plane
𝒉 = 𝒓 × 𝒗 = 𝑟ෝ ෝ 𝑟 + 𝑣⊥ 𝒖
𝒖𝒓 × 𝑣𝑟 𝒖 ෡
ෝ ⊥ = 𝑟𝑣⊥ 𝒉

ℎ = 𝑟𝑣⊥ angular momentum depends on perpendicular component of velocity at distance r

𝒗 = 𝒗𝒓 + 𝒗⊥
𝑣𝑑𝑡 𝜙 𝒗𝒓
𝒗⊥
𝑚2

𝑦
𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙 Area swept out in time dt:
𝒓 𝑣𝑑𝑡 1
𝑑𝐴 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙 = 𝑟𝑣⊥ 𝑑𝑡
2 2
𝑑𝐴 𝑟𝑣⊥ ℎ
= = = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑚1 𝑥 𝑑𝑡 2 2

K2: equal areas in equal times

ENGPHYS 3SP3 Fall 2024: Lecture 6 Intro to Orbits 10/09/2024 29

 The Orbit Equation
Two-body equation of motion: ×𝒉 𝑑 ሶ 𝒓 First integral EOM:
ሷ𝒓 = − 𝜇 𝒓 Maths
𝑑𝑡
𝒓×ℎ−𝜇
𝑟
=0 𝒓
𝑟3 𝒓ሶ × 𝒉 − 𝜇 = 𝑪
𝑟

Laplace vector
Scaled by 𝜇: const of integration
⋅𝒓 Scalar equation:
𝒓 𝒓ሶ × 𝒉
+𝒆= Maths ℎ2
𝑟 𝜇 𝑟 + 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 =
𝜇
𝑪
Orbit Equation:
Eccentricity vector 𝒆 = 𝜇
𝒓 ⋅ 𝒆 = 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 ℎ2 1
𝑟=
𝜇 1 + ecos 𝜃

ENGPHYS 3SP3 Fall 2024: Lecture 6 Intro to Orbits 10/09/2024 30

Velocity Relationships
Orbit Equation:
ℎ2 1
𝑟=
𝜇 1 + ecos 𝜃 𝒗
𝒗⊥ 𝒗𝒓
𝑣⊥ = 𝑟𝜃ሶ ℎ = 𝑟𝑣⊥ ℎ = 𝑟 𝜃ሶ 2
𝑚2
𝜙
𝜇
𝑣⊥ = 1 + 𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
ℎ 𝒓
𝜇
𝑣𝑟 = 𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
ℎ True Anomaly
𝜃
𝑚1 Periapsis
𝒆 Apse Line (closest approach)
ℎ2 1
𝑟𝑝 =
𝜇 1+𝑒

ENGPHYS 3SP3 Fall 2024: Lecture 6 Intro to Orbits 10/09/2024 31

 Conic Sections
Orbit Equation: Polar form of a conic section:
ℎ2 1 𝑝
𝑟= 𝑟 𝜃 =
𝜇 1 + ecos 𝜃 1 + ecos 𝜃
ℎ2
Semilatus rectum 𝑝 = :
𝜇
“Keplerian Orbits”
Eccentricity 𝑒:
Two-body orbits with inverse 𝑒 = 0 Circle
square law gravitational attraction 0 < 𝑒 < 1 Ellipse
are described by conic sections 𝑒 = 1 Parabola
𝑒 > 1 Hyperbola

True anomaly 𝜃

K1: Orbits are ellipses (conic sections) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conic_section

ENGPHYS 3SP3 Fall 2024: Lecture 6 Intro to Orbits 10/09/2024 32

Circular Orbit 𝑒 = 0
• Simplest orbit is perfectly circular: 𝑒 = 0 → 𝑟 = ℎ2 /𝜇
• Specific angular momentum: ℎ = 𝑟𝑣⊥
• 𝑣 = 𝑣⊥ everywhere

𝒗⊥

𝜇
𝑣𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐 = 𝑚1 𝑚2
𝑟 𝜇
𝑟=
𝑣2
circumference 2𝜋𝑟
• Orbit period = =
speed 𝑣⊥
2𝜋 3/2
𝑇𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐 = 𝑟 K3: period^2 ∝ semi-major^3
𝜇

ENGPHYS 3SP3 Fall 2024: Lecture 6 Intro to Orbits 10/09/2024 33

ISS Orbital Period and Velocity
• Gravitational Constant: G = 6.67430x10^-20 N km^2/kg^2
• Radius of the Earth: ~6378 km
• Mass of the Earth: ~ 5.97219x10^24 kg
𝑅𝐼𝑆𝑆 ≈ 6778 𝑘𝑚
• Mass of ISS: ~420,000 kg. negligible to Earth.
• Altitude of ISS Orbit: ~400 km

𝜇 = 𝐺 𝑀𝑒 + 𝑀𝐼𝑆𝑆 ≈ 𝐺𝑀𝑒 ≈ 398600 𝑘𝑚3 /𝑠 2

2𝜋 3/2 𝑅𝑒 ≈ 6378 𝑘𝑚
𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡 = 𝑟 = 5553 s =1.54 hr
𝜇

𝜇
𝑉𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡 = = 7.66 km/s
𝑟

ENGPHYS 3SP3 Fall 2024: Lecture 6 Intro to Orbits 10/09/2024 34

 Elliptical Orbit 0 < 𝑒 < 1
ℎ2 1 𝑎 1−𝑒 2
• Orbit Equation: 𝑟 = =
𝜇 1+ecos 𝜃 1+ecos 𝜃
Semilatus rectum
𝑚2

𝒓 True Anomaly
Semiminor
axis 𝑏 = 𝑎 1 − 𝑒2 𝑝
Apoapsis Periapsis
furthest approach closest approach
Semimajor axis Linear eccentricity 𝜃
𝑎 𝑐 = 𝑎𝑒
𝑚1
𝒆 Apse Line
𝐹2 𝐹1

Specific Energy m2 (const)

1 𝜇
𝜖 = − 2 1 − 𝑒2
2ℎ
𝑟𝑎 𝑟𝑝
ENGPHYS 3SP3 Fall 2024: Lecture 6 Intro to Orbits 10/09/2024 35
Elliptical Orbit Period
• Kepler’s 2nd law stated the line connecting two orbiting bodies sweeps equal areas in
𝑑𝐴 ℎ
equal times: =
𝑑𝑡 2

ℎ
• Total area of an ellipse 𝐴𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑝𝑠𝑒 = 𝜋𝑎𝑏 = 𝑇𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑝𝑠𝑒
2

2𝜋𝑎𝑏 𝑏 = 𝑎 1 − 𝑒2
𝑇𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑝𝑠𝑒 =
ℎ h = 𝜇𝑎 1 − 𝑒 2

2𝜋𝑎3/2
𝑇𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑝𝑠𝑒 =
𝜇

ENGPHYS 3SP3 Fall 2024: Lecture 6 Intro to Orbits 10/09/2024 36

 Elliptical Orbit Relationships
Fun with Ellipses: ℎ2 1 𝜇
2𝑎 = 𝑟𝑎 + 𝑟𝑝 𝑟= 𝑣⊥ = 1 + 𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
𝜇 1 + ecos 𝜃 ℎ
𝑟𝑎 − 𝑟𝑝 𝜇
𝑒= 𝑣𝑟 = 𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝑟𝑎 + 𝑟𝑝 ℎ

ℎ2 1
𝑎= 𝜇
𝜇 1 − 𝑒2 𝑣⊥𝑝 = 1+𝑒
Semimajor axis Linear eccentricity ℎ
ℎ= 𝜇𝑎 1 − 𝑒 2 𝑎 𝑐 = 𝑎𝑒
𝑚2 𝑚1 𝑚2
ℎ2 1 𝜇 ℎ2 1
𝑟𝑎 = 𝑣⊥𝑎 = 1−𝑒 𝑟𝑝 =
𝜇 1−𝑒 ℎ 𝜇 1+𝑒

ℎ = 𝑟𝑎 𝑣⊥𝑎 ℎ = 𝑟𝑝 𝑣⊥𝑝

ENGPHYS 3SP3 Fall 2024: Lecture 6 Intro to Orbits 10/09/2024 37

Orbit Energy
1
• Relative kinetic energy: 𝐾 = 𝑚2 𝑣 2
2
𝐺 𝑚1 +𝑚2
• Relative gravitational potential energy : 𝑈𝑔 = −
𝑟
𝑣2 𝜇
• Specific orbital energy 𝐾 + 𝑈𝑔 /𝑚2 is conserved: − =𝜖
2 𝑟

𝑚2
1 𝜇2 2 𝑚1 𝑚2
𝜖 =− 2 1−𝑒
2ℎ

ENGPHYS 3SP3 Fall 2024: Lecture 6 Intro to Orbits 10/09/2024 38

 Example 1: Earth Orbit Calculations
Satellite orbiting the earth with the following parameters:
Altitude of perigee: 600 km
Altitude of apogee: 6600 km

1) What is the eccentricity of the orbit 𝑒?

2) What is the specific angular momentum ℎ?
3) What is the velocity at apogee 𝑣𝑎 ?
4) What is the velocity perigee 𝑣𝑝 ?
5) What is the semi-major axis 𝑎?
6) What is the orbital period 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡 ? ℎ𝑎 = 6600 km ℎ𝑝 = 600 km
7) What is the specific orbital energy 𝜖?
8) What is the additional energy of the satellite in
orbit vs sitting on the earth’s surface 𝜖 − 𝜖𝑔𝑛𝑑 ?

ENGPHYS 3SP3 Fall 2024: Lecture 6 Intro to Orbits 10/09/2024 39

Parabolic Trajectory 𝑒 = 1 Hyperbolic Trajectory 𝑒 > 1
• Orbit equation also applies to open conic sections (parabola and hyperbola), used for
escape and inter-planetary trajectories.
• We will limit ourselves to near-earth orbits, but two quick points:

2 = 𝑣2 − 𝑣2
Escape Velocity: 𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑐 = 2𝑣𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐 Hyperbolic Excess Speed: 𝑣∞ 𝑒𝑠𝑐
Arrive at infinity with 0 velocity Arrive at infinity with velocity 𝑣∞

ENGPHYS 3SP3 Fall 2024: Lecture 6 Intro to Orbits 10/09/2024 40

 The Perifocal Frame
ℎ2 1
• Coordinate frame where the orbit lies in the XY plane ෝ
𝒒 𝑟=
𝜇 1 + ecos 𝜃
• Centered at the focus y
• X axis points along apse line to periapsis (0 true anomaly)
𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃
• Y axis along semilatus rectum
𝑦 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃
• Z axis normal in direction
of angular momentum 𝒉
𝒓 = 𝑥ෝ
𝒑 + 𝑦ෝ
𝒒 𝑚2
ℎ2 1
𝒓= ෝ + sin 𝜃 𝒒
cos 𝜃 𝒑 ෝ
𝜇 1+ecos 𝜃 𝑦 𝒓
𝜃
𝑚1 x ෝ
𝒑
z 𝑥
𝒗 = 𝑥ෝ
ሶ 𝒑 + 𝑦ෝ
ሶ𝒒 𝒉
𝜇 ෝ=
𝒘
𝒗=ℎ ෝ + (e + cos 𝜃 ) 𝒒
−sin 𝜃 𝒑 ෝ ℎ

ENGPHYS 3SP3 Fall 2024: Lecture 6 Intro to Orbits 10/09/2024 41

Example 2: Perifocal
• Satellite orbiting the Earth, measured state vector in Perifocal plane:
𝒗𝟎
𝒓𝟎 = 6440.4ෝ
𝒑 + 3718.5ෝ
𝒒 (𝑘𝑚)
𝒗𝟎 = −3.57ෝ
𝒑 + 6.62ෝ
𝒒 𝑘𝑚/𝑠 ෝ
𝒒
𝑚2
𝑚2 y
1. What is the specific angular momentum ℎ? Δ𝜃 = 120°
𝒓𝟎
2. What is the true anomaly 𝜃0 ? 𝒓 𝜃0
𝒗 𝑚1 ෝ
x 𝒑
3. What is the orbit eccentricity 𝑒?
4. What is the state vector Δ𝜃 = 120° later?

ENGPHYS 3SP3 Fall 2024: Lecture 6 Intro to Orbits 10/09/2024 42

Propagating Orbits
• The two-body equation of motion is a 2nd order nonlinear differential equation. In 3D
space 2 vector constants of integration (1x3 each) = 6 constants of integration

1. State Vector completely defines the orbit

• Position X, Y, Z, Velocity X, Y, Z (at Epoch = t)
• Can derive all orbital elements from one position and velocity vector pair

2. If you have the relative position and velocity of the orbiting body now (𝒓𝟎 , 𝒗𝟎 ), you
should be able to predict the position and velocity at any other point in the orbit (𝒓, 𝒗)
• Along the orbit sweep (change in True Anomaly Δ𝜃), or as a function of time 𝜃 𝑡

𝒓 = 𝑓𝒓𝟎 + 𝑔𝒗𝟎
ሶ 𝟎 + 𝑔𝒗
𝒗 = 𝑓𝒓 ሶ 𝟎

• 𝑓, 𝑓,ሶ 𝑔, 𝑔ሶ are Lagrange Coefficients.

ENGPHYS 3SP3 Fall 2024: Lecture 6 Intro to Orbits 10/09/2024 43

Lagrange Coefficients
• Among Lagrange’s many contributions to mathematics and physics
includes works on calculations of planetary motion and orbit determination.
• If position 𝒓𝟎 = 𝑥0 𝒑ෝ + 𝑦0 𝒒ෝ, and velocity 𝒗𝟎 = 𝑥ሶ 0 𝒑
ෝ + 𝑦ሶ 0 𝒒
ෝ are observed at 𝑡0 ,
then the position 𝐫Ԧ = 𝑥ෝ𝒑 + 𝑦ෝ𝒒, and velocity 𝒗 = 𝑥ෝ ሶ 𝒑 + 𝑦ෝሶ 𝒒 at time 𝑡
can be determined using:

𝒓 = 𝑓𝒓𝟎 + 𝑔𝒗𝟎
ሶ 𝟎 + 𝑔𝒗
𝒗 = 𝑓𝒓 ሶ 𝟎

• Where the Lagrange coefficients are given by: Joseph-Louis Lagrange: 1736-1813

𝑥 𝑦ሶ 0 − 𝑦𝑥ሶ 0 𝑥ሶ 𝑦ሶ 0 − 𝑦ሶ 𝑥ሶ 0
𝑓= ሶ
,𝑓 =
ℎ ℎ

𝑥 𝑦ሶ 0 − 𝑦𝑥ሶ 0 𝑥ሶ 𝑦ሶ 0 − 𝑦ሶ 𝑥ሶ 0
𝑔= , 𝑔ሶ =
ℎ ℎ

ENGPHYS 3SP3 Fall 2024: Lecture 6 Intro to Orbits 10/09/2024 44

 Lagrange Coefficients
• State vector now 𝒓𝟎 , 𝒗𝟎 defines the orbit
𝑓𝒓𝟎
• Orbit lies in a plane spanned 𝒗 = 𝑓𝒓
ሶ 𝟎 + 𝑔𝒗
ሶ 𝟎
by 𝒓𝟎 , 𝒗𝟎 𝑚2 𝒗𝟎

• State vector later 𝒓, 𝒗 can

be represented as a 𝑔𝒗𝟎
linear combination of 𝑚2
𝒓 = 𝑓𝒓𝟎 + 𝑔𝒗𝟎 𝒓𝟎
the current state
vector Δ𝜃
𝑚1

ENGPHYS 3SP3 Fall 2024: Lecture 6 Intro to Orbits 10/09/2024 45

Lagrange Coefficients in terms of True Anomaly
• After a good deal of algebra and trig:
ℎ2 1 𝒓0
𝑟= 𝑣𝑟0 = 𝒗0 ⋅
𝜇 ℎ2 𝑣 𝑟0
1 + 𝜇𝑟 − 1 cos Δ𝜃 − ℎ 𝜇𝑟0 sin Δ𝜃
0

𝜇𝑟 𝜇 1 − cos Δ𝜃 𝜇 1 1
𝑓 = 1 − 2 1 − cos Δ𝜃 𝑓ሶ = 1 − cos Δ𝜃 − −
ℎ ℎ sin Δ𝜃 ℎ2 𝑟0 𝑟
𝑟𝑟0 𝜇𝑟0
𝑔= sin Δ𝜃 𝑔ሶ = 1 − 2 1 − cos Δ𝜃
ℎ ℎ

• Gives us a solution to the position and velocity elsewhere in the orbit in terms of change
in True Anomaly 𝒓 = 𝑓𝒓 + 𝑔𝒗 𝟎 𝟎
ሶ 𝟎 + 𝑔𝒗
𝒗 = 𝑓𝒓 ሶ 𝟎
• Can solve for eccentricity and initial true anomaly using:
ℎ2 1 𝜇
𝑟0 = 𝑣𝑟0 = 𝑒 sin 𝜃0
𝜇 1 + ecos 𝜃0 ℎ

ENGPHYS 3SP3 Fall 2024: Lecture 6 Intro to Orbits 10/09/2024 46

Example Lagrange Coefficients
• Method of Lagrange coefficients works with any observations in the orbit plane centered on the orbit
focus, not necessarily aligned to perifocal
𝒗𝟎
• Initial state vector (in orbit XY plane):
𝒓𝟎 = 7437𝒊Ƹ + 0𝒋Ƹ + 0𝒌 ෡ 𝒗 ෡
ෝ𝟎 = 0.218𝒊Ƹ + 7.518𝒋Ƹ + 0𝒌
𝑚2
𝑚2
1. What is the state vector after a true anomaly change Δ𝜃 = 120°
of 120º? 𝒓𝟎
𝒓 𝜃0
𝒗 𝑚1

ENGPHYS 3SP3 Fall 2024: Lecture 6 Intro to Orbits 10/09/2024 47

Orbit Position as a Function of Time
• The previous parameterization in polar coordinates is useful for understanding the
geometry of the problem, but what about time?

• We saw the velocity changes through the course of an orbit, so how do we relate how
much angle is swept per unit time? 𝒗 = 𝒗𝒓 + 𝒗⊥
𝑣𝑑𝑡 𝒗𝒓
𝒗⊥
• What is 𝜃 𝑡 ? 𝑚2
𝜙
𝑦
𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙 Area swept out in time dt:
𝒓 𝑣𝑑𝑡 1
𝑑𝐴 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙 = 𝑟𝑣⊥ 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜃 ? 2 2
𝑑𝐴 𝑟𝑣⊥ ℎ
= = = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑚1 𝑥 𝑑𝑡 2 2

K2: equal areas in equal times

ENGPHYS 3SP3 Fall 2024: Lecture 6 Intro to Orbits 10/09/2024 48

Orbit Position as a Function of Time
• Relationship between true anomaly and time: ℎ = 𝑟𝑣⊥ , 𝑣⊥ = 𝑟𝜃ሶ
𝑑𝜃 ℎ ℎ2 1
= , 𝑟=
𝑑𝑡 𝑟 2 𝜇 1 + ecos 𝜃
𝑡 𝜃
3
ℎ 𝑑𝜃
න 𝑑𝑡 = 2 න 2
Consult the book of integrals…
𝜇 1 + 𝑒 cos 𝜃
𝑡𝑝 0
• 𝑡𝑝 = time at periapsis, can set to 0 (measure orbit time from periapsis)

ℎ3 1 −1
1−𝑒 𝜃 𝑒 1 − 𝑒 2 sin 𝜃
𝑡 𝜃 = 2 2 tan tan − For ellipse
𝜇 1 − 𝑒2 3/2 1+𝑒 2 1 + 𝑒 cos 𝜃

ℎ3
𝑡 𝜃 = 2 𝜃 For circle
𝜇

ENGPHYS 3SP3 Fall 2024: Lecture 6 Intro to Orbits 10/09/2024 49

Circular Orbit

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Circular_orbit_of_planet_with_(eccentricty_of_0.0).gif

ENGPHYS 3SP3 Fall 2024: Lecture 6 Intro to Orbits 10/09/2024 50

Circular Orbit
• Velocity is constant, radius is constant, angular rate is constant 𝑣⊥ = 𝑟𝜃ሶ
• 2𝜋 radians in 𝑇𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐 seconds ℎ = 𝑟𝑣 ⊥
= 𝑟𝜇
2𝜋𝑡
𝜃 𝑡 =
𝑇𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐 𝒗⊥
𝜇
= 3/2 𝜇
𝑟 𝑣𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐 =
𝑚1 𝑚2 𝑟
𝜇
𝜇2 𝑟=
𝑣2 2𝜋 3/2
𝜃 𝑡 = 𝑡 𝑇𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐 = 𝑟
ℎ3 𝜇
ℎ3
𝑡 𝜃 = 2𝜃
𝜇

ENGPHYS 3SP3 Fall 2024: Lecture 6 Intro to Orbits 10/09/2024 51

Elliptical Orbit

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ellipitical_orbit_of_planet_with_an_eccentricty_of_0.5.gif

ENGPHYS 3SP3 Fall 2024: Lecture 6 Intro to Orbits 10/09/2024 52

Elliptical Orbit, Mean Anomaly and Mean Motion
• Orbit time as a function of angle with constants rearranged:

𝜇2 1−𝑒 𝜃 𝑒 1 − 𝑒 2 sin 𝜃
𝑡 3 1 − 𝑒2 3/2 = 2 tan−1 tan −
ℎ 1+𝑒 2 1 + 𝑒 cos 𝜃
Mean Anomaly 𝑀𝑒
ℎ3
Ellipse Orbital Period: 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡 = 2𝜋 𝜇2 1 − 𝑒2 −3/2

2𝜋𝑡
Mean Anomaly 𝑀𝑒 = 𝑇
𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡

• Mean Anomaly is the angular position of a fictional body orbiting around the ellipse at a
2𝜋
constant angular rate, the Mean Motion 𝑛 =
𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡

ENGPHYS 3SP3 Fall 2024: Lecture 6 Intro to Orbits 10/09/2024 53

Mean Anomaly vs True Anomaly
• Mean Anomaly lags and leads true anomaly moving away from / towards periapsis
• In a circular orbit, Mean Anomaly = True Anomaly

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ellipitical_orbit_of_planet_with_an_eccentricty_of_0.5.gif
Fig 3.2: Curtis, Howard D. Orbital Mechanics for Engineering
Students: Revised Reprint. Butterworth-Heinemann, 2020.

ENGPHYS 3SP3 Fall 2024: Lecture 6 Intro to Orbits 10/09/2024 54

 Eccentric Anomaly
𝜇2 1−𝑒 𝜃 𝑒 1 − 𝑒 2 sin 𝜃
𝑡 3 1 − 𝑒2 3/2
= 2 tan −1
tan −
ℎ 1+𝑒 2 1 + 𝑒 cos 𝜃
Mean Anomaly 𝑀𝑒 Eccentric Anomaly 𝐸 𝑒 sin 𝐸
2𝜋𝑡
𝑀𝑒 = 𝐸 − 𝑒 sin 𝐸 = Kepler’s Equation
𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡
Given 𝜃, can solve for 𝑡 directly.
Or use 𝜃 → 𝐸 → 𝑀𝑒 → 𝑡

Given 𝑡, need to solve a transcendental 𝜃

𝐸
equation for 𝐸…

Need numerical methods

(like Newton’s method)

ENGPHYS 3SP3 Fall 2024: Lecture 6 Intro to Orbits 10/09/2024 55

Lecture Summary + Bookkeeping
• Brief history of orbital models
• Review of vectors and vector operations
• Learned about important orbit parameters and calculating them in 2D
• Will move to 3D orbits after the reading week
• First lecture back will be Satellite Communication to keep things varied
• Assignment 5 posted on Avenue, due during reading week
• First major math-based assignment
• Make sure to use website from earlier in slides (https://orbital-mechanics.space/) as
reference if any of the calculations are confusing -> excellent examples and breakdown of
formulas beyond what we covered in class

ENGPHYS 3SP3 Fall 2024: Lecture 6 Intro to Orbits 10/09/2024 56