lect 1-2 (2024-2025)
lect 1-2 (2024-2025)
Dr Heba Kahil
Magnetism?
Introduction
Magnetic materials
• We knew that magnetic field can be induced by the free
charges that flow in a current-carrying wire loop and
the direction of the induced magnetic field is described
by the right-hand rule.
• On the atomic scale, all materials contain spinning
electrons that circulate in orbits, and these electrons can
also produce magnetic fields if each of theirs magnetic
moments is properly oriented.
• Thus, a resultant magnetic moment in a macroscopic
substance can be observed and such a substance is then
said to be magnetised and this type of substance is
called magnetic material.
• A magnetic material is said to be linear, isotropic, or
homogenous if it magnetic properties (i.e. r and m) is linear
over a specified range of field, independent of the direction
of field, or does not vary through out the whole medium of
the material, respectively.
• Magnetic materials also classified as soft and hard
materials.
• Soft materials are normally used as the magnetic core
materials for inductors, transformers, and actuators in which
the magnetic fields vary frequently.
• Hard materials or sometime called as permanent magnets
are used to generate static magnetic fields in electric
motors.
Origin of magnetisation in materials
.
The normal vector n
Where 𝑟 is the distance from the pivot that the force is applied.
𝜃 is the angle between the normal and the field.
Note:
❑ The forces on the top and the bottom segments are vertical
and parallel to the shaft therefore, produce no torque.
The two forces (vertical forces) are equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction so they produce no net force on the loop
View the loop from above:
The net force is zero but zero but the clockwise torque on each
vertical segment is
𝑤
𝜏 = 𝐹 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
2
And the net torque is:
𝑤 𝑤
𝜏 = 𝐹 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝐹 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑤𝐹𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
2 2
𝜏 = 𝐵𝐼𝐿𝑤𝑠𝑖𝑛 = BIA sinθ
Energy difference in case of complete misalignment to
complete alignment
Into the atom
Vector model of the atom
Orbital angular momentum
Example (electron in d subshell)
magnetic flux density B and magnetic field
strength H
• Magnetic field strength H - a physical quantity used as
one of the basic measures of the intensity of magnetic
field.