Geometry Module Notes

➔ Summary of Math Reasoning Notes

Axioms Basic assumptions called “Common Notions” by Euclid

Axiom 1 [A1] Things that are equal to the same thing are equal to each other.

Axiom 2 [A2] lf equals are added to equals, the sums are equal.

Axiom 3 [A3] If equals are subtracted from equals, the remainders are equal.

Axiom 4 [A4] lf equals are added to unequals, the sums are unequal. The greater sum is
obtained from the greater unequal.

Axiom 5 [A5] If equals are taken from unequals, the remainders are unequal. The greater
remainder is obtained from the greater unequal.

Axiom 6 [A6] If equals are doubled, the results are equal.

Axiom 7 [A7] If equals are halved, the results are equal.

Axiom 8 [A8] If the whole consists of more than one part, then the whole is greater than each of
its parts and is equal to the sum of its parts.

Axiom 9 [A9] Things that can be made to coincide with one another are equal to one another.

Postulates Geometrical constructions accepted as possible, requiring only a straight edge

(need not marks) and a compass.

Postulate 1 [P1] A straight line may be drawn from any one point to any other pont and there
exists only one straight line through any two distinct points.

Postulate 2 [P2] A line segment can be extended any distance beyond each endpoint.

Postulate 3 [P3] A circle may be described (created) with any point as center and with any
radius.

Postulate 4 [P4] All right angles (90˚) are equal to one another.

Postulate 5 [P5] Lines parallel to the same line are parallel to each other (Playfair’s Axiom)

Conventions / Definitions
 Circle One full rotation around a circle has 360˚ or 2𝜋 radians

Straight Line A straight line is one half of a rotation of a circle and has 180˚ or 𝜋 radians

Right Angle A right angle is one quarter rotation of a circle and has 90˚ or 𝜋/2 radians

Acute Angle Smaller than a right angle (90˚)

Obtuse Angle Larger than a right angle (90˚)

Bisector of an Straight line dividing the angle into two equal (adjacent) angles.
Angle

Isosceles Triangle Triangle with two equal sides.

Equilateral Triangle with three equal sides.

Triangle

Ambiguous Case If ∠A is acute and h < a < b, two triangles

Triangle exist.

Median Straight line from a traingle’s vertex to the midpoint of the opposite side.

Right Bisector Straight line that bisects (divides in half) the given line at right angles

Transversal Line passing through two lines in the same plane at two distinct points.

Parallel Straight lines in the same plane that never touch.

Transversal Angles
 Exterior Angles Angles 1, 2, 7 & 8

Interior Angles Angles 3, 4, 5 & 6

Alternate Angles Angle pairs (3 & 6) & (4 & 5)

(Math 1C03 Def n)
Sometimes known as alternate interior angles, with angle pairs
(1 & 8) & (2, 7) known as alternate exterior angles

Co-Interior Angles Angle pairs (3 & 5) & (4 & 6)

Corresponding Angles Angle pairs (1 & 5), (2 & 6), (4 & 8) and (3 & 7)

Opposite Angles Angle pairs (1 & 4), (2 & 3), (5 & 8) and (6 & 7)

Theorems, Theorem: general proposition that isn’t self-evident, but is provable using a series of
Corollaries accepted axioms / truths.
and Lemmas Corollary: a theorem connected by a short proof to an existing theorem
(adds further onto an existing theorem)
Lemma: generally minor proposition, whose results are used to prove a larger theorem

Theorem 3.1 If two straight lines intersect, the opposite angles are equal.
(Vertical Angle Th’m)

Theorem 3.2 If two sides and their contained angle in a triangle are equal to the
(Side Angle Side Th’m) corresponding two sides and contained angles in the other triangle, the
triangles are congruent.

Theorem 3.4 In an isosceles triangle, the angles opposite the equal sides are equal.
(Isosceles Triangle Th’m)

Corollary 3.6 The bisector of the vertex of an isosceles triangle is also the median and it
meets the base at right angles.

Lemma 3.7 If one side of a triangle is extended, the exterior angle so formed is greater
(Exterior Angle Th’m) than each of the interior and opposite angles.
Theorem 3.9 If a transversal intersects two straight lines making the alternate angles equal,
(Alternate Angle Th’m) the two straight lines are parallel.

Corollary 3.10 If a transversal meets two straight lines and makes

(i) two corresponding angles equal or
(ii) two interior angles on the same side of the transversal sum to 180˚
then the two straight lines are parallel.

Theorem 3.11 If a transversal meets two parallel straight lines, then it makes
(i) alternate angles equal,
(ii) corresponding angles equal, and
(iii) interior angles on the same side of the transversal sum to 180˚.

Theorem 3.12 The sum of the three interior angles of a triangle equals 180˚.
(Triangle Sum Th’m)

Theorem 4.1 If the three sides of one triangle are equal to the three corresponding sides of
(Side Side Side Th’m) another triangle, the triangles are congruent.

Pythagorean Theorem In a right angle triangle, the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of
the squares of the other two sides (ie. c2 = a2 + b2)

Construction 2 At a given point in a given straight line, construct an angle equal to a given
angle.

Construction 5 Bisect a given angle.

Helpful Symbols: △ ≡ ≢
∴ ∦ ≡

Table of Contents

➔ History of geometry ➔ Theorem 3.4 (Isosceles Triangle Theorem)

➔ Preliminaries ➔ Corollary 3.6
➔ Postulates ➔ Construction 5: Bisect a Given Angle
➔ Convention ➔ Lemma 3.7 (Exterior Angle Theorem)
➔ Definitions / Reminders ➔ Theorem 3.9 (Alternate Angles Theorem)
➔ Parallel line terminology: ➔ Corollary 3.10
➔ Notation / Symbols ➔ Theorem 3.11
➔ Theorem 3.1 (Vertical Angle Theorem) ➔ Theorem 3.12
➔ Theorem 3.2 (Side Angle Side Theorem) ➔ Construction 2:
➔ Proving Congruency in Triangles ➔ Theorem 4.1 (Side Side Side)
➔ The Ambiguous Case ➔ Proving the Pythagorus Theorem

➔ History of geometry
◆ “Geometry” is derived from the Greek words:
● “ge” (earth)
● “metron” (measure)
◆ Notable figures
● Thales of Miletus (640 - 546 B.C.)
○ First great geometrician
○ Refused to accept Ancient Egyptians’ ready-made formulae fitted
specifically to their needs (ie. not universal)
○ Founded a school, beginning the first systematic study of Geometry
● Pythagoras (575-500 B.C.)
○ Greek-born figure who started a brotherhood while in Italy to study
geometry
○ Motto of “a search for truth for truth's sake.”
● Euclid (340-260 B.C.)
○ First professor of mathematics at the University of Alexandria, thereafter
known as the centre of mathematical learning
 ○ Wrote the famous textbook, “The Elements”
◆ Logically arranged all prior geometrical discoveries
◆ Comprises 13 books
◆ Un-revised for over 2,000 years
◆ Essentially the modern textbook with only minor revisions

➔ Preliminaries
◆ Basic assumptions called “Common Notions” by Euclid
◆ Axiom = statement proven to be or self-evidently true.
[A1] Things that are equal to the same thing are equal to each other.
[A2] lf equals are added to equals, the sums are equal.
[A3] If equals are subtracted from equals, the remainders are equal.
[A4] lf equals are added to unequals, the sums are unequal.
The greater sum is obtained from the greater unequal
[A5] If equals are taken from unequals, the remainders are unequal.
The greater remainder is obtained from the greater unequal.
[A6] If equals are doubled, the results are equal
[A7] I equals are halved, the results are equal
[A8] If the whole consists of more than one part, then the whole is greater
than each of its parts and is equal to the sum of its parts.
[A9] Things that can be made to coincide with one another are equal to one another.

➔ Postulates
◆ Geometrical constructions accepted as possibly using only a straight edge
(without marks) and a compass.
1. A straight line may be drawn from any one point to any other pont and there is
only one line through any two distinct points.
(“line” is to be considered as meaning a straight line)
2. A line segment can be extended any distance beyond each endpoint.
3. A circle may be described with any point as center and with any radius.
 4. All right angles are equal to one another.
5. Lines parallel to the same line are parallel to each other (Playfair’s Axiom)

◆ One full rotation around a circle has 360˚ or 2𝜋 radians

➔ Convention

◆ A straight line is one half of a rotation of a circle and has 180˚ or 𝜋 radians
◆ A right angle is one quarter rotation of a circle and has 90˚ or 𝜋/2 radians

➔ Definitions / Reminders
◆ Angle: figure formed by two straight lines meeting at a point.
◆ Right angle: one half a straight angle.
◆ Acute angle: smaller than a right angle.
◆ Obtuse angle: larger than a right angle.
◆ Bisector of an angle: straight line dividing the angle into two equal adjacent parts.

◆ Triangle: closed figure (polygon) bounded by three straight lines.

◆ Isosceles triangle: triangle with two equal sides.
◆ Equilateral triangle: triangle with all three sides equal.

◆ Quadrilateral: closed figure (polygon) bounded by four straight lines.

◆ Parallelogram: quadrilateral with two sets of parallel opposite sides.
◆ Rectangle: parallelogram in which one angle is a right angle.
◆ Square: quadrilateral all equal sides and one angle a right angle.
◆ Trapezoid: quadrilateral with one pair of opposite parallel sides.

◆ Congruent: the described figures can be made to fit exactly over the other
(all sides and angles are equal)

◆ Median: straight line from a traingle’s vertex to the midpoint of the opposite side.
◆ Transversal: line that passes through two lines in the same plane at two distinct
points.
◆ Parallel (lines): Straight lines in the same plane that never touch.
 ◆ Right bisector: straight line that bisects (divides in half) the given line at right angles

◆ Corollary: a theorem connected by a short proof to an existing theorem (ie. follows

right after)
◆ Lemma: a generally minor, proven proposition, used as a stepping stone to a larger
result.

➔ Parallel line terminology:

● Angles 1, 2, 7 & 8 are exterior angles (do not confused with an exterior angle to a
polygon)
● Angles 3, 4, 5 & 6 are interior angles
● The pairs of angles (1 & 4), (2 & 3), (5 & 8), (6& 7) are called alternate angles
● The pairs of angles (1 & 5), (2 & 6), (4 & 8) and (3 & 7) are called corresponding angles
● The pairs of angles (1 & 3), (2 & 4), (5 & 7) and (6 & 8) are called opposite angles
➔ Notation / Symbols
◆ Straight line from points A to B = AB
● Points between are also included, ie A to B to C = ABC
◆ Angle between AB and BC = ∠ABC
◆ Equal angles: denote with any symbol ie. o in the crease of the angles
◆ Equal sides: add the same number of small dashes through the equal lines
◆ Congruent: ≡
◆ Parallel: ‖
◆ Therefore: ∴
◆ Because or since: ∵
◆ △

◆ QED: quod erat demonstrandum, meaning "that which was to be

demonstrated"
Used once finished the proof.

➔ Labels for angles on a diagram:

➔ Alt Codes
➔ Theorem 3.1 (Vertical Angle Theorem)

◆ Given: AB and YX are straight lines that intersect at O

◆ Prove: ∠AOY = ∠BOX and ∠YOB = ∠AOX

1. Given AOB and YOX are both straight lines, ∠AOB = ∠YOX by [A1]

2. By [A8], ∠AOY + ∠YOB = ∠AOB

 3. Similarly, ∠BOX + ∠YOB = ∠YOX

4. By [A1], equations from 1-3 above can be combined as:

∠AOY + ∠YOB = ∠BOX + ∠YOB

5. By [A3], we can subtract ∠YOB from each side of the equation from 4 to

find:

∠AOY = ∠BOX

6. Similarly, it can be proven that ∠YOB = ∠AOX

∴ If two straight lines intersect, the opposite angles are equal

➔ Theorem 3.2 (Side Angle Side Theorem)

◆ If two sides and their contained angle in a triangle are equal to the corresponding two

sides and contained angles in the other triangle, the triangles are congruent.

◆ Given: △ABC and △DEF are two triangles in which sides AB = DE, BC = EF

and ∠B = ∠E.

◆ Prove: △ABC ≡ △DEF

 1. Let △ABC be placed on △DEF such that vertex A falls on Vertex D and side AB falls

along side DE

2. Given AB = DE, by [A9]* vertex B coincides with vertex E

3. Similarly, given ∠B = ∠E, by [A9] side BC coincides with EF.

4. And given BC = EF, by [A9] vertex C coincides with vertex F.

∴ All sides and angles of △ABC and △DEF coincide when one triangle is

superimposed on the other, and by [A9], △ABC ≡ △DEF.

* [A9] is normally: Things that can be made to coincide with one another are equal to one

another. In this case, it’s used as its converse

➔ Proving Congruency in Triangles

◆ Rule: the minimum number of things that must be known to be equal to prove

congruence between two triangles is 3.

◆ This can be proven by counter-examples:

A D
5 cm 5 cm

B C E F △ABC ≢ △DEF

It takes only 1 counterexample to disprove a theory.

➔ What combinations of 3 things known can prove congruence in triangles?

1. Each side of each triangle is equal to one of the sides of the other triangle. (SSS)

True, because this allows the triangles to be superimposed.

2. Each angle of one triangle is equal to one of the angles of the other triangle. (AAA)

False. The sides can be proportionately enlarged and have the same angles.

3. Two of the angles and the side between the two angles are equal to the corresponding

angles and corresponding side of the other triangle. (ASA)

True. Requires proof, similar to (SAS) in Theorem 3.2.

4. Two of the angles and any side are equal to the corresponding angles and

corresponding side of the other triangle. (AAS)

True. For the angles to be a certain measure, they place the vertices at a certain fixed

position, thus restricting the lengths of the two other sides to one set value each.

5. Two of the sides and the contained angle of one triangle are equal to the corresponding

sides and angle of the other triangle. (SAS)

True. Proved in Theorem 3.2.

6. Two of the sides and any angle of one triangle are equal to the corresponding sides and

corresponding angle of the other triangle. (SSA)

False. See the ambiguous case.

➔ The Ambiguous Case:

◆ If ∠A is acute:
a) a < h < b. No triangles exist.
b) a = h. 1 triangle exists. It is a right angle triangle.
c) h < a < b. The ambiguous case. Two triangles exist.
We have 1 known angle (∠A) and two known sides (A and B) but
the
two triangles are not congruent, disproving the SSA hypothesis.
d) h < a = b. 1 triangle exists. It is an isoceles triangle since sides A = B.
➔ Theorem 3.4 (Isosceles Triangle Theorem)

◆ Given: △ABC in which sides AB = AC

◆ Prove: ∠B = ∠C

1. Draw a line from vertex A that bisects ∠A and intersects BC at D

2. By definition, the bisecting line AD will divide ∠BAC equally into ∠BAD and

∠CAD

3. To summarize, AB = AC, ∠BAD = ∠CAD and both triangles share side AD

∴ by the Theorem SAS, △BAD ≡ △CAD

4. Given △BAD ≡ △CAD, all corresponding angles and sides are equivalent.

∴ the angles opposite the equal sides in an isosceles triangle are equal
 ∴ ∠B = ∠C

➔ Corollary 3.6
◆ The bisector of the vertex of an isosceles triangle is also the median and it
◆ meets the base at right angles.

◆ Given: △ABC in which sides AB = AC

◆ Prove: the bisector of ∠A is the median and meets the base at right angles.

1. The bisector of ∠A, by definition, equally divides ∠A in two to form ∠BAD

and ∠CAD.

2. Given AB = AC, ∠BAD = ∠CAD and AD is shared between △BAD and

△CAD,

a. by the Theorem SAS, △BAD ≡ △CAD

b. ∴ all corresponding angles and sides are equivalent

c. ∴ ∠BDA = ∠ADC

3. Per convention, a straight line, has 180˚ ∴ ∠BDC = 180˚

4. By [A8], ∠BDC = ∠BDA + ∠ADC

5. Given [A1] and points 2-4 above:

 a. ∠BDC = 2*(∠BDA)

b. 180˚ = 2*(∠BDA)

6. Given [A7] and point 5. a) above, 90˚ = ∠BDA

7. Given [A1] and points 6 and 2. c) above, ∠ADC = 90˚ as well.

8. Per convention, 90˚ is a right angle.

∴ AD intersects BDC at right angles (∠BDA and ∠ADC)

9. Per point 2. a) above, we can also conclude BD = DC

∴ AD intersects BDC at the mid-point, and by definition, is the triangle’s

median.

➔ Construction 5: Bisect a Given Angle

➔ Given ∠ABC
➔ Must: Bisect the angle

1. Draw a circle, using a compass, with centre B, such that it divides BA and BC
Let these points of intersection be D and E, respectively
2. Draw two circles using a compass with the same radius ≥ DE,
one with centre D and one with centre E
3. Label the point of intersection of these two new circles F
(the POI outside of the circle with centre B)
4. Draw a line from B to F
5. Claim that BF bisects ∠ABC

➔ Proof
◆ Given ∠ABC
◆ By construction: BE = BD, DF = EF
◆ Must: Bisect the angle
1. Draw a line from D to E, creating point G where DE intersects BF, and creating
△BDE and △DEF
2. By the Isosceles Triangle Theorem, △BDE has equivalent angles ∠BDG
and ∠BEG
3. By the Isosceles Triangle Theorem, △DEF has equivalent angles ∠GDF
and ∠GEF
4. By [A8], ∠FDB = ∠FDG + ∠BDG
5. By [A8], ∠FEB = ∠BEG + ∠GEF
6. By [A1], ∠FEB = ∠FDB
7. Given corresponding sides BE = BD, DF = EF, and angles ∠FEB =
∠FDB, by SAS Theorem, △DEF ≡ △BDE
8. By definition, corresponding angles ∠DBF = ∠EBF, meaning BF bisects
∠DBE
➔ Lemma 3.7 (Exterior Angle Theorem)
◆ If one side of a triangle is extended, the exterior angle so formed is greater than
each of the interior and opposite angles.
➔ Theorem 3.9 (Alternate Angles Theorem)
◆ If a transversal intersects two straight lines making the alternate angles equal,
the two straight lines are parallel.

➔ Corollary 3.10
◆ If a transversal meets two straight lines and makes:
(i) two corresponding angles equal or
 (ii) two interior angles on the same side of the transversal
sum to 180 degrees
the two straight lines are parallel.

➔ Theorem 3.11
◆ If a transversal meets two parallel straight lines it makes
(i) alternate angles equal,
(ii) corresponding angles equal, and
(iii) interior angles on the same side of the transversal sum to 180˚.
➔ Theorem 3.12
◆ The sum of the three interior angles of a triangle equals 180˚.
➔ Construction 2:
◆ At a given point in a given straight line, construct an angle equal to a given
angle.
 ➔ Theorem 4.1 (Side Side Side)

➔ Proving the Pythagorus Theorem

◆ c2 = a2 + b2
◆ Used for right angle triangles where c is the hypotenuse
◆ For the above, we must prove that the quadrilateral of side length “c” is a square
◆ This would be true if the angles inside a triangle add up to 2 right angles (180˚)
● Proven in Theorem 3.12 !