Ethics in Business Communication

LEARN IN G OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you will be able to understand:
• the term ethical communication
• the importance of values and ethics in organizational communication
• how ethical codes work in communication
• ethical issues involved in organizational communication
• ethical dilemmas that managers face at the workplace
• strategic approaches to ethical communication
• ethical communication on the Internet
• ethical implications of communication using electronic mail
• ethical issues involved in advertising

IN TRODUCTION
Communication is central to human experience. Through communication, we cultivate rdation-
ships and come to understand ourselves, others, and the world in which we live. To live well, we must
communicate well, and to communicate well, we must understand both the visible and the subtle
issues related to communication. Ethical issues related to business communication are one such issue.
Understanding the ethics of communication helps us communicate effectively.
Traditional notions of organizational communication have framed ethical questions as largely
frivolous, and ethics in organizational communication played a limited role. There were two fun-
damental factors which contributed to this thought: (i) There was an inherent confusion over the
responsibility and accountability issues related to ethical communications in organizations. It was
difficult to hold a manager (division) responsible for an unethical communication practice and
1 for a
emp1oyees were ouen r...
seen pointing fingers at each other when it came to taking responsi·bu·cy
d • h (· ·) There
wrong one. The issue was about who takes the responsibility to practise ethics and w Y· 11
were serious limitations on discussions regarding ethical questions in organizations.
Ethical leaders set the standard of truth for every employee they lead. The moment people cake
leadership positions, they have an opportunity to place the highest premium on truthfulness. cases
of fiscal malpractices at Enron, WorldCom, and Arthur Andersen illustrate the need for every forrn
 Ethics in Business Communication 547

of communication put fonh b lead b

Y ers to e an accurate representation. Yet, leading by example can-
not be th. e o nlffiy process bywhich th·is stand ard.1s relayed. It must become a company slogan, from the
accountmg o ce to the shop floor • that ' tru th 1s · JO
· b 1•. Truthful information is quality information
th CEO b
to e , oar . d ofdir ectors' and investors. Tu·1s chapter discusses one of the most important com-
pon~nts of ethical leadership-ethical communication.

ETHICAL COMMUN ICATION

What does it mean to be an ethical communicator? Some important characteristics of ethical com-
munication are discussed as follows:
Getting your point across without offending the audience One of the most important issues that
should be kept in mind while communicating is that to get the desired response from the target audi-
ence, one needs to get his/her point across in an effective manner. For example, executives and man-
agers in a PR team could easily be offended with a message that is conveyed in a crude manner. There
are other subtle ways to tell them exactly the same thing; such that the message is loud and clear for
managers to interpret and, yet is not offensive.
Managers must always remember that when they are communicating, they are not just commu-
nicating the message to be conveyed-they are also indirectly communicating the rules, policies, and
principles the company follows.
-. Maintaining and sustaining a relationship ~th your audience It is always very important for a
communicator to maintain the same wavelength with the target audience so that the target audience
feds 'at home'. Master communicators strike a chord with the audience immediately and develop a
relationship which is based on trust. Great orators such as Gandhi and Churchill did not have any
problem in developing a sustainable relationship with their audience primarily because_of their ability
to strike a one-to-one relationship within minutes, and the audience experienced a feeling of comfort
and security in their presence.
Presenting information to the audience without deliberately withholding vital information In
the modern world, when information is such an important input to all strategic decisions, it becomes
essential for organizations to b~ careful when communicating with the outside world. They should
see to it that the information being communicated is complete, and that no vital information is being
withheld on purpose. With more and more accounting scandals coming to light in recent corporate
history, the importance of corporate information is even more critical now. Professional organizations
are trying to practise 'corporate governance' by sharing each and every piece of information which
could be price sensitive with the investors' community at large. Companies are becoming increasingly
aware that while filing prospectus for listing in stock exchanges for an IPO, all material information
r~·--- ···················"···" •'•• must be disclosed, and that such an attempt will actually result in a better corpo-
When managers rate image in the long run. All major accounting scandals in the past, such as that
~ ~ rhunicate, they · of Enron, are prima fade cases of information concealment on the part of or~i-
1nchrealy·,c o~~unicate zation, resulting in heavy losses to investors and the investor confidence taking a
- . .the
'd rules
. '. pohc,es ' .
huge dip All relevant parties mvo lved ·m the process must be fully ·m £ormed ahou 1
(.an principles of the · . .· · ·
compan . · 1 the facts in any decision making process w1thm the orgamzat1on.
... • ry ' ' '
.... ,; • ~..-!, • • • •. _.......,t."""I'i_,.. 4 . (_" ••• • _.!, .
4
 548 Business Communication

. er at an automobile piston man- ethical communicator, he will think over the

Rahul, a senior manag . , lannlng an over- quences of his communication with Raj. conse-
. 1 • responsible ,or P
, ufactunng P ~t, rs 's to -performing dealers in
lf Raj has been going slow due to health p bl
seas trip for hrs company . ':ssistants are all doing ro erns
iston rings and sleeves. Hrs . an outburst could well leave him feeling resentful ~'
P 'sfact0 rily except for Raj, who drd not might even slow down on his work further . • H_e
their work sat, ' . h k . , rncreas,.
tum up ',or t he last two meetings,, and rs yet . .to. c ec
h Ing the chances of the whole trip falling thro ·
with some, dealers about their plans for 1ornrng . t e Since Rahul's priority is ensuring a gOOd holid u~.
group.-H·.IS s1OW pace could lead to the cancellation of '
t he company s dealers, the
.
best Option ay,or
would be
.the trip if airline seats were not available. approach Raj with a cool head and encourage hito
Rahul is thoroughly frustrated and would love to to feel that his contribution is vital to the s u ~,-
give vent to his feelings about Raj's poor w~rk. !hat implementation of the trip. In this way, the chances~-
.would certainly ease his tension. However, 1f he Is an conflict can be averted .

Understanding that ethics are related to values and may differ for the audience For this concept
to be successfully understood and practised in an organization, there should be a conscious effort
by the top management to have a well-defined value system perpetuating throughout the organiza_
tion-a value system cherished by each employee. It is only when the organization is functioning on
some common, shared value systems that the employees will respect each other and take into cogni-
zance each other's ethical stances. A sound and robust value system imbibed in the corporate culture
is a guarantee for ethical employees and ethical communication. Once that is done, employees tend to
have mutual respect for each other and the way they communicate within the organization and with
outsiders. Respect for each other comes naturally.

Malting sure all information is accurate and researched Information passed on during any kind
of communication has not only to be complete but also correct and true, that is, valid. It is pointless
to share information that is actually false or based upon premises that are not tested. The informa-
tion should be tested, source identity must be verified, and only then should information be com-
municated formally. For example, a major product-launch exercise for a company could go wrong
and lead to huge losses for the company if the sales force, which is a part of the market research team,
gives a false feedback that a similar product offering by a rival has been very successful. This sales force
information could be primarily based on market rumours, gossip, hearsay, and not facts. Information
which is not true is even worse than no information at all.

Complexities in post-modern information societies driven by media and communication tech-

;.:~--Ali .-~~i~i ~~~--rii~;· .. nology have led to an increased interest in values and principles that pro-
' ,be fully Informed :about vide a platform for decision making. The study of ethics within communica-
,the facts, in 8:11>' declslo11- : ; tions and the communication of ethical ideas represent such a platform. All
making proceu~wlthi~ ,:1, forms of communication are inextricably linked to ethical reasoning through
the organ~tion. • the common principles of truth and honesty, trust and relationships, reputa-
;' • information that is not
tion and integrity, conduct and justice. A fast developing field of research rec-
true ls worse than·no · . '
. t ., .

ognizes the deep connection of the act and the process of communication with
i information,. at ail.. \ ·
ethical reasoning. People, through their relationships and values, engage in
'# • • • • • • • • • • ~ - • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • ...•-! •••• •.•

I
 Whose Problem is it, Anyway?

t a nuclear power plant in Three Mile nately, no one ever read this c . ,
Those to whom th ruc1al part of the report I
~eaccident ~ia, in t 978, is a chilling example of fled that they rarele report had been addressed testi~ '
.. ,,,1and, penn5>'
things can go wrong b~~se of thought- In th· Y. ever read such standard reports I
15~ow badly h'cal ways of communicating. During the ts case, whtle it is diffic It .
blame for the accid u to lay the entire '.
e55, r,on::t :nvestigations that followed the incident, that if he had be
ent on the enoinee
6
'
. . b
r, it 1s o vious
,1
1 en more conscientious abo h' -
. govef11111ent written by an engineer who had observed munication the ac .d ut 1s com-
1

· doCLl111 at similar problem at another plant in South ' c1 ent could have bee '
The main thrust of h'is communication. . should n averted.
ha: ',
-3 r,1ewh
aso . was found. 1s report , wn·tten .m a standard
H'
,..,rahna h.1s o bservation appeared, well highlighted ' right at the beginmng . "'of
!'le
··
v- - ontainect-on page th ree-. th
e. report. He could also ha¥e spok
· ~upmdmed
forlflat, ;oblem at the South Carolina plant and the
i ~;rcun,siances prevailing at Three·Mile Island.
to tmpr~ upon the appropriate people, the need for '
urgent action.
also made a strong case -fot measures to be
:i.rtak~
5111'\ad

to fb< th<; .un~?&

,
,~t~!em,, Unfortu-
, «:44 V, }t>i!r((( _ti«<i-$ h 2:(,ki u %§HS'<~¾!-¼< ., g , _apm ,:: Q ; sx JH *, % 4
.,/

c~mmunication in order to establish common agreements and to identify areas of

••• t • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

dispute. Communication ethics offers a perspective and focus that may address many
·'e~ical issues are -,·
t,ound to arise be(:aUSE!:i' intractable human issues.
:-communication plays ·. ·- Ethical issues are bound to arise because communication plays a significant role
asignificant role in . . _" in influencing others. The way a person communicates in the organization is largely
t influencing otherS• +..?~:. affected by the way he/ she wants to be perceived by others, andalsohowhe/shewould
o It _•,.,a .·-•'• e -.ia, •
like others to behave. A manager behaving in an autocratic manner and practising. bJ
; , _, f t t t • -• • • • • •- • • • ~~ . .

and large, one-way communicationwill largelyhave negative effects on the receiver,andit is quite passibl,
that the receiver may also start behaving in a similar fashion if exposed to such a communication style

for long.
The intent is as important as motivation. The speaker brings in his/her intention in his/he
style of communication. If the intention is dear and strong. it will be easily re8ected in the way th,
message is being communicated. Professional managers will always use diflerent communicatio1
styles to bring out their real intention to thei
subordinates.
We consciously choose to use a specific typ
of communication to get what we want. This i
again a conscious style of communication deli,
ery used by smart managers to get to the desfre
results, and therefure, it is vety useful fur dnvm
home a paint 10 the employees in the organiz'

tion.
WhY Ethics in organizational
communication?
There are some fundamental assumptions th,
shape the discussion on communication educ
· to fly business class to Hawan.
Would you hke --1
 550 Business Communication
. . d • •on has some ethical dimension to it, whether acknowl-
commumcat1on ec1s1 . . . . . .
· ·.-.-.···· ··· .~ Every . from the time when an md1v1dual JOtns an orgamzacion to
..Every communication dged or not. Scartmg d k . h. /h
·,s·,on has some e h / h c1·res there arc many Ian mar events m is er career where
dec . ch time e s e re , .
thical dimension to it. e . . has ethical dimensions attached to tt. For example, at the time of
.. ..... .... ._,_, ................ con_imumcation. ces an employee's work profile, job responsibilities, salary and
. . izat1on commumca . . . ,
jommg, an organ . l cter which is a very mcerestmg piece of document, and orO':lntza·
an appomcment e , 0-• -
perks chrough . m· al unication try to be as objective and transparent as possible. There
. b li ving m e 1c comm . . . .
t1ons e e lexicies involved in the communication process, but the commumcator IS initially
are countless comp ch • le choices-to spe ale, 1·1sten, or remam · siient. In each ch01ce,
· there is an
faced with only ree slffip r lin
.. aking, a communicator chooses to d·1sc1ose mrormat1on,
. r . .
motives, or rec · gs to
ethical decmon. n spe 1 . . . .
. hether or not this commurucat1on should take place 1s partly an ethical decision.
someone. Judgmg w •ch
. h uld one share a rumour about an organizational change w1 a colleague?
For mscance, s o
Look before You Leap
Few would doubt that ethical concerns are inherent co the act of speech, but what about the act of
listening? In the modern world, because instant and credible information has to be given, it becomes
necessary to resort to guess work, rumours, and assumptions to fill in the voids.
Remaining silent may seem like the safest way to avoid ethical dilemmas. However, even here,
there is no safe harbour, because remaining silent in the face of unlawful behaviour or a potentially
harmful situation is a serious ethical decision. In sum, whether communicators choose to speak, lis-
ten, or remain silent are ethical considerations. For example if the marketing head of an organization
chooses to remain silent regarding the reports given by the sales team chat a particular product is suf-
fering because of its poor quality, which is probably because of the substandard raw material supplied
by a particular supplier, it is a direct indication of some unethical behaviour on part of the marketing
head, and his/her behaviour comes under the ethical scanner.
Communication ethics inevitably involves both motives and impact. It is easy to condemn people
who lie to pull off swindles. Their motive is deceit, and the results are immoral. But what happens
when the motives are good but the impact is bad? For instance, a manager wanting to boost contribu-
tion in his/her unit tries something strange, but with good intention. He/she proceeds to attain salary
information about each employee from the personnel department. On each employee's cheque, he/
she attaches a note suggesting a 'fair percentage gift'. Certainly, the means used to attain this 'noble'
goal are, at best, questionable. Indeed, most of the employees would feel chat chis action is a viola-
tion of their privacy. A well-intended communication would be wrongly interpreted, and the impact
would be entirely different from what was originally thought 0£
Ethics are often seen as irrelevant to the fundamental purpose ofbusiness. Do ethics have an impact
on the bottom line? It would be nice to say chat ethical behaviour always results in increased profits or
productivity. But that is simply not the,case. Many corporations with high ethical standards have been
overwhelmed by unscrupulous competitors. Employees who altruistically 'blow the whistle' on unethi-
cal corporate practices frequently suffer from financial strain, social ostracism, and harassment.

f·c;;;;~,citi;~·;hi~ .. Ethical Code in Communication

~)!1~~tnvoJyes _, Ethical communication does not entail any defined set of codes. However, corpo·
I bbth ·m'otives'~d
Lt,•~ l,t.- 1" I '"t "'; •
rate houses around the globe tend to follow some basic principles when it comes to
itnpactS. J
j fi •• I .A,•••• f •v•..,• e e . • t • e •flt••• f • ethical communication. Some of these will be discussed here:
 Who Decides What Ethics to Follow?
t,elieve that discussing ethics will inevi-
1 However' this situation has
MallY peoP: imposing one's morality on others. The the years With th gradually changed over
1ead ; western civilization is one that seeks to and overseas dve e~try of multinational companies 1'
0
i,e~ e the widest possible freedom and indi- a ert1sement ag ·
1 see such advert· enc,es, and we now
~~retion in forming moral opinions. Hence, When Cart ,sNement campaigns on a limited scale.
vidual kin& to persuade someone of the rightness oon etwork a pop I 1 ..
nel, began dubbin its ' uar te evis1on chan-
evenseengness of a part1cu . Iar dec1s1on
.. can be seen as 1 d' I g popular cartoon serials into
n ,an anguages so as to att
or wrostep on the sacred ground of individual discre- Indian ch'ld ract a larger audience of
a.firstand respons1·b·t·11t:f. Th us, ·t
1 .1s often assumed that ' ren, and thereby increase their market I
share of TV viewersh'ip, ·It ,,ai•,ed to take into account
oon safest course is to avoid the discussion altogether. the ~epercussions of simply translating American col- I
:ile philosophers may enjoy debating the question, ~oqu1alisms into the vernacular. Acharacter, address- r
'Do we have the right to impose our·values on oth-
ers?', managers do not have that luxury. They must
ask, 'In this instance, is it right to impose our ethics on
mg another in jest as, 'You dirty dog!' might trans- 1
late into Arrey, kuttey!, much to the consternation
of parents and public watchdog organizations who
I
0
mers?' The fundamental point is that, to avoid ethical protested vociferously against the promotion of bad
disOJSSions so that one does not impose one's view on language among small children. The channel was per-
others is, ironically, an unethical 'cop-out'. force made to realize the implications of operating
In the Indian context, the interplay of many oppos- in a culture different from its own and began to pay
ing cultural forces make communication even more more attention to the nuances of regional languages.
complex. For instance, in advertising, American com- TV channels in their pursuit of market-driven objec-
panies often run campaigns that compare their prod- tives, perhaps end up communicating politically incor-
ucts with those of competitors. Traditionally, dis- rect statements, and can become insensitiw to the
paraging a rival company's products was considered ethical norms of communication in a specific cultural
unethical in India, and hence, was never practised. context.

1. Truthfulness, accuracy, honesty, and reason are essential to the integrity of communchiicati:·
Endorse freedom of expression, diversity of perspective, and tolerance ofdissent to a ·eve e
informed and responsible decision making fundamental to a civil socie~. .
2. Strive to understand and respect other communicators before evaluanng and responding to

their messages. d di th th unique

3. Promote communication climates of caring and mutual un erstan ng at respect e

4_~:::::::::~c~: :;:~:~:::::~:::d humanity through distortion, inrol-

. .d .
0
:

· n hatred and violence.

erance, intimi anon, coercio ' .' f ersonal convictions in pursuit of fairness and
5. Commit to the courageous expression o p
justice. d tunities are necessary for fulfilling human
· · esources an oppor d
6. Access to cornrnumcat10n r . ffamil' communities, and society. A vocate
. • th well bemg o ies, .
potential and conmbutmg to . d feelin when facing significant choices, while also
the sharing of information, opinions, an ·at· gs
respecting privacy and confidenti ity. th a1· f all ommunication, and
· .... .. .. · .. " .... " · ...... " · .. · • · hreatens e qu ity O c
Truthfulness, accuracy, 7. Unethical commumcat1on t . d' ·d al d the society in which we live.
d l h 11 being of m iv1 u s an
honesty, an reason are consequent y, t ewe th h d long-term consequences of our own
essential to the Integrity Acee t responsibility for e s ort- an
', -~~-~~~~~~,~~,~~:....... .. com!unication and expect the same of others.
 .... ••••• I iiiTFltFftTIF ...... ........................................ ..
··························································· ··········
Business Ethics ····· ····· ····
Based on how it is construed and applied within a conducts ethics training for all employees b
small business, business ethics as a subject can vary everyone's perception of ethics can differ. So ecaose
significantly from one business to the next. What pIe may perceive. ta1c·mg busmess
. supplies r, rne Peo•
. or pel'So
seems ethical to one organization may not appear use as unethical, whereas they might not b . llal
e11evet1..•.
ethical to the next-and the same goes for person- taking an office pen home with them is the "~
nel. Hence, it is essential to plainly communicate business should teach the employees aboutsarneits · The
.
the ethical position of the business to all personnel. values through role play as well as hypoth . ethic:aJ
et1ca1 set
Employees should act in an ethical manner with full tings. This can help employees recognize Wh •
understanding of the ethical stance of the business. business considers as ethical and unethical. th
at e

Significance of ethical communication Ethical Management'role A manager's role in im

. h.cal . . b . p1ernent.
practices of a business should be communicated effec- mg et I practices in a usmess is to always h
ex ibit
tively to employees for their understanding. Employ- ethical behaviour in verbal and non-verbal forn,
ees who act in appropriate ethical manner should be Management should strengthen ethical behav,· . ·•
our in
appreciated and ethical behaviour should be commu- others with appreciation and use unethical beha .
vrour
nicated to all employees on a regular basis. This aids as a tool for educating other employees. In addition
in setting ethical standards for other workers in the managers should realize that they are role modek
organization. for the business and must act appropriately. If they
Ethics policy All businesses must have a well- believe their employees should act in an ethical wa
y,
drafted ethics policy that specifies what is expected they must also do the same and lead by example.
of employees within the business. It should list the Considerations In periodic employee meetings,
company's ethical standards and beliefs such as use news stories to reinstate the business stand on
always being truthful in business communications, ethics. Circulate the story to employees to read and
dealing with clients and other employees impartially review before the meeting. During meetings, describe
and reporting ethical violations, if noticed. This policy the news article and have workers identify the ethical
should be thoroughly read and signed by all employ- and unethical behaviours revealed in the story. Also,
·ees upon their acceptance of employment and this question the employees what should have happened
process should be carried out on annual basis. and how they should handle if they come across a
Ethics training It's essential that the business similar situation in the business.

· In reading over these principles, one can note the two ethical communication themes of caring
and responsibility. Some are obvious, while other principles are not as obvious in their representa-
tion of these themes, yet the importance of the ethics of care and responsibility are still dear. For
example, 'access to communication resources and opportunities is necessary to fulfil human potential
and contribute to the well being of families, communities, and society,' emphasizes an ethic of caring
........~-..... .,.................... and 'commit · to th e courageous expression · of person al conv1ct1ons
· · m · pursuit of
t Unethical communication fairness and justice,' stresses an ethic of responsibility. Others integrate boch car·
threatens the quality of . an d respons1'bili' ty, sueh as, ,advocate the sh armg
mg . of mrorma
•r t'on
1 , opinions,
all communication. · and
and feelings when facing significant choices, while also respecting privacy
.. '-" ._. . " J . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Tylenol Tale-Cure the Headache

jhe story of Tylenol-Johnson & Johnson's popular from every outlet in the US. Also, the company did
analgeSic-is a well-known example of how ethical not start selling the product again until it had devel-
t,ehaviOUr on the part of the company helped turn a oped more protective packaging that would be much
patential disaster into triumph. In I986, an individual harder to tamper with. }ohnson & Johnson's quick
succeeded in lacing the drug with cyanide, leading to and responsible actions communicated a positive,
widespread panic about the extent of the contamina- reassuring image of the company as a champion of
tion. The company, which had faced a similar situa- consumers, so much so that the company went on to
tion a few years ago, acted. speedily to recall the drug recover 70 per cent of its market share of the drug.
. -
!4, 4A
.,.., t C

confidentiality'. In following this last principle, communicators must take responsibility for encourag-
ing all participants to share information, and at the same time, communicators must care for others by
respecting others' wishes. -

VALUES, ETHICS, AN D COMMUN ICATION

A.t the foundation of ethical behaviour is a value system that serves as a guide for judging one's
own as well as others' behaviour, and, above all, for resisting changes. Values are amongst the most

Corporate Ethics-Why an Asset?

Organizational ethics and moral standards have gained work culture and value system. Our value system,
more prominence in the corporate culture of today; anagrammed as C-LIFE, places a great deal of impor-
as 'enlightened' companies recognize .t hat commercial tance on customer delight, leadership, integrity,
* success means much more than the profit margil'l. The transparency, fairness and pursuit ·of excellence.' At
: realization has dawned that it is the image of the com- Infosys, ~I. new,employees go through 'values work- \
•l?P3c"Y, and the goodwill it generates in the .market that shops' l~d by senior lnfoscic;ms. Case studies, artifacts,
t .

s: determines its success in the truest sense of the word. and s~ndardized presentati<;>ns are used at these ses-
,. It as also a known fact that only those companies which sions. Additionally, the company has an email address
.i

portray a •clean' image can attract the brightest and where employees can send their queries and seek
the best talent. They consider it a matter of pride to clarifications on values and their practice. A senior
i be associated with the organization and have a greater lnfoscion responds to these queries. Adds Ravichan- \
f"'sense of belonging. Studies have also proved that there der, 'We believe that it is v.ery important to identify
.-is direct correlation between ethical conduct and job values, articulate them, and strongly reinforce them \
~ sfaction. It is one of the greatest motivating factors through action.' , · \
· ~d.induces strong feelings of loyalty. High ethical standards are now recognized as an
-...
~,,

' ,A. strong sense of values and familial culture at

asset for a company, and unethical behaviour as a
1
the -w orkplace are needs as strong as a good remu- liabi\\ty. A company often incurs financial losses on
ne~!ion•· package. IT companies have been amongst account of additional expenses incurred to stay on
the first to recognize these needs, and have been at the right side of the \aw. However, it is increasingly
th~ forefront of training in corporate and customer being recognized that, in the long run, such losses are
etHi~. Hema Ravichander, the then Senior Vice- suitably balanced by non-financial advantages, such as
·~ .'1'1-

~r~id~nt. Human Resource Development, Infosys a good company reputation.

·, Te(finologies, said, 'We at Infosys have a distinctive
Wfo lLff,!Q-,. .-3 ¾.AA
 Ethics in Bus· C
~ - ·__. . , . . . - • • • •-.. .... h ...-..• • • • • • •" " ~ mess ommunication 555
·,._persan"s~ Spontaneous Straigh £
11111 with oth . t orward, honest d full
pSactiam depend an t:s crs m manipulative ways. , an tact y direct; unwilling to deal
~elN cal - .- , RcspcctfuJ D
~--·-···--·--· •..•. ~ . . . partiopative
mg .. cmonstrating
planning whilandd seek.ing mutual trust and respect, encourag-
r-L · nshi·ps.
1.Clil.OO
e c-cmphas1·zmg
· status, power, and formal role

Empathic Attcm ·
as• ecds. . pnng to see issues and problems & ,
n Interests. and values. om ochers perspectives; identifying with oth-

Provisional Wil1i ... - to admi

•
m one•s views. &.U.IUf; t that one could he wrong, open to new ways of domg· things •
, tentatIVe

Ethical Perspectives
The way a person approaches decision-makin d . . .
the ethical perspective &om whi . g an commurucaave mteractions depends largely on
vantage points. each of which ~e/she operating. E~cs can be vi~ed from several different
'best' roach . P Vldes a different foundanon for making moral judgements. The
app
rive embraced. Amor solunon to a given ethical
. clilemma will vary, depending upon the ethical perspec-
hnmani . . _ong tho~ co_mmonly sited are religious, economic, legal, utilitarian, universalistic,
snc, dialogic, and s1tuanonal perspectives (Fig. 20.1 ).

Ethical perspectives

,I'
.
}Jtllitarian '
pei spear..e
'. =J
U~istk: I
a
J H~manistic

Fig. 20.1
penpecdy9

Ethical perspectives

Honesty is the Best Policy

A CEO from'an
prise wit to had
..-l'MI decided
to pay asur-
acusronw, • she spare
time due to
flnn the defect. thl CEO apoloalud.to - customer and
promlHd to pt thl fault' rdfled b, hlr,company's
1

a delayed flight. Her company had recently Installed a enst,,..,.., The customer, who had noticed
pfancforthe customlf', At. the dairy plant, the defect. nor complained about It, wu·arnand
die CEO wa1 dismay-' at the waldl"I work on thl the CEO'1 commltmtnt to hl&h ltlridardl,and cfi c:11-
cadon to customer .-vice, People W,Orltlns for ~ \ .
_,,_ steel fnlne ...,,,bly. It was poorly flnllhld
company u MIi u other customers still talk abc,at
and 'raw', which meant residual mltk could collect In
die er.._
and ' - to breedlns of prms. which
_., totally, unacceptable from the t,y;.,,e point of
this Incident, Unsurprtslns!Y, the company conttri\iii 1
to bl thl leader In Its field. ,
tn a dairy ,,,. pasteu,1%adon unit POlnd"I out
,----------~"""""'~"""""'-""""""~-......~..,_~--.;-,
16 Business Communication

, ...... . ... ... . . ........... . ...... ...... .. ... .

• legal analysis reduces Religious Perspective
ethical judgements to a The religious perspective teaches that behaviour such as lying, stealin
g, mur-
matter of law. der, or treating others with disrespect is wrong. For example, Christianity
• The utilitarian perspective teaches us to treat others as we would like to be treated ourselves.
focuses on ends rather
than means. Economic Perspective
· · · · · · · · · ··· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · The economic perspective bases ethical judgements on impersonal market
forces. This school of thought holds that managers should consistently act to maximize revenues and
minimize costs, and that this strategy will itself assure society of the greatest long-term benefits.

Legal Perspective
Legal analysis reduces ethical judgements to a matter oflaw. Anything that is legal is ethical. Anything
illegal is unethical. This approach has the advantage of facilitating simple ethical decisions-one has
to only investigate the law, rule, or behavioural code governing a particular practice.

Utilitarian Perspective
One of the classic cases of ethical tension exists between those who are concerned with the moral
quality of an action, independent of its consequences (deontologists), and those who believe that
any action is right if it produces the greatest good for the greatest number of people (utilitarians).
'Would you be willing to murder an innocent person if it would end hunger in the world?' The utili-
tarian would respond affirmatively, while the deontologist would surely reject the notion. Thus, from
a utilitarian perspective, usefulness and expediency are the criteria used to make ethical judgements.
Motives are considered insignificant. Only consequences matter. This perspective focuses on ends
rather than means. Organizations must be concerned with the ultimate effect of their plans, policies,
and rules.

N ike lnc.-'Just Do It' is Just N ot Enough

Nike Inc., a global brand leader in footwear, cloth- them to monitor their supply chain efficiently. Ho
ing, equipment, and other accessories for sports ever, it keeps the names of these factories confide
and athletics in several countries, has been promi- tial, and does not allow independent inspections,
nently targeted by a broad range of social activists claiming that this would be unfairly used by activists
and journalists as a symbol of how big business, in to make further attacks rather than start a dialogue
its quest for maximizing profits and minimizing costs, to help the company address and resolve the exist-
ignores human rights and the working conditions of ing problems. Given the .uncovering of certain mal-
employees in developing countries, particularly in practices among franchisee factory outlets, Nike has
South Asia. The list of allegations against certain fran- since devised and implemented a code of conduct /
chisee factory outlets of Nike are those of payment for its contract factories. It also works with Global
of poor wages, pathetic working conditions, sexual Alliance to review conditiQns in 21 of these factories
harassment, and use of child labour. Nike shares fac- and to resolve issues as they develop. However, it is
tory locations with independent third parties where difficult to recover a tarnished image, and, notwith "
approximately 20 per cent of the employees work standing all their remedial actions, criticism of Nike's
on Nike products, claiming that this system enables policies continues unabated.
 The Merchant of Venice

Shakespeare's famous play The Merchant of Venice before the court. When Shylock insists on th~ terms
is one of the earliest examples of the distinction of the contract being honoured, Portia wins the case
between strictly commercial values and more gener- by arguing that, while the bond concerns a pound of
ally understood moral values such as compassion and flesh, there is no mention of shedding blood. Shylock
mercy. Briefly, the merchant, Antonio, enters into a may have his pound of flesh, on the condition that no
contract with Shylock, the moneylender, to give a blood is shed and not more than an exact pound of ,
pound of his flesh if he reneges on his loan repay- flesh is removed. Stymied, Shylock retracts and settles
ment. Unfortunately; his luck takes a bad turn when for money instead. The real value of this tale, how-
!lis fortunes are shipwrecked, and Shylock (who hates ever, lies in Portia's speech on the qualities of mercy
the merchant) insists on extracting his pound of flesh. and her plea for considering the human predicament
Antonio is saved by the beautiful and clever heiress, of the merchant who was in debt due to no fault
Portia, who, disguised as a lawyer, pleads his case of his.

Universalistic Perspective
Whereas the utilitarian perspective considers the outcome of an action, the universalist perspective
maintains that, because outcomes are too difficult to predict or control, the more appropriate focus is
on intention. At the heart of the universalistic perspective is the belief that people have certain duties
or responsibilities in their dealings with one another, such as telling the truth and adhering to agree-
ments.

Humanistic Perspective
The humanistic perspective actually makes an attempt to make ethical judgements philosophically,
isolating cenain unique characteristics. of human nature that would be valued and enhanced. It then
takes a look at a particular technique, rule, policy, strategy, or behaviour and attempts to determine
the extent to which it either furthers or hampers these uniquely human attributes.

Dialogic Perspective
According to the dialogic perspective, the attitude that individuals in any communication transac-
tion have towards one another is an index of the ethical level of that communication. When people
communicate from a dialogic perspective, their attitudes are characterized by honesty, trust, concern
for others, open-mindedness, empathy, humility, sincerity, and directness. The dialogic perspective is
unique in its focus on communication as the primary means of examining the ethical level of human
behaviour.

Situational Perspective
Ethical criteria might vary as variables in the organizational situation change. In
· The dialogic perspective
an organizational crisis involving genuine danger to human lives, the leader who
is unique in its focus
uses emotional appeals or behaves autocratically might well not be judged to be
on communication as
the primary means harsh from a situational perspective, although the same behaviour in ordina11
of examining the circumstances would more likely be viewed as unethical. The major advantage o
ethical level of human the situational perspective is its flexibility and the extent to which it encourage
behaviour. thoughtful consideration of the particular context of each act of human behaviou:
··•_! ••··········· ······ ···· •,.•· ·· ·
 558 Business Communication

However, the ethical j~dgem_ent must be grounded_ in one or more of the

• Communication among
general ethical perspectives discussed above; otherwise, problems of in
organizations or individuals con.
within organizations should
sistency and unfairness may result. For example, a manager fires a first-li
reflect the ethics of the supervisor immediately, when presented with decisive evidence that he/s~c
organization. was behaving badly with his/her subordinates. In this situation, the dialo .e
• Directive communications Perspective was sacrificed so that the utilitarian principle of the greatest
g,.c
explain to someone what good for the greatest number could be upheld.
needs to be done and,
sometimes, how to do it. Ethical Issues Involved in Business Communications
•· · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·~ · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · ·· · Business communications can either be among organizations, people within
an organization, or among an organization and the public. Communications within and among org.uu.
zations or individuals within organizations should also reflect the ethics of the organization. The same
basic rules of ethical communication apply to all three: and (i) be honest; (ii) be respectful; and (iii)
show sensitivity to cultural differences. These basic rules have been discussed as follows (Fig. 20.2).

Honesty
Communications can convey the truth or create impressions that are misleading and disguise reality.
Organizations that value their reputations avoid communications that knowingly contain falsehoods,
deceptive statements, or incorrect conclusions or data. To choose deliberately to mislead may be tempt-
ing because the truth sometimes casts an individual or an organization in less than stellar light.

Respect
Business communications, whether are directive, comparative, explanatory, or promotional, need to
be respectful of the readers' intelligence and their desire for accurate, useful information. Directive
communications explain to someone what _needs to be done and, sometimes, how to do it. Proving
a sufficient level of details to understand what needs to be done, how it should be done, and why it
should be done helps avoid ethical pitfalls that result from misunderstanding and simultaneously
show respect to the recipient of the communication. Explanatory communications are closely related
to directive communications, and the same standards for showing respect apply.

Sensitivity to Cultural Differences

With globalization comes an expansion of the role ethics plays in communication as well as an
increased level of difficulty in communicating ethically. In a national setting, corporations deal with
a more homogeneous culture, and it is easier to convey honesty and respect when people use the
same language with only regional differences or differences based on diversity. In a global setting,
there are multiple cultures to accommodate. In a national setting, we see one set of rules and ethi·
cal expectations, but globalization also means multi-nationalism and multiculturalism, thus, multiple
sets of rules and expectations apply. There are
iitibi¥iiil-i~i,i!tiii-i11l11i'IJUIIIM1N
I
~1 I
far more opponunities to miscommunicate
than to communicate effectively. For exam·
ple, people in Japan and the US both believe
Honesty ) Respect ) Sensitivity to cultural differences )
in respect and compassion. Yet, when it comes
Fig. 20.2 Ethical issues in business to dealing with ailing parents, people in these
two countries act out their commitment to

I
communication
 Fair and Square

Business and ethics need not necessarily be at variance freeze-dried coffee product in the UK has been the
with each other, as the ethical consumption move- fastest growing brand of its kind. The company's
ment in the West has demonstrated. A new breed speciality and ground products also contributed to
of activists, who have entered the marketplace with its robust annual growth rate of 20%. The secret of
the ultimate aim that all products should be produced Cafedirect's success? Paying satisfactory prices on the
fairly, have discovered that ethical products , devel- one hand to coffee growers, who feel that their long
oped carefully, have increasingly valuable marketing heritage of expertise in producing a quality product is
assets. One success story of a coffee producer is that valued by the company, and on the other , market-
of Cafedirect, which as its name implies, procures ing the coffee and tea as 'ethical' to a public that is
coffee and tea directly from growers. In a sector that increasingly concerned about these issues.
has experienced overall decline, Cafedirect 5065, a

Test the Ethics of a Message

• Does the message comply with the law? • Have you checked it out with others?
• Is it balanced? Is it fair to all concerned? • Would you be embarrassed if others found out
• Who will it benefit or harm? about the message?
• If you were receiving the message, how would you • Does the message make you feel good about your-
feel? self?

respect and compassion differently::-in ways that reflect their cultural differences. In the US, it is
common fur families to be geographically dispersed and ailing parents to reside in 'care facilities' where
they can get the needed attention. In Japan, such facilities are not consistent with a culture that expresses
respect fur parents by ensuring that they stay with their own children, who give them personal care. This
is less about 'right and wrong', rather it is about being 'different'. Different cultures express care and
respect differently.

WHAT DOES A PROFESSION AL COMMUN ICATOR DO?

Professional communicators engage in the following practices and behaviour:
1. Professional communicators uphold the credibility and dignity of their profession by practis-
ing honest, candid, and timely communication, and fostering the free flow of essential infor-
mation in accord with the public interest.
2. Professional communicators disseminate accurate information and promptly correct any
erroneous communication for which they may be responsible.
3. Professional communicators are sensitive to cultural values and beliefs, and engage in fair and
balanced communication activities that foster and encourage mutual understanding.
. . . . . . . . . . _....... .. .... .... 4. They refrain from taking part in any undertaking, which they consider to be
Professional unethical.
communicators are S. Professional communicators protect confidential information and, at the same
sensitive to cultural time, comply with all legal requirements for the disclosure ofinformation affecting
values and beliefs.
···························· the welfare of others.
 . . ,, ,
,,,.-~~~~~-;:~·-···································.. '•,, , ,

Commandments of Ethical Communication

h. • respect the work of colleagues, knowing t j
Your commitment to professional excellence and et ,- communication problem may have more th hat a
cal behaviour means that you should solution, an o-'141I
;•. use language and visuals with precision, • strive continually to improve my professionat
'• prefer simple, direct expression of ideas, petence, and ton,,
,. satisfy the audience's need for information, not my • promote a climate that encourages thee
Xercise
own need for self-expression, professional judgement and that attracts _Q{
-_ hold myself responsible for how well my audience individuals to careers in business communi:rtted
understands my message, . .. .. . . . .. . . .. .. .. . . .. . .. . . . .. . . . on.
·: ..: ··· :: ··••,;_••···-· ······· · ·· .............. :. ·· · ·· · ······················· · ·········· ' ····•• ...... .......... . . .. . . J

. They do not guarantee results that are beyond the p.ower of the practitioner to deliver.
6
7. Professional communicators are honest not only with others but also, and most imponantly,
with themselves as individuals, for they seek the truth.

ETHICAL DILEMMAS FACIN G MAN AGERS

There are many ethical dilemmas facing a manager. Some of the more vexing ones are as follows:

Secrecy
Secrets are held for honourable and dishonourable
reasons. Secrecy is best defined as 'intentional con-
cealment'. There is no moral judgement implied in the
definition. Herein lies the challenge for a manager-to
determine when secrets are justifiable and when they
are not. For example, an engineer who remains silent
about potentially catastrophic failures in a product
has, in some way, abrogated moral responsibility.
Employees and managers should not take such a duty
lightly. Secrets have a clear and detrimental impact on
decision-making and consumer safety.
On the other hand, in some situations, secrecy
'Vijay, don't worry! You can count on me
to get you that promotion.'
may be essential in order to make successful decisions
or to encourage innovation. There is a need for the
concerned manager to discuss the projected promotional prospects or even the salary projections of
,.~..s~~~~~·~-~~~·~-d~fi~~d·::· employees with the personnel manager, but not with the employees. The
as intentional concealment. employees may not live up to expectations; leeway is needed. The fact that
• Corporations also·have.a employees are not always privy to all corporate information does not imply
legitimate need to protect an intention to deceive.
1 • certain
, Information from , , Corporations also have a legitimate need to protect certain inrorman
c ·on
competitors. · · ch
t •.. •: • :. .. .• •··-· .....• .. •. ... ._.~ . ... . .,•.. , .... from competitors. Many corporations invest millions of dollars for resear
 Snow Brand Milk Products-Not so White

Snow Brand was Japan's premier dairy foods company There were other such half-truths, all of which con-
until the year 2000, when around I 5,000 people were veyed the impression that the company was more
affected due to bacterial contamination on a produc- concerned about its reputation rather than the well
tion line of one of the company's factories. Snow being of its customers.
Brand's reaction was to try and cover up information Snow Brand's image and its sales plummeted dra-
about what had actually happened. The company also matically, and the company had to close five of its
dragged its feet on recalling its products, until forced factories. Its downfall was a result of its poor com-
to do so by the city authorities. Snow Brand also tried munication with the public, its slow response to the
to fudge details about the valve where the contami- crisis, and the huge mistake it made in covering up its
nation was found, claiming that it was rarely used. It faults. It had lost the trust of its customers.
later transpired that it was, in fact, used every day.

to develop _n ew products or procedures. If other companies gain access to that information, they can
produce the product for a much lower net cost because they do not have to pay for the research and
development costs. The net effect is that there is no incentive for the corporation to be innovative.
Trade secrecy has implications not only for individual corporations but also for the general techno-
logical advancement of the society.Yet, there must be limits even to trade secrecy. Too much secrecy
about trade practices creates more problems than solving them. One of the most vital aspects of the
innovative process is having access to new ideas. When the clamp of secrecy is too tight, interactions
are too few and too restricted. The net result-lack of innovation-is all too predictable.
Thus, problems are evident at either end of the spectrum. Too much secrecy hogs down the cre-
ative process. Too little secrecy removes incentives. There 1s a middle ground of sorts. Patents and
copyrights allow for information to be used and generally circulated while providing a modicum of
protection for researchers and authors; but even with these devices, there may be problems. Changing
some minor aspect of a product may be enough to circumvent a patent infringement lawsuit. There-
fore, one of the continuing dilemmas for the business society is to work out ways to avoid the stifling
effects of either extreme of the secrecy continuum.

Whistle-blowing
An employee who goes public with information about corporate abuses or negligence is known as a
whistle-blower. The most important issue for the manager is to find ways to make whistle-blowing
unnecessary. Corporations and managers legitimately expect employee loyalty. Only under extraor-

Whistle-blowers 1

In 2002, ·Time Magazine named three courageous the I I September ·200 l terrotist a~cks.. The best-
women as persons of the year, for their role in expos- known r:ecent ~pie in"li:tdla is.' ttlat, of engineer
ing misconduct in US corporations. Sherron Watkins Satyendra·Dubey i who paid with his life for blowing
at Enr<:>n and Cynthia Cooper at WorldCom exposed the'whlstle on CQl'TUptlon in the Goldei:t Quadrilateral
massiv~ accounting f~uds, while Colleen Rowley sent project.
d~I~ evidence to the FBI to alert the agency about
562 Business Communication

·········:"~·,.,~,..~l",r--.:~-.:~•-~,.~"•nn~~-,·::-· dinary circumstances should such obligations be cast aside. Some wh· cl
• leak i~_;~.f<if!d -of ano~ous- ts e-
whistle:..bl~~ . ,> ;:· , . . . blowers are motivated by greed, jealousy, and revenge. That does not rnean
• Rumours. tencho.focus on ,,. ..A. that they are necessarily wrong, but it does cast doubt about such a
·" , •'" h l l c d h per-
. 'events and-inforrnatic,ri, whil~ J son. Some sue emp oyees are simp y misinrorme , w ile others confuse
- ~---
public interest with private int~rest. Certainly, the.community has a right
- to know about corporate practices that are potentially hazardous. Yet, an
over-ambitious courtship
.
of the whistle-blower
.
can be problematic. Stifling criticism through auto-
cratic managers may work in the short run, but is disastrous in the long run. The objective then for
the organization is not to squash dissent, but to have some procedures whereby complaints, concerns,
and criticism can be handled internally rather than externally. The 'operi door' policy is the typical
approach taken. This policy allows the employees to take a grievance to their supervisor first and then
up through the chain of command until they get satisfaction.
Some employees choose to 'swallow the whistle' rather than discuss the matter with a manager
who may b_e part of the problem in the first place. The result is the loss of potentially valuable infonna-
tion by the organization and the public at large. While the open door policy is useful in many situa-
tions, it does not really meet the needs of the potential whistle-blower. That is, the grievances tend to
be considered in the context of how they affect the chain of command rather than on the proprietary
of the individual case. Hence, appeals are rarely investigated, or impartially considered. In shon, either
'swallowing the whistle' or 'blowing it' can be problematic. Therefore, the central challenge for orga-
nizations is to plan how to properly channel employee dissent.

Leaks
A leak is a kind of anonymous whistle-blowing. The accused does not know who chose to rdease
cenain information or why they have done so. Employees also leak information to the press for hon-
ourable or dishonourable reasons. Leaks may cause organizational plans to be altered or abandoned.
Leaks can be a form of political manoeuvring in the organization or a way to sabotage the career of a
colleague competing for a job. Are leaks ethical? In one sense, the ethics ofleaking information is the .
same as that of whistle blowing. Indeed, the preventive measures are about the same. However, there
is one distinction between the two that casts a dark
shadow over the propriety of the leak, namely the per-
son who leaks information cannot be cross-examined.
whereas a whistle-blower can be. Using a leak is dubi-
ous in nature and should be undertaken in the rarest
of circumstances.

Rumours and Gossip

Rumours and gossip seem to be an inevitable part of
everyday corporate life (Image 20.1). Even though
rumours and gossip ofi:en travel through the same
networks, there is a distinction between the terms.
Image 20.1 Information through the grapevine Rumours tend to focus on events and information,
travels fast while gossip focuses on people. To the manager the
 Ethics in Business Communication 563

ethical dilemma is twofold: (i) Should gossip about other employees be listened to? (ii) What should
be done about rumours in the organization? Managers appear to be on slippery ethical ground when
they listen to gossip about fellow employees. Even though the information is often treated as 'yet to
be confirmed', there is often a tendency for the gossip to cloud judgements about that person. The
information has a way of creeping into performance evaluations and promotion decisions, even if it
happens unintentionally. Moreover, the information may be completely inaccurate.
Rumours can have a disastrous effect on corporations. Proctor & Gamble spent years and thou-
sands of dollars fighting a rumour that their corporate symbol represented a devil. Rumours that
McDonald's added worms to its meat in order to increase protein content lowered sales in some
states. Both the rumours were unequivocally false. But clearly, the impact was great.

Lying
Of all the ethical dilemmas discussed so far, lying would appear to be the least morally perplexing.
Most would agree that one ought not tell a lie. A lie is a false statement intended to deceive. Yet, lies
in business are more common than many would care to admit. One of the most frequent justifica-

The Spin

'A,~pin is·suc;t, a radical misuse of language that i~,eludes demanded-a manager ought to sound 'manageriaf.', .
· proper definition; says Raymond N. Mackenzie, Pro- and a politician ought to sound political. For example.
fessor of English. University of Saint Thomas, in a study a manager should never refer t~ a situation as.a prob-
on language and business ethics. When we spin a~. lem but always ought to _spin it into an opportunity ~ !' '
we put the best possible light on it, a light that shows it at the veryworst, a challenge. '
: iii the way most advantageous to ourselves. The very · Busin~ and ·political leaders are expected t o ~ ~
ll- spin is vivid. lively, and jaunty; it suggests that
as it we~.;, in the warm, comforting waters of e u ~
[ a-sort of game is being .played, and ideally, it is being
mism andJ ¥iori. So, if a leader tells us hard, painfuf
, played expertly. Thus, the word itself invites us to lay
facts, he or she is som~how appearing unprofessional..
~- aside questions of ethics: in a game, one is supposed
tto play hard and cunningly, not to be concerned with
and if a politician expresses pessimism about a situa-
tion, he or she is somehow not quite right for ~iob-
~.issues of morality. The point of spin is to hide unpleas-
US presidential aspirant Bob Dole's 1996 presidential ·
, ·ant realities and to create an impression of good news
campaign was certainly damaged by his tendency to put ,
.: when the truth is bad.
things starkly, which led many to see him as glQomy
f . · Political discourse led the way in spin, and the Viet-

nam war was an especially fertile period for its prac- and sarcastic-as if one ought only to trust and elect an
upbeat, continually cheerful person. The problem is not
tice, as bombing raids were called protective reaction
so much spin itself, as it is the culture it spawns t h ~
" strikes and the practice of burning down villages was
its sheer pervasiveness. On the one hand, as sharehold-
called pacification. But business learned quickly too,
' 'and it is a rare manager today who will speak of lay- ers or employees or voters, we detest being lied to;
but, on the other hand, we demand it, The spin cul-
lng people off (which itself was originally a gentle
: 'euphemism for firing them) rather than downsizing, ture has not so much undone community as it has cre:-
, restructuring, or outsourcing. But spin is more insidious ated a parody of community, a community of continual
than the mere use of euphemisms, which most peo- mistrust, one in which we must assume that-a leader is
ple can see through pretty quickly. Spin has, in many lying to us, and one in whi<:h we li\<ewise feel we are .·
' environments, become expected and even being expected to lie to any superior.