Speed of Sound, Frequency, and Wavelength

Sound, like all waves, travels at a certain speed and has the properties of frequency
and wavelength. You can observe direct evidence of the speed of sound while
watching a fireworks display. The flash of an explosion is seen well before its sound
is heard, implying both that sound travels at a finite speed and that it is much slower
than light. You can also directly sense the frequency of a sound. Perception of
frequency is called pitch. The wavelength of sound is not directly sensed, but indirect
evidence is found in the correlation of the size of musical instruments with their pitch.
Small instruments, such as a piccolo, typically make high-pitch sounds, while large
instruments, such as a tuba, typically make low-pitch sounds. High pitch means small
wavelength, and the size of a musical instrument is directly related to the wavelengths
of sound it produces. So a small instrument creates short-wavelength sounds. Similar
arguments hold that a large instrument creates long-wavelength sounds.
The relationship of the speed of sound, its frequency, and wavelength is the same as
for all waves: vw = fλ, where vw is the speed of sound, f is its frequency, and λ is its
wavelength. The wavelength of a sound is the distance between adjacent identical
parts of a wave—for example, between adjacent compressions as illustrated in Figure
2. The frequency is the same as that of the source and is the number of waves that
pass a point per unit time.

Figure 1. When a firework explodes, the light energy is perceived before the sound energy. Sound
travels more slowly than light does.

Table 1 makes it apparent that the speed of sound varies greatly in different media.
The speed of sound in a medium is determined by a combination of the medium’s
rigidity (or compressibility in gases) and its density. The more rigid (or less
compressible) the medium, the faster the speed of sound. This observation is
analogous to the fact that the frequency of a simple harmonic motion is directly
proportional to the stiffness of the oscillating object. The greater the density of a
medium, the slower the speed of sound. This observation is analogous to the fact that
the frequency of a simple harmonic motion is inversely proportional to the mass of the
oscillating object. The speed of sound in air is low, because air is compressible.
Because liquids and solids are relatively rigid and very difficult to compress, the
speed of sound in such media is generally greater than in gases.

Figure 2. A sound wave emanates from a source vibrating at a frequency f, propagates at Vw, and has a
wavelength λ.

Table 1. Speed of Sound in Various Media

Medium vw(m/s)
Gases at 0ºC
Air 331
Carbon dioxide 259
Oxygen 316
Helium 965
Hydrogen 1290
Liquids at 20ºC
Ethanol 1160
Mercury 1450
Water, fresh 1480
Sea water 1540
Human tissue 1540
Table 1. Speed of Sound in Various Media
Solids (longitudinal or bulk)
Vulcanized rubber 54
Polyethylene 920
Marble 3810
Glass, Pyrex 5640
Lead 1960
Aluminum 5120
Steel 5960

Earthquakes, essentially sound waves in Earth’s crust, are an interesting example of

how the speed of sound depends on the rigidity of the medium. Earthquakes have both
longitudinal and transverse components, and these travel at different speeds. The bulk
modulus of granite is greater than its shear modulus. For that reason, the speed of
longitudinal or pressure waves (P-waves) in earthquakes in granite is significantly
higher than the speed of transverse or shear waves (S-waves). Both components of
earthquakes travel slower in less rigid material, such as sediments. P-waves have
speeds of 4 to 7 km/s, and S-waves correspondingly range in speed from 2 to 5 km/s,
both being faster in more rigid material. The P-wave gets progressively farther ahead
of the S-wave as they travel through Earth’s crust. The time between the P- and S-
waves is routinely used to determine the distance to their source, the epicenter of the
earthquake.

The speed of sound is affected by temperature in a given medium. For air at sea level,
the speed of sound is given by

vw=(331 m/s) √T/273 K,

where the temperature (denoted as T ) is in units of kelvin. The speed of sound in

gases is related to the average speed of particles in the gas, vrms, and that

vrms=√3kT/m,

where k is the Boltzmann constant (1.38 × 10−23 J/K) and m is the mass of each
(identical) particle in the gas. So, it is reasonable that the speed of sound in air and
other gases should depend on the square root of temperature. While not negligible,
this is not a strong dependence. At 0ºC , the speed of sound is 331 m/s, whereas at
20.0ºC it is 343 m/s, less than a 4% increase. Figure 3 shows a use of the speed of
sound by a bat to sense distances. Echoes are also used in medical imaging.
Figure 3. A bat uses sound echoes to find its way about and to catch prey. The time for the echo to
return is directly proportional to the distance.

One of the more important properties of sound is that its speed is nearly independent
of frequency. This independence is certainly true in open air for sounds in the audible
range of 20 to 20,000 Hz. If this independence were not true, you would certainly
notice it for music played by a marching band in a football stadium, for example.
Suppose that high-frequency sounds traveled faster—then the farther you were from
the band, the more the sound from the low-pitch instruments would lag that from the
high-pitch ones. But the music from all instruments arrives in cadence independent of
distance, and so all frequencies must travel at nearly the same speed. Recall that

vw = fλ.

In a given medium under fixed conditions, vw is constant, so that there is a

relationship between f and λ; the higher the frequency, the smaller the wavelength.
See Figure 4 and consider the following example.

Figure 4. Because they travel at the same speed in a given medium, low-frequency sounds must have a
greater wavelength than high-frequency sounds. Here, the lower-frequency sounds are emitted by the
large speaker, called a woofer, while the higher-frequency sounds are emitted by the small speaker,
called a tweeter.
 EXAMPLE 1. CALCULATING WAVELENGTHS: WHAT ARE THE
WAVELENGTHS OF AUDIBLE SOUNDS?

Calculate the wavelengths of sounds at the extremes of the audible range, 20 and
20,000 Hz, in 30.0ºC air. (Assume that the frequency values are accurate to two
significant figures.)

Strategy

To find wavelength from frequency, we can use vw = fλ.

Solution

1. Identify knowns. The value for vw, is given by

vw=(331 m/s)√T/273 K.

2. Convert the temperature into kelvin and then enter the temperature into the
equation

vw=(331 m/s)√303 K/273 K

=348.7 m/s.

3. Solve the relationship between speed and wavelength for λ:

λ=vw/f.

4. Enter the speed and the minimum frequency to give the maximum wavelength:

λmax=348.7 m/s/20 Hz

=17 m.

5. Enter the speed and the maximum frequency to give the minimum wavelength:

λmin=348.7 m/s/20,000 Hz

=0.017 m=1.7 cm.

 Discussion

Because the product of f multiplied by λ equals a constant, the smaller f is, the
larger λ must be, and vice versa.

The speed of sound can change when sound travels from one medium to another.
However, the frequency usually remains the same because it is like a driven
oscillation and has the frequency of the original source. If vw changes and f remains
the same, then the wavelength λ must change. That is, because vw = fλ, the higher the
speed of a sound, the greater its wavelength for a given frequency.

MAKING CONNECTIONS: TAKE-HOME INVESTIGATION—VOICE

AS A SOUND WAVE

Suspend a sheet of paper so that the top edge of the paper is fixed and the bottom edge
is free to move. You could tape the top edge of the paper to the edge of a table. Gently
blow near the edge of the bottom of the sheet and note how the sheet moves. Speak
softly and then louder such that the sounds hit the edge of the bottom of the paper, and
note how the sheet moves. Explain the effects.

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Part 1

Imagine you observe two fireworks explode. You hear the explosion of one as soon as
you see it. However, you see the other firework for several milliseconds before you
hear the explosion. Explain why this is so.

Solution

Sound and light both travel at definite speeds. The speed of sound is slower than the
speed of light. The first firework is probably very close by, so the speed difference is
not noticeable. The second firework is farther away, so the light arrives at your eyes
noticeably sooner than the sound wave arrives at your ears.

Part 2

You observe two musical instruments that you cannot identify. One plays high-pitch
sounds and the other plays low-pitch sounds. How could you determine which is
which without hearing either of them play?
Solution

Compare their sizes. High-pitch instruments are generally smaller than low-pitch
instruments because they generate a smaller wavelength.

Section Summary
 The relationship of the speed of sound vw, its frequency f, and its
wavelength λ is given by vwfλ, which is the same relationship given for all
waves.
 In air, the speed of sound is related to air temperature T by vw=(331m/s)
√T/273K. vw is the same for all frequencies and wavelengths.