RESEARCH

&
STATS
By Vandana Saini
Research Process
Development of an aim and
hypothesis
Selection of research method
Definition, manipulation,
measurement and control of
variables
Ethical consideration
Selection of participants
Analysis of data
Evaluation of research
 HYPOTHESIS

A hypothesis in psychology is a testable

statement or educated guess that provides a
tentative explanation for a phenomenon.
 NULL HYPOTHESIS ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS

The alternative
The null hypothesis hypothesis proposes a
suggests that there is specific relationship or
no significant effect between
relationship or effect variables, which
between variables. researchers aim to
support.
 DIRECTIONAL NON-DIRECTIONAL
HYPOTHESIS HYPOTHESIS

In this type, the

This type of hypothesis
hypothesis suggests
predicts the direction of
that there is a
the relationship or
relationship between
difference between
variables but does not
variables.
specify the direction.
 RESEARCH METHODS

Qualitative Quantitative
Methods Methods
 Qualitative Methods
Qualitative research methods involves
collecting and evaluating non-numerical data
in order to understand concepts or subjective
opinions.
Quantitative Methods
Quantitative research methods involves
collecting and evaluating numerical data.
SELECTION
OF THE
SAMPLE
 MAJOR ELEMENTS

Population Sample Sampling Frame

The population refers to A sample is a subset of the The sampling frame is a
the entire group of population that is selected list or source from which
individuals or items that for study. It should ideally potential sample members
the researcher is be representative of the are drawn. It should
interested in studying. It population to make valid closely resemble the
can be large or small, inferences about the population.
depending on the research population as a whole.
question.
 DATA
ANALYSIS
 Measure of Central
Tendency
Central tendency is a statistical concept used to describe the
central or typical value in a set of data points. It helps us
understand where most data points cluster or concentrate.
The choice of which measure of The mean, often referred to as the
central tendency to use average, is calculated by summing up all

depends on the nature of the MEAN the values in a data set and then dividing
the sum by the number of data points.
data and the research question:
Mean is sensitive to extreme values
(outliers) and is often used when the data The mode is the value that appears most

is normally distributed. frequently in a data set. A data set can

The median is less affected by outliers

MODE have one mode (unimodal), multiple
modes (multimodal), or no mode at all.
and is preferred when the data contains
extreme values or is not normally
distributed. The median is the middle value in a data
set when the values are ordered from
Mode is helpful in identifying the most
frequent category in categorical data and MEDIAN smallest to largest. If there is an even
number of data points, the median is the
can be used in conjunction with other average of the two middle values.

measures.
 Measure of Spread

Measures of spread, also known as measures of variability or

dispersion, are statistical indicators that describe the extent to which
data points in a dataset are spread out or dispersed. They provide
valuable information about the distribution of data and how much
individual data points deviate from the central tendency measures
(mean, median, mode).
Range:

The range is the simplest measure of spread and is calculated as

the difference between the maximum and minimum values in a
dataset.
Formula: Range = Maximum Value - Minimum Value

Standard Deviation:

The standard deviation is the square root of the variance. It

provides a measure of the average distance between each data
point and the mean.
 NORMAL
DISTRIBUTION
CURVE
The normal distribution curve, often referred to as the bell curve, is
a fundamental concept in statistics and probability theory. It is a
symmetrical, bell-shaped probability distribution that describes
the way data is distributed in many natural phenomena.

In a normal distribution, the mean, median, and mode are all equal
and located at the centre of the curve.

The tails of the normal distribution extend infinitely in both

directions and approach but never touch the x-axis. They become
asymptotic to the x-axis, meaning they get closer and closer to it
but never reach it.
Standard Deviation: The spread or dispersion of data in a normal
distribution is determined by the standard deviation. A larger
standard deviation results in a wider and flatter curve, while a
smaller standard deviation results in a narrower and taller curve.

Approximately 68% of data falls within one standard deviation of the

mean.
Approximately 95% of data falls within two standard deviations of
the mean.
Approximately 99.7% of data falls within three standard deviations
of the mean.
CORRELATION
Correlation (r) is a statistical measure that quantifies the degree
to which two or more variables are related or associated. It helps
us understand the strength and direction of the relationship
between variables.

Range: The value of r ranges from -1 to 1.

r = 1: Perfect positive correlation (as one variable increases, the

other increases linearly).

r = -1: Perfect negative correlation (as one variable increases, the

other decreases linearly).

r = 0: No linear correlation (the variables are not linearly related).

The absolute value of the correlation coefficient (|r|) indicates the
strength of the correlation.

|r| close to 1 indicates a strong correlation.

|r| close to 0 indicates a weak or no correlation.

Correlation vs. Causation: Correlation does not imply causation. Just

because two variables are correlated does not mean that one causes
the other. Other factors may be influencing the relationship.
CHI SQUARE
TEST
The chi-square test is a statistical test used to determine if there
is a significant association between two categorical variables. It is
a non-parametric test, meaning it doesn't make any assumptions
about the distribution of data.

The chi-square test comes in two primary forms: the chi-square

test for independence and the chi-square goodness-of-fit test.
Chi-Square Test for Independence:
This test examines whether there is a significant relationship
between two categorical variables. It is used to determine if the
observed frequencies in a contingency table (also called a cross-
tabulation or two-way table) differ from what would be expected
by chance.

Chi-Square Goodness-of-Fit Test:

This test determines whether an observed frequency distribution
differs significantly from an expected frequency distribution. It is
often used when you have one categorical variable with multiple
categories.