UNESCO-NIGERIA TECHNICAL &

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION
REVITALISATION PROJECT-PHASE II

NATIONAL DIPLOMA IN
SCIENCE LABORATORY TECHNOLOGY

THERMODYNAMICS AND
ELECTROMAGNETISM
COURSE CODE: STP 212

YEAR 2- SE MESTER I

THEORY

Version 1: December 2008.

1
 TABLE OF CONTENT

WEEK 1
First law of thermodynamics

WEEK 2
First law of thermodynamic continued

WEEK 3
Second law of thermodynamics

WEEK 4
Second law of thermodynamics continued

WEEK 5
Magnetic effects of currents

WEEK 6
Principle of cyclotron

WEEK 7
Magnetic effect of currents and its application

WEEK 8
Moving coil galvanometer and theory of its operation

WEEK 9
Concept of electromagnetic induction and its application

WEEK 10
Electromagnetic induction continued

WEEK 11
Back e.m.f. and eddy current

WEEK 12
Principles of a.c. circuit and their applications.

WEEK 13
Numerical examples on alternating current and voltage

WEEK 14
The principles of a.c. circuits and their applications

WEEK 15
A.C. Series Circuits
 WEEK 1:

OBJECTIVE: To understand the first law of thermodynamics and its applications.

1.0 Introduction
Thermodynamics deals with processes which cause energy changes as a result
of heat flow to or from a system and/or of work done on or by a system. A
thermodynamic system consists of a fixed mass of mater, often or gas, separated from
its surroundings, perhaps by a cylinder and a piston. Heat engines such as petrol
engine, a steam turbine and a jet engine all contain thermodynamic systems designed
to convert heat into mechanical work. Heat pumps and refrigerators are thermodynamic
devices for transferring heat from a cold body to a hotter one.

1.1 First law of thermodynamics

The first law of thermodynamics is commonly called the law of conservation of
energy. A move general form of conservation of energy includes the effects of heat
transfer and internal energy changes. This move general form is called the first law of
thermodynamics.
The first law of thermodynamics was stated for a cycle: the net heat transfer is
equal to the net work done for a system undergoing a cycle or
When a system undergoes a thermodynamic cycle then the net heat transfer is
equal to the net work done for a system undergoing a cycle or
When system undergoes a thermodynamic cycle then the net heat supplied to
the system from the surroundings is equal to the net work done by the system on its
surroundings.
ჶdQ = ჶdw
Where ჶ represents the sum over a complete cycle and dQ and dw are respectively
infinitesimal quantity of heat and work done.
The statement above are various forms of the first law of thermodynamics. The first law
cannot be proved analytically, but experimental evidence has repeatedly confirmed its
validity.
 Heat supplied to a gas (or a liquid or solid) may (i) raise its internal energy and (ii)
enable it to expand and thereby do external work by pushing back the atmosphere or, if
it is in a cylinder, by moving a piston against a force.
In general, the internal energy of a gas consists of two components.
a. Kinetic energy due to translational and vibrational motion of the molecules, all
of which depend only on the temperature.
b. Potential energy due to the intermolecular, i.e. the volume of the gas.
If dQ is the heat supplied to a mass of gas and if dw is the external work done by it then
the increase of internal energy du equals (dQ – dw) if energy is conserved.
du = dQ – dw
or dQ = du + dw - - (I)
The equation (I) is the mathematical statement of the first law of thermodynamics and it
is a particular case of the principle of conservation of energy.

1.2 Thermodynamic processes

(a) Isothermal Change
Isothermal changes refer to changes of pressure and volume of a gas which
occurs at constant temperature. In an isothermal change heat is extracted from the
system or supplied to it as the pressure and volume vary at such a rate that the
temperature remains constant.
For a gas that approximates an ideal gas, the internal energy depends only on
the temperature and thus du = o for an isothermal process; for such a process
dQ = du + dw (du = o)
dQ = dw
This means that increase in the quantity of heat energy to the system increases
the work done by the system. For an ideal gas, pv = a constant for a constant
temperature. Plotting the pressure of the gas against volume for different temperatures
give series of curves called isotherms, as shown below:
 P

T1 < T2 < T3

Isotherms

T3
T2
T1
V

1.3 Adiabatic Change

An adiabatic change refers to the change in volume and temperature of a gas
such that there is no heat exchange between the gas and its surroundings. That is no
heat enters or leaves the gas so dQ = o. Using first equation (I)
dQ = du + dw
o = du + dw
or du = - dw
This means that the change in internal energy of the system decreases, then
work is done by the system and this causes a drop in temperature, but when the internal
energy change increase, then work is done on the system and this causes a
temperature rise. Examples of processes for which there is no, or negligibly small, heat
transfer, e.g. the compression of air in an automobile engine.
When a graph of pressure P is plotted against volume V, pv curves are obtained
which are steeper than the isotherms as shown in the figure below. The relationship

between P and V is of the form PV૪ = a constant where is a constant for the gas.

Fig. 1.3: Adiabatic change

1.4 The constant volume process or isochoric or isovolumetric change
The isovolumetric process is one in which the volume remains constant so that
dv = o. The work doen dw = pdv where p = pressure and dv = o implies that there is no
work done in an isochoric or isovolumetric process.
 Using the equation of the first law of thermodynamics
dQ = du + dw, dw = o
 dQ = du
This means that all the heat entering the system becomes increase in internal
energy. This causes an increase or rise in temperature from T 1 to T2 and the pressure
from P1 to P2 as shown in the figure 1.4.

du = dQ = Cvdt = cv (T2-T1)

P2

P1

T2
T1
V
Fig. 1.4: Isovolumetric Process

1.5 Isobaric Process

Isobaric process is one in which the pressure remains constant, and of the heat
received by the gas, some becomes internal energy as the temperature rises from T 1 to
T2; the rest is used to do work. Hence the equation of the first law of thermodynamics
dQ = du + dw
Becomes cp dT = csdT + dw where dQ = cpdt
And du = csdT and cp and cv are respectively molar specific capacities and constant and
volume. The p-V curve for an isobaric process is shown in the figure 1.5:
dw = p(v2-v1)
 cpdT = cvdT + P(v2-v1)
 P

P1

T2
T1
V
V1 V2

Fig. 1.5: Isobaric process

1.6 Work done by an expanding gas

Consider a mass of gas enclosed in a cylinder by a friction less piston of cross
section area A which is in equilibrium under the action of an external force F acting to
the left and a force due the pressure P of the gas acting to the right as shown in the
figure 1.6:

Fig. 1.6: work done by an expanding gas

Since the pressure P = F where F = Force and A = area normal to force

A
Consider the situation where the gas expand moving the piston outwards through a
distance dx which is so small that P remains practically constant during the expansion.
The external work done dw by the gas against F will be
dw = F dx
= PA dx
But Adx = dV, the change in volume of the gas
dw = Pdv
The total work done in w in a finite expansion from V 1 to V2 is given by the continuous
summation of dw, ie
V2
 dw = V1  Pdv

V2
W=  P dv
V1
Work done by the gas on expanding is taken as positive where as when a gas is
compressed, work is done on it. This work is negative.

1.7 Work done on a gas during an isothermal process

Suppose a unit of gas undergoes an isothermal change from a volume V 1 to a
volume V2 at a constant pressure. Then the total work done by the gas W is equal to the
area under the p-v curve, and is given by
W= Pdv
But PV = RT or P = RT
V
Substituting for P in the above expression for W, we get
W =  RT dv
V
= RT dv
V
= RT {log V}
= RT {log2 V} V2
V1

= RT {log V – log V1 }
= RT log { V2} for one mole of the gas
V1

Also P1 V1 = P2 V2
: V2 P2
V2 P2
: W = RT log {V2 } = RT log { P2 }
V1 P2
For  moles, the expansion become
W = RT log {V2 }
V1
= nRT log {P2}
V2

1.8 Work done in an adiabatic process

The work done for a reversible adiabatic process 6 given by
W = P dv - (1)
V1
Where the pressure and volume are related by the expression

PV૪ = constant - (2)

where ૪ = CP, the ratio of the molar heat capacity at constant pressure to
CV
that at constant volume.

from (2) P = C substituting in (1)

૪
V v2

w = C dv = C  V-૪ dV = C { V-૪ + 1 } v2 v2
V૪

Substituting the upper and lower units, we urive at

W = C { V-1-2 – V11-૪ }
1૪ 1- ૪

= C { V2 .V ૪ 2 – V1.-૪ }
1- ૪

the constant C cab be writen as P2 V2 ૪ or as P2 V2 ૪ .

Hence,

W = P2 V2 ૪. V2 ૪ – P1 V1 V1-૪
1-૪

W = P2 V2 - P1 V1
1–૪

or since RT2 - RT1 = R (T2 - T2 ),m,

1–૪ 1–૪
 WEEK 2
2.0 Principal heat capacities of a gas
when heat is supplied to a gas, the condition under which the heat is supplied
must be specified. the two cases of extreme importance are when the gas is heated as
a constant volume and when it is heated at a constant pressure.
when a gas is heated at constant volume, the amount of heat supplied goes to
increase olny the internal energy of the gas. But when a given mass of gas is heated at
constant pressure, the heat supplied goes to increase partly the internal energy of the
gas and partly to cause the gas to do external work as it expands against the external
pressure.
we therefore define two molar heat capacity at constant volume and the molar
heat capacity at constant pressure.

2.1 Molar Heat Capacities

molar heat capacity of a gas at constant volume Cv is defined as the heat
required to produce unit rise of temperature in one mole of the gas when its volume is
kept constant, Cv has a unit of 3 mol 1 -1 U-1 .
molar heat capacity of a gas at constant pressure Cp is defined as the heat
required to produce unit rise of temperature in one mole of the gas when its pressure is
kept constant. Cp has a unit of 3 mol1-1 U1 -1.

2.2 Relationship between Cp and Cv for an ideal gas

consider one mole of a of an ideal gas in a cylinder with a friction less piston
shown in the figure below. Let a quantity of heat dQ be given to the gas which is
allowed to expand reversibly at constant pressure P, i.e the external force on the piston
does not change during the expasion. suppose the volume of the gas increase from.
V to V+ SV and the –
temperature from T to T + ST.
from the first law of thermodynam we have.
Q = du + dw – a)
Where dQ is the heat to raise the temperature of one
mole of gas by ST at constant pressure. Hence from the defruition of molar heat
capacity Cp we have
DQ = number of moles x Cp x temperature rise
= Cp dT
Also, the external work dW done by the gas is, because the pressure is constant
and the change reversible.
dW = pdV
substituting in equation (1) for dQ, du and dw, we get
Cpdt = Cr dT + pdV – (2)
applying the ideal gas equation to the initial and final stages,
we have for i mole,
PV = RT
P(V+dV) = R (T + dT)
Subtracting
Pdv = RdT
Hence from (2)
Cp dT = Cv dT + RdT
or Cp = Cv + R

: Cp – Cv = R

This equation is approximately true for real gases but (as with solids and liquids) the
values of Cp and Cv, may vary with temperature.
2.3 Ratio of specific heat of specific heat capacities at constant pressure to that at
constant volume.
The ratio of the two heat capacity of a gas is denoted by that is

૪ = Sp
Cv
The above ratio appears in the equation for the speed of sound in a gas and in
that for a reversble adabatic change. It can also provide information about the atomicity
of gases.

2.4 Relative pressure to volume in an adiabtic change

consider a mole of a gas at initial pressure P, volume V and temperature T. Let
the gas undergo a small adiabatic change such that its new pressure, volume and
temperature are: P + dp, V + dV and T + dT respectively.
for a mole of an ideal gas
PV = RT
: (P = dP) (V + dV) = R (T + dT)
on expanding
PV +Vdp + Pdv + dp dv = Rt + RdT
neglecting product of small quantities dp dv, and equating PV = RT, we get.
RT + Cdp + PdV = RT + RdT or
Vdp + pdv = RdT (1)
from the first law of thermodynamics
dQ = O
: O = du + pdv
or du = - Pdv (2)
also du = Cvdt = - Pdt
Cv
substituting in equation (1) above we get
vdp + pdv = R {- Pdv}
Cv
But R = cp Cv substituting in the above we get
: Vdp + pdv = (Cp - Cv) {- Pdv}
 Cv
=:( Cp - Cv) Pdv
CV
vdp + pdv = (- Cp + 1) pdv
Cv
vdp + pdv (1 + Sp - 1) = 0
Cv
vdp + pdv (Sp) = 0
Cv

or vdp + ૪ pdv = 0 where ૪ = Cp

Cv
Dividing throughout by PV we get

Vdp + ૪ pdv = 0
Pv Pv

dp + ૪ dv = 0 – (3)

integrating equating (3), we get

log e P + ૪ loge V = a constant

i.e loge P + ૪ loge V = loge DF where D is a constant

log e P + loge V૪ = loge D

or log e PV૪ = loge D

૪
: PV = D (a constant)

૪
: PV = a constant – (4)

2.5 The relation between temperature and volume in an adibatic change

using the expression PV = RT for a mole of a gas, we can express pressure in terms
of volume and temperature as

P= RT
 V
૪
substituting for P in eqoation (4) above for an adiabatic change, PV = a constant, we

get

( RT) (V૪) = a constant

V

T. V ૪ = a constant = another constant since R is constant.

V R

: T V૪=1 = a constant – (5)

This expression inplies that T1 V૪=1 = T1 V૪=1

2.6 Relation Between Pressure And Temperature In An Adiabatic Change

Using PV = RT for a mole of a gas
V = RT
P

Substituting in the expression P V૪ s a constant, we get

P (RT)૪ = a constant
P

P x T૪ = a constant = a constant
P૪

: P1-૪ T૪ = a constant

Or P11-૪ T૪ = P11-૪ T૪

The expression above gives the relationship between the initial pressure P1,
initial temperature T1 final temperature P2 and final temperature T2 for an adiabatic
change.
 WEEK 3

3.0 The second law of thermodynamics and its application.

3.1 Equation of state of an ideal gas
Experimental evidence provide the following information above an ideal gas.
First, when the gas in kept at a constant temperature its pressure is inversely
proportional to the volume (Boyeles bu).
Second, when the pressure of the gas is kept constant, the volume is directly
proportional to the temperature (the law of Charles and Gay-Lussas). These
observations can be summarized by the following equation of state for an ideal gas.
PV = nRT
In this experiment, called the ideal gas law, R is a constant for a specific gas that
can be determined from experiments, and T is the temperature in Kelvin. Experiments
on several gases show that, as the pressure approaches zero, the quantity PV/nT
approaches the same value of R for all gasses. For this reason R is called the universal

gas constant. R has a value equal to 8.13 Jmol-1 k-1

3.2 Internal Energy of a Gas

The internal energy U of a substance is defined as the sum of the kinetic and
potential energy of its molecules. We do not include any k.e, (or p.e) which the gas as a
whole might have, through being in a container which is moving, or because of the
position of the gas container. In the case of the ideal gas of our simple kinetic theory U
is simply calculated as the number of molecite multiplied by their mean translational k.e.
: U = N (3 k T )
2
= 3nRT
2
If we heat the gas while its volume remains constant, the energy transferred by
heating DQ is equal to the gain in internal energy of the gas DU since no work is done if
there is no volume change. Therefore.
DQ = DU = 3 nRDT
2
 The above expression means that the internal energy of an ideal gas depends on
the absolute temperature.

3.3 Reversible Process

A process is reversible if at all stages its direction can be reversed by an
infinitesimally small change in direction of the supply of energy. That is a reversible
process is one in which every state between the initial and final states is an equilibrium
state. And that can be reversed in order to be followed exactly from the final state back
to the initial state of pressure, volume and temperature.

3.4 Irreversible Process

An irreversible process is one in which every state between the initial and final
states is not in equilibrium state, and can not be reversed from the final state to the
initial state. If any of the following features are observed in a process, it is irreversible:
i. Frictional or viscous forces which convert mechanical energy into internal
energy.
ii. Spontaneous changes, which must imply non equilibrium situations; these
include.
1. Any heating process, i.e energy transfer because of finite temperature
differences
2. Processes in which bodies accelerate, as a result of unbalanced forces.

3.5 Examples of Reversible Processes

An isothermal process is a reversible process. If we do work DW on some gas,
and its temperature and internal energy do not change, it heats its surroundings by an
amount DQ (= .DW). at any stage this process can be reversed: If the surrounding heat
the gas, the gas does an amount of work on the surroundings.
An adiabatic process, also can be reversible. Now we need the material of the
containing cylinder to be a perfect thermal insulator: If we compress the gas, its
temperature will rise. This does not its matter, provided the temperature difference
between the gas and its surrounding does not energy to flow. If we do work DW on the
gas, its internal energy will increase by an amount DU (DU = DW), and any stage this
process can be reversed: the increased pressure of the gas can push the piston back in
the opposite direction.
So to obtain good approximations, in practice to reversibility, both isothermal and
adiabatic processes have to be performed slowly compared with the speeds of the
molecules.

3.6 Heat Engines

The term heat engine include-internal combustion engines, steam engines, the
turbines that generate electricity in power stations, refrigerators.
All heat engines have a working substance. All heat engines must perform a
cyclic process, i.e, they must be able to repeat their operation for any number of cycles.
The working substance must therefore be returned to its original state at the end of
each cycle.
In all heat engines the working substance is heated usually by contact with a
source which we call the hot reservoir, but sometimes through a direct injection of
energy, an in internal combustion engine; the working substance then expands and
does work. Most heat engines therefore convert internal energy into mechanical energy
(through some, e.g the refrigerator, reverse this process).
The principle of a heat engine therefore is to extract useful mechanical work from
a machine and to replace the energy lost by heating the machine. In this way certain
amount of heat can be converted into work.

Hot reservoir hot steam

Q1
w
Useful work out Rotating blades
Q2

Cold reservoir colder steam

1st law of thermodynamics Q 1 = W + Q2
2nd law of thermodynamics Q2 > 0

Fig. 3.6. Principle of heat engine

Energy is extracted as heat from a high temperature reservoir = a source of

energy with a very thermal capacity so that a great dead of energy can be extracted
without changing the temperature noticeable – and some of it is converted into useful
work. The remaining energy is dumped into a low temperature reservoir.
The first law of thermodynamics implies that the amount of work done by the
engine cannot be greater than the heat drawn in from the hot reservoir. The second law
requires that the engines cannot be 100% efficient – which is the same as saying that
some energy must be dumped into the low – temperature reservoir.

3.7 Carnot’s Ideal Heat Engine

The French scientist Carnot took the first steps towards developing a scientific
theory heat engines. He imagined an ideal engine, not of any particular type, but free
from all imperfections such as friction, in which the working substance was taken
reversible through a cycle (called the carnot cycle) consisting of two isothermal and two
adiabatic processes as shown in the P-V graph Fig. 3.7.
 Isothermal Expansion

Adiabatic Expansion

Adiabatic
Compression

Isothermal Compression

Fig. 3.7. Carnot cycle

Along AB the substance expands isothermally heat Q 1 from a source at temperature T1

and doing external work. Along BC, there is an adiabatic expansion, more work is done
by it and the temperature ultimately falls to T 2 . CD represents an isothermal
compression during which work is done on the substance and heat is rejected to a sink
at a temperature T2 . Finally along DA adiabatic compression occurs and more work is
done on the substance. The net external work W done by the substance during the
cycle equals (Q1 – Q2) and the efficiency of the engines.

- external work done in one cycle

Heat received from source
= W = Q1 – Q2
Q1 Q1
It can be shown that, using an ideal gas as the working substance, a heat engine
working in a carnot cycle obeys the relation.

Q1 – Q2 = T1 – T2
Q1 T1
Where T1 and T2 are the temperature of source sink respectively.
Hence
 Efficiency = Q1 – Q2 = 1 – Q2 = T1 – T2 = 1 – T2
Q1 Q1 T1 T1

3.8 Actual or Real Engines

i. External combustion engine: e.g steam engine.
A steam engine is powered by heat conducted through the walls of cylinder
containing the working substance. Although such engines can generate a great deal of
power, they have several disadvantages, including a limit to the maximum temperature
(and hence efficiency), a tendency for the cylinder walls to soften, and the slow diffusion
of energy through the working substance. These advantages have led them being
superseded by internal combustion engines in most applications.
ii. Internal combustion engines
The internal combustion engines use lair to which has been added a small
amount of a combustion gas as their working substance. The ignition of this combustion
substance provides the heat necessary to power the cycle.
The various cycles that can be employed in internal combustion engines can be
categorized on the basis of whether the combustion takes place isothermally, at
constant volume, or adiabatically. The Carnot cycle is an example of an isothermal
cycle – adapted for an internal combustion engine, the cycle would involve the adiabatic
compression of a combustible mixture until the temperature reaches that at which the
mixture ignites. The ignited mixture is then effectively the hot reservoir for the rest of the
working substance and the cold reservoir is the surroundings into which the exhaust is
dumped when a fresh mixture is supplied each cycle. The Carnot cycle is the most
efficient cycle between any two working temperatures, but in practice considerable
difficulties are encountered making an engine based on this cycle. Other, less efficient
cycle are more realizable.
3.9 External Combustion Engine
An external combustion engine (for example, a steam engine) is powered by heat
conducted through the walls of the cylinder containing the working substance. Although
such engines can generate a great deal of power, they have several disadvantage,
including a limit to the maximum temperature (and hence efficiency), a tendency for the
cylinder walls to soften, and slow diffusion of energy through the working substance.
These disadvantages have led to them being superseded by internal combustion
engines in most applications.

3.10 The Four-Stroke Internal Combustion Engine

A practical internal combustion engine working on a petrol – air mixture can be
produced using a cylinder containing a piston and a pair of valves. The process involves
four stroke which are the up-and-down movements of the piston that turn the crankshaft
to provide the required drive. Although the cycle involves these four strokes, there are
six identifiable stages to the cycle, which in a real engine is carried out by a set of
cylinders that will be at different stages of the cycle.
i. Intake Stroke
The drive provided by another cylinder in the engine rotates the crankshaft which
pulls piston in this cylinder down. This reduces the pressure in the cylinder by an
mount sufficient to cause the fuel – air mixture to be forced into the cylinder by the
external atmospheric pressure when the intake valve opens.

ii. Compression Stroke

The rotation of the crankshaft now drives the piston back up, compression the fuel-
air mixture to much higher pressure and temperature. Friction and conducting of
energy through the cylinder walls restricts the efficiency of this process.

iii. Explosion
An electrical spark provided by a spark plug ignites the fuel-air mixture, causing a
rapid rise in temperature and pressure; this is timed to take place just before the
piston reaches the top of the stroke, so that by the time combustion has been
completely established the piston has come to rest ready for the power stroke.
iv. POWER STROKE
The hot gases expand rapidly, forcing the piston down, and in the process
temperature and pressure drop. Friction and conduction again limit efficiency. This
is part of the cycle that produces useful work.

v. Exhaust
The exhaust gases in the cylinder are still at a higher temperature and pressure
than the surroundings, so that they start to flow out of the cylinder when the
exhaust valve opens.

vi. Exhaust Stroke

Crankshaft rotation forces the piston up, expelling any remaining exhaust gases
into the surrounding.
A simplified idea can be gained by considering the idealized cycle put into practice
by NOH2. It is assumed that the working substance is air behaving as an ideal gas
and that there is no friction in the system. The Pv (indicator) diagram for the motto
cycle is shown in fig. 3.10.
3.11

Fig. 3.10. The idealized otto cycle

3.11 Relationship Between the Otto Cycle and the Foor Stroke Cycle
1. OA – intake stroke
2. AB – Compression stroke: compression is rapid so can be considered adiabatic
3. BC – explosion: a constant – volume increase in pressure and temperature
4. CD – power stroke: a fast hence essentially adiabatic expansion
5. DA – exhaust: drop in pressure (as gas is escaping) at constant volume
6. AO – exhaust stroke
 Is drawn Q1 in during BC and emitted during DA Q2. In both cases the heat flow
is taking place over a range of temperatures.
 WEEK 4

Second Law of Thermodynamics and its Applications.

4.0 Carnot Refrigerator

A carnot engine runs in the reverse direction to a carnot refrigerator. The
important effect of a carnot refrigerator is to remove heat from the lower temperature
reservoir. The magnitudes of W, Q2 and Q1 for the carnot refrigerator are the same with
carnot engine but opposite in sign. Figure below shows the carnot refrigerator.

T2 Q2

Q1

T1

CARNOT REFRIGERATOR
Fig. 4.0

For any refrigerator, the efficiency is called the coefficient of performance, E and it is
defined as
E = Heat remove from the low temperature region
Work done on the refrigerator
E = -Q = Q1
W Q2 – Q1
Where T1 = cold temperature
T2 = hot temperature.
4.1 Internal Working of a Refrigerator

Fig. 4.1. Principle of Mechanical Refrigerator

The principle of the common refrigerator cycle is shown schematically above.

The fluid circuit contains a refrigerant fluid (the working substance) the left side of the
circuit (including the cooling coils inside the refrigerator) is at low temperature and low
pressure; the right side (including the condenser coils outside the refrigerator) is at high
temperature and high pressure.
The compressor takes in fluid compress it adiabatically and delivers it to the
condenser coil at high pressure the fluid temperature is then higher than that of the air
surrounding the condenser, so the refrigerator gives off heat Q 2 and partially condenser
to liquid. The fluid then expands adiabatically into the evaporator at a rate controlled by
the expansion valve. As the fluid expands, it cools considerably enough that the fluid in
the evaporator coil is colder than its surroundings. It absorbs heat Q 1 from its
surroundings, cooling them and partially vaporizing. The fluid then enters the
compressor to begin another cycle.
4.2 Statement of Second Law of Thermodynamics
The second law of thermodynamics can be stated in the following ways:
1. Kelvin statement of the second law states that no heat engine, reversible or
irreversible, operating in a cycle can take in heat from its surroundings, and
totally convert it into work.
2. Clauses statement of the second law of thermodynamics states that there is no
way to construct a cyclically operating device whose sole result is to take heat
from a cooler to a hotter body. This is the refrigerator statement of the second
law of thermodynamics.
3. No process is possible whose sole results is the absorption of heat from a
reservoir at a single temperature and the conversion of this heat completely into
mechanical work.
4. The second law of thermodynamics (in terms of entropy) states that if any
process takes place in a system isolated from its surroundings, the entropy
change of the system is always greater than or equal to zero, i.e ds > 0. It is
greater than zero for irreversible process but equal to zero for reversible cyclic
process.
 WEEK 5

Understand the Magnetic Effect of Current and its Applications

5.0 Magnetic Field Due to Magnets

The magnetic properties of a magnet appear to organitic at certain regions in the
magnet which we call the pole; in a bar magnet these are near the ends. Experiments
show that.
i. Magnetic poles are of two kinds, N-poles and S-pole.
ii. Like poles repels ear other and unlike poles attract
iii. Poles always seem to occur in equal and opposite paurs
iv. When no other magnet is near, a freely suspended magnet set nearly in a
north – south geographic direction.
The space surrounding a magnet where a magnetic force is experienced is called
a magnet field.

5.1 Magnetic Flux Or Magnetic Lines Of Force

Magnetic flux represents the direction and strength of a magnetic field at any
point. The direction of a magnetic field at a point is taken as the direction of the force
that acts on a nor magnetic pole there. A magnetic field can be represented by
magnetic field lines drawn so that.
i. The line (or the tangent to it is curved) gives the direction of the field at that point
and
ii. The number of lines per unit cross-section area is an indication of the ‘strength’
of the field.
Field lines can be obtained quickly with iron fillings or accurately plotted using a small
compass (i.e. pivoted magnet). A typical field pattern due to a bar magnet is shown
below. The field round a bar magnet varies in strength and direction from point to point.
 Fig. 5.1. Magnetic field pattern

5.2 Fields due currents

A conductor carrying an electric current is surrounded by a magnet field. The
field pattern due to conductors of different shapes can be obtained as for a magnet
using iron filings or plotting compass.
The lines due to a straight wire are circles concentric with the wire as show in the fig.
below. The right hand screw rule is a useful aid for predicting the direction of the field
knowing the direction of the current.

Fig. 5.2 Magnetic lines due to a straight line wire carrying a current

The right hand rule state that if a right handed screw moves in the direction of the
conventional current, then the direction of rotation of the screw gives the direction of the
magnetic field lines.
5.3 Force on a Current Carrying Conductor in a Magnetic Field
A conductor of length L, carrying a current I, placed is a uniform magnetic field of
strength B, at right angles to it is found to have a maximum force exerted on it. The
force is directly proportional to (i) to strength of the magnetic field (ii) the current and (iii)
the length of the conductor in the field. The conductor does not experience any force if
the conductor is placed in the direction of the magnetic field.
 FB
I
L
Or F = BIL
Suppose the angle between the wire and the field lines is - as shown. Let the magnetic
field strength be B. The field component parallel to the wire is B cos , the field
component perpendicular to the wire is B sin . So the force on the wire is

Fig. 5.3. A wire in a uniform magnetic field

5.4 Magnetic Field Strength or Flux Density

From the expression for the force on a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field at
right angles
F = BIL
B= F
IL
The magnetic flux density is defined as the force per unit length per unit current on a
current-carrying conductor at right angles to the field lines. The unit of field strength is
the tesla (T).

5.4 The Fleming’s left hand rule

The facts about the relative directions of current, field and force are summarized
by Fleming’s left hand (or motor) rule. It states that:
If the thumb and first two fingers of the left hand are held each at right angles to
the other, with the first finger pointing in the direction of the field and the second finger
in the direction of the current, then the thumb predicts the direction of the thrust or force.

Thrust

Field

Conventional current
Fig. 5.4. Fleming’s left hand rule

5.5 Force on a Charge in a Magnetic Field

An electric current is regarded as a drift of charges and so it is reasonable to assume
that the force experienced by a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field is the
resultant of the forces acting on the charges constituting the current. The force on a
charge Q moving with a velocity V in a uniform magnetic field by strength B at angle  to
the velocity is found to be directly proportional to
i. The strength of the magnetic field B,
ii. The quantity of charge Q,
iii. The velocity and
iv. The sine of the angle  between B and V.
 F = BQV sin 
Maximum force is experienced by the charge when the magnetic field is at right angels
to the velocity. i.e.
Maximum force = BQV
Since the force is at right angels to the velocity, the charges move in circular paths. For
changes moving in circle in a uniform magnetic field at right angels to it, the magnetic
force equals its centripetal force.
 BQV = mV2
r
where r = radius of circle described by the charge Q – in the uniform magnetic field.
 WEEK 6
6.0 The Principle of the Cyclotron
The cyclotron is a particle accelerator which is used to create useful radioisotopes when
protons crash into fixed targets. In this machine the path of the particles being
accelerated is wrapped into a spiral by using a magnetic field. The period of a revolution
of a particle is obtained as follows: In one revolution of radius r, the particle travels a
distance 2r round the circumference at speed V: hence
T= 2r - (1)
V
From the fact that centripetal force equals magnetic force
mV2 = BeV
r
Where m is the mass of proton, V is the velocity B is the strength of the magnetic field
and e is the charge of the proton.
r = mV - (2)
Be
Substituting for r in equation (1), we get
T = 2m
Be
The frequency f = I = Be - (3)
T 2m
In the cyclotron the particles are accelerated by applying an alternating potential
difference of exactly the same frequency f to a pair of D shaped electrodes that form a
box within which the particles move. The whole is in an evacuated chamber between
the poles of a very large magnet shown below. The positive ions are injected near the
centre, and are accelerated by the electric field between the D’s each time they cross
the gap between them: This always happens at the moments when the electric field
between the D’s reaches its peak value in the direction that will accelerate the particles.
Inside the D’s there is no electric field, and the particles move in semicircular orbits.
Each successive semicircular orbit has a larger radius than the previous one, but the
period of revolution remains constant; the particles thus stay synchronized with the
accelerating potential difference. After performing about 100 revolutions the particles
reach the edge of the system and enter a subsiding electric field that deflects them out
of the circle to strike the target in which collision experiment occurs.

Fig. 6.0. Principle of cyclotron

The energy attained by the particles is limited by the relative increase of mass.

6.1 The Principle Of Mass Spectrograph

The mass spectrometer is an instrument for measuring the charge to mass ratio of ions
and electrons. 3.3. Thomson investigated the deflection of beams of positive ions with it.
He used parallel electric and magnetic fields to deflect positive ions from a gaseous
element as shown in the figure. His results demonstrated the existence of isotopes,
atoms of an element with different atomic masses.
 Fig. 6.1(a). Thomson’s positive ray apparatus

The Bain bridge mass spectrometer uses a velocity selector to restrict the speed of the
ions in the beam to narrow range. The ions beam is then deflected by a uniform
magnetic field on a circular path, as shown in the figure below. The deflection of each
type of ion in the beam is then used to calculate the path radius r. the mass m of each
type of ion can then be calculated using the equation below derived by equating the
magnetic force Bqv to the centripetal force
mV2
r
i.e.
Bqv = mV2
r
m = Bqv
v
Where B = magnetic field strength
i.e. (flux density)
q = charge of each ion
V – ion speed
v = radius of curvature
m = mass of ion
Thus ions of different isotopes carrying equal charge at the same sped are deflected on
slightly different paths. They are therefore deflected at slightly different positions. A
modern mass spectrometer uses an electronic detector linked to a computer.

Fig. 6.1(b). The Bain bridge mass spectrometer

6.2 Force of Attraction and Repulsion Between Two Parallel Current Carrying
Conductors
The diagram below shows two long parallel conductors into the plane of the paper and
in the same direction. The two conductors experience an attractive force. If the currents
are in opposite directions the force is repulsive.
B1 B2

Let wire 1 be in a magnetic field B and so it experience a force

F1 = BI1L
Where B is the magnetic field strength due to wire 2, given by
B = oI2
2r
Where I2 is current in wire 2, o is the permeability of free space and r is the distance
from the wire. The field is observed at wire 1.
F = BI1L
oI1I2L
2r
 WEEK 7

The Magnetic Effect of Currents and its Applications.

7.0 The ampere
The ampere is the basic electrical unit of current. It is accurately defined in terms
of the force between two infinitely long parallel current-carrying conductors, i.e. using
the magnetic effect, and making measurements with a current balance.
The ampere is the constant currents which flowing in two infinitely long, straight
parallel conductors of negligible cross-section, placed in a vacuum 1metre apart,
produces between them a force of 2 x 10-7 Newton per metre of their length.

7.1 The Principle of the Current Balance

A current balance enables a circuit to be measured by weighing and uses the fact that
adjacent current carrying conductors, whether straight wires as considered in the
definition of the ampere or coils, exert forces on each other. The measurement, when
reduced to its essentials involves finding a mass, a length and a time and is said to be
an absolute one; only mechanical quantities are measured.
A simple arrangement is shown in the figure below, in which the current balance
measures the current I 9about 5A) in a long, straight wire close and parallel to its
current – carrying arm of length L and in series with it.

Fig. 7.1. Principle of a practical current balance

From the expression for force between two current carrying conductors with current I on
both wires,  .
 F= oIxI
2r
= ol2 where r = 1m
2r
But F = mg.
 mg = 2 x 10-7 x I2
2r
I2 = mgr_
2x107

 I = mgr
2x10-7x
The weight mg is determined from the beam balance  is the length of the current
carrying arm.
m is the mass of the rider needed to counter poise the balance.

7.2 The Behaviour of a Current Carrying Coil in a Magnetic Field

Current – carrying coils in magnetic fields are essential components of electric motors
and meters of various kinds.

7.3 Expression for Couple

Consider a rectangular coil PQRS of N turns pivoted so that it can rotate about a vertical
axis YY’ which is at right angles to a uniform magnetic field of flux density B as shown in
the figure below in fig. a. Let the normal to the plane of the coil make an angle  with the
field as shown in figure (b)
 Fig. 7.3.

When current I flows in the coil each side experience a force (since all make some
angle with B), acting perpendicularly to the plane containing the side and direction of the
field. The forces on the top and bottom (horizontal) sides are parallel to YY’ and for the
current direction shown, they lengthen the coil. The forces on the vertical sides, each of
length , are equal and opposite and have value F where
F = BILN
Whatever the position of the coil, its vertical sides are at right angles to B and so F
remains constant. The forces constitute a couple whose torque C is given by
C = one force x perpendicular distance between lines of action of the forces
= F x PT
= F x b sin PQT (b = breadth of coil)
= F b sin 
= BILN x b sin 
C = BIAN sin 
Where A = area of face of coil = L x b
The couple causes angular acceleration of the coil which rotates until its plane is
perpendicular to the field (i.e.  = 0) and then C = o
7.4 The Principle Of Electric Motors
This is one of the instruments that works with the principle of magnetic effect of current.
It converts electrical energy to mechanical energy. There are two types of electric
motors; d.c. motor. Fig. 7.4(a) and a.c. motor fig. 7.4(b). The components are all the
same. The only difference is that d.c. motor uses split ring or commutator which enables
current to be maintained in only one direction. The a.c. motor uses slip ring.

Current from battery flows into the coil through the carbon brushes. Side AB of the coil
in the magnetic field of the magnet experiences a downward force F and side CD, an
upward force fig. 7.4(a) and 7.4(b), that is, a couple is developed. The couple exerted
on the coil rotates it in the magnetic field. When the coil is in the vertical position, the
brushes touch the space between the commutator halves and current is cut off, fig.
7.4(a).

Fig. 7.4(a). DC Electric Motor Fig. 7.4(b). AC Electric Motor

The momentum of the coil carries it past the vertical position and the commutator halves
change contact. The current is reversed through the coil and the coil continues to rotate.
For an a.c. electric motor. Fig. 7.4(b), the slip ring enables the current to flow
sinusoidally.
7.5 Factors Affecting the Efficiency of an Electric Motor
The efficiency of an electric motor is less than 100% because of ;
1. Energy losses in the winding of the coil.
2. Work done against friction on the bearings and commutators.
3. Eddy current losses.
4. Hysteresis or iron losses.

7.6 Sensitivity Of A Galvanometer

The current, I through the instrument if proportional to the angle of deflection, , of the
pointer.
I
The sensitivity, S of the instrument is thus defined as the scale deflection per
microampere.
S =  = BAN
I C
Where: B = Magnetic induction,
A = Area of coil,
N = Number of turns,
C = Torsional constant of the wire.
Torque = BIAN = C

For a voltmeter, S =  = 
V IR

7.7 Factors Affecting The Sensitivity Of The Moving-Coil Galvanometer

The sensitivity of the instrument S = , is its ability to detect or
I
measure small currents, while its accuracy is the ability to measure current very close to
the true value. Where  = angle of twist or deflection, I = current.
The sensitivity is increased by the:
1. Use of strong magnetic field or powerful permanent magnet.
2. Increase in the number of turns in the coil.
3. Increase in area of the coil.
4. Use of springs made of thinner wire to enable them twist more easily or use of
weak hairspring to give a small control couple.
5. Use of light pointer.
 WEEK 8
8.0 Advantages Of The Moving-Coil Galvanometer
1. It is the most accurate type of ammeter since it has a uniform scale due to the
radial magnetic field, used for measuring direct current.
2. Due to the presence of the powerful permanent magnet, the effect of stray
magnetic fields in the neighbourhood is negligible.
3. It can be adapted to read various ranges of current or voltage by connecting
appropriate resistances to the instrument, either in parallel or series to it
respectively.
4. The instrument is well damped and is robust.
8.1 Disadvantage
1. All form of moving-coil galvanometers are easily damaged by overload, i.e. too
much current and this burns out the hairsprings.

8.2 The Moving-Coil Galvanometer And Theory Of Its Operation

Any device used for the detection or measurement of current is called a galvanometer.
The earliest form of a galvanometer was designed by Oersted which is mainly a
compass needle placed below the wire in which the current was to be measured. Wire
and needle were both aligned in the north-south direction, with no current in the wire.
The deflection of the needle when a current was sent through the wire was then a
measure of the current. The sensitivity of this type of earlier galvanometer was
increased by winding the wire into a coil in a vertical plane with the compass needle at
its centre.
 Fig. 8.2. Moving Coil Galvanometer

The magnetic field is set up between soft iron pole-pieces, NS attached to a power
permanent magnet. The pole-pieces are curved to form parts of a cylinder coaxial with
the suspension of the coil. The magnetic field is radial to the core and pole-pieces over
the region in which the coil can swing.
The coil turns in a narrow gap between a horseshoe magnet and a fixed soft iron core,
placed between the curved poles N and S. this core produces a radial magnetic field,
which is necessary for the instrument’s uniform scale. The string controls the angle of
rotation of the coil and also brings it back after current is switched off.

For the mirror galvanometer, the current enters and leaves as shown in fig. 8.20 the
deflection of the coil is shown by the mirror.

For the moving-coil galvanometer, the springs and jewels are carried by a brass or
Aluminium framework (not steel since it would alter the magnetic field). When the
current enters and leaves as shown in fig. 8.21(b), it is recorded on the scale by the
pointer, which balanced by a counterweight, R.
 Fig. 8.3. Couple due to force F

Since magnetic field B is at right angles to the vertical limb of the oil
Force, F = BIL (=900), L =- Length of coil, b = width
The couple which the forces F exerts on each turn is, C
C = Fb = BILb = Blab
= BIA (A=ab)
For N turns of the coil (NIA=magnetic moment, M)
Then, C1 = BIAN = BM
The coil will turn until the restoring couple due to the twist in the suspension is equal to
C1
But C1  angle of twist
C1  , C1 = K, (K = suspension constant) BIAN = K
I = K
BAN
Since K are constant I
BAN
The scale has a full range of deflection between  = 900 to 1500 and this corresponds to
50A to 15mA according to the strength of the hairsprings.
8.3 Numerical questions
Example 1.
A current of 5A flows in a straight wire in a uniform flux density of 2 x 10 -3T.
calculate the force per unit length on the wire if it is (i) perpendicular to the field, (ii)
inclined at 300 to it.

Solution
I = 5A
B = 2 x 10-3T
 = 900
F = ?
L
Using F = BIL sin ,
F = BI sin 
L
= 2 x 10-3 x 5 sin 900
= 10 x 10-3
= 1 x 10-2N/m
2. A conductor of length 1.05m carries a current of 0.8A, calculate the maximum
force acting on it when it is placed in a magnetic field of 0.4T

Solution
L = 1.05m
I = 0.8A
Fmax = maximum force = ?
B = 0.4T
Maximum force is obtained when conductor is at right angles to the magnetic field
Fmax = BIL = 0.4 x 0.8 x 1.05 N

= 0.336N
Assignment
1. A conductor of length 2.6m carries a current of 0.3A. calculate the force acting on
it when it is placed in a magnetic field of 0.32t and the conductor is inclined at 380
to the field.
2. Calculate the velocity of electron moving in a magnetic field of 0.7T if a force of
10-16N acts on the electron. (Electric charge, e = 1.6 x 10-19C)
 WEEK 9

The Concept of Electromagnetic Induction and its Application.

9.0 Concept Of Electric Field

Electric field is a space surrounding a charge in which some force is
experienced. The field is considered to have something called electric flux which is the
product of electric field strength and area normal to it.

9.1 Electric Field Intensity

The electric field intensity is defined as the force per unit charge. It is denoted by
E.
 E = F
q
Where F = electric force and q = electric charge.
The electric field intensity or field strength is measured in Nc-1 or Vm-1
The electric force F is given by the coulomb’s law as
F= I q1q2 where q1 and q2 are the magnitudes
2
r
of electric charges spaced at distance r from each other.
The electric field strength E = F = I q1q2 x 1
q1 4eo r2 q1
 E = I q2
4eo r2

9.2 Faraday’s Law Of Electromagnetic Induction

It was observed by faraday that an electromotive force is induced in a circuit
when ever there is a change in the magnetic flux linked with a circuit.
The magnetic flux the through a small plane surface is the product of the zzflux
density normal to the surface and the area of the surface.
 =BxA
 When B is the magnetic field intensity and A = area normal to the field. If B is in
tesla (T) and A in M2 then  will be I Weber (Wb).
Consider a coil of wire placed in a uniform magnetic field of flux density B such
that the normal to the coil makes an angle  with it as shown below.

Uniform magnetic field n

Bn

Fig. 9.1. Coil moving in a magnetic field

The component of the magnetic field along the direction of the normal is obtained
from
Cos  = Bn
1 B
or Bn = B Cos 
When Bn is the component of B, normal to coil. The magnetic flux  is then given
by
 Bn x A
Where A is the area of the coil.
  = B Cos  x A
= BA Cos 
If  is the flux through the cross sectional area A of a coil of N turns, the total flux
through it called the flux linkage is N since the same flux  links each of the N turns.

9.3 Electromagnetic Induction

Magnetism could be produced from electricity discovered by Oersted. The
reverse effect of production of electricity by magnetism is known as electromagnetic
induction discovered by Michael Faraday in 1882.
9.4 Principle Of Electromagnetic Induction
The figure below shows the set up of an experiment carried out by Michael Faraday to
demonstrate the principle of electromagnetic induction. It is observed that if either the
coil is moved or the magnet, there is an induced emf shown by the deflection of the
sensitive galvanometer.

Fig. 9.4: Deflection of Galvanometer due to electromagnetic induction

The deflection of the galvanometer as shown in the diagram above depends on

whether the magnet’s North and South pole is moving towards or away from the coil.
Also the same effect is observed if the magnet is stationary and the coil is moved
towards or away from it.

The galvanometer shows no deflection when the magnet and coil are stationary. This
implies that there is an induced current when there is relative motion between the
magnet and the coil. Faraday found that there is an induced emf whenever there is a
change in the magnetic flux linked with the coil.
The magnitude of this induced current is increased by;
i. The high magnetic strength of the magnet.
ii. The large number of turns in the coil.
iii. The large area of the coil.
iv. The speed with which the magnet is moved to and from the end of the coil or with
which the coil is turned if the magnet is stationary.
v. By the use of a very soft iron placed inside the coil as a core.
9.5 Direction of the Induced e.m.f in a Straight Wire
The direction of the induced current in straight wire moved in a magnetic field is
governed by the Fleming’s right hand rule or at times referred to as the dynamo rule.
The rule enables the direction of the induced current in a conductor to be determined.
The rule states that if the first three fingers of the right hand are held mutually at right
angels to each other, if the fore finger points in the direction of the field and the thumb in
the direction of the motion, then the middle finger will point in the direction of the
induced current.

9.6 Laws Of Electromagnetic Induction

i. Faraday’s law
The Faraday’s law states that when the magnetic flux reaching a circuit is
changing an e.m.f. is induced in the circuit and the magnitude of the induced emf is
directly proportional to the time rate of change of the magnetic flux lining the circuit.
E  d
dt
Or E = N d
dt
Where E = e.m.f, d = magnetic flux, t = time, N – number of turns and  = AB cos 
Where A = area of coil B = magnetic induction and  is the angle between the
normal to the area and the magnetic field.

ii. Lenz’s law

Lenz’s law states that the direction of the induced current flows in such a
direction as to oppose the source giving rise to it.
9.7 Lenz’s Law And Conservation Of Energy
Lenz’s law is a law of conservation of energy. This is because as the magnet
moves and the current flows in opposite direction opposing it, work has to be done for
this process to continue and this leads to energy conservation.

9.8 The Variation Of Induced E.M.F In A Rotating Coil At Different Orientation In

The Field
The coil in the figure below has N turns each of area A and is being rotated about a
horizontal axis in its own plane at right angles to a uniform magnetic field of flux density
B. If the normal to the coil makes an angle  with the field at time t (measured from the
position when  = o) then the flux  linking each turn is given by

= BA cos
n
Bn

Fig. 9.8. Coil rotating in a uniform magnetic field

But  = wt where w is the steady angular velocity of the coil. Therefore;

 = BA cos wt
By Faraday’s law, the emf E induced at N turns is
E = - d (N) = -N d (BA cos wt)
dt dt
E = - BAN d (cos wt)
Dt
E = - BAN w (- sin wt)

E = BANWsin wt

The emf is thus an altenating one which varies sinusiodally with time and would cause a
similar alternating current in an external circuit connected across the coil.
When the plane of the coil is parallel to B,  = wt = 900 and sin wt = 1 and E has its
maximum value E0 give by
Eo = BANW
Hence we can write

E = Eo sin wt

When  is equal to zero, wt = o the induced e.m.f is zero when the plane of the coil is
perpendicular to the magnetic field.
The variation of the induced emf in a rotating coil of N-turns at different orientations in
the field can be represented graphycailly by ploting induced emf E against time t- which
gives the sinusoidal graph sown below ;

Variation of induced e.m.f. With time

Fig. 9.8. Variation of induced e.m.f. with time.
 WEEK 10

10.0 Magnitude Of Current I In A Coil Of Resistance R.

The induced electromotive force due to a coil of N turns rotating with a steady angular
speed w in a magnetic field B is given by
E = Eo sin wt
If the resistance of the coil is R sin ohms, then the current I, by ohm’s is given by
I= E
R
= Eo sin wt
R
But Eo = Io, the maximum induced current
R
 I = Io sin wt

10.1 Application Of Electromagnetic Induction

i. AC Dynamo or Generator
A dynamo is a device which converts mechanical energy to electrical energy. A
dynamo or generator is essentially made up of a parameter magnet, rectangular coil or
armature, slip rings and carbon brushes.
The figure below shows an a.c. dynamo – when the rectangular coil ABCD rotates in the
presence of the magnet, induced current is made to flow in the coil according to the
laws of electromagnetic induction. The induced current is tapped out through the carbon
brushes. The rotation of the coil makes the induced current direction to change from
time to time with the aid of the slip ring and hence its name an ac dynamo is derived
from the change in direction of current shown by the sinusoidal graph below. The
direction of the current changes after it has reached a peak value.
 C B

N S

B
A F
Rectangular coil
Slip ring
Carbon brushes
t

Variation of induced e.m.f. With time

R Fig. 10.1 (b)

AC Dynamo or generator

Fig. 10.1.(a) A.C, Dynamo or generator

ii. A DC Generator OR DC Dynamo

A d.c. generator has essentially the same structure as the a.c. generator and the
components are the same except the presence of split ring or commutator in a dc
dynamo in place of a slip ring in an a.c. dynamo.
The figure below shows a dc generator. As the coil is rotated in the magnetic field, an
e.m.f. is induced between the terminals. This emf varies from maximum when the coil is
horizontal to minimum when the coil is vertical at which position connection between the
brushes and terminals of the coil are changed by the accumulator. The commutator
changes the a.c. in the coil. This ensures that the current continues to flow in the same
direction.
 Fig. 10.1(d) DC Output

Fig. 10.1 (c) DC dynamo or generator

10.2 Self Inductance

Any circuit in which there is varying current has induced in it an emf, because of the
variation in its own magnetic field. Such an emf is called a self-induced electromotive
force. Suppose a circuit has N turns of wire and that a flux  passes through each turn,
the number of flux linkages (N) per unit current is called the self inductance L of the
circuit.
L = N
I
The self inductance L of a circuit depends on its (a) size (b) shape (c) number of turns
(d) magnetic properties of the material in which the magnetic field exists.
Self inductance of a coil is also defined as the self induced emf per unit time rate of
change of current.
L = - E
dI
dt
L is measured in Henry, which is defined as the inductance of a coil in which an emf of
1volts is induced when a current changes at the rate of 1 ampere per second.
10.3 Mutual Inductance
When two coils are linked, the changing current in one-coil induces an emf in the
second coil. This is called mutual inductance M. The emf induced in coil b, E b by
changing current in coil is given as:
Eb = M x time rate of change of current
= M dIA
dt
If LA and LB are the self inductances of coil A and B respectively then
M= LALB

Fig. 10.3. Mutual inductance of two coils

The mutual induction of current between two circuits will occur in all cases where the
current in any coil or even single wire is changed and a secondary coil or closed single
wire is always present in the neighbourhood. The effect is always present though it will
only be significant if coils of several turns which are close together are used especially if
they are linked by ferromagnetic core.
If IA is the current flowing in the primary circuit, the number of magnetic flux lines linked
with the secondary is mean, where M depends on the geometry of the system.

If any ferromagnetic material is used, the latter greatly increase M an then the flux
linkage is not necessarily proportional to the current IA
M is the same irrespective of which of the two coils is considered to be primary, i.e flux
linkage in coil B due to current IA in coil A is the same as the flux linkage in A due to the
same current in coil B.
M is called mutual inductance or coefficient of mutual inductance.
 Eb = - M dIA
dt

M = Eb
- dIA
dt

Mutual inductance is defined as the ration of induced emf to the time rate of change of
current in a coil.
 WEEK 11

The Concept of Electromagnetic Induction and its Application.

11.0 Back e.m.f. and Eddy Current

When a metallic copper or aluminum sheets swings I a magnetic field, it cuts across the
magnetic flux. According to Lenz’s law the emf induced in the coil opposes the actual
motion of the coil which quickly comes to rest. The induced emf that brings about
motion of the coil to dies away more quickly in the presence of the magnetic field
produced and induced current in the coil. The induced current is known as Eddy current.

The induced current is due to a back emf in the core of a coil in changing magnetic field.
Back emf is experienced in (a) electric motor (b) induction coil, the make and break
device (c) induction furnace (d) induction cooker (e) car speedometer and (f) dumpling
of a galvanometer.
For an electric motor, if the current through it is I and the back emf is Eb, then
I = E – Eb
R
Where E = actual emf of the electric motor and R = external resistance.
If Eb = o, I = E
R
This is an ideal case in which current is completely converted into internal energy
leading to rise in temperature of the coil. This is not allowed in practice, as it can cause
the motor to burn out. The back emf therefore serves useful purpose of reducing the
current in the coil and angular velocity.

The back emf opposes the emf E applied to drive the motor according to Lenz’s law
Back emf is determined by the (a) strength of the magnetic field and (b) speed of
rotation of armature
11.1 The Principle of Operation a Transformer
A transformer is an electric instrument used to step up or step down ac voltages. It
consists of two coils of insulated wire wound on a primary coil, which is greater in turns
than those in the secondary, for a step down transformer and for a step up transformer,
the number of turns in the secondary coil is greater than in the primary coil. The figure
shown below represent schematic diagram of a step up and step down transformer

Fig. 11.1(a) Step up transformer Fig. 11.1(b) Step down transformer

If the primary coil is connected to a source there will be flux around it. This changing
magnetic flux is linked to the secondary coil and gives rise to induced emf in the coil
which is proportional to the number of turns in the coil.
Vs = Ns
Vp Np
For an ideal transformer, input power = output power
 IpVp = IsVs
Or Ip = Vs = Ns
Is Vp Np
Where Ns is called the turns ratio.
Np
11.2 Transformer Losses
i. Copper or heat loss:- Energy is lost in the form of heat. This is reduced by
using copper for the winding and choices of the diameter are taken into
consideration.
ii. Hysteresis loss:- This happens in the transformer core, since the core is taken
through a cycle of magnetization during each ac cycle. The loss is dependent on
the area of the hysteresis loop. This loss is reduced by using an alloy of silicon
and iron for core laminations so that a very small area of hysteresis loop is
obtained. Large area of coil is used.
iii. Eddy current loss:- Magnetic flux induces current in the core, referred to as
eddy currents, thereby heating up the core. This loss is minimized by increasing
the resistance of the core by the lamination of the iron core.
iv. Magnetic leakage:- The magnetic flux produced by the current in the cores is
not confined to the laminated parts and as such, there is magnetic leakage,
which increases with the current in the coil and load on the transformer. It is
reduced by efficient core design.

11.3 Uses of Transformer

i. Used in stepping up or down an alternating voltage.
ii. Used in electronic circuit in high fidelity sound production.
iii. Used with ignition coils.
iv. Used in very large transmissions of alternating voltages or currents.

11.4 Principle of Operation of an Induction Coil

It is devices for getting a high dc voltage form a low one. It works with the same
principle as a transformer. The apparatus Fig. 4.10 consists of few turns of primary thick
coil wound on an insulated soft iron core to prevent energy or eddy current loss. The
many secondary coils are wound on top of the primary coil with thousands of turns of
the wire. The primary coil is connected to a make-and-brake device and to the battery
while the secondary coil is connected to an adjustable spark gap.
When the key is closed, the soft iron gets magnetized and is attracted towards the soft
iron wires thereby causing a brake in the system at the point A. At this juncture the core
becomes demagnetized and the soft iron armature is pulled back by the spring so that
contact is re-established. As the contact is repeatedly made and broken in the primary
circuit, changes of magnetic flux take place and produces emf in the secondary coil.
Because of much larger number of turns in the secondary coil compared with the
primary coil, a very large emf is induced in the secondary coil which is sufficient to
cause a spark to jumpAdjustable
across the spark gap.
spark gap

Soft iron armature

Adjustable
A screw

Primary coil

Secondary coil Capacitor

Battery Make-and-break device
Key

Soft iron wires or core

INDUCTION COIL

11.5 Uses of the Capacitor in an Induction Coil

i. To prevent sparking at the platinum contacts.
ii. To prevent wastage of charges.
i. To promote rapid decay of magnetic flux at the break of the primary circuit.
ii. It helps to increase secondary emf.
iii. It is used to prevent wasting away of the make-and-break contacts

11.6 Uses of Induction Coil

i. In coil ignition system of cars.
ii. Operation of X-ray tube.
i. In investigation of high voltages.
ii. Study of electric discharge through gases.
iii. In most radio sets.
 WEEK 12
12.0 A.C Circuits
12.1 Introduction
In a.c dynamo, the induced electromotive force is found to be of the form
E = Eo sin wt
Where E is the instantaneous electromotive force
Eo is the maximum or peak electromotive force
 is the angular speed related to the frequency by  = 20f.
A graph of e:m.f E against time t gives the graph shown in the figure 12.1. A graph of
current I against time give a similar graph.
E
EO
Peak
t

1 Cycle
Fig. 12.1: EMF against time

If an alternating current is passed through moving coil instrument, the pointer remains
steady or at best vibrates at the frequency of the a.c (50 times per second). For this instrument,
the current I, is directly proportional to the deflection , of the pointer,.
Therefore the deflection  reverses with the direction of the current I. for an a.c,
instrument must be such that when current flows in either direction, the pointer deflects the same
way, i.e a square law deflection.
  I2 is required.
Hence we can use:
(i) Moving iron instrument is which the deflection is proportion to the average force of
repulsion between two magnetized rods. The magnetisation of the rods at any instant
is approximately proportion to the square of the current. Point deflection is therefore
proportion to the average value of the square of the current.
 (ii) Hot – wire instrument – another square law instrument in which a.c flowing through a
resistance wire, heats up the wire and it sags. This movement is taken up by a second
wire attached to a spring pointer. The deflection of the pointer is roughly proportion
to the average rate at which heat is developed in the resistance wire.
Note: Square law instrument have non-uniform scales compound with moving coil
instruments, with linear scale.
The following terms are associated with a.c circuits.
1. Cycle: An alternating current emf caries pemodially with time. One complete alternation
is called a cycle.
2. Frequency: This is the number of cycles or complete oscillations in one second. It is
measured in Herts (H2).
3. Period: This is the duration of one cycle, measure in second. In general, the frequency F
= 1/T
4. Phase : The phase angle between two oscillations is the fraction of a cycles by which
one oscillation is behind the other.
5. Peak value: The peak value of an a.c is the maximum current from the zero or
equilibrium level as shown in the graph above.

12.2 Expression for alternating current and voltage

The all general expression for an alternating current or voltage is given by
I = Io sin (t + ) and
E = Eo sin (t + )
Where I = instantaneous current
Io = Peak or maximum current
 = Phase angle
E = instantaneous electromotive force
Eo = Peak or maximum emf
 = angular speed related to the frequency of the alternation by  = 2f.
12.3 Root Mean Square (r.m.s) Values
The values of an alternating current (and e.m.f) varies from one instant to the next and the
problem arises of what value we should take to measure it. The average value over a complete
cycle is zero. The peak value is a possibility. However the root-mean-square (r.m.s) value is
chosen because by using it many calculations can be done as the would be for direct currents.
The root mean square value of an alternating current (also called the effective value) is
the steady direct current which converts electrical energy to other forms of energy in a given
resistance at the same rate as the a.c or
The root-mean-square value of an alternating current is the square root of the mean value
of the square of the current over a complete cycle. The r.m.s, current is numerically equal to the
steady direct current which would dissipate energy at the same rate as the alternating a.c when
applied across a given rate resistance.
Power dissipated by direct current P = Ia2 R
Where Id is the direct current and R is the resistance. By our definition, it means that kin
a.c circuit,
P = average value of (Ir2 R) - (2)
= R x average value of (I2) since R is constant.
From equation (1) we have
Ir2 R = R x average value of (I2)
Ir2 = average value of (I2) = mean square current.

Fig. 12.3: Root mean square value

The figure above shows the variation of I for a.c and hence I2 variation. The values are positive
in both the positive and negative half cycles. It is also seen that the graph of I2 is symmetrical;
the mean or average value of I2 is I2m, where Im is the peak value of the current.
The root-mean-square (r.m.s) value of current is thus given as.
Irms = I20 = I0 0.707 Io
2
If r.m.s Irms is known, the peak value Im can be calculated from
 Io = 2 Irms
In Nigeria a.c mains supply is 220 V (rms). Therefore peak or maximum value = 2 x
220 = 310V
Thus no appliance which cannot withstand 310V should be connected to our a.c mains.
 WEEK 13
13.0 Numerical Examples
1. An a.c source gives a peak voltage and current of 200V, 4A respectively. Calculate the
r.m.s values of these qualities.
Solution
The rms voltage is given by the expression
Vrrms = Vo where Vo is the peak maximum value = 200 V
2
 Vrms = 200 = 141.42 V
2
Also
Irms = Io where Io peak or maximum value = 4A
 Irms = 4 = 2.83 A
2
2. The e.m.f produced by a generator has the form
E = 4V sin (100 H2) t. considering this emf what is (a) the peak emf (b) the r.m.s emf (c)
the generator supply when corrected to a 20 resistor?

Solution
a. peak comparing E = Eo sin wt = Eo sin 2ft with 4 V sin (100 H2) t,
peak emf = 4V.
b. the rms emf is related to the peak emf by
Erms = Eo
2
Where Eo is the peak value = 4V

 Erms = 4V
2
= 2.83V
c. comparing E = Eo sin 20ft with the given expression E = 4V sin (100) t,
100  t = 2 f t
 2f = 100
Or f = 100 = 50 H2
 2
d. Io = ? R = 10
Using E = Eo sin 2 f t, and dividing both sides by R, we get
E = Eo sin 2 f , where E = I the
R R R
Instantaneous current and Eo = Io the peak current
 Io = Eo = 4 = 0.4A
R 10
 WEEK 14
14.0 A.C through a resistor
Consider on instantaneous alternating voltage V given by
V = Vo sin wt = pt – (1)
Where Vo is its maximum or peak valve and w = 2f is the angular speed of frequency F. let the
voltage be passed through an external resistance R. The instantaneous current is then obtained
using the ohms law
I = V at any instant
R
= Vo sin wt = Vo sin 2 f t - (2)
R R
The above expression can be written as
I = Io sin 2 f t - (3)
Where the peak current Io = Vo
R
Comparing equation (1) and equation (3), the voltage and the current are in phase as
shown in the graph below. This means the voltage and current reach the resistance in ohms
offered to the flow of the alternating current the is given by
R = Vo
Io
14.1 AC through a capacity
If a 100mf capacity is connected in series with a 2.5v 0.3 lamp and 2v d.c supply as
shown in fig(a) below, the lamp as expected does not light. Direct current cannot flow through a
capacitor because of the insulating medium between the plates.
The a.c is apparently flowing through the capacity. In fact the plates of the capacitor is
being charged, discharged, charged in the opposite direction and discharged again, fifty times per
second (the frequency of the a.c) and the charging and discharging currents flowing through the
lamp light it. No current actually passes through the capacitor (since its plates are separated by
an insulator) but it appears to do so. A current would certainly be recorded by an a.c millimeter.
 1000 F
- 1000 F +

2V 2.5v
0.3A
2.5v
0.3A

Fig. 14.1a: D.C. Flow through a lamp

Fig. 14.1b: A.C. through a lamp

When an alternating voltage is passed through the capacitor, it is observed that the current leads
the potential difference p.d, across it by one-quarter of a cycle. i.e the current reaches its
maximum valve one-quarter of a cycle before the p.d reaches its peak valves as shown in figure
below.
Let a p.d V be applied across a capacitance C and lat its valve at time t be given by
V = Vo sin t
Where Vo is its peak valve and w = 2 f where f is the frequency of the supply. The
charge Q on the capacitance at time t is.
Q = CV
 Q = CV
I = rate of change of Q with t. i.e
I = dQ refore I at any instant is the gradient of the Q – t graph.
I = d (CV) = C dv
dt dt
I = C d (Vo sin t)
dt
= CVo d (sin t)
dt
 I = cVo Cost
The current through C (a Cosine function) this leads the applied p.d (a sine function) by
one quarter of a cycle  or 900
2
i.e cost = sin (wt + 900)
 I cVocost = cVo sin (t + 900)
We can also write
I = Io cost
Where Io is the peak current and is given by
 Io = cVo
 Vo = 1
Io c
But Vrms = Vo
Irms Io
 Vrms = 1 = 1
c 2fc

The expression resembles V = R which define resistance, ½fc replacing R. The quantity
1 or 1 is taken as a measure of the opposition of a capacitor to alternating current and is called
the capacitive reactance Xc. Hence

Xc = Vrrms = 1 = 1
Irms c 2fC

The ohm is the unit of Xc if the unit of F is S-1 (hertz) and that of C farads. Electrical
power is not dissipated in a reaction.

14.2 AC Through an Inductor

When a.c flows through a coil of conducting wire, with appreciable self inductance L
shown in the fig below its valve will be less than would flow through a non-inductive coil. This
is because from the above expression, for a given frequency Xc  1 ;
c
and for a given capacitor X Xc  1 . Where f is the frequency the figures below show the
f
variation of Xc with capacitance C and Xc with frequency of the self inductance of the coil
which oppose changes of current.
 XC XC

f C
Fig. 14.2a: Relation between XC and f Fig. 14.2b: Relation between XC and C

Let I be the current at any instant, therefore I = Io sin wt

where Io is the peak valve. If L is the inductance of the coil,
the changing
V
Fig. 14.3: Flow of a.c. Through a coil

Current sets up a back emf in the coil of magnitude

= - L dI
Dt
To maintain the current, the applied supply voltage must be equal to the back emf.
 V = - L dI
dt
The valves of Id are the gradients of the I – t graph shown in the figure below.
dt

Fig. 14.4: Phase difference between current and voltage in an inductor

At O, gradient is maximum; therefore voltage at O is Vo from O to A; gradient decreases
to zero; so voltage decreases from P to Q.
From A to B; gradient is negative so voltage decreases long
QR
We thus see that voltage leads the current by a phase angle of 900
Now since I = Io sin wt = sin2fc
V = - L dI
dt
= -L d (Io sin 2fc)
dt
= - 2fL Io cost
Note that cos t = sin (t + 900)
 V = co L Io sin (t + 900)
The above expression shows that the voltage leads the current by a phase angle of 900.
We can write
V = Vo cos t
Where Vo is the peak valve of the supplied potential difference and is given by
Vo = L To
 Vrms = Vo = L = 2fL
Irms Io

The quantity WL or 2FL is called the inductive reaction XL of the inductor. XL is ohms
when f is in Hertz and L is in henrys (H)
From the expression for induction reactance XL is directly proportional to the inductance
L for a given frequency and XL is directly proportional to the frequency for a given inductance.
The figures shown below shows the various reactance with frequency and the variation of the
reactance with inductance L.
XL
XL

L = constant
F = constant

F
L
Fig. 14.5a: Variation of reactance with frequency Fig. 14.5b: Variation of reactance with inductance L
Summary
i. In pure resistance, the voltage and current are in phase.

V
I

ii. In a pure inductor of inductance L, the voltage leads the current by a phase angle of
900.

VL

iii. In a pure capacity C, the current leads the voltage by a phase angle of 900.
I

VC
 WEEK 15
15.0 Series Circuit
15.1 Resistance and Capacitance
Suppose an alternating p.d V is applied across a resistance R and a capacitance C in
series as shown in the figure (a). The same current I flows through each compound and so the
reference vector will be that representing the current I. The p.d VR across R is in phase with I,
and Vc that across C, lags on I by 900. The vector diagram is as shown in figure(b).
VR
I

VC
C

R VR VC

Fig. 15.1a: Flow of A.C through and R.C circuit

The applied voltage V is the vector sum of VR and Vc

i.e V2 = Vc2 + VR2
Where Vc = IXc and VR = IR
 V2 = I2 Xc2 + I2 R2
= I2 (Xc2 + R2)
Therefore
I= V2 - (1)
Xc2 + R2

It is seen from fig(b) that I leads V by an angle  given by

tan = Vc = IXc = Xc
VR IR R
Also from (1) it follows that the impedance Z of the C – R series circuit is
Z = V = (Xc2 + R2)
15.2 Resistance and Inductance
The analysis is similar to R C circuit but in this case the p.d V2 across L leads on the
current I and the p.d VR across R is again in phase with I as shown in fig. 15.2a. As before the
applied p.d V equals the vector sum of VL and VL and VR . from fig. 15.2b.
V2 = VL2 + VR2
= I2 XL2 + I2 R2
= I2 (XL2 + R2)
 I= V - (1)
(XL2 + R2)

VL

V
VL VL
VR

I
Fig. 15.2a: R-L series circuit
VR
Fig. 15.2b: Phase relationship between I and VL

We see from fig. 15.2 (b) that the current I lags the applied voltage V by an angle  given by
tan  = VL = IXL = XL
VR IR R
Also from (1), the ‘opposition’ Z to the flow of an alternating current in ohms is given by
Z = V = XL2 + R2
This opposition is known as the impedance of the circuit
15.3 Resistance induction and capacitance
An RLC series circuit is shown in the figure (5.8.9) below. The voltage VL leads the
reference current vector I by a phase angle of 900, VC are therefore 1800 out of phase i.e they are
in antiphase. If VL is greater than VC their resultant (VL - VC) is in the direction of VL as shown in
fig (5.8.b).

VL
VR VL VC
R L C VL-VC V
VL-VC
VR

I VR
VC Fig. 15.3c: Resultant vector in an RLC series circuit
Fig. 15.3b: Phase relationship in an
RLC series circuit

The vector sum

V of the applied p.d is obtained from fig. 15.3.C and is given by
Fig. 15.3a: Flow of A.C. through an RLC series circuit
 V2 = (VL - VC)2 + VR2
= (IXL - IXC)2 + I2 R
= I2 (XL - XC)2 + I2 R2
= I2 {(XL - XC)2 + R2}
 V = I (XL - XC)2 + R2

From fig (5.8.C) we see that I lags on V by an angle given by

tan  = VL - VC = IXL - IXC = XL - XC
VR IR R
The impedance Z, the opposition to the flow of an a.c is given by
Z = V = (XL - XC)2

15.4 Resonance in an R-L-C circuit

The impedance Z = (XL - XC)2 + R2

Varies with frequency of applied voltage because of XL = L = 2fL and XC = I =

c 2fL
So XL  f ; XC  I ; R is independent of frequency f.
f
At a certain frequency Fo called the resonant frequency the impedance has its minimum
value and it is purely resistive. This implies that XL = XC, at resonance, the circuit records a
maximum current. The current and the voltage are in phase.
Since the condition for resonance is XL = XC
Where XL = L = 2fL and XC = I = I
c 2fL
Then 2fL = I
2fL
I
F2 = 42 LC
 F = I I I
42 LC 2 LC
Figure (15.4) shows the variation of Z, XL and XC in an RLC series circuit as the frequency is
increased.

Fig. 15.4: Variation of Z, XL, XC and R in an RLC series circuit

Since I = V, the current variation is as shown in fig. (15.5)
Z

Fig. 15.5: Variation of I with frequency f

15.5 Quality factor
The quality factor of an a.c circuit is the measure of the sharpness of a turned circuit. It is
given e expression, quality factor,
Q = L0
R
Where o = I
LC

High valve of quality factor implies sharp selectivity

Also
Q= 2 x maximum energy contained in a system
Average energy dissipated per oscillation
= o
2 1
= fo
F2 – F1
As shown in fig. 15.5 above.

15.6 Numerical Examples

1. What is the inductive reactance of a coil of 10H when connected to a 50Hz a.c source.
Solution
Inductive reactance XL = L = 2fL
= 2 x 50 x 10 
= 3141.6 
2. Calculate the capacitive reactance of a 30F capacitor connected to a 50Hz a.c circuit.
Solution
Capacitance reactance XC = I = I
c 2fc
= 1
2 x 50 x 30x10-6
= 106.1

3. An inductor of 2H is connected in series with a capacitor of capacitance 10F and a

resistor 50. If all these are connected to an a.c source of frequency 50H2 and emf 220V.
Calculate (a) the inductive reactance (b) capacitive reactance (c) reactance (d) total
impedance of the circuit and (e) the current through the circuit.
Solution
(a) Inductive reactance XL = 2fL
= 2 x 50 x 2
= 628.3
(b) Capacitive reactance XC = I = I
c 2fc

= I
2 x 50 x 10 x 10-6
= 310.3
(c) Reactance X = (XL - XC)2

= (628.3 – 310.3)2

= 628.3 – 310.3
= 318

(d) Total impedance Z = (XL - XC)2 + R2

= (628.3 – 310.3)2 + 502

= 103.624
= 1.04 x 105
(e) The current through the circuit is
I=V = 220
Z 1.04 x 105
= 2.12 x 10-3A.
Assignment
A resistor 40 is connected in series to a capacitor, 15f and an inductor of 8H to an ac source
of frequency 60H2 and voltage 200V. calculate.
(a) Inductive reactance (b) Capacitive reactance
(c) reactance (d) impedance and (e) current through the circuit.