UNIT-8 Lattices & Boolean Algebra

8.1 Basics of POSET, Hasse Diagram, Elements of POSET

8.2 Definition, Properties of Lattices & Example
8.3 Special Lattices, Example.
8.4 Boolean algebra definition and examples, Boolean functions

8.1 Basics of POSET, Hasse Diagram, Elements of POSET

Partially Ordered Sets

Consider a relation R on a set S satisfying the following properties:

1. R is reflexive, i.e., xRx for every x ∈ S.

2. R is antisymmetric, i.e., if xRy and yRx, then x = y.

3. R is transitive, i.e., xRy and yRz, then xRz.

Then R is called a partial order relation, and the set S together with partial
order is called a partially order set or POSET and is denoted by (S, ≤).

Example:

1. The set N of natural numbers form a poset under the relation '≤'
because firstly x ≤ x, secondly, if x ≤ y and y ≤ x, then we have x = y
and lastly if x ≤ y and y ≤ z, it implies x ≤ z for all x, y, z ∈ N.

2. The set N of natural numbers under divisibility i.e., 'x divides y' forms
a poset because x/x for every x ∈ N. Also if x/y and y/x, we have x =
y. Again if x/y, y/z we have x/z, for every x, y, z ∈ N.

3. Consider a set S = {1, 2} and power set of S is P(S). The relation of

set inclusion ⊆ is a partial order. Since, for any sets A, B, C in P (S),
firstly we have A ⊆ A, secondly, if A ⊆B and B⊆A, then we have A = B.
Lastly, if A ⊆B and B ⊆C,then A⊆C. Hence, (P(S), ⊆) is a poset.
 Elements of POSET:

1. Maximal Element: An element a ∈ A is called a maximal element of A

if there is no element in c in A such that a ≤ c.
2. Minimal Element: An element b ∈ A is called a minimal element of A
if there is no element in c in A such that c ≤ b.

Example: Determine all the maximal and minimal elements of the poset
whose Hasse diagram is shown in fig:

Solution: The maximal elements are b and f.

The minimal elements are d and e.

Comparable Elements:

Consider an ordered set A. Two elements a and b of set A are called

comparable if

a≤b or b≤a
R R

Non-Comparable Elements:

Consider an ordered set A. Two elements a and b of set A are called non-
comparable if neither a ≤ b nor b ≤ a.

Example: Consider A = {1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15, 30} is ordered by divisibility.

Determine all the comparable and non-comparable pairs of elements of A.

Solution: The comparable pairs of elements of A are:

{1, 2}, {1, 3}, {1, 5}, {1, 6}, {1, 10}, {1, 15}, {1, 30}
{2, 6}, {2, 10}, {2, 30}
{3, 6}, {3, 15}, {3, 30}
{5, 10}, {5, 15}, {5, 30}
{6, 30}, {10, 30}, {15, 30}
The non-comparable pair of elements of A are:
{2, 3}, {2, 5}, {2, 15}
{3, 5}, {3, 10}, {5, 6}, {6, 10}, {6, 15}, {10, 15}

Linearly Ordered Set:

Consider an ordered set A. The set A is called linearly ordered set or totally
ordered set, if every pair of elements in A is comparable.

Example: The set of positive integers I+ with the usual order ≤ is a linearly
ordered set.

Hasse Diagram

It is a useful tool, which completely describes the associated partial order.

Therefore, it is also called an ordering diagram. It is very easy to convert a
directed graph of a relation on a set A to an equivalent Hasse diagram.
Therefore, while drawing a Hasse diagram following points must be
remembered.

1. The vertices in the Hasse diagram are denoted by points rather than
by circles.
2. Since a partial order is reflexive, hence each vertex of A must be
related to itself, so the edges from a vertex to itself are deleted in
Hasse diagram.
3. Since a partial order is transitive, hence whenever aRb, bRc, we have
aRc. Eliminate all edges that are implied by the transitive property in
Hasse diagram, i.e., Delete edge from a to c but retain the other two
edges.
4. If a vertex 'a' is connected to vertex 'b' by an edge, i.e., aRb, then the
vertex 'b' appears above vertex 'a'. Therefore, the arrow may be
omitted from the edges in the Hasse diagram.

The Hasse diagram is much simpler than the directed graph of the
partial order.

Example: Consider the set A = {4, 5, 6, 7}. Let R be the relation ≤

on A. Draw the directed graph and the Hasse diagram of R.

Solution: The relation ≤ on the set A is given by

R = {{4, 5}, {4, 6}, {4, 7}, {5, 6}, {5, 7}, {6, 7}, {4, 4}, {5, 5}, {6, 6},
{7, 7}}

The directed graph of the relation R is as shown in fig:

To draw the Hasse diagram of partial order, apply the following points:

1. Delete all edges implied by reflexive property i.e.

(4, 4), (5, 5), (6, 6), (7, 7)
2. Delete all edges implied by transitive property i.e.
(4, 7), (5, 7), (4, 6)
3. Replace the circles representing the vertices by dots.
4. Omit the arrows.

The Hasse diagram is as shown in fig:

Least Upper Bound (SUPREMUM):

Let A be a subset of a partially ordered set S. An element M in S is called an

upper bound of A if M succeeds every element of A, i.e. if, for every x in A,
we have x <=M

If an upper bound of A precedes every other upper bound of A, then it is

called the supremum of A and is denoted by Sup (A)
Greatest Lower Bound (INFIMUM):

An element m in a poset S is called a lower bound of a subset A of S if m

precedes every element of A, i.e. if, for every y in A, we have m <=y

If a lower bound of A succeeds every other lower bound of A, then it is called

the infimum of A and is denoted by Inf (A)

Example: Determine the least upper bound and greatest lower bound of B
= {a, b, c} if they exist, of the poset whose Hasse diagram is shown in fig:

Solution: The least upper bound is c. The greatest lower bound is k.

8.2 Definition, Properties of Lattices & Example

Lattices:

Let L be a non-empty set closed under two binary operations called meet
and join, denoted by ∧ and ∨. Then L is called a lattice if the following
axioms hold where a, b, c are elements in L:

1) Commutative Law: -
(a) a ∧ b = b ∧ a (b) a ∨ b = b ∨ a

2) Associative Law:-
(a) (a ∧ b)∧ c = a ∧(b∧ c) (b) (a ∨ b) ∨ c = a ∨ (b ∨ c)

3) Absorption Law: -
(a) a ∧ ( a ∨ b) = a (b) a ∨ ( a ∧ b) = a
8.3 Special Lattices, Example.

Bounded Lattices:

A lattice L is called a bounded lattice if it has greatest element 1 and a least

element 0.

Example:

1. The power set P(S) of the set S under the operations of intersection
and union is a bounded lattice since ∅ is the least element of P(S) and
the set S is the greatest element of P(S).
2. The set of +ve integer I+ under the usual order of ≤ is not a bounded
lattice since it has a least element 1 but the greatest element does not
exist.

Properties of Bounded Lattices:

If L is a bounded lattice, then for any element a ∈ L, we have the following

identities:

1. a ∨ 1 = 1
2. a ∧1= a
3. a ∨0=a
4. a ∧0=0

Theorem: Prove that every finite lattice L = {a1,a2,a3....an} is bounded.

Proof: We have given the finite lattice:

L = {a1,a2,a3....an}

Thus, the greatest element of Lattices L is a1∨ a2∨ a3∨....∨an.

Also, the least element of lattice L is a1∧ a2∧a3∧....∧an.

Since, the greatest and least elements exist for every finite lattice. Hence, L
is bounded.
Sub-Lattices:

Consider a non-empty subset L1 of a lattice L. Then L1 is called a sub-lattice

of L if L1 itself is a lattice i.e., the operation of L i.e., a ∨ b ∈ L1 and a ∧ b ∈
L1 whenever a ∈ L1 and b ∈ L1.

Example: Consider the lattice of all +ve integers I+ under the operation of
divisibility. The lattice Dn of all divisors of n > 1 is a sub-lattice of I+.

Determine all the sub-lattices of D30 that contain at least four elements,
D30={1,2,3,5,6,10,15,30}.

Solution: The sub-lattices of D30 that contain at least four elements are as
follows:

1. {1, 2, 6, 30} 2. {1, 2, 3, 30}

3. {1, 5, 15, 30} 4. {1, 3, 6, 30}
5. {1, 5, 10, 30} 6. {1, 3, 15, 30}
7. {2, 6, 10, 30}

Isomorphic Lattices:

Two lattices L1 and L2 are called isomorphic lattices if there is a bijection

from L1 to L2 i.e., f: L1⟶ L2, such that f (a ∧ b) =f(a)∧ f(b) and f (a ∨ b) = f
(a) ∨ f (b)

Example: Determine whether the lattices shown in fig are isomorphic.

Solution: The lattices shown in fig are isomorphic. Consider the mapping f
= {(a, 1), (b, 2), (c, 3), (d, 4)}.For example f (b ∧ c) = f (a) = 1. Also, we
have f (b) ∧ f(c) = 2 ∧ 3 = 1
Distributive Lattice:

A lattice L is called distributive lattice if for any elements a, b and c of L,it

satisfies following distributive properties:

1. a ∧ (b ∨ c) = (a ∧ b) ∨ (a ∧ c)
2. a ∨ (b ∧ c) = (a ∨ b) ∧ (a ∨ c)

If the lattice L does not satisfies the above properties, it is called a non-
distributive lattice.

Example:

1. The power set P (S) of the set S under the operation of intersection
and union is a distributive function. Since,a ∩ (b ∪ c) = (a ∩ b) ∪ (a ∩
c) and, also a ∪ (b ∩ c) = (a ∪ b) ∩ (a ∪c) for any sets a, b and c of
P(S).
2. The lattice shown in fig II is a distributive. Since, it satisfies the
distributive properties for all ordered triples which are taken from 1, 2,
3, and 4.

Complements and complemented lattices:

Let L be a bounded lattice with lower bound o and upper bound I. Let a be
an element if L. An element x in L is called a complement of a if a ∨ x = I
and a ∧ x = 0

A lattice L is said to be complemented if L is bounded and every element in L

has a complement.

Example: Determine the complement of a and c in fig:

Solution: The complement of a is d. Since, a ∨ d = 1 and a ∧ d = 0 The
complement of c does not exist. Since, there does not exist any element c
such that c ∨ c'=1 and c ∧ c'= 0.

Modular Lattice:

A lattice (L, ∧,∨) is called a modular lattice if a ∨ (b ∧ c) = (a ∨ b) ∧ c

whenever a ≤ c.

Direct Product of Lattices:

Let (L1 ∨1 ∧1)and (L2 ∨2 ∧2) be two lattices. Then (L, ∧,∨) is the direct product
of lattices, where L = L1 x L2 in which the binary operation ∨(join) and
∧(meet) on L are such that for any (a1,b1)and (a2,b2) in L. (a1,b1)∨(
a2,b2 )=(a1 ∨1 a2,b1 ∨2 b2) and (a1,b1) ∧ ( a2,b2 )=(a1 ∧1 a2,b1 ∧2 b2).

Example: Consider a lattice (L, ≤) as shown in fig. where L = {1, 2}.

Determine the lattices (L2, ≤), where L2=L x L.

Solution: The lattice (L2, ≤) is shown in fig:

8.4 Boolean algebra definition and examples, Boolean functions

Boolean Algebra:

A complemented distributive lattice is known as a Boolean Algebra. It is

denoted by (B, ∧,∨,',0,1), where B is a set on which two binary operations ∧
(*) and ∨(+) and a unary operation (complement) are defined. Here 0 and 1
are two distinct elements of B. Since (B,∧,∨) is a complemented distributive
lattice, therefore each element of B has a unique complement.

Properties of Boolean Algebra:

1. Commutative Properties:

(i)a+b = b+a
(ii)a*b=b *a

2. Distributive Properties

(i) a+(b*c)=(a+b)*(a+c)
(ii)a*(b+c)=(a*b)+(a*c)

3. Identity Properties

(i) a+0=a
(ii) a *1=a

4. Complemented Laws:

(i) a+a'=1
(ii)a * a'=0
Sub-Algebra:

Consider a Boolean-Algebra (B, *, +,', 0,1) and let A ⊆ B. Then (A,*, +,',
0,1) is called a sub-algebra or Sub-Boolean Algebra of B if A itself is a
Boolean Algebra i.e., A contains the elements 0 and 1 and is closed under
the operations *, + and '.

Example: Consider the Boolean algebra D70 whose Hasse diagram is shown
in fig:

Clearly, A= {1, 7, 10, 70} and B = {1, 2, 35, 70} is a sub-algebra of D70.
Since both A and B are closed under operation ∧,∨and '.

Isomorphic-Boolean Algebras:

Two Boolean algebras B and B1 are called isomorphic if there is a one to one
correspondence f: B⟶B1 which preserves the three operations +,* and ' for
any elements a, b in B i.e.,

f(a+b)=f(a)+f(b)
f (a*b)=f(a)*f(b) and f(a')=f(a)'.

Example: The following are two distinct Boolean algebras with two elements
which are isomorphic.
1.The first one is a Boolean Algebra that is derived from a power set P(S)
under ⊆ (set inclusion),i.e., let S = {a}, then B = {P(S), ∪,∩,'} is a Boolean
algebra with two elements P(S) = {∅,{a}}.

2. The second one is a Boolean algebra {B, ∨,∧,'} with two elements 1 and p
{here p is a prime number} under operation divides i.e., let B = {1, p}. So,
we have 1 ∧ p = 1 and 1 ∨ p = p also 1'=p and p'=1.

The table shows all the basic properties of a Boolean algebra (B, *, +, ', 0,
1) for any elements a, b, c belongs to B. The greatest and least elements of
B are denoted by 1 and 0 respectively.

1. a ≤b iff a+b=b 2. a ≤b iff a * b = a

3. Idempotent Laws 4. Commutative Property
(i)a+b=a (i)a+b=b+a
(ii) a * a = a (ii)a*b=b*a
5. Associative Property 6. Absorption Laws
(i)a+(b+c)=(a+b)+c (i)a+(a*b)=a
(ii)a*(b*c)=(a*b)*c (ii)a*(a+b)=a
7. Identity Laws 8. Null Laws
(i) a+0=a (i)a*0=0
(ii) a*1=a (ii)a+1=1
9. Distributive Laws 10. Complement Laws
(i)a*(b+c)=(a*b)+(a*c) (i)0'=1
(ii) a+(b*c) = (a+b)*(a+c) (ii)1'=0
(iii)a+a'=1
(iv)a*a'=0
11. Involution Law 12.De Morgan's Laws
(a')'=a (i)(a *b)'=(a' +b')
(ii) (a+b)'=(a' *b')
 Boolean Functions:

Consider the Boolean algebra (B, ∨,∧,',0,1). A function from A''to A is called
a Boolean Function if a Boolean Expression of n variables can specify it. For
the two-valued Boolean algebra, any function from [0, 1]n to [0, 1] is a
Boolean function.

Boolean expression

A Boolean expression always produces a Boolean value. A Boolean

expression is composed of a combination of the Boolean constants (True or
False), Boolean variables and logical connectives. Each Boolean expression
represents a Boolean function.

Canonical Forms:

There are two types of canonical forms:

1. Disjunctive Normal Forms or Sum of Products or (SOP).

2. Conjunctive Normal Forms or Products of Sums or (POS).

Disjunctive Normal Forms or Sum of Products or (SOP):

A Boolean expression over ({0, 1}, ∨,∧,') is said to be in disjunctive normal form if it
is a join of minterms

Example: (x1'∧x2'∧x3')∨( x1'∧x2∧x3' )∨(x1∧x2∧x3) is a Boolean expression in

disjunctive normal form.

Since there are three min-terms x1'∧x2'∧x3',x1'∧x2∧x3 and x1∧x2∧x3.

Max-term: A Boolean Expression of n variables x1,x2,....xnis said to be a

max-term if it is of the form x1∨x2∨..........∨xn where xi is used to denote xi or
xi'.
Conjunctive Normal Forms or Products of Sums or (POS):

A Boolean expression over ({0, 1}, ∨,∧,') is said to be in a disjunctive

normal form if it is a meet of max-terms

Example:

(x1∨x2∨x3)∧( x1∨x2∨x3 )∧(x1∨x2∨x3 )∧(x1'∨x2∨x3' )∧(x1'∧x2'∧x3) is a Boolean

expression in conjunctive normal form consisting of five max-terms.

Obtaining A Disjunctive Normal Form:

Consider a function from {0, 1}n to {0, 1}. A Boolean expression can be
obtained in disjunctive normal forms corresponding to this function by
having a min-term corresponding to each ordered n-tuples of 0's and 1's for
which the value of the function is 1.

Obtaining A Conjunctive Normal Form:

Consider a function from {0, 1}n to {0, 1}. A Boolean expression can be
obtained in conjunctive normal forms corresponding to this function by
having a max-term corresponding to each ordered n-tuples of 0's and 1's for
which the value of function is0.

Example: Express the following function in

Disjunctive Normal Form & Conjunctive Normal Form

f f

(0, 0, 0) 1 (1, 0, 0) 0

(0, 0, 1) 0 (1, 0, 1) 1

(0, 1, 0) 1 (1, 1, 0) 0

(0, 1, 1) 0 (1, 1, 1) 1

Solution: (x1'∧ x2' ∧ x3') ∨(x1'∧x2∧ x3' )∨(x1∧x2'∧x3 )∨(x1∧x2∧x3)

(x1'∨x2'∨x3')∧( x1'∨x2∨x3 )∧(x1∨x2'∨x3' )∧(x1∨x2∨x3')

Schematic or Graphical Representation of Boolean Expressions:

The Boolean expressions can be graphically represented by using logic

circuits. These logic circuits can be constructed using solid-state devices
called gates, which are capable of switching voltage levels. If x and y are
variables, then the basic expressions x ∧ y (AND), x ∨ y (OR) and x' (NOT)
are shown graphically as follows:

AND Gate: An AND gate receives inputs x and y and produces output
denoted x ∧ y, as shown in logic table

x y x∧ y

0 0 0

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 1

OR Gate: An OR gate receives inputs x and y and produces output denoted

x V y as shown in the logic table

x y xv y

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 1
NOT Gate: A NOT Gate receives input x and produces output y denoted x'
as shown in the logic table

x x'

0 1

1 0

Karnaugh Maps:

A Karnaugh map is a planar area subdivided into 2n equal cells each

representing a point for functions of n variables. Each variable x is used to
split the area into two equal halves in a different way, i.e., one for x and
other for x'. The cells corresponding to the arguments for which the function
has the value 1 contains 1.

Example1: When the number of variables n = 1, the karnaugh map is like

as shown in fig:
2. When the number of variables n =2, the karnaugh map is like as shown in
fig:

3. When the number of variables n =3, the karnaugh map is like as shown in fig:

Simplification of Boolean Functions using K-Map:

Boolean Functions can be simplified with k-map. It is based on the principle

of combining terms in adjacent cells. Two cells are said to be adjacent if they
differ in only one variable. In adjacent cells, one of the variables is the
same, whereas the other variable appears in the un-complemented form in
one and in the complemented form in the other cell.

Minimization of SOP Form:

The following algorithm can be used by which minimized expression can be

obtained:

1. Identify the ones which cannot be combined with any other ones
encircle them.
2. Identify the ones that can be combined in groups of two in only one
way and encircle them as groups.
3. Identify the ones that can be combined with three other ones, to make
a group of four adjacent ones, in only way and encircle them as
groups.
 4. Identify the ones that can be combined with seven other ones, to
make a group of eight adjacent ones, in only way and encircle them as
groups.
5. After identifying the essential groups of 2, 4 and 8 ones, if there still
remain some ones which have not been encircled then these are to be
combined with each other or with other already encircled ones, i.e., we
should connect the leftover ones in largest possible groups and in as
few grouping as possible.

Example1: Minimize the following Boolean Expression using k-map:

f(A, B) = A' B+BA

Solution: First of all draw the 2-variables k-map and insert 1's in the
corresponding cells as shown in fig:

The required minimized Boolean Expression is f=B.

Example2: Minimize the following Boolean Expression using k-map:

AB + A' B+BA'

Solution: Draw the two-variable k-map and insert 1's in the corresponding
cells as shown in fig:
The required minimized Boolean Expression is f=A+B.

Example3: Minimize the following Boolean Expression using k-map:

f(A, B, C) = AB' C+A' BC+AB+A' B' C

Solution: Draw the 3-variable k-map and insert 1's in the corresponding
cells as shown in fig:

The required minimized Boolean Expression is f=AB+C'

Minimisation of Boolean Functions not in Minterms/Max-terms:

One way to minimize such functions is to convert them into standard forms
i.e., SOP or POS, then make the k-map and obtain the minimized function.

Another way is to prepare the k-map using the following algorithm directly

1. Enter ones for min-terms and zeros for max-terms.

2. Enter a pair of one's/zeros for each of the terms with one variable less
than the total number of variables.
3. Enter four adjacent one's/zeros for terms with two variables less than
the total number of variables.
4. Repeat for other terms in a similar way.
Example: Minimize the four variable logic function

f (A, B, C, D) = A B C'D + A' BCD+A' B' C'+A' B' D'+AC'+AB' C+B'

Solution: The k-map is obtained by following way

(a)Enter 1 in the cell with A=1, B=1, C=0, D=1 corresponding to the min-
term A B C'D

(b) Enter 1 in the cell with A=0, B=1, C=1, D=1 corresponding to the min-
term A' BCD

(c) Enter 1's in the two cells with A=0, B=0, C=0 corresponding to the term
A' B' C'

(d) Enter 1's in the two cells with A=0, B=0, D=0 corresponding to the term
A' B' D'

(e) Enter 1's in the two cells with A=1, B=0, C=1 corresponding to the term
AB' C

(f) Enter 1's in the four cells with A=1,C=0 corresponding to the term AC'

(g) Enter 1's in the eight cells with B=0 corresponding to the term B'

The minimized expression is B'+ AC'+A' CD.