DEPARTMENT OF ECE RADAR SYSTEMS

LECTURE NOTES

ON
RADAR SYSTEMS
(2020 – 2021)

IV B. Tech I Semester (JNTUK-R16)

Mr. SK. JOHNSYDHA, Assistant Professor

RK COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi and affiliated to JNTUK, Kakinada)
Kethanakonda, Ibrahimpatnam (Md), Vijayawada – 521456
Phone No: 08659-282956/66, 9000956000; website: www.rkce.in

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

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SYLLABUS
UNIT I
BASICS OF RADAR: Introduction, Maximum Unambiguous Range, Simple form of Radar
Equation, Radar Block Diagram and Operation, Radar Frequencies and Applications,
Prediction of Range Performance, Minimum Detectable Signal, Receiver Noise, Modified
Radar Range Equation, Illustrative Problems.
RADAR EQUATION: SNR, Envelope Detector, False Alarm Time and Probability,
Integration of Radar Pulses, Radar Cross Section of Targets (simple targets - sphere, cone-
sphere), Transmitter Power, PRF and Range Ambiguities, System Losses (qualitative
treatment), Illustrative Problems.
UNIT II
CW AND FREQUENCY MODULATED RADAR: Doppler Effect, CW Radar – Block
Diagram, Isolation between Transmitter and Receiver, Non-zero IF Receiver, Receiver
Bandwidth Requirements, Applications of CW radar, Illustrative Problems.
FM-CW Radar: Range and Doppler Measurement, Block Diagram and Characteristics
(Approaching/ Receding Targets), FM-CW altimeter, Multiple Frequency CW Radar.
UNIT III
MTI AND PULSE DOPPLER RADAR: Introduction, Principle, MTI Radar with – Power
Amplifier Transmitter and Power Oscillator Transmitter, Delay Line Cancellers – Filter
Characteristics, Blind Speeds, Double Cancellation, and Staggered PRFs. Range Gated Doppler
Filters, MTI Radar Parameters, Limitations to MTI Performance, MTI versus Pulse Doppler
radar.
UNIT IV
TRACKING RADAR: Tracking with Radar, Sequential Lobing, Conical Scan, Monopulse
Tracking Radar – Amplitude Comparison Monopulse (one- and two coordinates), Phase
Comparison Monopulse, Tracking in Range, Acquisition and Scanning Patterns, Comparison
of Trackers.
UNIT V
DETECTION OF RADAR SIGNALS IN NOISE: Introduction, Matched Filter Receiver –
Response Characteristics and Derivation, Correlation Function and Cross-correlation Receiver,
Efficiency of Non-matched Filters, Matched Filter with Non-white Noise.
RADAR RECEIVERS: Noise Figure and Noise Temperature, Displays – types. Duplexers –
Branch type and Balanced type, Circulators as Duplexers. Phased Array Antennas – Basic
Concepts, Radiation Pattern, Beam Steering and Beam Width changes, Series versus Parallel
Feeds, Applications, Advantages and Limitations.

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UNIT I

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UNIT I

BASICS OF RADAR & RADAR EQUATION

INTRODUCTION

1. Radar is an acronym for Radio Detection and Ranging.

2. The term “radio” refers to the use of electromagnetic waves with wavelength in so
called radio wave portion of the spectrum, which covers a wide range from 104 Km to 1
cm.
3. It is a system used to detect, range (determine the distance) and map objects such as
aircraft and rain. Strong radio waves are transmitted, and a receiver listen for reflected
echoes.
4. By analyzing the reflected signal, the reflector can be located, and sometimes identified.
Although the amount of returned is tiny, radio signal can easily be detected and
amplified. It can operate in darkness, haze, fog, rain and show, it has ability to measure
distance with high accuracy in all-weather conditions.
5. The electronics principal on which radar operates is very similar to the principle of
sound wave reflection. If you shout in the direction of sound-reflecting object (like a
rocky canon or cave), you will hear an echo.
6. If you know the speed of sound in air, you can estimate the distance and general
direction of the object. The time required for a return echo can roughly converted in to
distance if the speed of sound is known.
7. The radio frequency energy is transmitted to and reflects from the reflecting object. A
small portion of the energy is reflected and return to the radar set. This returned energy
is called ECHO.
8. Radar uses electromagnetic energy pulses in the same way, as shown in figure 1.

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RANGE TO A TARGET

1. The most common radar waveform is a train of narrow, rectangular-shape pulses

modulating a sine wave carrier. The distance, or range, to the target is determined by
measuring the time TR taken by the pulse to travel to the target and return. Since
electromagnetic energy propagates at the speed of light c = 3 x 108 m/s, the range R is

2. R = CTR / 2
3. The factor 2 appears in the denominator because of the two-way propagation of radar.
With the range in kilometers or nautical miles, and TR in microseconds, Eq. above
becomes
1. R (Km) = 0.15 TR (us) or R (nmi) = 0.081 TR (us)

MAXIMUM UNAMBIGUOUS RANGE

1. Once the transmitted pulse is emitted by the radar, a sufficient length of time must
elapse to allow any echo signals to return and be detected before the next pulse may be
transmitted.
2. Therefore the rate at which the pulses may be transmitted is determined by the longest
range at which targets are expect
3. If the pulse repetition frequency is too high, echo signals from some targets might
arrive after the transmission of the next pulse, and ambiguities in measuring range
might result.
4. Echoes that arrive after the transmission of the next pulse are called second-time-around
or multiple-time-around echoes. Such an echo would appear to be at a much shorter
range than the actual and could be misleading if it were not known to be a second-time-
around echo.
5. The range beyond which targets appear as second-time-around echoes is called the
maximum unambiguous range and is given by
Runamb = cTP / 2 = c/2fp
where fp = pulse repetition frequency, in Hz.

RADAR RANGE EQUATION

1. The radar equation relates the range of a radar to the characteristics of the transmitter,
receiver, antenna, target, and environment. It is useful not just as a means for

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determining the maximum distance from the radar to the target, but it can serve both as
a tool for understanding radar operation and as a basis for radar design.
2. If the power of the radar transmitter is denoted by Pt, and if an isotropic antenna is used
(one which radiates uniformly in all directions), the power density (Watts per unit area)
at a distance R from the radar is equal to the transmitter power divided by the surface
area 4ΠR2 of an imaginary sphere of radius R, or
Power density at range R from an isotropic antenna = Pt / 4ΠR2

3. Radars employ directive antennas to channel, or direct, the radiated power Pt into some
particular direction. The gain G of an antenna is a measure of the increased power
radiated in the direction of the target as compared with the power that would have been
radiated from an isotropic antenna.
4. It may be defined as the ratio of the maximum radiation intensity from the subject
antenna to the radiation intensity from a lossless, isotropic antenna with the same power
input. (The radiation intensity is the power radiated per unit solid angle in a given
direction.) The power density at the target from an antenna with a transmitting gain G is
Power density at range R from a directive antenna = PtG / 4ΠR 2
5. The target intercepts a portion of the incident power and reradiates it in various
directions.
6. The measure of the amount of incident power intercepted by the target and reradiated
back in the direction of the radar is denoted as the radar cross section σ, and is defined
by the relation
Reradiated power density back at the radar = ( PtG / 4ΠR2 ) ( σ / 4ΠR2 )
7. The radar cross section σ has units of area. It is a characteristic of the particular target
and is a measure of its size as seen by the radar. The radar antenna captures a portion of
the echo power. If the effective area of the receiving antenna is denoted Ae, the power
Pr, received by the radar is;
Pr = ( PtG / 4ΠR2 ) ( σ / 4ΠR2 ) Ae
8. The maximum radar range Rmax is the distance beyond which the target cannot be
detected. It occurs when the received echo signal power P, just equals the minimum
detectable signal Smin,
Rmax = PtGσAe / (4Π)2Smin
9. This is the fundamental form of the radar equation. Note that the important antenna
parameters are the transmitting gain and the receiving effective area.

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10. Antenna theory gives the relationship between the transmitting gain and the receiving
effective area of an antenna as;
G = 4ΠAe / λ2
11. Since radars generally use the same antenna for both transmission and reception, Eq.
can be substituted into Eq. above, first for Ae, then for G, to give two other forms of the
radar equation;
Rmax = [ PtG2σ λ2 / (4Π)3Smin ]1/4
12. Similarly
Ae=Gλ2/ 4Π
Then Rmax = [ Pt Ae 2σ / (4Π)3Smin λ2 ]1/4
13. The Radar range is proportional to λ1/2 in Case 1 & it is proportional to in λ-1/2 Case 2.
So we can conclude that the Radar range is independent of wavelength.

RADAR BLOCK DIAGRAM

1. The operation of a typical pulse radar may be described with the aid of the block diagram
shown in Fig

Figure : Block diagram of simple pulse radar

2. Transmitter:-
The transmitter may be an oscillator, such as a magnetron, that is "pulsed" (turned on
and on) by the modulator to generate a repetitive train of pulses. The magnetron has
probably been the most widely used of the various microwave generators for radar. A
typical radar for the detection of aircraft at ranges of 100 or 200 nmi might employ a
peak power of the order of a megawatt, an average power of several kilowatts, a pulse
width of several microseconds, and a pulse repetition frequency of several hundred
pulses per second.

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3. Pulse Modulator
The radar modulator is a device, which provides the high power to the transmitter tube
to transmit during transmission period. It makes the transmitting tube ON and OFF to
generate the desired waveform. Modulator allows the storing the energy in a capacitor
bank during rest time.
4. The stored energy then can be put into the pulse when transmitted. It provides
rectangular voltage pulses which act as the supply voltage to the output tube such as
magnetron, thus switching it ON and OFF as required.
5. Duplexer
The receiver must be protected from damage caused by the high power of the
transmitter. This is the function of the duplexer. The duplexer also serves to channel the
returned echo signals to the receiver and not to the transmitter. The duplexer might
consist of two gas-discharge devices, one known as a TR (transmit-receive) and the
other an ATR (anti-transmit-receive). The TR protects the receiver during transmission
and the ATR directs the echo signal to the receiver during reception. Solid-state ferrite
circulators and receiver protectors with gas-plasma TR devices and/or diode limiters are
also employed as duplexers.
6. Antenna:-
The antenna takes the radar pulse from the transmitter and puts it into the air.
Furthermore, the antenna must focus the energy into a well-defined beam which
increase the power and permits a determination of the direction of the target.
7. Receiver:-
The receiver is usually of the super-heterodyne type whose function is to detect the
desired signal in the presence of noise, interference and clutter. The receiver in pulsed
radar consists of low noise RF amplifier, mixer, local oscillator, IF amplifier, detector,
video amplifier and radar display.
8. Low Noise RF Amplifier:-
Low noise amplifier is the first stage of the receiver. It is low noise transistor amplifier
or a parametric amplifier or a TWT amplifier. Silicon bipolar transistor is used at lower
radar frequencies (below L-band 1215 to 1400 MHz) and the GaAs FET is preferred at
higher frequencies. It amplifies the received weak echo signal.
9. Mixer and Local Oscillator:-
These convert RF signal output from RF amplifier to comparatively lower frequency
level called Intermediate Frequency (IF). The typical value for pulse radar is 30 MHz or
60MHz.

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10. IF Amplifier:-
IF Amplifier consist of a cascade of tuned amplifier, these can be synchronous, that is
all tuned to the same frequency and having identical band pass characteristics. If Aa
really large bandwidth is needed, the individual IF may be staggered tuned. The typical
value for pulse radar is 30 MHz or 60MHz.
11. Detector:-
Detector is often a schottky-barrier diode which extract the pulse modulation from the
IF amplifier output. The detector output is then amplified by the video amplifier to a
level where it can be properly displayed on screen directly or via DSP.
12. Display Unit:-
The received video signal are display on the CRT for further observation and actions.
Different types of display system which are used in radar
RADAR FREQUENCIES

Figure. IEEE standard radar frequencies

APPLICATIONS OF RADAR

1. Radar has been employed on the ground, in the air, on the sea, and in space.
2. Ground-based radar has been applied chiefly to the detection, location, and tracking of
aircraft or space targets.
3. Shipboard radar is used as a navigation aid and safety device to locate buoys, shore
lines, and other ships as well as for observing aircraft.

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4. Airborne radar may be used to detect other aircraft, ships, or land vehicles, or it may be
used for mapping of land, storm avoidance, terrain avoidance, and navigation.
5. In space, radar has assisted in the guidance of spacecraft and for the remote sensing of
the land and sea.
6. Air Traffic Control (ATC):
Radars are employed throughout the world for the purpose of safely controlling air
traffic en route and in the vicinity of airports. Aircraft and ground vehicular traffic at
large airports are monitored by means of high-resolution radar. Radar has been used
with GCA (ground-control approach) systems to guide aircraft to a safe landing in bad
weather. In addition, the microwave landing system and the widely used ATC radar-
beacon system are based in large part on radar technology.
7. Aircraft Navigation:
The weather-avoidance radar used on aircraft to outline regions of precipitation to the
pilot is a classical form of radar. Radar is also used for terrain avoidance and terrain
following. Although they may not always be thought of as radars, the radio altimeter
(either FM/CW or pulse) and the Doppler navigator are also radars. Sometimes ground-
mapping radars of moderately high resolution are used for aircraft navigation purposes.
8. Ship Safety:
Radar is used for enhancing the safety of ship travel by warning of potential collision
with other ships, and for detecting navigation buoys, especially in poor visibility. In
terms of numbers, this is one of the larger applications of radar, but in terms of physical
size and cost it is one of the smallest. It has also proven to be one of the most reliable
radar systems. Automatic detection and tracking equipment’s (also called plot
extractors) are commercially available for use with such radars for the purpose of
collision avoidance. Shore-based radar of moderately high resolution is also used for
the surveillance of harbors as an aid to navigation.
9. Space:
Space vehicles have used radar for rendezvous and docking, and for landing on the
moon. Some of the largest ground-based radars are for the detection and tracking of
satellites. Satellite-borne radars have also been used for remote sensing as mentioned
below.
10. Remote Sensing:
All radars are remote sensors; however, as this term is used it implies the sensing of
geophysical objects, or the "environment." For some time, radar has been used as a
remote sensor of the weather. It was also used in the past to probe the moon and the

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planets (radar astronomy). The ionospheric sounder, an important adjunct for HF (short
wave) communications, is a radar. Remote sensing with radar is also concerned with
Earth resources, which includes the measurement and mapping of sea conditions, water
resources, ice cover, agriculture, forestry conditions, geological formations, and
environmental pollution. The platforms for such radars include satellites as well as
aircraft.
11. Law Enforcement:
In addition to the wide use of radar to measure the speed of automobile traffic by
highway police, radar has also been employed as a means for the detection of intruders.
12. Military:
Many of the civilian applications of radar are also employed by the military. The
traditional role of radar for military application has been for surveillance, navigation,
and for the control and guidance of weapons. It represents, by far, the largest use of
radar.

PREDICTION OF RANGE PERFORMANCE

1. The simple form of the radar equation expressed the maximum radar range Rmax, in
terms of radar and target parameters

2.

3. All the parameters are to some extent under the control of the radar designer, except for
the target cross section σ.
4. The radar equation states that if long ranges are desired, the transmitted power must be
large, the radiated energy must be concentrated into a narrow beam (high transmitting
antenna gain), the received echo energy must be collected with a large antenna aperture
(also synonymous with high gain), and the receiver must be sensitive to weak signals.
5. In practice, however, the simple radar equation does not predict the range performance
of actual radar equipment’s to a satisfactory degree of accuracy.

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6. The predicted values of radar range are usually optimistic. In some cases the actual
range might be only half that predicted. Part of this discrepancy is due to the failure of
Eq. above to explicitly include the various losses that can occur throughout the
systemor the loss in performance usually experienced when electronic equipment is
operated in the field rather than under laboratory-type conditions.
7. Another important factor that must be considered in the radar equation is the statistical
or unpredictable nature of several of the parameters. The minimum detectable signal
Smin and the target cross section σ are both statistical in nature and must be expressed
in statistical terms.
8. Other statistical factors which do not appear explicitly in Eq. but which have an effect
on the radar performance are the meteorological conditions along the propagation path
and the performance of the radar operator, if one is employed.
9. The statistical nature of these several parameters does not allow the maximum radar
range to be described by a single number. Its specification must include a statement of
the probability that the radar will detect a certain type of target at a particular range.

MINIMUM DETECTABLE SIGNAL

1. The ability of a radar receiver to detect a weak echo signal is limited by the noise
energy that occupies the same portion of the frequency spectrum as does the signal
energy.
2. The weakest signal the receiver can detect is called the minimum detectable signal.
3. The specification of the minimum detectable signal is sometimes difficult because of its
statistical nature and because the criterion for deciding whether a target is present or not
may not be too well defined.

Fig. Typical envelope of tile radar receiver output as a function of time A, and B and C
represent signal plus noise. A & B would be valid detections, but C is a missed detection.

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4. Detection is based on establishing a threshold level at the output of the receiver. If the
receiver output exceeds the threshold, a signal is assumed to be present. This is called
threshold detection.
5. Consider the output of a typical radar receiver as a function of time Fig. This might
represent one sweep of the video output displayed on an A-scope.
6. The envelope has a fluctuating appearance caused by the random nature of noise. If a
large signal is present such as at A in Fig. it is greater than the surrounding noise peaks
and can be recognized on the basis of its amplitude.
7. Thus, if the threshold level were set sufficiently high, the envelope would not generally
exceed the threshold if noise alone were present, but would exceed it if a strong signal
were present.
8. If the signal were small, however, it would be more difficult to recognize its presence.
The threshold level must be low if weak signals are to be detected, but it cannot be so
low that noise peaks cross the threshold and give a false indication of the presence of
targets.
9. The voltage envelope of Fig. is assumed to be from a matched-filter receiver. A
matched filter is one designed to maximize the output peak signal to average noise
(power) ratio. It has a frequency-response function which is proportional to the complex
conjugate of the signal spectrum. (This is not the same as the concept of "impedance
match of circuit theory).
10. The ideal matched-filter receiver cannot always be exactly realized in practice, but it is
possible to approach it with practical receiver circuits. A matched filter for a radar
transmitting a rectangular-shaped pulse is usually characterized by a bandwidth B
approximately the reciprocal of the pulse width τ, or Bτ ≈ 1. The output of a matched-
filter receiver is the cross correlation between the received waveform and a replica of
the transmitted waveform.
11. Hence it does not preserve the shape of the input waveform. (There is no reason to wish
to preserve the shape of the received waveform so long as the output signal-to-noise
ratio is maximized.)

RECEIVER NOISE AND SIGNAL TO NISE RATIO

1. Since noise is the chief factor limiting receiver sensitivity, it is necessary to obtain some
means of describing it quantitatively.

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2. Noise is unwanted electromagnetic energy which interferes with the ability of the
receiver to detect the wanted signal. It may originate within the receiver itself, or it may
enter via the receiving antenna along with the desired signal.
3. If the radar were to operate in a perfectly noise-free environment so that no external
sources of noise accompanied the desired signal, and if the receiver itself were so
perfect that it did not generate any excess noise, there would still exist an unavoidable
component of noise generated by the thermal motion of the conduction electrons in the
ohmic portions of the receiver input stages.
4. This is called thermal noise, or Johnson noise, and is directly proportional to the
temperature of the ohmic portions of the circuit and the receiver bandwidth.
5. The available thermal-noise power generated by a receiver of bandwidth Bn, (in hertz)
at a temperature T (degrees Kelvin) is equal to,

6. Where k = Boltzmann's constant = 1.38 x 10-23 J/deg. If the temperature T is taken to

be 290 K, which corresponds approximately to room temperature (62°F), the factor Kt
is 4 x 10-21 W/Hz of bandwidth. If the receiver circuitry were at some other
temperature, the thermal-noise power would be correspondingly different.
7. A receiver with a reactance input such as a parametric amplifier need not have any
significant ohmic loss. The limitation in this case is the thermal noise seen by the
antenna and the ohmic losses in the transmission line.
8. For radar receivers of the superheterodyne type (the type of receiver used for most radar
applications), the receiver bandwidth is approximately that of the intermediate-
frequency stages.
9. It should be cautioned that the bandwidth B, of Eq. is not the 3-dB, or half-power,
bandwidth commonly employed by electronic engineers. It is an integrated bandwidth
and is given by

10. 10.
11. Where H(f) = frequency-response characteristic of IF amplifier (filter) and fo =
frequency of maximum response (usually occurs at mid band). When H (f) is
normalized to unity at mid band (maximum-response frequency), H (fo) = 1.

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12. The bandwidth Bn is called the noise bandwidth and is the bandwidth of an equivalent
rectangular filter whose noise-power output is the same as the filter with characteristic
H (f).
13. The 3-dB bandwidth is defined as the separation in hertz between the points on the
frequency-response characteristic where the response is reduced to 0.707 (3 dB) from
its maximum value.
14. The exact origin of the extra noise components is not important except to know that it
exists. No matter whether the noise is generated by a thermal mechanism or by some
other mechanism, the total noise at the output of the receiver may be considered to be
equal to the thermal-noise power obtained from an" ideal” receiver multiplied by a
factor called the noise figure. The noise figure Fn of a receiver is defined by the
equation;

i.

15. Where No = noise output from receiver, and Ga = available gain. The standard temperature
T is taken to be 290 K
16. The receiver bandwidth Bn is that of the IF amplifier in most receivers. The available
gain Ga is the ratio of the signal out So to the signal in Si, and kToBn is the input noise
Ni in an ideal receiver. Equation above may be rewritten as

a.
17. If the minimum detectable signal Smin, is that value of Si corresponding to the
minimum ratio output (IF) signal-to-noise ratio (So /No)min necessary for detection,

18. Substituting Eq. discussed above into Eq. earlier results in the following form of the

INTEGRATION OF RADAR PULSES

1. Many pulses are usually returned from any particular target on each radar scan and can
be used to improve detection. The number of pulses nB returned from a point target as
the radar antenna scans through its beam width is;

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2. Typical parameters for a ground-based search radar might be pulse repetition

frequency, 1.5° beam width, and antenna scan rate 5 rpm (30°/s). These parameters
result in 15 hits from a point target on each scan.
3. The process of summing all the radar echo pulses for the purpose of improving
detection is called integration.
4. Many techniques might be employed for accomplishing integration. All practical
integration techniques employ some sort of storage device. Perhaps the most common
radar integration method is the cathode-ray-tube display combined with the
integrating properties of the eye and brain of the radar operator.
5. Integration may be accomplished in the radar receiver either before the second
detector (in the IF) or after the second detector (in the video). A definite distinction
must be made between these two cases.
6. Integration before the detector is called pre-detection, or coherent, integration, while
integration after the detector is called post-detection, or non-coherent, integration.
Pre- detection integration requires that the phase of the echo signal be preserved if full
benefit is to be obtained from the summing process.
7. On the other hand, phase information is destroyed by the second detector; hence post-
detection integration is no concerned with preserving RF phase. For this convenience,
post-detection integration is not as efficient as pre-detection integration.
8. If n pulses, all of the same signal-to-noise ratio, were integrated by an ideal pre-
detection integrator, the resultant, or integrated, signal-to-noise (power) ratio would
be exactly n times that of a single pulse.
9. If the same n pulses were integrated by an ideal post-detection device, the resultant
signal-to-noise ratio would be less than n times that of a single pulse.
10. This loss in integration efficiency is caused by the nonlinear action of the second
detector, which converts some of the signal energy to noise energy in the rectification
process.
11. The comparison of pre-detection and post-detection integration may be briefly
summarized by stating that although post-detection integration is not as efficient as
pre-detection integration, it is easier to implement in most applications.
12. Post detection integration is therefore preferred, even though the integrated signal-to-
noise ratio may not be as great. An alert, trained operator viewing a properly designed

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cathode-ray tube display is a close approximation to the theoretical post-detection

integrator.
13. The efficiency of post-detection integration relative to ideal pre-detection integration
has been computed by Marcum when all pulses are of equal amplitude. The
integration efficiency may be defined as follows:

14. The improvement in the signal-to-noise ratio when n pulses are integrated post
detection is nEi(n) and is the integration-improvement factor.
The radar equation with n pulses integrated can be written as;

RADAR CROSS SECTION OF TARGET

1. Radar cross section is a property of a scattering object or target that is included in the
radar eq. to represent the echo signal returned to the radar by target.

in other terms,

2. The radar cross section of a target is the (fictional) area intercepting that amount of
power which, when scattered equally in all directions.
3. Scattering and diffraction are variations of the same physical process.

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4. When an object scatters an electromagnetic wave, the scattered field is defined as the
difference between the total field in the presence of the object and the field that would
exist if the object were absent (but with the sources unchanged). On the other hand,
the diffracted field is the total field in the presence of the object.
5. With radar backscatter, the two fields are the same, and one may talk about scattering
and diffraction interchangeably.
6. The scattered field, and hence the radar cross section, can be determined by solving
Maxwell's equations with the proper boundary conditions applied.
7. Unfortunately, the determination of the radar cross section with Maxwell's equations
can be accomplished only for the most simple of shapes, and solutions valid over a
large range of frequencies are not easy to obtain. The radar cross section of a simple
sphere is shown in Fig.
8. The region where the size of the sphere is small compared with the wavelength 2πa/ λ
<< 1 is called the Rayleigh region, after Lord Rayleigh who, in the early 1870 first
studied scattering by small particles.
9. Lord Rayleigh was interested in the scattering of light by microscopic particles, rather
than in radar. The cross section of objects within the Rayleigh region varies as λ-4 .

Fig. Radar cross section of the sphere. a = radius; λ = wavelength

10. Rain and Clouds are essentially invisible to radars which operate at relatively long
wavelengths (low frequencies).The usual radar targets are much larger than raindrops

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or cloud particles, and lowering the radar frequency to the point where rain or cloud
echoes are negligibly small will not seriously reduce the cross section of the larger
desired targets.
11. On the other hand, if it were desired to actually observe, rather than eliminate,
raindrop echoes, as in a meteorological or weather-observing radar, the higher radar
frequencies would be preferred.
12. At the other extreme from the Rayleigh region is the optical region, where the
dimensions of the sphere are large compared with the wavelength 2πa/ λ >> 1.For
large 2πa/ λ the radar cross section approaches the optical cross section πa 2.In
between the optical and the Rayleigh region is the Mie or resonance, region.
13. The maximum value is 5.6 dB greater than the optical value, while the value of the
first null is 5.5 dB below the optical value.

TRANSMITTER POWER

1. The power Pt in radar range eq. is called peak power

2. The peak pulse power as used in the radar equation is not the instantaneous peak
power of a sine wave.
3. It is defined as the power averaged over that carrier-frequency cycle which occurs at
the maximum of the pulse of power.
4. If the transmitted waveform is a train of rectangular pulses of width τ and pulse-
repetition period Tp = 1/ f p , the average Power is related to the peak power by,

The ratio Pav/Pt, τ/Tp, or τfp is called the duty cycle of the radar.

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Where Ei = Total energy of the n pulses which is equals to nEp.

PULSE REPETITION FREQUENCY AND RANGE AMBIGUITIES

1. The pulse repetition freq.(prf) is determined primarily by the maximum range at

which targets are expected.
2. If the prf is made too high , the likelihood of obtaining target echoes from the wrong
pulse transmission is increased.
3. Echo signal received after an interval exceeding the pulse-repetition period are called
multiple time around echoes.
4. Now consider the three targets labeled A, B, and C in Fig.

5. Target A is located within the maximum unambiguous range Runamb of the

radar,target B is at a distance greater than Runamb but less than 2RUnamb while

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target C is greater the 2Runabm but less than 3RUnamb The appearance of the three
targets on an A-scope is sketched in Fig. c
6. The multiple-time-around echoes on the A-scope cannot be distinguished from proper
target echoes actually within the maximum unambiguous range. Only the range
measured for target A is correct; those for B and C are not.
7. One method of distinguishing multiple-time-around echoes from unambiguous echoes
is to operate with a varying pulse repetition frequency.
Rtrue = f1 or (f1+Run1) or (f1+Run2) or …
8. The correct range is that value which is the same with the two PRF, generally three
PRF are often use to resolve range ambiguities.

SYSTEM LOSSES
1. The important factors omitted from the simple radar equation was the losses that
occurs throughout the radar system.
System losses defined by Ls.
2. Loss (number greater than unity) and efficiency (number less than unity) are used
interchangeably. One is simply the reciprocal of the other.
Losses occurs due to,
 Loss due to integration.
 Loss due to fluctuating cross section.
 Loss due to change in radar cross section of target.
 Losses due to transmission line.
 Losses due to various mechanical part of radar system
Types of losses:-
1. Microwave plumbing loss:-There is always loss in transmission line that connect
Transmitter and Reciever In addition there can be loss in the various microwave
components such as duplexer, receiver protector, directional coupler, transmission
line connector, bend in transmission line, etc.
2. Duplexer loss:-The loss due to duplexer that is protect Transmitter and Reciever
Eg. Gas duplexer, solid state duplexer.
3. Beam shape loss. The antenna gain that appears in the radar equation was assumed to
be a constant equal to the maximum value. But in reality the train of pulses returned
from a target with a scanning radar is modulated in amplitude by the shape of the
antenna beam.

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4. Scanning loss:-When the antenna scan rapidly enough, relative to the round trip time
of the echo signal, the antenna gain in the direction of target on transmit might not be
the same as that on receive.This result in an additional loss called scanning loss.
5. Phased array losses:-Some phased array radar have additional transmission losses
due to the distribution n/w that connects RX and Transmitter to each of the many
element of array.
6. Signal processing loss:-Sophisticated signal processing is prevalent in modern radars
and is very important for detecting target in clutter and in extracting information from
radar echo signals.
The factor described below can also introduced significant loss:
1. Matched & Non-matched filter
2. Constant false alarm
3. Automatic integrator
4. Threshold level
5. Limiting loss
6. Sampling loss
Losses in Doppler processing radar:-This kind of loss occur due to Doppler frequency.
1. Collapsing loss:- If the radar were to integrate additional noise sample along with
signal-pulse-noise pulses, the added noise would result in a degradation called
collapsing loss.
2. Operator loss:-An alert, motivated, and well-trained operator should perform as well
as described by theory. However, when distracted, tired, overloaded, or not properly
trained, operator performance will decrease.There is little guidance available on how
to account for the performance of an operator.Based an both empirical and
experimental results, one gives the operator efficiency factor as
3. Equipment degradation:-It is common for radar operated under field conditions to
have performance than when they left the factory. This loss of performance can be
recognized by regular testing the radar, especially with built in test equipment that
automatically indicating when equipment deviates from specifications.
4. Transmission loss:-The theoretical one way loss in db per 100 feet for standard
transmission line. Since the same transmission line generally is used for transmission
and reception, so the loss to be inserted in the radar eq. is twice the one-way loss.
Flexible waveguide and coaxial line can have higher loss compare to conventional
waveguide .At lower freq. transmission line introduce less loss

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