Atmosphere and weather

Diurnal e ergy bud _ s Flights over no,rthem Etirape were disrup,ted after a, cloud of 1

• 't/Olcan,lc ash from lceland-S E~jaijaUs1okul1 \l'O,lca:nca - drifting,

An nergy ht1dget refers to the amount of energy
from 6000 to 11' OOO metres high - dosed air1ports and
caused ·flights to be cancelled. -
entering a system, the amount leaving the system and ,/ ;"' ~

the transfer of enerro7·within the system. Energy budgets ICELA~ NORWAY"' .Y .,,
Airspace . . ,,
are commonly considered at a global scale (ma.cro-sc ale) Reykjavik dosed 1
· - ~WEDEN
and at a local scaJe (micro-scale). However. the tenn
nncroclimate is sometimes used t o describe regional
o(y ~
~
7
I
I
FINLAND
$ \
climates such as those associated with large urban areas
, . . . I
'Vokano 1> Oslo
coastal areas and mountainous regions. I 0
ATLANTIC \ / I
Figure 2.1 shows a classification of climate andl weather
OCEAN
phenomena at a variety of spatial and temporal scales. North I
Phenomena vary from sman-scale turbulence and eddying Sea /
{such as dust devils) that ·cover a small area and last for a Btlfast 0
very short time, to large-sea.le anticyclo11 s (high-pressure airport Ldnaon 'NETHERLANDS
zones) and jet str a111,.;, that affect a large erea and may dosed Flights ca111CeHed
last for weeks. The jet stream that carried! volcanic dust ,o kim 400
from undlemea.th the EyjafjallajokuU glacier in Iceland to •
northern Europe in 2010 is a good example of jet~stream
Figure 2.2 Jet-stream actiViity and the transfer of dust from
activity (Figure 2. 2). EyjafjaHajokuH, Iceland

-5u Year These different scales sh ould not be considered as

II sep·a.rate scales but as a hierarchy of scales in which
·-..,E Month
Jetstreams sma11erphenomena. may exist VJithin larger ones. For
·-.i
u

Week Anticyclones example, the temperature surrounding a building vJill be

ll affected by the nature of the building and processes that
~ ~urr1canes
"'t; Day Loca-11wlnds are taking·pla.c9 vlithin th~ b1 iil ding. However, it will also
..c
u be affected by th e ·w ider synoptic (weather) conditions,
Thu nd~rstorms
~-lour
t arge-cumu lu:s douds
1
which are affected by latitude~altitude, cloud cover and
Tornadoes seasoni for example.

SmaH cumulus clouds D Daytime and night-time energy

Mi,nute 0 u,r t devlls
budgets
Smalll-scale I+- ,MACRO~
tu rb ~,lenee
-+I MESO !+-
~ LOC AL----il>!
There are six components to the daytime energy budget:
Seco nd -
1
MICRO - - --.9'11
1
mcommg (shortwave) solar radiatioD (insolation)
reflected solar radiation
10 rmi m 11 m 1 km 101 km • surface absorption
Characteristic horizontal distanc.e scale • 3ensiblt:! heat tI ausfer
Figure 2.1 Classmcatrron of climate and wea~er phenomena • long- vave radiation (Figure 2.3)
at a variety oi spatial and temporaJI scafes • latent h eat (evap oration and conden sation}.

2.1 Diurnal energy budgets •

 Reflected lncomJngi
sofar short-wave Sofar
latent heat radlati'on radliation ra diati,on,
transfer - using
enrerg'y f rn m Long,~wcwe
t-he su1rf ace radiatii on

Sensibile heat transfer

------------- -------
Grass-coveted su1rta.ce
Heat trajnsfer- irito the soil
(surface absorption)

Figure 2.3 Local energy budget - dayt~me

These influence the gain or loss of energy for a.point at
1
the Earth s surface. The daytime energy budget a.ssum.es
a horizontal surface with grass-covered soil and can be Q..L.._~~~~~~~~~~~~~~---;-;-;~
Low Hi1g1h
expressed by the formula : Angle of Sun
energy available at the surface = incoming solar
Figure 2.5 Energy, doud cover/type and 1h e angle of the Sun
radiation - (reflected solar radiation + surface
absorption + sensible heat transfer + long-·wave
radiation + latent heat transfers)
ln contrast, the night-time energy budget consists of
four components:
long-wave :Earth radiation
latent heat tra11.Sfer (condensation)
absorbed energy returned to Earth (subssurface
supply)
sensible heat transfer (Figure 2.4}.
Incoming (shortwave) solar radiation
incoming solar radiation (i.nsolation) is the main energy
mput and is affected by latitude, season and cloud
cover (Section 2.2). Figure 2.5 shows how the amount of Figure 2.6 Stratooumu~us clouds
insolation received varies vnth the angle of the Sun and Reflected solar radiation
with cloud type. For example. with strata-cumulus clouds The proportion of energy that is reflected. back to th_e
(like those in Figure 2.6) when th~ s:in is low ~ the ~ky, atmosphere is known as the albedo. The albedo vanes
about 23 per cent of the total rarua non transmitted 1s with colour - light materials are more reflective than
received at the EarthJs surface - a.bout 2SO watts perm2 . dark materials (Tuble 2.1). ·Grass has an average albedo
When the Sun is high in.the sky, about 40per cent is of 20-30per centm meaning that it reflects back about
received- just over 450 watts per m2. The less cloud cover 20-30per cent of the radiation it receives.
there is~and/or the higher the cloud, th.e more radiation
reaches the Earth;s surface.

Lortgawave
radiation La,tent heat tfa,nsfer - supp1ly
energy toss of hea:t as dew forms on surface

Grassacovemd
Sens1ibfe heat transfer
~------:;:-----~s~o~ri.~ac~e~ .---~ ~ ~ ----------
Heat supp,ly to suriace

Figure 2.4 Night-t,me energ1y budget

• 2 Atmosphere and weather

Table 2~ 1 Setected albedo values known as the net long-wave rad~ation balance. During the
~surlac~~ Albedo'(o;;j~
da~ the outgoing long-wave radiation transfer is greater
water (Sun's ang1e over 40°) 2- 4
than the incoming long-wave radiation transfer, so there is
Wat9r (Sun's an g1ia l'ess ~han 40- e} 8....SQ,
a net loss of energy from the surface.
During a cloudless night] there is a large lass of long-
'fresh snow 75-90
OICJ snow 40-70
w-ave radiation from the Earth. There is very little return
Dry sand 36-45
of long~wave radiation from the atmosphere, due to the
1Dark, wet so II
1
5-1i6
lack of clouds. Hence there is a net loss of energy from the
Dry concrete 117-2.7 surface. In contrast, on a cloudy night the clouds return
!Bladk mad surface 5~110 some long-wave radiation to the surfacej hence the overall
Grass 20-30, loss of energy is reduced. Thus in hot desert area.s, where
IDeclduous forest 110-20 there is a lack of cloud cover, the loss of energy at night is
Conn-erous forest 5-1!5 maximised. In. contrast in cloudy areas the loss of energy
1

Crops 1:5-25 (and change in dayti'me and night-time temperatures) is

Tundra 1i5-20 less noticeable.

Latent heat transfer (evaporation and condensation)

When liquid water is turned into water vapour heat 1

energy is used up. In contrast, when water vapour

1 The model for the dayt,me energy budget assumes a flat becomes a liquid heat is released. Thus when water
1

surface with grass~covered soi1. Sugges1 reasons for this is present at a surlace, a proportion of the energy
assumption. available will be used to evaporate it, and less energy
2 Stud~ Table 2.1. wil] be available to raise local energy levels and
a What ~s meant by the 1erm albedo? temperature.
b Why fS albedo important? During the night water vapour in the air close to the
surface can condense to form waterJ since the air has been
cooled by the cold surface. When water condenses, latent
Surface and sub-surface absorption
heat is released. Th.is affects the cooling process at the
Energy that reaches the Earth's surface has the potential surface. In some cases, evaporation may occur at night,
to heat it. Much depends on the nature of the surface. for especiaUy in areas where there are local sources of heat.
example if the surface can conduct heat to lower layers,
1

the surface \Vil remain cool. If the energy is concentrated Dew

at the surface, the surface wanns up. DP, refers to c-ondensation on a surface. The
1
arr is
The heat transferred to the soil and bedrock during the saturated, generally because the temperature of the
day may be released back to the surface at night. This can surface has dropped. enough to cause condensation.
partly offset the night-time cooling at the surface. Occasionally, condensation occurs because more moisture
is introduced, for example by a sea breeze~ while the
Sensible heat transfer temperature remains constant.
Sensible heat transfer refers to the movement of parcels Absorbed energy returned to Earth
of air into and out of the area being studied. For example, The insolation received by the Earth will be reradiated
air that is wam1ed by the surface may begin to rise as long-wave radiation. Some of this will be absorbed by
(con ction) and be replaced by cooler air. This is known water vapour and other greenhou se gases, thereby raisin g
as a convective transfer. It is very common in warm areas the temperature.
in the early afternoon. Sensible heat transfer is also part of
the night-time energy budget: cold eir moving into an area
may reduce temperatures, whereas warm air may supply
D Temperature changes close to the
energy and raise temperatures. surface
Ground-surface t emperatures can vary considerably
Long-wave radiation benveen day and night. During the day, the ground heats
Long-wave radiation refers t o the radiation of energy from the air by radiation, conduction (contact) and convection .
tJhe Earth (a cold body) into the atmosphere and, for some The ground radiates energy and as the air receives more
of it eventually into space. There is, however, a downward
1 radiation than it emits, the arr is warmed . Air close to the
movement of long-wave rad~ation from particles in the ground is also warm.e d through conduction. Air movement
atmosphere. The differenc-e between the two flows is at the surface is slower due to friction with the surla.-ce,

2.1 Diurnal energy budgets •

so there is mor.e time for it to be heated. The combined At night~ the ground is cooled as a result of radiation.
effect of radiation end condluction is that the air becomes Heat is transferred from the air to the ground.
werr.ner, and rises a.s a result of convection.

The annual cyde of the surface energy budget at a high- or~ginates from the refreezrng ,o f the acfrve layer. The average
ar,ct~c permafrost S1te on Svalbard shows that during summer, annual sensil:Jle heat transfer of - 6 .'9 Wmi- 2 js composed of
the net short-wave rad~ation is the dom·inant energy source s.trong posmve transfers 1 in Jdly and Aug1ust, wh~le negatlve
(Hgure 2.7}. In addmon, sens,bie heat transfers.and surtace transfers dominate duiring the rest of the year. Wrtti 8.8 Wm-2 ,
absorpt,on in the ,ground lead to a oool'ing of the surface. About tl1e Jatent heat transfer more or Jess compensates the s ens1ble
15 per cent of the net radiation is used up by the seasonal heat transfer ~n the annual average. Strong evaporation
thaw1ing of the acttve layer in July and Aug1ust {the acttve layer is occurs during the snowmelt period and particu1arly dur~ng the
the layer at the top ,of the so~l 1hat freezes ~n Winter and thaws snow-free period ~n sum1 mer and autumn. When the ground
iin summer). During 1h e polar n~g1ht in w~nt,er, the net fong-wave fS covered by snowj !latent heat fluxes through sub!imabo11 of
radiat~an is the do:minant energy loss channe~ for the surface, snow are recorded, but are insignirfiicant for 1he average· surface
whioh is mainly compensated by the sensib!e heat transfer energy budg,et.
and, to a lesser extent, by fhe ground heat transfer, which

a Winter b Summer

AS
-1122

Ge
+28 +2 .5
AS
-0.4

D. C -9 C +22

Qg
-5

The area: of the ar,rows 1is proportional to the rel1ative i1mpo:rt:lnce 1iin the
energy budget ArrCMJs pointing away from the su1rface hri.dicate positive
·f,luxes. va,u es are given in wm-2 •
Al Net ~ong-wave radiat~on Qe latent heat flux
AS Net short-wave ,rad1iatron 0 9 G·tound or snow heat fl ulX
Qt, Sen,sibl'e neat transfer C Residluall of the energy ba,tance

Figure 2.7 Energy budgets for Svalbard

• 2 Atmosphere a nd weather
1 Widi referenoe to Rgure 2.7~ draw ·the ~lkely night-time c Explain the difference between ·the two·areas in terms of
energy budg.ets fo:r Svalbard rn1sum1mer and in winter. short-wave radraitoni reflected t.o the atmosphere.
2 F~gure· 2. B shows rurall and urban energy budgets for d What are ff-tie amplicau ons of fue answers to b and c ·for
Washiington IDC (USA} during daytiime and night ·bme. The the heating of the ground by conduction?
figures represent the proportions oir the original 100 units .of e Compare the amount of heat ·g1iven up by the rrura, .area
incoming solar rad~at1on dispersed rn differen1 direcik:ns. and the urban area by night. Sug:ges1 two reasons for
a How does the amount of 1nsolation recerved vary be1w,e en these differences.
the rural area and the urban area? f Why ~s there more rong-·wave radja1r,on by night from 1he
b How does the amount of heat lost through evaporation urban area than from the rural area?
vary between the areas? Justify your answer.

a Rural surface

incomi1ng: Heat toss due

soilar radiation 8
to evaporation
Heat loss by
Sho:rt-wave radiation 100
aM 1movement
refllected back to
s,pa ce fro.mi cl ou,ds 24 Lo ng-w.a\i,e
a.nd girou n.d radiait ion long-wave
frotrni cl O,U ds radiatio,n
from
ground

24
54.

b Urban surface

Heat loss due

l:ncoming to evaporation
solir ,radiation 10
100 Heat loss by
Short-wave radiation ai,r movement
refl'.ected back to ILo ng-waive
~pace from do u.ds radiatlon long-wave
and giround fro'm clouds radiatfon
from
girouind

5
69

The fig ,ures represent the pro,portrons of tne orig1i1nal 1,,00 units of 1in coming sotar nadiatton dis,persed 1in different di1rections.
Source; UniVErsity of Oxford, 1989, Entrance examination for G@ography

Figure 2.8 Daytime and n~ght~time energy budgets 'for Washington DC

2.1 Diurnal energy budgets •

 atmosphertc gases. So only about 46per cent of the
2.2 The global energy bu g t insolation at the top of the atmosphere actually gets
through to the Earth's surface.
D The latitudinal pattern of radiation: Energy received by the Earth is re-radiated at long
excesses and deficits wavelength. (Yery h ot bodies such as the Sun emit short-
The atmosphere is an open energy system, receiving wave radiation' whereas
. cold bodies such as the Earth '

energy from both Sun and Earth. Although the latter is emit long·~wave r adiation.) Of this, 8per cent is lost t o
very small it has an important local effec( as in the case space. Some energy is absorbed by clouds and re-radiated
of urban climates. Incoming soJar radiation is referred to back to Earth. Evaporation and condensation accoun t for a
as insolation. loss of heat of 22 per cent. There is also a small amount of
The atmosphere constantly receives solar ene~ yet condensation (carried up by turbulence). Thus heat gained
until recently the atmosphere was not getting any h.otter; by the atmosphere from the ground amounts to 32per
Therefore there has been a balance between inputs cent of incoming radiation.
(insolation) and outputs (re-radiation) (Figure 2.9) . u·nder The atmosphere is largely heated from below. Most
'natural' con dition s th e balan.ce is a.chievedl in three of the incoming short-wave radiation is let through,
. but some outgoing long-wave radiation is trapped by
main ways:
greenhouse gases. This is known as the greenhouse
radiation - the emission of electromagn·etic ·w aves such principle or gr enhouse effi et.
as X-ray, short- and long-·w ave; as the SUn is a very hot There are importan~ variations in the receipt of solar
body; radiating at a temperature of about 5700 °C, most radiation with latitude and season (figure 2.10). The
of its radiation is in the form of very sh ort wavelengths result is an imbalance: a.n excess of radiation (positive
such a.s ultraviolet and vimble light budget) in the tropics; a deficit of radiation (negative
convection -the transfer of heat by the movement of a balance) at higher latitudes {Figure 2.11). However, neither
gas or liquid region is getting progressively hotter or colder. To achieve
conduction - the transfer of heat by contact. this balance, the horizontal transfer of energy from the
equator to the poles t akes place by winds and ocean
Solar energy 100 currents. This gives rise to an important second energy
l ost to space 69 budget in the atmosphere: the horizontal transfer between
lost to space 31 low latitudes and high latitudes t o compensate for
t differences in global insolation.
Radjated by . Absorbed by
a,trnospheue 62 ~ gases 119 Latitude
Areas t hat are close to the equ ator rece tve more heat than areas
that are close to the poles. ~h:ls Is due to two reasons:
7
t7 \ Absorbed by
douds 4
Re"fl ected by +
atmosp ~ere 8 · 1 l1 ncomlng so'l:ar radiation (lnso:latlon) Is concen~ra1
·ted near the
eqluator, but dlspersed nea r ~e poles.
2 nsola1
11 tlon near the poles has to 1pa,ss through a grea,ter
Latent heait Reilected by + amount of atmosphere and theH! 1IS more cha nce of It beilng
IR~ radiat~d as
9

1ref1 ected back out to SJpace.

lorngi-wave
1 t ransfa Ii 22 douds 17
ra djatton 14
(evaporation aind N'ear the pdles lnsola.tlon

Co 11d uct~on
cond ens-atkni)
Reflected by
surface 6 atmos;phem
___:_L has more atmosphere
pass thr011gh

trander 10
Absorbed at A
- - - - - - - - - - surface 46
solar rad latlon
Sourc:e: Aecffl ro Geogr~t,y- C.tmai» and Sod,ty (I nsol'atJ on)
t7f G. Nagle (Hcxlder Education, .2002) p., 5
Figure 2~9 The Earth's energy bu:dg1et B

Of incoming radiation, 19per cent is absorbed by

atmospheric gases especially oxygen and ozone at high.
1

altitudesJ and carbon dioxide and water vapour at 1ow At the equator
altitu des. Reflection by the atmosphere accounts far insolatl.on is
roncentrated, but
a n et loss of 8 per cent, and clouds and water droplets near ~he poles it t,s
1
reflect 23per cent. Reflection from the Earth s surface dispersed over a
(known as the planetary alb~do) is generally abou t wider airea
Soul'a! : N.1gla, G.• ei«,&,"ap/'Jy tntovgh diag,MrlS. OUP, 1gge
6per cent. About 36per cent of insolation is reflected
back to space and a further 19per cent is absorbed by Figure 2.10 latitudinal contrasts iln ~nso,a'tion

• 2 Atmosphere and w eather

 Des,cribe the djfferences in temperature as shown in Figure
2 .1 2. Suggest reasons for these contrasts.

90S D Atmospheric transfers

There are two main influences on atmospheric transfer:
<),

~ <=::> !quinox
pressure variations and ocean currents. Air blows from
?
,.. .::i. Sol'stlce
high pressure to low pressuie, and is unportant in
60'N ·
~~iltt:: · ~
~ 1Eq1ul·nox
redistnbuting heat around the Earth. In addition, the
90NI i
«,c
Solstice atmosphere is influenced. by ocean currents - wann
currents raise the temperature of overlying air, while cold
"frle varl atl ons of sol.a r ra d'la~on W~ l'aitlrh Jde and s~aso ri for 111\e
currents cool the eir above them (see pages 39-40).
whol'e globe, aS'.Sumlng no atmosphere. This assumptlorn aplialns
the abnorrnal:ly h'll·gh amounts of radlatlon received atthe poles: In Pressure variations
summer. when day11ght !lasts fm 24 Aours eaoh day. Pressure is measured m. :millibars (mb) and is represented
Source: Barry, R. and Chorley, R., A ~ e . . Weather and Cimate. Rootledge. 1998 by isobars, which are lines of equal pressure. On maps~
Figure 2.11 Contrasts ~n insolation by season and e1tude pressme is adjusted to mean sea level (MSL} therefore
1

eliminating elevation as a factor. MSL pressure is 1013 mb 1

although the mean range :is from 1060·m b mthe Siberian

'Winter high-pressure system to 940.mb {although some
1 Oudrine the main thermal differences between short-wave
intense lo,v pressure storms may be much lower). The
and long1-wave radiation.
trend of pressure change is more hnportant than the
2 Study F1ig1ures 2.10 and 2.11. Comment ,on ,atitud~nal actual rea.dingitself. Decline in pressure indicates poorer
differences ~n the receipt of sofar rad1ati:on. W'eather, and rismg pre ssure better weather.

Suriace pressure belts

Annual temperature patterns Sea-level pressure conditions show ·m arked differences
There are important large-scale north-south temperature between the hemispheres. In the northern h.e misphere
zones {Figure 2.12). For ·e xample in January highest 1 there are greater seasonal contrasts whereas in the
1

temperatures over landl (above 30 °C) are found in Australia southern h.e misphere much simpler average conditions
and south.em .Africa. By contrast, the lowest temperatures exist {see Figure 2.13). Over Antarctica there is generally
(less than -40 °C) are found over parts of Siberia, high pressure over the 3-4 kilometre-high eastern Antarctic
Greenland and the Canadian Arctic. In general, there is Plateau, but the high pressure is reduced by altitude. The
a decline in temperatures northwards from the 1ropic differences are largely related to unequal distribution of
of Ca.pric:om, although th~ffe a.r@ b:nport:ant a.nomalies] land and seam because ocean areas are much more equ able
such as the effect of the .Andes in South.America, and in terms of temperature and pressure variations.
the effect of the cold current off the coast ofNarmbia. In One of the more permanent features is the subtropical
July, maximum.temperatures are found over the Sahara 1 high-pressure (STHP) belts, especially over ocean areas. In
Near Eas( northern India and parts of southern USA and the southern hemisphere these are almost continuous at
Mexico. By contrastJ areas in the southern hemisphere are about 30 ° latitude although in summer over South Africa
1

cooler than mJanuaey: and Australia they tend to be broken. Generally pressure
These patterns reflect the general decrease of insolation is about 1026mb. In the northern hemisphere, by contrast,
from the equator to the poles. There is little seasonal at 30 °the belt is much more discontinuous because of the
variation at the equator, but in mid or high.latitudes land. High pressure only occurs over the ocean as discrete
large seasonal differ9nces occur due to the decrease in cells such as the Azores and Pacific highs. Over continental
insolation from the equator to th~ pol@s, and changes an'las such as south-west USA, southemAsia and the
in the length of day. There is also a. time lag between the Sahara major fluctuations occur: high pressure in winte~
1

overhead Sun and the periodl of maximum insolation - up and summer lows because of overheating.
to two months in som·e places - largely because the air is Over the equatorial trough pressure is low: l 008- 1010mb.
1

heated from below, not above. The coolest period is after The trough coincides "With the zone of maximum insolation.
·t he winter solstice (the shortest day), since the ground ]n the northern hemisphere {in July) it is well north of
continues to lose heat even after insoiation has resumed. the equator {2S °C ov·er India}, whereas in the southern
Over oceans, the lag time is greater than over the land, due hemisphere {in January) it is just south of the equator
to differences in their specific heat capacities. because land :masses in the southern.hemisphere are not

2.2 The g lobal energy budget •

 Longitude
.January 120 90 60 30 0 30 60 90 120 150 180

10

.20

40

1&J go 120

aver-ag,e posi:tion
therma1I·equator:

Longitude
180 150 120 go 60 30 0 30 60 90 120 150 180
July

I
, ... \
I \

,I
~
' ' " "· .... ~ - .. .. .......
._ ,
_.,,
~
...
' .... ......
~ ... ~----- ... - - .. -.. -" ,
... -25
~~--~~-
-- -- ... .................. .-_

20

180 150 ]20 90 60 30 0 30 60 go 120 150 180

Source: Briggs. D et a 1.. Fundamentals of the·.flh¥siG!II emi-rooment Routledge. 1gg7

Figure 2.12 Seas,onaJI 1empera1ure patterns

• 2 Atmosphere a nd weather
of sufficient size to displace it southwards. The ~doldrums'
refers to the equatorial trough over sea areas, where slack
pressure gradients have a becalming effect on sailing ships. Des,oribe the variations in pressure as shown on Rgure 2. 13.
a
No:rt:hern
hemisphere In temperate ]atit udes, pressure is gener ally less than
in su btropic a] areas. The m ost uniqu e feature is th e large
July number of depressions Qow pressure) and anticyclones
(high pressure), which do not show up on a map of mean
pressure. In the n orthern h emisphere there are strong
1

vrlnter low-pressure zones over lcelandic aJnd oceanic

areas, but over Canada. and Slberta there is high pressure,
due to the coldness of the land. In summer, high pressure
is reduced. In polar areas pressure is relatively high
throughout the year especially over Antarctica owing to
1 1

the coldnsss of the land m a ss.

Surlace wind belts
VJinds between the Tropics converge on a line known as
January the intertropical co1wergence zone (ITCZ) or equatorial
trou gh (Figure 2.14). This convergence zone is a few
hundred kilometres Vlide, into which winds blow inwards
and subsequently rise (thereby forming an area of low
pressure). The rising air releases vast quantities of latent
heat, which in turn stimulates convection.

b
S0uthe:m1
hernrisph ere

July

11ID'

January

ISO'

Sourc~: Barry. R. and C1'1 or1~. R.• A·tmo,r;phe~ mliathw . nd Cllmit~

Routl~Qll!, 1QQ8

Figure 2.13 Va.nattons jn pressure Figure 2.14 Surface wtnds

2.2 The g lobal e nergy budget •

 Latitudinel variations in the ITCZ occur as a result of disrupts the strong ·winds of the upper atmosphen:, forcing
the movement of the overhead sun.In June the ITCZ lies winds either to the north or south and consequently
further north, ·whereas in D·ecember it lies in the southern deflecting surface ,Niflds.
hemisphere. The seasonal variation in the ITCZ is greatest The uneven pattern.shown in Figure 2.14 is the result of
over Asia., owing ta.its large land mass. By contrast, over seasonal va.ria.tions in the overh.ea.d Sun. Summer in the
the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans its movement is far less. southern hemisphere means that there is a cooling in the
Wmds at the ITCZ are generally light (the doldrums), northern hemisphere, thereby increasing the differences
occasionally broken by strong westerlies, generally in the between polar and equatorial air. Consequently, high-level
summer months. westerlies are stronger in the northern hemisphere in
Low-latitud winds between 10° and 30 ° are mostly winter.
easterlies; that is, they flow·towards the west. These are
the reliable trade winds; they blow over 30per cent of
the world's surface. The weather in this zone is fairly
predictable: warm, dlry mornings and showery afternoons, Des oobe the main glloba, wind systems shown in Rgure 2.14.
caused by the continuous evaporation from tropical sees.
Showers are heavier and more frequent in the warm.e r
summer season.
Occasionany there are disruptions to the pattern:
D Explaining variations in temperature,
easterly waves are small-scale systems in the easterly pressure and winds
flow of air. The ff.ow is greatest not at ground level but
at the 700mb level. Ahead of the easterly wave~ air is Latitude
subsiding; hence there is surface divergence. At the On a global scale, latitude is the most important factor
easterly w·ave, there is convergence of air, and ascent - detenninmg temperature (Figure 2.10). Tu/o factors affect
as in a typical low·pressure system. Easterly waves are the temperature: the angle of the overhead Sun and the
nnportant for the development of tropical cyclones thickness of the atmosphere.At the equator, the overhead
(Section 9.3). Sun is high in the skYi so the insala.tion received is of a
Westerly winds dominate between 3 5 ° and 60 ° of greater quality or int ensity. At the poles, the overhead
latitude, which accounts for about a quarter of the Sun is low in the sky, so the quality of ·e nergy receirved
world's surtace. However, unlike the steady trade is poor. Secondly, the thickness of the atmosphere
winds, these contain rapidly -evolving and decaying affects temperature. Energy has more atmosphere to
depressions. pass through at point A on Figure 2.10, so more energy
The word monsoon' means 'reverse the monsoon
1
; is lost, scattered or reflected by the atmosphere than at
is reversing Vlind systems. For example, the south-east B - therefore temperatures a.re lower at A than at B. In
trades from the southern hemisphere cross the equator addition, the albedo (:reflectivity) is higher in polar regions.
in July. Owing to the Coriolis force, these south-east This is because snow and ice are very reflective, and
trades a.re deflected to the right in the northern low-angle sunlight is easily reflected from water surfa.ces.
hemisphere and become south-west winds. The monsoon Hnwever, variations in length af day and season partly
is induced by Asia.- the world's largest continent - which offset the lack ofintensi.ty in polar and arctic regions.
causes winds t o blow outwards from high pressure in The longer the Sun shines] the greater the amount of
winter, but puUs the southern trades into low pressure in insolation received, which may overcome i:n part the lack
the summer. of intensity of insolation in polar regions. (On the other
The monsoon is therefore influenced by 'the reversal hand the long polar nights in winta lose vast amounts of
1

of land and sea. temperatures between.Asia and the energy.)

Pacific during the summer and winter. In winter, surface
temperatures in Asi.a may be as low·as-20°C. By contrast, Land-sea distribution
the surrounding oceans have temperatures of 20 °c. There are important differences in the distrib·ution of
During the sum_mer, the land heats up quickly and may ]end and sea in the northern h emisphere and southern.
reach 40°C. By contrast, the sea remains cool~ at about hronisphere. Then~is much more land in the north@rn.
27 °c. Thls imtiates a land-sea breeze blowmgfrom the herrrisphere. Oceans cover about 50 per cent of the
cooler sea (high pressure) in summer to the warmer land Earth's surface in the northern hemisphere but about
(low pressuret whereas in winter air flows out of the 90per cent of the southern hemisphere (Figure 2.1S}. This
cold land mass {high pressure) to the warm water Oow is not always clear when looking at conventional map
pressure). The presence. of the Hima.layan Plateau also projections such as the Mercator projection.

• 2 Atmosphere and weather

 of ocean basins-rather like water slopping in a bucket.
The return flow is often narrow, fast-flowing currents
such as the Gulf Stream. The Gulf Stream in particular
transports heat northwards and then eastwards across
the North Atlantic; the Gulf Stream is the main reason
that the British Isles have mild winters and relatively cool
summers (Figure 2 .16).

La1nd hemisphere Sea hemisphere

Figure 2.15 Land and sea hemispheres
The distnbutlon of landl end sea is important because
land and water have different thermal properties. The
specific heat capacity is the amount of heat needed
to raise th.e temperature of a body by l c. There are
0
'1
·op_a[tQ _ -
s ac '
important differences between. the heating and cooling of
water. Land heats and cools more quickly than water. It N~
takes five times as much heat to raise the temperature of
water by 2°C as i.t does to raise land temperatures.
Water heats more slowly because:
..__ ooo
km__3__ T
it is ·clear, so the Sun,s rays penetrate to great depth, Cold currenits
mstnbuting energy over a wider area Warrm CU rre-nts

tides and currents cause the heat to be further

d:istnbuted. The effect of an ocean current depends upon whetheir it is a wairm
curirent or a cold current Warm currents move awaiY from the equator.
Therefore a larger volume of water is heated for every whereas cold currents move tow-ards it lhe cold l.abrrador Cuffent
unit of energy than the volume of land~so water takes reduces the temperatures of the western side of the Atlantic, whHe
the· warm North Atfantiic Drift raises temperatures 0111 the eastern side.
longer to heat up. Distance from the sea has an important
influence on temperature. Water takes up heat and Source: Nt1QI@, G., Gf!Ogf:!l/)hy 'through a,agrams, OUP, 1Qgs

gives it back much more slowly than the land. In ~ter, Figure 2.16 The effects of the INlorth A11antic Drirft/Gullf Stream
in mid-latitudes sea air is much warmer than the land
air, so onshore winds bring heat to the coastal lands. By The effect of ocean currents on temperatures depends
contrast, during the summer coastal areas remain much upon whether the current is cold or warm. Wann currents
cooler than inland sites. Areas with a. coastal influence are from equ.a torial regions raise the temperature of polar
termed maritnne or oceanic, whereas inland ar,ea.s are areas (with the aid of prevailing westerly winds). However,
called continental. the effect is only noticeable in winter. for example, the
North Atlantic Drift raises the winter temperatures of
Ocean currents north-west Europe. By contrast, other areas are made
Surface ocean currents are ·caused by the influence of colder by ocean currents. Cold currents such as the
pr vailing winds blowing steadily across the sea. The Labrador Current off the north-east coast of North
dominant pattern of surface ocean currents (known a.s America may reduce summer temperatures, but only if
r _5) is roughly a circular flow. The pattern of these the wind blows from the sea to the land.
currents is clockwise in the northern hemisphere and In the Pa.cine Oceanl there are tvlo mai.n atmospheric
anti-clockwise in the southern hemisphere. The main states. The first is warm surface water:in the west \vith
exception is the circumpolar current that flows around cold surfatce water mthe ea.st; the other is warm surlace
Antarctica from west to east. There is no equivalent w-aterin the east \Vith cold in the west. In both cases, the
current in the northern hemisphere because of the warm surface causes low pressure. As air blows from hlgh
distribution of land and sea there. Mthin the circulation pressure to low pressure] there is a mov:em-e nt of water
of the gyres, water piles up into a dome. The effect of the from the colder area to the warmer area. These winds push
rotation of the Earth is to cause water in the oceans to warm surface water into the warm region~ exposing colder
push westward; this piles up water on the western edge deep water behlnd them and mamtaining the pattern.

2.2 The global e nergy budget •

The ocean conveyor belt North.Pacific~ so there is proportion ally more evaporation
In addition to the transfer of energy by wind and the there. The water left behind by evaporation is saltier and
transfer of energy by ocean currents, there is also a. therefore much denser, which causes it to sink. Eventuslly,
transfer of 9·nergy by deep sea currents. Oceanic convection the water is transported into the Pacific where it picks up
movement is from polar regions where cold salty water more water a.nd its density is reduced. -
sinks into the depths and makes its way towards the
equator (figure 2.17). The densest water is found in
the Antarctic, where sea water fr~es to form ice at a
temperature of around-2 °c.The ice is fresh water, so the ma~n faotors affecting global and regional
OuUine 1he 1
1emperatures.
sea water that is left behind is much saltier and therefore
denser. This cold dense wa:ter sweeps around Antarctica at
a depth of about 4kilometres. It then spreads into the deep
basins of the Atlantic, the Pacific and the Indian Oceans.
r:J Factors affecting air movement
In the oceanic conveyor-belt modei surface currents bring
warm water to the North Atlantic from the Indian a.nd Pressur·e and wind
Pacific Oceans. These waters give up their heat t o cold Vertical air motion is important on a local scale] whereas
wmds that blow from Canada across the North Atlantic. horizonta:1 motion {Vlilld) is important at many scales,
This water then sinks and starts the reverse convection of from small-scale eddies to global wind systems. The basic
the deep ocean current. The amount of heat given up is cau.se of air motion is the unequal heating of the Earth's
about a third of the energy·that is received from the Sun. surface. The major equalising factor is the transfer of heat
The pattern is maintained by salt: b ecause the conveyor by air movement. Variable h eating of the Earth. causes
operates in this way, the North Atlantic is warmer than the variations in pressure and this in tum sets the air in

Deep density currents

1

._ Less deep return fliow

r::=;>" 0th er retu rrn ~lovvs
Zones of hrgh-dens~ty
5 suibside nee
u Zo n,es of ocean ic
u,pw e~I ing.
Coastal upweUi ng
- permanent
--- •• sea sona:1

Equatot

cold sa ttY, deeper current

Source: ,Barry, .R. and CbeNe,, R.,
Armosphe,ti; ~ rn• and Clhmte,
Routl~dg@, , 998

Figure 2.17 The ocean conveyor belt

• 2 Atmosphere and weather

·motion. There is thus a basic correlation between 9Winds The Coriolis fore is th.e deflection of moving
and pressure. objects caused by the easterly rotation of the Earth
(Figure 2.19). Air flo\Ning from high pressure to low
P.r·essu re gradient pressure is defle-cted to the right of its :path in the
The driving force is the pressure aradient; that is, the northem hemisphere and to the left of its path in the
difference in pressure between any two points. Arr sou.them hemisphere. The Coriolis force is at right
blows from high pressure to low pressure (Figure 2.18). angles to wind direction.
Globally, very high pressure conditions exist over Asia in
The apparent de-fJection
winter du.e to the low temperatures. Cold air contracts, low
:press11.u,e of a pare@~ 9-f air mov iin g
leavmg room fur adjacent air to converge at high altitudej from a beilt of hijgh
adding to the weight and pressure of the air. By contrast, Geostro.plhic pressure i't, the soufuern
wi,nd hemis,phere (e.g. ·from
the mean sea-level pressure is low over continents in the band ,of su'btropicall
summer. High surlace temperatures produce atmospheric Hilgh hi,glh p.ress ures). irh e
expansion and therefore a reduction in ah p ~sstnt. High preSlure pa,rce!I ts assum,ed
pressur@ dominates at around 25- 30 ° latitude. The highs . iL · stationary iinttilaHy. As
Geostropnic soon as it starts to
are centred over the oceans in summer and over the wind - - ·
~---=--------1~ move. ~t suffe rs a
1

continents in winter - whlchever is cooler. low si deways Co r,ioUs fo:rce,

pressure increasing. mn proportion
North Pole
Southern Hemisphere to Its a cce[era·b o n. The
...,--.....,.--=:::;;;::------ Po lar high pressure
1
f or:ce def1e cts the p airce!
- - - pressure-g1rad ie1n t force unbl irt is trnvelljng alorig
1

- - - - - - - - - - - ~ . . : : : - ~ Temperate low pressu re

1

Co ri'al1
is forc·e
1
a,n 1isobar1 wirth a
--i._...
Win,d constant speed such
that the Cori 0 1is force
--P- - Subtropkall 1

htgh pressure Source: LI ni~ Eana Geerts, B.• CTimat'6 and barl'a nces the
~;;ther Exdained, Routleage, 1997

! * --- Equatorial
low pressuire
Figure 2.19 The Corio Its iorce
pressu re-gra dile nt force.

___t-,---_t__t_·__t,.~_---:;___ Subtropical Every point on the Earth completes one rotation every
high pressure 24 hours. Air near the equator travels a much greater
distance than air near the poles.Air that originates near
..,__ _ _ _ _ _ _.,,..7'-- -Temperate low pressure the equator is carried towards the poles, taking with it a
vast momentum. The Coriolis force deflects moving objects
.__-1.-=::::::::.- - - - PoIar high pressure
1

to th,e right of their path in.the northern hemisphere and

Soul'dh Poile to the left of their path in the southern hemisphere.
1~1ow the wi1
nds wouJd blow 0 1n a .non-rotatin1gi Ea:rth The balance of forces between the pressure gradient
force and the Coriolis force is known a.s th.e g~ostrophk.
North Poil~
balance and the r9sulting wind is known as a geostrophi
vind. The geostrophic ·w ind in the :northern hemisphere
NLf . potsir ~-::;-=::;;:----- Polar high pressure
winds
blows anti-clockwise around the centre of low pressure
- - - - - - - -~ - ~- - - Temperate low pressure and clockwise around the centre of high pressure.
; , s.W.wi.nds/1' ;,, This centrifugal force is the outward force experienced
~-- Subtropical
hig npressure
when you drive a vehicle around a come:r. The centrifugal
force acts at right angles to tbe wind, puUing obj,ects
-- Eq,uatoria~ outwards, so for a given pressure, airflow i-s faster around
high pressure (because the pressure gradient and

~
- -

' '
....·"--'-·"'-S.E.- -trade- -w~nds-'-·
- -

-' - - =- - Subtropica,1
1ow press u,re

nignpressure
centrifugal forces work together rather than in opposite
directions).
The drag exerted by the Earth's surface is also important.
Friction decrea.s9s wind speedl so it decreases the Coriolis
~-------,,,r .,.......__ _ Temper-ate low pressure force, h ence air is more likely to flow towards low pressure.
~ ,...:
··~ ~=--~- -- Polar high pressure
South !Pole

b How the w,inds bk:rw on d rotati1111g E~1rtth Brrrefly ,expla~n the meaning ·Of the termfS a pressure gradient
Figure 2.18 P1ressure gradient winds force and b Coriolis foroe.

2.2 The g lobal energy budget •

General circulation model considered to be a thermally indirect cell {driven by the
In general: Hadley cell end polar cell). Now it is known to be more
complex, and there is some equator-ward movement of air
wann air is transferred polewards and is rep]a.ced by related to temperate high- and low-pressure systems. Th~se
cold air moving towards the equator are related to Rossby waves and jet streams (Figure 2.20c).
arrthat rises is associated with low pressure, whereas The zonal flow (east-west) over the Pacific was
arr that sinks is associated with.high pressure discov~red by Gilbert Walk~r in the 19.20s. The
low pressure produces ram; high pressure produces dry Southern Oscillation Index {SOI) is a m.easure of how
conditions. far temperatures vazy from the 'average A high SOI is
1
•

Any circulation model must take into account the associated with strong westward trades (because winds
mertdional (north/south) transfer of heatj and latitudm.ail near the equator blow from high pressure to low pressure
variations in rainfall and winds. (Any model is descriptive and are unaffected by the Coriolis force}. Tropical cyclones
and static - unlike the atmosphere.) In 173 5, George Hadley are m,ore common mthe South Pacific 'When there is an
described the operation of the Hadley cell, produced by El Niuu Southern Oscillation wann episode.
the direct heating over the equator. The air here is forced The polar cell is foundin high latitudes. Wmds at the
to rise by convection. travels polewards and then sinks at highest latitudes are generally easterly. Air over the North
the subtropical anticyclone (high-pressure belt) . Hadley Pole continually cools; and b eing cold it is dense and
1

su.g gested that similar cells might exist in mid-latitudes and therefore it subsides] creating high pressure. !rir above
high latitudes. Wtlliam Ferrel suggested that Hadley ceUs the polar front flows back to the North Pole, creating a
mterlink with a mid-latitude cell; rotating it in the reverse polar cell. In.between the Hadley cell and_the polar cell is
direction, and these cells in tum rotate the polar cell. an indirect cell, th.e Ferrel cell, driven by t he movem.e nt
There are very strong differences between. surface and of the -other t\1/o cells, rather like a cog in a chain.
upper winds in tropical latitudes. Easterly 'Winds at the In the early twentieth century, researchers investigated
surface are replaced by westerly Vlinds above, especially patterns and mechanisms of upper vnnds and clouds
in winter. At the ]TCZ, convectional stonns lift air into at an altitude of between 3 and 12kilometres. They
the atmosphere which increa.ses air pressure near the
1
identified larg~-sc:a.le fast-moving belts of westerly winds,
tropopause, causing winds to diverge at high altitude. which follow a ridge and trough.wa.ve-like pattern known
They move out of the equatorial regions towards the as Rossby waves or planetary waves (Figure 2.21). The
poles, gradually losing heat by radiation. As they contract, presence of these winds led to Rossby's 1941 model of
more air moves in and the weight of the air increases the atmosphere. This suggested a three-cell north/south
the air pressure at the subtropical high-pressure zone (meridional) circulation, with two thermally direct cells
(Figure 2.20). The denser air sinks, causing sl1bsidence _
(st bility). The north/south component of the Hadley cell is
and one thermally indirect cell. The thermally direct
cell is drtven by the heating a.t the equator (the Hadley
known as a meridional flow. The Ferrel Cell was originally
eel~) and by the sinking of cold air at the poles {the polar
" Sim plie the rmaJ1ly b Hadley's three-ce:11 mode 11
cell). Betvleen them lies the thermally in direct cell whose
direct imodell energy is obtained from the cells to either side by the
~ ®. mixing of the atmosphere at upper levels. The jet streams
North ~ are therefore key locations in the transfer of energy
Pole Direct . ~ through tJhe atmosphere. Further modifications of Rossby's
1nd1irect ~ ·models were made by Palmen in 19S1.
New models change the relative importance of the three
- ~ {t) convection c-ells in each hemisphere. These ch anges are
D~rect \:J mfluenced by jet streams and Rossby waves:
Equator
1

Jet streams are strong, regular winds that blow in the

upper atmosphere about 10km above the surface; they
blow between the poles and tropics (100-300kmlh).
.......
.. @ Wert~~ly • There are two jet streams meach hemisphere - one
'lo
'I.
between 30° and 50 °; the other bt:!twe~n 20 ° and. 30° .
1
il 0 Easterl;y
'~
In the northern hemisphere the polar jet and the
'\ ,
l
Po1ar front
1

.. subtropical jet flow eastwards.

*
~

"' ,. • Rossby waves are imeandering rivers of air' formed

• Jet stream
• by westerly winds. There are three to six waves in
:' --- r rep opa,use
~
each hemisphere. They are formed by major relief
Equator barriers such as the Rockies and the Andes, by thermal
differences and uneven land- sea interfaces.
Figure 2.20 General drouJation modei

• 2 Atmosphere and weather

 . -- Potarzone

a , Mi·d-l'atitud e
•I :
I
~
•
Cold
....__
; l
•• \ I
' , \ zone
I. r1. 1• ~· ...- • . •
II

I I ••
! t! . . . . -
•• ,. ... · - ... •
.._ •,..
• '
&, \
\
"/./.A!":'""............. \ \\ \
j.I 1 11 ;
j { :
•
...·1/'/ ,1 • ,... • • , , , ..
.~' I / . .
I "
• •'\",' ..
• \ •
" \ \
~ I I I
· ~• '
~ \'.L.. ·~..,...~
;.~~ f Warm \', ,· •.,...· , ,11:
• ~ --...... .,i- / , I . · "I",/ ~
• ' ' - .... ~
.. ,, , ill-- rr,,, • .. fl.'-~-r~
~
.,:
• . , : _ .,..-.
...... . . . .. T •
• II
•••ii ••
- •

Hadiliey
celll
\ Tropica·I
, zone
Wa·ves are strongly devel!oped
I
\
\
I
- ..... _ Tropopause

- - - - - - - ~ Rotatiorrri

C ..
O· A
Main a,irstreams (as seen
in vertica ~ section)

Ce'lls of ca~d a,ndt warm bodies aire ·formed t-_-,:~ Surface ;pmssu,re systems and winds
Major ove:rt!Jrn:ing
c~lils andl upper wa:ves 7/ A mid-1atitud e anti eye lones
C mid-1a'titude cydcm.es

Figure· 2.21 Rossby waves

• The jet streams result from differences in equatorial takes 600calories af h ~at t o change 1gram of water
and sub-tropical air, and between polar and sub-tropical from a liquid to a vapour. Heat loss during evaporation
air. The greater the temperature dlifference the stronger 1
passes into the water as latent heat (of vaporisation) .
the jet stream. Tiris would cool 1kilogram of arr by 2.5 °C. By contras(
when condensation occurs ]atent heat locked in the
Rossby waves are affected by major topographic barriers 1

water vapour is released, causing a rise in temperature.

such as the Rockies an.d the Andes. Mountains cre~te a
In the chan ges between vapour and ice, heat is released.
wave~like pattern, which typically lasts six weeks. .As the
when vapour is converted to ice {solid), for example
pattern becomes more exaggerated (Figure 2.21b}, it leads
rime at high altitudes and high latitudes. En contrest,
to blocking anticyclones (blocking highs} - prolonged
heat is absorbed in the process of sublimation, for
periods of unusually warm weather.
Jet str~ams and Rossby waves are an important mea.ns example when snow patches disappear without melting.
When liquid water tum.s to ice, heat is rellea.s ed and
of mixing warm and cold air.
temperatures drop. In cantrast, in meltin.g ice beat is
absorbed and temperat ures rise.

1 Des.cnbe and expJa1n how the Hadley ceH qpera:tes.

2 Deti1ne the tern, Rossby wave. Suggest how an
understand~ng of Rossby waves may he1p in our
understand~ng of the general circulati:on.

2. a her proce s -s and

phe om n
D Atmospheric moisture processes
Atmosphertc: moisture exists in all three states - vapou~
liquid and solid (Figures 2.22-2.24). Energy is used in the
change from one phase to another, for example between
a liquid and a gas. In evaporation, heat is absorbed. [t Figure 2.22 Ami osphe11c moisture - condensat~on

2.3 Weather processes a nd phenomena •

 Saturation
vapour
-
:J
0
Q.
W1ith 1respect
to-water
pressure
curve with
respect to
>"' 50
~ / an Ice
surface

40
Temperature (Q

30

Figure 2w23 R.adia1ton fog tin the lower part of alpine vaHeys
20 -

10
Saitu.ration po irnt
l
.,.,-.,.E - - - - - - x
Adding moisture

~nnra~ t~mpercact:ureand
CooUng v~po ur piressure

0-
- ~~~--~~~--~~~--~~~--~~-
o 10 20 30 40
Temperature (°C}

The curves demonstrate lhow m,uch moisture the airr ca,n ho1 ld 1

for any temperature. Be1low O ~c the curve is sli'ghtl.y dwfer,ent

for an i~ su:rface than for a supercnol ad water drop!let.
1

Source: Briggs et al., f.und:Jmerrtais of the pP,jsiGil enwoM'lent. Routledge, 1997

Figure 2.25 Maximum vapour pressure

Factors affecting condensation

Condensation occurs when either a enough water vapour
is evaporated into an air n1ass for it to become saturated
or b when the temperature drops so that dew point (the
Figure 2.24 Moisture in its Uquid state - Augher Lake~ Gap of temperature at which air is saturated) is reached. The first
Ounloe1 KJiUarney, Ireland is relatively rare; the second common. Such cooling occurs
in three main ways:
Factors affecting evaporation • radiation cooling of the air
Evaporation occurs when vapour pressure of a • contact cooling of the air when it rests over a cold surface
water surface exceeds that :in the atmosphere. • adiabatic (expansive) cooling of air when it rises.
Vapour pressure is the pressure exerted by the
Condensation is very difficult to achieve in pure air. It
water vapour in the atmosphere. The maximum
requires some tiny particle or nucleus onto which the
vapour pressure a.t any temperature occurs wh.e n
the air is saturated (Figure 2.2S) . Evaporation aims vapour can condense. In the lower atmosphere these
to equalise the pressures. It depends on three main are quite common, such as sea salt, dust and pollution
factors: particles. Some of these particles are hygroscopic - that
is, water-seekmg - andl condensation may occur when the
initial humidicy of the ai-r ~ if air is ver;y c1zy then strong relative humidity is as low as 80per cent.
evaporation occurs; if it is saturated then very little
occurs Other processes
supply ofheat-the botterthe air, the more evaporation Freezing refers to the change of liquid ·w ater mto a
that takes place solid, namely ice~once the temperature falls below 0°c.
wind strength - undler calm conditions the arr becomes Ivlelting is the change from a solid to a liquid. when the
saturated rapidly. air temperature rises above 0°c. Subli.n ation is the

• 2 Atmosphere and weather

conversion of a solid into a vapour with no intenn.ediate Convectional rainfall
liquid.state. Under conditions of low humidity, snow can When the lend becomes vezy hot, it heats the air above
be evaporated directly into water vapour without entering it. This arr expands and rises. As it rises, cooling and
the liquid state. Sublimation is also used to descnbe the condensation take place. Ifit continues to rise rain~
1

direct depositio 1 of water vapour onto ice. In some cases, fall. It is very common in tropical areas (Figure 2.27) and is
water droplets may be deposited directly onto natural associated with the permanence of the ITCZ. In temperate
features (such. as plants and animals) as well as built areas, convectional nrin is more common in summer.
structures (for example buildings and vehicles) .
Frontal or cyclonic rainfall
D Precipitation Frontal rain occurs when wann air m·eets cold air. The
warm air, being lighter and.less dense, is forced to rise
The tenn. precipitation' refers to all forms of deposition
1

of moisture from the atmosphere in either solid or liquid

over the cold, denser air. n it rises, it cools, condenses and
forms rain. It is most common mmiddle and high latitudes
states. It includes rain, hail, snow end dew. Because rain
is the most common form of precipitation in.many areas,
where warm tropical air and cold polar air converge.
the term is sometimes applied to rainfaU alone. For any Oro,g raphic (or relief) rainfall
type of precipitation, except dew, to form, clouds must first Air may be forced to rise over a barrier such as a mountain.
be producedl. As it rises, it cools, condenses and forms rain. There is often
Mien minute droplets of water are condensed from a rainshadow effect, whereby the leeward slope receives
water vapour they float in the atmosphere as clouds. If
1
a relatively smaU amount of ram.Altitude i.s hnportant,
droplets coalesce, they fonn. large droplets that when
1 especially on a local scale. In general, there are increases
heavy enough to overcome by gravity an ascending of precipitation up to about 2kilometres. Above this level,
current, they fall as rain. Therefore cloud droplets must rainfall decreases because the air temperature is so low.
get much larger to form rain. There are a number of
theories to suggest how raindrops are formed. Thunder.s torms (intense convectional rainfall)
1

Th1 n erstc rrn are special cases of rapid! cloud formation

The Bergeron theory suggests that for rain to forml
and heavy precipitation in unstable air conditions.
water and ice must exist in clouds at temperatures below
Absolute or a 1ditional instability exists to great
0 °c.Indeed, the temperature in clouds may be as low
heights, causing strong updraughts to develop within
as -40 °C. At such temperatures] water droplets and ice
cumulonimbus clouds. Air continues to rise as long as it
droplets form. Ice crystals grow by condensation and
is saturated (relative humidity is 100per cent; that is, it
become big enough to overcome turbulence and cloud
has reached its dew point}. Thund·e rstorms are especially
updrafts, so they fall. AB they fall crystals coalesce to form
1

lerger snowflakes. These generally melt and become ram

com·mon in tropicall and warm areas where air can hold
large amounts of water. They are rare in polar areas.
as they pass into the warm air layers near the ground..
Several stages can. be identified (Figure 2.28):
Thusl according to Bergeron! rain comes from clouds
that ara well below·freezing at high altitudes, where the 1 Developing stage: updraught caused by uplift; energy
coexistence of water and ice is possible. The snow/ice Qatent heat} is released as condensation.occurs;
mruts as it pa.sses into clouds at low altitude where the air becomes vecy unstable; rainfall occurs as cloud
temperatures are above freezing level. temperature is greater th.an 0°C; the great strength of
Other mechanisms must also exist as rain also comes uplift prevents snow and ice from falling.
from clouds that are not so cold. Mechanisms include: ,., Mature stage~ sudden onset of heavy rain and maybe
thunder and lightning; rainfall drags cold air down with
• condensation on.extra -large hygroscopic nuclei
it; upp·e r parts of the cloud may reach the tropopause;
• coalescence by sweepingj whereby a falling droplet
the cloud spreads~ giving the characteristic anvil shape.
sweeps up others in its path 3 Dissipating stage: do\Vndraughts prevent any further
the growth of droplets by electrical attraction..
convective instability; the new cells may be initiated
by the meeting of cold downdraughts from cells some
Causes of precipitation distance apart, triggering the rise of warm air in between.
The Bergeron theory relates mostly to snow~ making. !:ino u
Lightning occurs t.o relieve the tension between different
is a single flake of frozen water. Rain and drizzle are found
charged areas, for example between cloud and ground or
when the temperature is above 0°c (drizzle has a diameter within the cloud itself. The upper parts of the cloud are
of< 0.5 mm) . Sleet is partially melted snow.
positive whereas the lower parts are negative. The very
There are three main types of ramfall: conv ctional, 1

base of the cloud is positively charged. The origin of the

frontal (dPpressional) and o ographic (relief) (Figure 2.26} .
charges is not very clear, although they are thought to be

2.3 Weather processes and phenomena •

 - FrontaI or cydonk rh~s l1i1ne
represents
Wa1rm a1i1r [l'lises ~he pllane
over co Id a1ir; iit separat,ing
expands, coo11s and warm a.iir
Conde n$a,tj on tak@s from coJdl
place, douds and
1

1raiin form

Warm a,h· 1s forced to rise when It is underciut

by colder aiir; clouds cHid rain occur
Figure 2.27 Convectional ramn jn Brunei

b Re:l ief or mugraphic

Heavy rain
on higih land Rain shadow

Condensatiqn
and rain
Warm
mok;t west
winds

__.-Rainfall 1OOO mm - 3750 mm 1205 mrn less than 750 mm

c Coinvection al
4 Coal, air d ec ends
W hen th e land becomes hot it heats 3 Further ascent causes more and rep laces tne
11h e air above irt. This ak exp-an ds and expans,ion and more cco'lingi, warm airr
ris-es. As it rises cooling and
1 ra1iin takes p1ace
condensation takes pliace. If it
continues to rise rain wH:I fa ll. It 1s \
common i:n tro;pka,11areas. ln the UK
1
2 The heated air rises
it is quite common i'n tne summer. and expands a,ndl
especia1lly 1in the Sou,th East. coo Is, co ndensa ti on
takes p:la,c~
Source: Nagle. G.
G~ography Througl~
Figure 2.26 Types of precipitation 1 The Earth's hot surface heats the a rrr above it Diagl';!imS, OUP 1998

due to condensation and evaporation. Lightning heats • form or shape such as stratifonn ~aye-rs) and
1

the air to very high temperatures. Rapid.expansion and cumuliform (heaped type)
vibratio.n of th-e column of air produ,ces thunder. • height, such as low (<2000m}, m.edium or alto (200Q....
7000m) and high (7000-13000m) .
There are a number of different types of clouds (Figure
2.29}. High clouds consist mostly of ice crystals. Cirrus
Us~ng diagram1s-, ,expla~n 1he meaning of 1:he term1s
are wispy clouds and include cirrocumullus (mackerel
1

a co11vectional rainfaD, b orographic ramfall, c frontal rainfall. sky) and ci.rros tratus (halo effect around the Sun or
Moon). Alto or middle-height clou.d s generally consist
of water drops. They exist at temperatures lower than
0°c. Low clouds indicate poor weather. Stratus clouds
Clouds are dense, grey and low lying (Figure 2.30). Nimbostratus
Clouds are formed of millions of tiny water droplets he]d are thos-e that produce rain (jnimbus' means 'stonn 1
).

in suspension. They are classified i.n. a number of ways, the Stratocumulus are long- cloud rolls, and a mixture of
most important being: stratus and cumulus (see Figure 2.6 in Section 2.1).

• 2 Atmosphere a nd weather
 a Developing e b Mature
c:!.-
~ 15
..,...,:I
c
10
1

_ _ _ _ Frree:zing
.s 1
leveI 1

c Dissi pati ng E d Distribution of eledrostatit charges

d!.
-I:, 1'5
-~
~
C

Downd ra ughts
Freezin~ ""
leveJ s

Light rain
0

Figure 2M28 Stages in .a 1hund eratorm

Vertical development suggests upward movement. terms of total amount seasonality; intensity; duration and
1

Cumulus clouds are flat-bottomed and heaped. They effectiveness; that is whether there is more rainfall than
1

indicate bright brtsk weather. Cumulonimbus clouds potential .evapotranspiration. {Refer back to page 45 for
produce heavy rainfall and often thunderstorms. m.ore infonnation on the three main types of rainfall.)
The important facts to keep in mind: Hail
• In unstable conditions, the domi_nant form of uplift is Heil is altsm.a.ts concentric rings of clear and opa.qu~ ice 1

convection and this may cause cumulus clouds. formed by raindrops being carried up and down in vertical
• With stable conditions, stratiform clouds generally occur. arr currents in large cumulorumbus clouds. Freezing
• Where fron s are involved, a variety of clouds exist. a.nd partia.Jt m.elting may occur several times before the
• Relief or topography causes stratiform or cumulifonn pellet is large enough to escape from the cloud. As the
clouds depending on the stability of the air.
1 raindrops are carried high.up mthe cumulonimbus cloud
they freeze. The hailstones may collide 'With droplets of
'B anner clouds
supercooled water, which freeze on impact-with andl foim
These are formed by orographi.c uplift (that is, air forced
to rise, ov~ e mountain for example) under stable air a layer of opaque ice around the hailstone. As the hailstone
falls, the outer layer may be melted but may freeze again
conditions. Uplifted moist eir streams reach conde·nsation
with further uplift The process can occur many times
only at the very summit, a.n.d form a small cloud. Further
downwind the air sinks and the cloud disappears. Wav~
before the ha_il finally falls to ground!, when its weight is
1
great enough to overcome the strong updraughts of air.
clouds reflect the influence of the topography on the flow
of air. Snow
Snow is frozen precipitation (Figure 2.31). Snow crystals
Types of precipitation fonn when the temperature is below freezing and water
Rain vapour is converted into a so]id. However very cold arr
1

Rain refers to liquid drops of water 'With a diameter of contains a limited amount of moisture, so the heaviest
between 0.5millimetres and Smillimetres. It is heavy snowfalls tend to occur when warm moist air is forced
enough to fall to the ground. Drizzle refers to rainfall with over very high mountains or when wann moi.st arr comes
a diam·eter of less than 0.5 millimetres. Rainfall varies in into contact vJith vezy cold air at a front.
2.3 Weather processes and phenomena •
 High clouds

l:
~
·-~ 12 OOO -
Hafo
C1rro rum uh.1s
Cirrostratus
Anvill he8d Verl
6000
Medjum clouds
r------._
Attocum.ulus
Altostratus
3000 - -------- ......
Clolsl ds VIAth
-·--·--- - -

vertical development Low clouds

Cumulonimbus Cumulus
Cumulus of
1SOO -
fair weather
~---- --------

Nimbostratus

Ground Strato-cumulus
Figure 2.29 Cilass~fica.1aon of douds

Dew
Dew is the direct deposition of water droplets onto a
surface. It occurs in clear1 calm anticyclonic conditions
(high pressure) where there is rapid radiation cooling by
night. The tern perature reaches dew point, and further
cooling causes condensation and direct precipitation onto
the ground and vegetation (Figure 2.32).

Figure 2.30 S1ratus doudls

-
Figure 2.31 Snow at Blienhe~m Palacej Oxfordshi1re, UK Rgure 2. 32 Dew - direct condensation onto vegetation

• 2 Atmosphere and weather

Fog \vhen it moves on land during anticyclonic conditions. In
F is cloud at ground level. Radiation fo (Figure 2.33) summer, the sea is cooler than the land so air is not cooled
is fanned in low-lying areas during calm weather, when it blows onto the land. By contrast, in winter there
especially during spring a.nd autumn. The surface of the are more low-pressure systems, causing stronger \Vinds
ground, cooled rapidly at night by radia.tion, cools the arr and mixing the arr.
immediately above it. This air then flows into hol]ows Fog is more common in anticyclonic conditions.
by gravity and is cooled to dew point (the temperature Anticyclones are stable high-pressure systems
at vihich condensation occurs). Ideal conditions include characte1ised by clear skies and low -wind spe-ads. Clear
a surface layer of moist arr and clear skies which allow
1
skies allow maximum cooling by night. Air is rapidly
rapid radiation cooling. cooled to dew pomi condensation occurs and fog is
formed.
dvection -o is formed when warm moist airflows
horizontally over e cooler land or sea sulface. St~ m fog
is very localised. Cold air blows over much warmer ·water.
Evaporation from th~ water quickly saturates the air and
the resulting condensation leads to steaming. It occurs
1Nhen very cold polar air meets the surrounding relatively
warm water.

1 Dist~ngu;sh betvveen radiation fog and adveotion fog.

2 Under which atmospheric condirtions (stabmty or instabmty)
do m~st and fog fo~m? 8ri1efly explain how fog tS form1ed.
3 Under which atmospheric oondiitions do thunder and
lightning form? Briefly expiain how thunder is created.,

The decrease in temperature of the lower layers of the 2.4 The human impact
arr causes air to go below the dew po.int. With fairly light
~ds, the fog forms close to the water surta.ce, but \Vith D Global warming
stronger turbulence the condensed layer may be uplifted
to form a low stratus sheet. The role of greenhouse gases
As the Sun rises~ radiation fog disperses. Under cold Greenhouse gases are ·essential for life on Earth.
anticyclonic conditions in late autum·n and winter, The Moon is an airless planet that is a1most t_he
fog may be thicker and more persistent, and around same distance from the Sun as is the Earth. Average
la:rge t owns smog may develop under an in ersion temperatures on the Moon are about-18 °Cl compared
layer. An inversion means that cold air is found at with about 1S "C on Earth. The Earth's atmosphere
ground level, \Vhereas warm air is above it- unlike the therefore raises temperatures by about 33 °c. This is
normal conditions in which. air temperature declines due to the greenhouse gases, such as water vapou~
with height. In industria] areas, emissions of sulphur carbon dioxidej methane, ozone, nitrous oxides and
di-Oxide act as con dens at:ion nuclei and allow fog to chlorofluorocarbo·ns (CFCs). They are caUed greenhouse
form. Along motoroa.ys, the heavy concentration of gases because, as in a greenhouse, they allow short-
vehicle emissions does the same. By contrast, in. coastal wave radiation from the Sun to pass through them,
areas the higher minimum temperatures means that but they trap outgoing long-wave radiation, thereby
condensation during high-pressure conditions is less raising the temperature of the lower atmosphere (Figure
likely. 2.34). The greenhouse effect is both natural and good-
Fog conunonly occurs over the sea in autumn and without it there would be n o human life on Earth. On
spring because the contrast in temperature between land the other hand, there are concerns about the enhanced
and sea is significant. Warm air from over the sea is cooled greenhous effect.

2.4 Th e human impact •

 wetland and paddy fields are another important source -
paddy fields emit up to 1S0million tonnes of methane
annually. As global warming increases bogs trapped
in permafrost will melt and release vast quanti.ties of
methane. Chlorofluorocarbon (CFCs) are synthetic
chemicals that destroy ozone as well as absorb long-
1

wave radiation. CFCs are increasing at a rate of 6per cent

per annum and are up to 10000 times more efficient at
1

trapping heat than. C02 .

As long as the amount of water vapour and carbon
dio::dde stay the sa·me and the amount of solar energy
Space
remains the s ameJ the temperature of the Earth should
- , rernain in equilibrium. However; human activities
.... ••Atmosphere
are upsetting the natural balance by increasing the
More heat
'1le at flong-wa ve than befo1re amount ofC02 in the atmosph~re, as well as the other
r.ad iation) ~1iven trapped in greenhouse gases.
Sun's rays pass off by Earth atmosphere
through the ;
so 'Earth
atmosphere wi:thout warms up How human activities add to greenhouse gases
be tng absome:d
1 Earth ·s surface Much of the -e vidence for the greenhouse effect has been
(sh ortawave heated
racfiatLO n), though taken from ice cores dating back 160000years. These
some is reflected back show that the Earth's temperature closely paralleled
into space by ~he Earth
clouds the levels of Co 2 and methane in the atmosphere.
Souru: OCR A2 G909r¥l?y Dy M. Riw (Phi 11!0 All.in Updatias. 200!)) p.111 Calculations indicate that changes in these greenhouse
gases were part, but not :all, of the reason for the large
{5 °- 7°} global temperature swings between ice ages and
interglacial periods.
Figure 2.34 1he grreenhouse effect Accurate measurements of the levels of C02 in the
atmosphere began.in 1957 in Hawaii. The site chosen was
The enhanced greenhouse effect is built up of far away from major sources of indushial pollution and
certain greenhouse gases as a result of human activity shows a good representation of unpolluted! atmosphere.
(Table 2.2) . Car on dioxide (C0 2) levels have risen from The trend in C0 2 levels shows a clear annual pattern 1

about 315ppm (parts per million) in 1950 to over 400wm associated Vlith seasonal changes in vegetation,
and are expected to reach 600pprn by 2050. The increase especially those over the northern hemisphere. By the
is due to human activities: burning f ossU fuels (coal, oil 1970s there wa.s a. second trend, one of a long-tenn
and na. tural gas) and deforestation. Defores ta. tion of the increase in C0 2 levelsl superimposed upon the annual
tropical rainforest is a double blow - not only do9s it trends.
increase atmospheric C0 2 levels, it also removes the trees Studies of cores ta.ken from ice packs in Antarctica
that convert C02 into oxygen. and Greenland show that the leve] of C0 2 between
~Iethane is the second largest contributor to global 10000years ago and the mid-nineteenth -c entury was
warming, and is :increasing at a rate of between 0.5 and stable at about 270ppm. By 1957 the concentration of
1 1

2 per cent per annum. Cattle alone give off between C02 m the atmosphere was 315ppm, and it has since
65 and 8Smillion tonnes of methan.e per year. Natural risen to about 360ppm. Most of the extra C0 2 has come

Table 2.2 Properties o-f key greenhouse gases

• : . , :.: • •• = ·, Rate·· of):-; I : ! •• · •
f!. : : • • I : p_er·:~~-n~ I I : •

Carbon dioxide 4·00 0.5 i i20 N'one

Methane i .72
1
0.6--0.75 ii i0.5 Poslttve
Nltro us oxide 0.3i, 0.2-0.3 270 132 Uncertain
CFC- 11 0.000255 4 34,QO 55 Negatl.ve
GFC-12 OJ.)00453 4 7100 1"16 Negatl.ve
co Months Positive
NOx Uncertain
·--

• 2 Atmosphere and weather

from the burning of fossil fuels, especially coal, although variations in the tilt of the Earth s axis
1

some of the increase may be due to the disruption of the changes in the aspect of the poles 'from towards the Sun.
rainforests. For every tonne of carbon burned, 4 tonnes of to away from it
C0 2 a.re released. - variations in solar output (sunspot activity)
By the early 1980s, 5 gigatonnes {SOOOmillion tonnes, or • c:hmges in the amount of dust in th.e atmosphere
5 Gt) of fuel were burned every year. Roughly half the C02 (partly due to volcanic activity)
1

produced[ is absorbed by natural sinks, such as vegetation • changes in the Earth s ocean currents as a result of
and plankton. continental drift.
Other factors have the potential to affect climate too. All of these have helped cause climate change, and may
For examplej a change in the albedo (reflectivity of the still be doing so. despite anthropogenic forces.
land brought about by desertification or deforestation)
affects the amount of solar energy absorbed at the Earth's Complexity of the problem
surface. Aerosols made from sulphur, emitted largely in Climate change is a very com.plex issue for a number of
fossil-fuel combustion, can modify clouds and may act to reasons:
1ow9rtemperatures. Changes in ozone in the stratosphere
due to CFCs may also influence climate. • Scale - it includes the atmosphere, oceans and land
Since the Industrial Revolution the combustion of
1
masses across the world.
fossil fuels and deforestation have led to an increase • Interactions bet\veen these three areas a.Ie complex.
of 26 per cent of C02 concentration in the atmosphere • It includes natural as \.\rell as anthropogenic forces.
(Figure 2.35). Emissions of CFCs used as aerosol • There are feedback mechanisms involved, not all of
propellants, solvents, refrigerants and foam-blowing ·w hich are fully understood.
agents are also well known.. They were not present in Many of the processes are long term and so the impact
the atmosphere before their invention in the 1930s. of changes may not yet have occurred.
The sources of methane and nitrous o:xides are less
well known. Methane concentrations have more than The effects of increased global temperature change
doubled because of rice production cattle rearing
1 1 The effects of global warming are varied (see Table 2.3).
biomass bunting, coa.1 mining and ventilation of natural Much depends on the scale of the changes. For example,
gas. Fossil fuel combustion may have also contributed some impacts could mclude:
through chemical reactions in the atmosphere, which
• a rise in sea levels, causing flooding in lov,-lying areas
reduce the rate of removal of methane. Nitrous oxide has
increased by about 8 per cent since pre-industrial times, such as the Netherlands Egypt and Bangladesh - up to
1

presumably due to human activities. The effect of ozone 200million people could be displaced
on climate is strongest in the upper troposphere and 200million people at risk of bemg driven from their
lower stratosphere. homes by flood or drought by 2050
- 4millionkm.2 of land, home to one-twentieth of the
world's population, threatened by floods from melting
• The increasing ca~b on dioxide ~n the atmosphere since the glaciers
pre-,jndustrtal era, from about 280 to 382 ppmv (parts.per • an incrsase in storm activity, such as more frequent and
mini'on by vo~um,e), makes the iaJrg,est indi~rdual contribution
to greenhouse g.as rad~ative fordng: 1.58W/m2 (watts per
intense hurricanes (owing to more atmospheric energy)
square metre}. • changes in agricultural patterns, for example a declme
• The increase o-f mefuane (CH 4) since pre-industrial times in the USXs giain belt, but an increase in Can.adals
{fro'm 0.7 to 1.7 ppmv) oontr~butes about 0.5W/1m2. grovling season
• The increase irn n~trous oxide (NOx) s~nce pre-industria1 • :reduced rainfaU over the USA, south.e m Europe and the
t,mes, from about .27510 310ppbv3i oontrfbutes about Common~tealth of Independent States (CIS), leading to
0.1 W/m2. ·widespread drought (Figure 2.36)
The observed con centrati:ons of h~oca~bons, includ~ng 4billion people could suffer from water shortages if
CFCs, have resuhed in direct rad~ative fordngrof about temperatures rise by 2 °C
0.3W/m,2.
a 3'Sper cent drop in crop yields a.cross Africa and the
Figure 2. 35 Changes in greenhouse gases s~nce Middle East expected if temperatures rise by 3 °c
pre-industrial 1~mes • 2.00million more people could be exposed to hunger
if world temperatures rise by 2 °C; 5S0million jf
Arguments surrounding global warming
temperatures rise by 3 °c
60million morE Africans could be exposed to mala1ia if
There are many causes of global warming and climate world temperatures rise by 2°c
change. Natural causes include: extinction of up to 40per cent of species of \m.ldlife if
variations in the Earth's orbit around the Sun temperatures rise by 2°C.

2.4 The human impact •

Table 2.3 Some potentlaJI effects of a changing dlirmate in the UIK The Stem Review says that doing nothing about climate
change - the business-as-usual (BAU) approach - would
]ead to a reduction in global per person consumption
An lncreas; In tlmberylelds (up • Increased damagg effects of of at least 5 per cent now and for ever. According to the
to 25 % by 2050) esp~rauy 11111
j IncrsasQd stormlness1 flood Ing report, global wa.mting could deliver an economic blow
the north (with perhaps so,me and eroslon on natu raJ and
decrmse In the south). human resources and human
of between S and 20per cent of GDP to world economies
A northward s·h1fti: of far.m Ing resource assets In coastal areas.
1 because of natural disasters and the creation of hundreds
zones by about 200---300 km,per • An Increase rn animal species,
of millions of climate refugees displaced by sea-level 1ise.
1 "C of warming, or 50--80 ikm per espgclally Insects, as a fBSult of Dealing with the problem, by comparison~"Will cost just
decade, WIii ,Improve some forms northward migration frnm the 1 per cent of GDP, equivale.n t to £184 billion.
of agH ou1,ture, espe: lally pastoral cont lnent and a smal I decrease
farming In tne north-west. In the number of plant species Main points
Ennanced' potent1a11for tou nsm due to ,the loss of nortnem and Carbon emissions have already increased global
and ire:creatlon as a result of montane (mountain types).
Increased temperatures and • An Increasg In soll drought, so II
temperatures by more than 0.5 °C.
roouced preclplra.tlon In the erosion and the shrinkage of clay • \iVith no action to cut greenhouse gases, we will warm
summer, especially In the south. so lls. the planet by another 2-3°C within SOyears.
• Temperature rise will transform the physical geography
of the planet and the way we live.
The Stern Review· • Floods, disease, storms and water shortages ·will become
The Stern Review (2006) was a repoit by Sir Nicholas Stem more frequent.
that analysed the :financial implications of climate change. The poorest countries -will suffer the eadiest and the
The report has a simple message: most.
Climate change is fundamentally altering the planet. The effects of climate change could cost the world
The risks of maction are high. bet\.Veen S and 20per cent of GDP.
Time is running out. Action to reduce greenhou.se-gas emissions and the
,vorst of global \vanning would cast 1per cent afGDP.
The effects of climate change vary with the degree of • Vlith no action each tonne of carbon dioxide we emit
1
temperature change (Figure 2 .37). The report states that will cause at least $85 (£45) of damage.
climate change poses a threat to the world economy and • Levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere should be
it ·will be cheaper to address th.e problem than to deal with limited to the equivalent of 4S0--550pp1n.
the consequences. The global-warming argument seemed • Action should include carbon pricing, new technology
a straight fight between the scientific case to act, and the and robust international agreements.
economic case not to. Now, economists a.re urgjng action.

Figure 2.36 The effects of global warmi1ng1

• 2 Atmosphere and weather

 • Falllng crop yie,lds i·n many areas, pa1rticular·ly LEDCs
PossibJe rising yietds in some high latitude regions I_ FalHng yields in m,any MEDCs

Sma1:1 mountain g iaders Sig ni:fkant dec:raa ses in water

Water availabUity iri many areas, including Sea level' rrise threatens major cities
disappear -water supplies
M:editerranean and Southem Africa
threatened in several areas
Ecosystems
Extern,i ve damage to coral reefs
1
Rising number of species face extinction

Extreme weather
events I Risin g intens·ity of storms, f orest fires, droughts, flooding and heatwaves

Risk of abtuP.t and major lncreasi,ng ris:k of dangerous feedbacks and

irreversible changes abrupt, large-scale shifts in the dimate system
0 °C 11 °C 2 °C 3 °C 4 °C 5 °C
GI o ba I temperature Cch a nge (relative to pre-in dustr ia I)
figure 2.37 IProjected ~mpacts of dimate dhange, accordiing1to the Stern ~eview

International policy to protect climate The Kyoto Protocol (1997) gave all high-rncome
The first world conference on climate change was held countries (HICs) legally binding targets for cuts in
mGeneva. in 1979. The Toronto Conference of 1988 called emissions from the 1990 level by 2008-12. The EU
for the reduction of carbon dioxide emissions by 20per agreed to cut emissions by Bper cent, Japan 7 per cent
cent of the 1988 levels by 200'5. Also in 1988, UNEP and and the USA by 6per cent. The Paris round of global
the World. Meteorological Organization established the climate-change talks (2015) attempted to bring all
Int2rgovemmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). countries in line v.rith plans to reduce climate ch.ange.
However, many of the plans discussed had a very long
'The ulthnate objective js to achieve ... stabilisation of time frame and there appeared to be little hope for a
greenhouse gas conce ntrations in the atmosphe r e at quick solution.
a le,.,~e l tha t would prevent da ngerou s antln·opogenic
interference v,,.-ith the climate syste1n.'

e Us~ng an annotated diagram, expfa~n what is 1meara by

the term1the greenhouse effect.
1 F~gure .2.37 shows some of ~he projected impacts refated to d Outiine the benefits of the g1reenhouse effect
g1f,oball warming.
a Describe the potential changes as a result ,of a 3 °C r~e -u 1.0
in temperature.
b Expfain why there is an mncrea.sed risk of hazards in
-0

1111
13'
; 0.5
coas1a~ cirt~es.
c OutJline the ways 1in whjch tt ijs poss~ble to manage the -5
1imipacts of g1obal wanmi1ng. ;
+,ii
d Evaluate 1h e potentia1 11mpacts of g1lobal warming . ,,, 0.0
~
2 F~g1ure 2.38 shows variattons ,n m,ean eJr temperature A,

between 1880 and 2000. I

t- -0.5 -,--r---,---r----r--..-r-i---,-.,....---r-------___,;
a i ~dentify tl1e reason that ttle temperature in the early
1850 1·900 1950 2000
11960s fell bellow 116°0. Year
ii Descnibe ·t he 1i1m pact of Pj·natubo on g1fobal dimate in
the 1990s. in m ean ai1r temperatur-ej
Figure 2 ..38 Vanattons 1 188~2000
b Outline th,e natural sources oi greenhouse gases.

2.4 Th e human impact •

D Urban climates Some of these - notably dark bricks - absorb large
quantities of heat and release them slowly by night
Urban climates occur as a result of extra sources of heat
(Figure 2. 39). In add!ition, the release of pollu ta
released from industry; commercial and residential helps trap radiation in urban areas. Consequently,
buildings: as well as from vehicles, concrete, glass,
urba.n microc:limates can be very different from rural
bricks, tannac- all of these act very differently from soil
ones. Greater amounts of dust mean an increasing
and vegetation. For example, the albedo (reflectivity) of
concentration of hygroscopic particles. There is less water
tarmac is a.bout 5-10per cent while that of concrete is
1
vapour, but more carbon dioxide and higher proportions
17-27per cent. .in contrast, that of grass is 20-30per cent.
of noxious fumes o\ving to combustion of imported fuels .
a Isolated buildings Discharge of Wclste gases by industry is also increased.
Isolated ·urban heat budgets differ from rural ones. By day, the
building major source of heat is solar energy: and in urban areas
Heat stored and
rewradiated
brick~ concrete and stone have high heat capacities.A
kilometre of a.n urban area contains a greater surface
CHigh area than a. kilometre of countryside, and the greater
buildings
Sunny s1de heated Shaded number of surfaces in urban areas allow a greater area to
by insolation, reflected si:de be heated. There are more heat--retaining materials "With
insol ation, radiation.
m
1

and conduction lower albedo and better radiation-absorbing properties

urban areas than mrural ones.

b Low buildings Moisture and humidity

murban areas, there is relative lack of moisture. This is
Very li ttle radiation reaches due to:
street level. Rad~a,tion reilected
off lower waius after reilection a lack of vegetation
Street collects from near tops of b uiIdi ngs
a.high draina.ge density (sewers and drains), which
r~tlect~d radiation
removes water.
The structure of the urban climatic do me
Thus there are decreases in relative humidity in inner
Prevailing w.ind cities due to the lack of available m oisture and higher
Urban Urban. plume
boundary develops
temperatures there. However, this is partly countered in
layer
1

downwind vezy cold stable conditions by early onset of condensation

1

Urban canopy in low-lying districts and industrial zones.

1,ayer below Rura·1
roof le-vel boundary Nevertheless, there a.re more intense storms,
layer particularly during hot summer evenings and nights,
Rura!I Rurar owing to greater i tability and stronger convection above
built-up areas. There is a higher incidence of thunder (due
The morphology of the urban heat island to more heating and instability) but less snowfall (due to
8~1J-f is the urban heat island lntensJty. Le. the temperature higher temperatures) and any snow that does fall tends t o
m

,dinerence between the peak and the rural! air

Peak melt rapidly.
I Hence little energy is used for evapotranspiration 1

so more is available to heat the atmosphere. This is in

addition to the sources of heating produced by peop1e,
such as in industry and by cars.
At night, the ground radiates heat and cools. In. urban
Ru rat areas, the release of heat by buildings offsets the cooling
process, and some industries, commercial activities and
Airflow mod ifiad by a sing I@ building transport n etworks continu~ to release heat throughout
the night.
A There is greater scattering of shorterewave radiation by
A dust, but much higher absorption of longer waves o"\cing
to the surfaces and to carbon dioxide. Hence there is more
D diffuse radiation, with considerable local contrasts owing to
variable screening by tall buildings in shaded narrow streets.
Stream-l1
ines of airflOVv arouir,d ibuilding1 There is reduced viBlbility arising from industrial haz-e.
There is a higher incidence of thicker cloud cover in
Figure 2.39 Processes in the unban heat islland summer because of increased convection, and radiation

• 2 Atmosphere and weather

fogs or smogs in winter because of air pollution. The at the city centre~ a plateau a.cross the suburbs and a
concentra.tion of hygroscopic particles accelerates the temperature cliff between the suburban and rural areas
onset of condensation. Daytime temperatures are, on (Figure 2.40) . Small-scale variations withm the urban
average, 0.6 °c higher. heat island occur with the distribution of industries, open
spaces, rivers, canals, and so on .
Urban heat island effect The heat island is a feature that is delimited b)r
The contrast betw£ien urban and rural areas is greatest isotherms (lines of equal temperature)] normally in an
und.e r calm high-pressure conditions. The typical heat urban area. This shows that the urban area is warmer
profile of an urban heat island shows a maximum than the surrounding rural area, especially by dawn
during anticyclonic conditions (Figure 2.41) . The heat-
island effect is caused by a number of factors:
NNE
heat produced by human activity - a low level of radiant
heat can be up to Soper cent of incommg energy in
winter
changes of energy balance - buildings have a high
thermal capacity in comparison to rural areas; u.p to six
2 times greater than agricultural land
the effect on airflow - turbulence of arr maybe
1
reduced overall, although buildings may cause
funnelling effects
Urbari a,rea
0 km 1 there are fewerbodi.es of open ·water, so less evaporation
0 I I and fewer plants, therefore less transpiration
_, the composition of the atmosphere - the blanketing
river canal effect of smog, smoke or haze
Dodleston Wfflmi nster Park c:entre K1ingsway reduction in thermal en~rgy r~quired for evaporation
10 8 17 20 2l 2 5 20 30 33 3-6 and eva.potra.nspiration due to the surfac~ character,
Height above sea level (m)
rapid drainage and generally lower wind speeds
reduction of heat diffusion due to changes in airflow
Source: Briggs, D. et aI., fundamentals of the RJysicru f nri/"QOOJOO(; Routledge, 19Q7 patterns as a result of urban surface roughness.
Figure 2.40 The urban heat island ,(Chesterm UK)

..
~
._
E
...:
600
Urban area
Wind-speed profile
"'! 500

-90....J Suburbs
400 Wind-speed profi~e
-85-
I

~80- - 98_J
I
Level c.ountry
/
300 Wt,nd-sp eed prof~e
-75-' -95
I

- 70_/ -90...1
- 84- '
• J
200 I
(
- 77-r'
--68 -86-'
100 I r
-56-/ -78-1

0 5 lO 0 5 ., 0 5 10
Source: Briggs. D. ~ al., Frm~menrals of tile Phys1·~ !rM'ronment, Routl11!d{I~; 1Q97 Wind speed (ms-1)
Figure 2.41 The effect of terra~n roughness ,on w~nd speed-wn:h decreasi1ng roughness, the depth of the affected layer beoomres
shaJUower and the pr0ifi1e steeper (numbers refer to wind strength as a percentage of maximum1air speed}

2.4 The human impact •

Airflow Tab le 2.4 Average changes in cUmate caused by urbanrsatjon
1

Urban areas may also develop a pollution dome. Highest Qtjipa~SQ~:.Yl'

temperatures are generally found over the city centre - or nv1ro'nmen·ts_
down,vmd of the city c~ntre if there is a breeze present Radiation Gl'obaJ 2-i,0% ress
Pollutants ma.y be trapped under the dome. Cooler air Ultravlolet, wfnter 30% less
above the dome prevents the pollutants from dispersing. Ultrav~olet, summer 5% less
These pollutants may prevent some incoming radiation Su nshl ne duration 5-i6% loos
from passing through, thereby reducing the impact of Temperature Annual mean 1 °c more
the heat island By night, the pollutants may trap some Sunshine days 2-6°C more
long-wave radiation from escaping, thereby keeping urban Greatest dJffereri ce at 11 °c more
night
areas warmer than surrounding rural areas.
Winter maxi mum 1.5 °C more
Airflow over an urban area is disrupted; Vlinds are slow ,___

and deflected over buildings (Figure 2.41) . Large buildings Frost-free season1 2-3 weeks more
Wind speed Aflnual mean 10- 20% less
can produce eddying. Severe gusting and turbu]ence
Gus1s 10....20% less
a.round tall buildings causes strong loca.1 pressure gradients
Calms 5-20% morn
from windward to leeward ·w alls. Deep narrow streets are
Relative Wlnter 2% less
much calmer unless they are aligned TN.ith prevailing vJi.nds humidity Su1mmer 8-10% leiss
to funnel flows along them - the 'canyon effect'.
Precipitation Total 5-30% more
The nature of urban dhnates is changing (Tuble 2.4) . Number oi rain days 10 % mon~
With the decline in coal as a source of energy, there is less snow days 14 % ~SSS
sulphur dioxide pollution and so fewer hygroscopic nuclei; Cloudlness Cover 5-10% more
there is therefore less fog. However, the increase mcloud Fog, winter 100% more
cover has occurred for a number of reasons: Fog; summer 30% more
greater heating of the air (rising air, hence condensation} Condensation nucle I 10 times more
increase in pollutants Gases 5-25 tlmes mora
frictional a.nd turbulent effects on airflow Source:]. Tivy, Agria1ltural Ecology, Longma·n 1990 p .3 72
changes in moisture.

1 Describe and account for the main diff.erenoes in the 4 Expla~n how bu1ild~ngs, tannac and con orete can affect the
ciimates of urban areas and their surroundhig rura~ areas. d iinw.te 1in urban areas.
2 What is meant by the urban heat island? 5 Why are microd~mates; such as urban heat istands, best
3 Describe one effect that atmospheric pdliutJon may have on observed duri1ng hjgh-pressure (anticydlonic) weather
urban dimates. conditions?

: Case . Stuq·y : U_rb.an microclimate -

I
London •

I ·nfordJhirc
The heat island effect
Urban m1crod~1mates are perhaps the most compfex of alll
mf:c rodimates. The general pattern ~n Figure 2 .42 shows
the hiig1hest temperatures ~n fue city centre t readh~ng 10-
11 °Cr compared with the rural fdng:e temperature of 5°C.
Temperature falfs more r~idly a,ong the Rjver Thames to the
east of the City. The temperature gradi,ent le more gende in tlie
west of the oityj due to the density of urban infrastructure. Over
steep temperature grad~ents there is a ~ow density oi uman
infrestrucrurem for exampl1e the rlver and its vegetated banks.
Where tt1ere is a gentle temperaiure gradient, there ,s a high
density of urban infrastructure. Effectively from the map we !<ml
can see 1:hat the eas1 of London ~s fess built up than the west
Temipera1:ure rema~ns rella tively constant ·for approXJi1matety
15idlom,etres west of the c1 ity centre before rapidly faH1ng w~in
a 5--6 krlometre distance.
Figure 2.42 London's heat..1
isl!and effect, showing minimum
temperatures ( 0) jn mid-May
0

• 2 Atmosphere and weather

 Hertfo d hire hunt

Enfield E 800-
Watford
g 700
.Barnet :ii
:c;
600
~ :,uu -
~ 8,00 - 400
i 700 ,
Essex
Waltham C !'()'SS
:i 600 -
·i 500 Hiirrow
~

400· We It ham forest Red bridge

Harir,,gay
Northwood
Brent
lslmgton E soo -
Hjllingdon
I aling
-
e
= 600
..!
7'00

·Ii, SOO
Towe:r
H~rnlet
ll'ford

E 800- 400
! 700 Lmmdon
~ 600
c:: We~tlller C·ent,e V\'oolrwkh
Houn~i~ow· j SOO E 800
Larnbeth Creeriwi(h ~ 700
400
Kew Lewish.am ~ 600 -
.:;;:
Bexley
r:-! 500
400
Walfton-or-1-Thame.s
!M erton Bromley !D artford

IE.sher
E BOO
~ 7·0 0 Orpington
~ 1600 E 8QO Kent
E S00
·,., EpsorT11 Sulton { 700 -
c::
400 ~ 600 Biiggin Hill
Wisley· ·;;s SOO
c:i::
400
Surrey ken ley

si::ur::.e-: Naron.al Meteor01Q1J1tal utrnry ,anti ,,rrn1•,:e F.lct sheet 1,i - Ml ~ G!:bmates: flgLJ ~ f Ii , Me.an .a.nr.\J~I rall tall ot..it tcr a n :.J"TIOoer o ;;i:-aui:ms arouml Loncl!:t'1.
'M"W me 1nH1rP go\• ukirnerli&"pr.lftnl'Jlf;;u-t c.liF-PI Nn I .S prlf

Figure 2.43 Variations in 1mean annual rafnfaUar,ound London

Recent research on London's heat 1s·land has showin that the sewers, ~he farge amount of i1mper1meab~e surfaces and tt'1re
po11ut~on domes can aJlso filter hicoming so1ar rad~atton, ~hereby reduced vegetation cover.
reducing ~e build-up of heat du:r1ing the day. At nightt the domie The urban heat is~and creates the urban bounda.~ ~ayer,
may trap some oi the heat accrued during the dayt so these whi·oh ~s a dome of nis·ing warm ak and low pressure. As ground
domes might be redudng1the sharp drfferences between uman surfaces are heated, rapid evapotiranspiration takes place. Th~s
and rura~ areas. evapo1ranspiratto:n, although fewer compared to rural areas,,
There ~s an absence of strong wi1nds both to disperse ihe occurs :more rapjdly and can result in cumulus doud and
heat and ·t o bring in cooler a.iir from ru,ral and suburban areas. con1 vectional weattier patterns. Due 1o th,e l ow pressure ea.used
indeed, urban heat fsllandls are often most dearly defined on by 1ri'Sing ai~ surface winds are drawn m fro·m 1he stHrounding
catm1summer eveniings; often under bfocki1ng1an1tcydones. rural frrrnge. This a!ir then converg·es as ~t is forced to rise over
The d~s1r~bution of rainfaJIII is very 1much ~nfllu enc ed by the h,gh urban canopy. The urban boundary ess entiaUy creates
topog1raphYi wirtl1 the fargest vatu:es occurrring1over ~he more hiUy an orogrraphic process si m1 itar to,a mounta!in bamier. The
1

regions ~and !lowest values in m,ore !ow-lyiing areas. F:igtUre 2.43 mrovement of wfnds contributes to increased rajnfall patterns
Ulustrates d1is point quite dearly. Ken1l:ey on the North Downs~ at over ~he dty that are 1most pronounced to the leeward s1de of
an ah~ude of 1701 metres above mean sea-level, has an average the dty core. How.ever, as ak passes over 1he urban boundary
annual ra~nfaU of nearlry SOOm~Uimetres, whereas London ~yer it begrins to sirnk, ~eading to lower precipitation at the
Wea~her Centre, at 43metres above mean seaaleve1 has an 1 ~eeward rural area. Toes e dtffe'rt'~m,ces are afso more pronounced
average .a nnual rainfaH oi fess than 550milllimetres. OveraUf mn the surm m1er compared to ·t he winter.
humid•ty ts lower in London than surround ing areas, partlly Som e studies have demonstrated a patte.nn of increased ra;n
due··to higher temperatures {warm ak can hold more moJsture 1 through tl1e week and have shown Saturday ram to be a resurit
hence rela1we hum'idrity m,ay be ,o·wer), but water js removed of a bu~!d-up of poUutants due to five consecuti1Ve commutes. By
frorm largre urban areas due to the combination of drans and !Monday, pollutants have fallen and raintan is fess l'ike,y ·t o form1.

2.4 Th e human impact •

 The impact of river restoration on urban decrease ,n the number of vehides pass1ng by a,so contrmbuted
to the drnp irn the temperature. The hea.1 i~and phenom.enon
microclimates used to be absented ~n the Cheong Gye Cheon Stre.aJm
In Seodl, capital of South Korea, there has been a very 1marked area under the jrm pact of t he heavy trafficci concentraiion1of
change in the urban microcljmate foUow•ngi the removal of commerdal iaoilibe.s and the imparmeab~e surlace.
a largei downtown e1evated motorway, and the restoration Follow~ng ihe completion of the res1oraitton, the w ind speed
of a river and floodplain that had been buil~ over. Siince the has beco:m e faster {by 2 .2-7 .1 per cent}. l he average ~nd
restorauon of the streaml wr temperature has decreased by up speed measured a1 CheoF1g Gye Cheon is up to 7 .8 per cent
to 10-13per cent; that is1 by 3-4°C dunrng 1he hottest days. faster than before, apparently under ttle i111Huence of the oooi
Before ~e restoration, the area was showlng a temperature· air for1m~ng along 1he stream.
about 5°C higher than the average temperature of ·the city. The

Figure 2.44 Cheong Gye Cheon - a when the area was developed wtth an eievmed h,ghway and b after restoration

• 2 Atmosphere and weather

 Case Study:·'U.rban:~·mksrocfi mate'· ;... Meh~o.urne\.Australia.~.
W1ith inoreastng dijstance from the dty centre1 the amount of Trees are 1m~ssing1from back gardens - partly because
tree ,cover 1in a s uburb decreases. wh~,e the amount of green modern houses in 1he outer suburbs take up 1 more space,
space, sudh as ~awns and parks. increases. In Melboum:e, fieav~ng less room for trees - and they are miss1ng from the
for every 10 ki!ometres from1the oity centre the tree cover
1 streets. The property boom led to, a gradual t hinning out of t ree
drops by n1ore than 2 per cent That means Maibourne's ~nner cover in estabitshed suburbs as resridentiall plots were sub-
I

suburbs m~ght have 1more 1:han 15 per cent cover, but an outer dLvided.
subu1rb ooufd have less than 10 per cent. A 5 per cent falll ,n IMe~bourne aims to increase ·tree cover by 75 per cent before
unban tree cover can h.:1a.d 1o a 1-2 °C rise rin a,r temperature. 2040, Sydney by 50per cent before 2030 and Brisbane is
ThPs matters for commun1ty heahn and w-ell-beh1g, especiaUy targeting tree cover for cycleways and foo,tpaths.
for the vulnerablie -1he elderrryj young clhitdren and t hose with
eXJistin g heaJlth issues.

D Microclimate mitigation The London Plane tree - urban saviour

Increasingly there are attempts to reverse urban
1
Mth an extensive and healthy urban forest, arr quality
:microclim ates. Heat~ island mitigation strategies in elude can.be drastically improved. Trees h elp to lower air
urban forestry, living/green roofs and light surfaces. temperatures through increasing evapotranspiration.
In generaL substantial reductions in surface and near- This reduction of temperature not only lowers energy
surface air tem.p erature can be achieved by implementing use, it also improves air qu.ali~ as the formation of ozone
heat-island mitigation strategies. Vegetation cools surfaces is dependent on temperature. Large shade trees can
more effectively than increases in albedo, and curbside reduce local ambient temperatures by 3 to 5 °c. Maximum
planting is the most effective mitigation strategy per midday temperature reductions due to trees range from
unit area redeveloped. However, the greatest absolute O. 04 °c to 0.2 °c per 1 per cent ca.nopy cover increase.
temperature reductions a.re possible with light surfares. Living roofs offer greater cooling per unit erea: than
light surfaces, but less cooling per unit area than curbside
Table 2.5 Characteriist•cs oi the London P,ane tree :planting.
Although street trees provide the greatest cooling
Characteristic J
_L
The London Plane tree potential per unit area, light surfaces provide the greatest
Aesthetic value A tall elegant tree provfd Ing pleasant shade Jn overall cooling potential ,vhen available area is taken into
summer and a pleasing winter sllhouetm. account because there is more available area in which to
FIaking bark creates attrac~ve colours on trunk.
implement this strategy compared to the other strategies.
Does It make a mess? Leaves, fru It and bark need clearlng from
streets and pavemEiflts.
Poll utlon toleranea Very toJerant of aJrpollutlon.
Hairs on young shoots and !Gaves help to trap
pa.rt! cul ate pc Hutton. 1
1 State the conditions 1n wh1ch London s heat 1island ts most
Pests and diseases Harnty affected by disease and pests (afthough pronounced.
some shoots are killed' each year by fungal 2 Br&efly suggest re.a.sons for vaniations in temperature as
lnfoctlon}. shown iin Flgure 2.42.
Soll conditions Very tolerant of l,X)Or solil conditions. lncludl ng, 3 Descr~be and expllain how the urban microdimate ~n Seoul
co rnpacted solI (am,ough some stu ntl ng: of changied after river restorat~on.
growth IS caused 1 -cy 1t0ad salt). 4 Expf1ain the advantages ,of 1he· London Piane tree ior urban
Space ·Grows vlg,orously and Is very tolerant of areas.
pruning.
-Sa,faty hazards ,,..._
iree.s rarely blow over or shed branches.
Fine hairs on young shoots, leaves and frult
may ea.use Irritation and even aJlergles In some
~Opie.
M lcrocll mate Open canopy produces Ilg t1t shade.
W-111 Intercept some mint especlally wnen ,In loof.
Biodiversity Provides v8luable nesting sJtes for birds.
Suft11clent lfght below canopy to allow
slgnl1flcant plant growtn.

Source: Adaptedfron: the Field Studies Council's Urba.n

Ec-o rys-t<1ms website UJUJu,:field-sti tdies-coi,nc-tl.01if1-1rbaneco

2.4 Th e human impact •